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Contents
Articles
Session Initiation Protocol Internet protocol suite Application layer 1 9 21

References
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Session Initiation Protocol

Session Initiation Protocol

Internet protocol suite
Application layer

DHCP DHCPv6 DNS FTP HTTP IMAP IRC LDAP MGCP NNTP BGP NTP POP RPC RTP RTSP RIP SIP SMTP SNMP SOCKS SSH Telnet TLS/SSL XMPP more... Transport layer

TCP UDP DCCP SCTP RSVP more... Internet layer

IP IPv4 IPv6 OSPF ICMP ICMPv6 ECN IGMP IPsec

Session Initiation Protocol

2
more... Link layer

ARP/InARP NDP Tunnels L2TP PPP Media access control

Ethernet DSL ISDN FDDI DOCSIS more...

The Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) is a signaling communications protocol, widely used for controlling multimedia communication sessions such as voice and video calls over Internet Protocol (IP) networks. The protocol defines the messages that are sent between peers which govern establishment, termination and other essential elements of a call. SIP can be used for creating, modifying and terminating sessions consisting of one or several media streams. SIP can be use for two-party (unicast) or multiparty (multicast) sessions. Other SIP applications include video conferencing, streaming multimedia distribution, instant messaging, presence information, file transfer, fax over IP and online games. Originally designed by Henning Schulzrinne and Mark Handley in 1996, SIP has been developed and standardized in RFC 3261 under the auspices of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). It is an application layer protocol designed to be independent of the underlying transport layer; it can run on Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP) or Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP).[1] It is a text-based protocol, incorporating many elements of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). SIP works in conjunction with several other application layer protocols that identify and carry the session media. Media identification and negotiation is achieved with the Session Description Protocol (SDP). For the transmission of media streams (voice, video) SIP typically employs the Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) or Secure Real-time Transport Protocol (SRTP). For secure transmissions of SIP messages, the protocol may be encrypted with Transport Layer Security (TLS).

History
SIP was originally designed by Henning Schulzrinne and Mark Handley in 1996. In November 2000, SIP was accepted as a 3GPP signaling protocol and permanent element of the IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) architecture for IP-based streaming multimedia services in cellular systems. The IETF Network Working Group published RFC 3261 - as of 2013[2] the latest version of the specification - in June 2002. The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Advanced Networking Technologies Division provides a public-domain implementation of the Java standard for SIP which serves as a reference implementation for the standard. The stack can work in proxy server or user agent scenarios and has been used in numerous commercial and research projects. It supports RFC 3261 in full and a number of extension RFCs including RFC 6665 (Subscribe / Notify) and RFC 3262 (Provisional Reliable Responses) etc.

Session Initiation Protocol

Protocol design
SIP employs design elements similar to the HTTP request/response transaction model.[3] Each transaction consists of a client request that invokes a particular method or function on the server and at least one response. SIP reuses most of the header fields, encoding rules and status codes of HTTP, providing a readable text-based format. Each resource of a SIP network, such as a user agent or a voicemail box, is identified by a uniform resource identifier (URI), based on the general standard syntax[4] also used in Web services and e-mail. A typical SIP URI is of the form: sip:username:password@host:port. The URI scheme used for SIP is sip:. If secure transmission is required, the scheme sips: is used and mandates that each hop over which the request is forwarded up to the target domain must be secured with Transport Layer Security (TLS). The last hop from the proxy of the target domain to the user agent has to be secured according to local policies. TLS protects against attackers which try to listen on the signaling link but it does not provide real end-to-end security to prevent espionage and law enforcement interception, as the encryption is only hop-by-hop and every single intermediate proxy has to be trusted. SIP works in concert with several other protocols and is only involved in the signaling portion of a communication session. SIP clients typically use TCP or UDP on port numbers 5060 and/or 5061 to connect to SIP servers and other SIP endpoints. Port 5060 is commonly used for non-encrypted signaling traffic whereas port 5061 is typically used for traffic encrypted with Transport Layer Security (TLS). SIP is primarily used in setting up and tearing down voice or video calls. It also allows modification of existing calls. The modification can involve changing addresses or ports, inviting more participants, and adding or deleting media streams. SIP has also found applications in messaging applications, such as instant messaging, and event subscription and notification. A suite of SIP-related Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) rules define behavior for such applications. The voice and video stream communications in SIP applications are carried over another application protocol, the Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP). Parameters (port numbers, protocols, codecs) for these media streams are defined and negotiated using the Session Description Protocol (SDP) which is transported in the SIP packet body. A motivating goal for SIP was to provide a signaling and call setup protocol for IP-based communications that can support a superset of the call processing functions and features present in the public switched telephone network (PSTN). SIP by itself does not define these features; rather, its focus is call-setup and signaling. The features that permit familiar telephone-like operations: dialing a number, causing a phone to ring, hearing ringback tones or a busy signal - are performed by proxy servers and user agents. Implementation and terminology are different in the SIP world but to the end-user, the behavior is similar. SIP-enabled telephony networks can also implement many of the more advanced call processing features present in Signaling System 7 (SS7), though the two protocols themselves are very different. SS7 is a centralized protocol, characterized by a complex central network architecture and dumb endpoints (traditional telephone handsets). SIP is a peer-to-peer protocol, thus it requires only a simple (and thus scalable) core network with intelligence distributed to the network edge, embedded in endpoints (terminating devices built in either hardware or software). SIP features are implemented in the communicating endpoints (i.e. at the edge of the network) contrary to traditional SS7 features, which are implemented in the network. Although several other VoIP signaling protocols exist (such as BICC, H.323, MGCP, MEGACO), SIP is distinguished by its proponents for having roots in the IP community rather than the telecommunications industry. SIP has been standardized and governed primarily by the IETF, while other protocols, such as H.323, have traditionally been associated with the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). The first proposed standard version (SIP 1.0) was defined by RFC 2543. This version of the protocol was further refined to version 2.0 and clarified in RFC 3261, although some implementations are still relying on the older definitions.Wikipedia:Citing sources

Session Initiation Protocol

Network elements
SIP also defines server network elements. Although two SIP endpoints can communicate without any intervening SIP infrastructure, which is why the protocol is described as peer-to-peer, this approach is often impractical for a public service. RFC 3261 defines these server elements.

User Agent
A SIP user agent (UA) is a logical network end-point used to create or receive SIP messages and thereby manage a SIP session. A SIP UA can perform the role of a User Agent Client (UAC), which sends SIP requests, and the User Agent Server (UAS), which receives the requests and returns a SIP response. These roles of UAC and UAS only last for the duration of a SIP transaction.[5] A SIP phone is a SIP user agent that provides the traditional call functions of a telephone, such as dial, answer, reject, hold/unhold, and call transfer. SIP phones may be implemented as a hardware device or as a softphone. As vendors increasingly implement SIP as a standard telephony platform, often driven by 4G efforts, the distinction between hardware-based and software-based SIP phones is being blurred and SIP elements are implemented in the basic firmware functions of many IP-capable devices. Examples are devices from Nokia and BlackBerry. In SIP, as in HTTP, the user agent may identify itself using a message header field 'User-Agent', containing a text description of the software/hardware/product involved. The User-Agent field is sent in request messages, which means that the receiving SIP server can see this information. SIP network elements sometimes store this information,[6] and it can be useful in diagnosing SIP compatibility problems.

Proxy server
An intermediary entity that acts as both a server (UAS) and a client (UAC) for the purpose of making requests on behalf of other clients. A proxy server primarily plays the role of routing, which means its job is to ensure that a request is sent to another entity "closer" to the targeted user. Proxies are also useful for enforcing policy (for example, making sure a user is allowed to make a call). A proxy interprets, and, if necessary, rewrites specific parts of a request message before forwarding it.

Registrar
A registrar is a SIP endpoint that accepts REGISTER requests and places the information it receives in those requests into a location service for the domain it handles. The location service links one or more IP addresses to the SIP URI of the registering agent. The URI uses the sip: scheme, although other protocol schemes are possible, such as tel:. More than one user agent can register at the same URI, with the result that all registered user agents receive the calls to the URI. SIP registrars are logical elements, and are commonly co-located with SIP proxies. But it is also possible and often good for network scalability to place this location service with a redirect server.

Session Initiation Protocol

Redirect server
A user agent server that generates 3xx (Redirection) responses to requests it receives, directing the client to contact an alternate set of URIs. The redirect server allows proxy servers to direct SIP session invitations to external domains.

Session border controller

Session border controllers Serve as middle boxes between UA and SIP servers for various types of functions, including network topology hiding, and assistance in NAT traversal.

Gateway
Gateways can be used to interface a SIP network to other networks, such as the public switched telephone network, which use different protocols or technologies.

SIP messages
SIP is a text-based protocol with syntax similar to that of HTTP. There are two different types of SIP messages: requests and responses. The first line of a request has a method, defining the nature of the request, and a Request-URI, indicating where the request should be sent.[7] The first line of a response has a response code. For SIP requests, RFC 3261 defines the following methods:[8] REGISTER: Used by a UA to indicate its current IP address and the URLs for which it would like to receive calls. INVITE: Used to establish a media session between user agents. ACK: Confirms reliable message exchanges. CANCEL: Terminates a pending request. BYE: Terminates a session between two users in a conference. OPTIONS: Requests information about the capabilities of a caller, without setting up a call. A new method has been introduced in SIP in RFC 3262:[9] PRACK (Provisional Response Acknowledgement): PRACK improves network reliability by adding an acknowledgement system to the provisional Responses (1xx). PRACK is sent in response to provisional response (1xx). The SIP response types defined in RFC 3261 fall in one of the following categories:[10] Provisional (1xx): Request received and being processed. Success (2xx): The action was successfully received, understood, and accepted. Redirection (3xx): Further action needs to be taken (typically by sender) to complete the request. Client Error (4xx): The request contains bad syntax or cannot be fulfilled at the server. Server Error (5xx): The server failed to fulfill an apparently valid request. Global Failure (6xx): The request cannot be fulfilled at any server.

Session Initiation Protocol

Transactions
SIP makes use of transactions to control the exchanges between participants and deliver messages reliably. The transactions maintain an internal state and make use of timers. Client Transactions send requests and Server Transactions respond to those requests with one-or-more responses. The responses may include zero-or-more Provisional (1xx) responses and one-or-more final (2xx-6xx) responses. Transactions are further categorized as either Invite or Non-Invite. Invite transactions differ in that they can establish a long-running conversation, referred to as a Dialog in SIP, and so include an acknowledgment (ACK) of any non-failing final response (e.g. 200 OK). Because of these transactional mechanisms, SIP can make use of un-reliable transports such as User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

If we take the above example, User1s UAC uses an Invite Client Transaction to send the initial INVITE (1) message. If no response is received after a timer controlled wait period the UAC may have chosen to terminate the transaction or retransmit the INVITE. However, once a response was received, User1 was confident the INVITE was delivered reliably. User1s UAC then must acknowledge the response. On delivery of the ACK (2) both sides of the transaction are complete. And in this case, a Dialog may have been established.

Session Initiation Protocol

Instant messaging and presence

The Session Initiation Protocol for Instant Messaging and Presence Leveraging Extensions (SIMPLE) is the SIP-based suite of standards for instant messaging and presence information. MSRP (Message Session Relay Protocol) allows instant message sessions and file transfer.

Conformance testing
TTCN-3 test specification language is used for the purposes of specifying conformance tests for SIP implementations. SIP test suite is developed by a Specialist Task Force at ETSI (STF 196).[11] The SIP developer community meets regularly at the SIP Forum SIPit [12] events to test interoperability and test implementations of new RFCs.

Applications
The market for consumer SIP devices continues to expand; there are many devices such as SIP Terminal Adapters, SIP Gateways, and SIP Trunking services providing replacements for ISDN telephone lines. Many VoIP phone companies allow customers to use their own SIP devices, such as SIP-capable telephone sets, or softphones. SIP-enabled video surveillance cameras can make calls to alert the owner or operator that an event has occurred; for example, to notify that motion has been detected out-of-hours in a protected area. SIP is used in audio over IP for broadcasting applications where it provides an interoperable means for audio interfaces from different manufacturers to make connections with one another.

SIP-ISUP interworking
SIP-I, or the Session Initiation Protocol with encapsulated ISUP, is a protocol used to create, modify, and terminate communication sessions based on ISUP using SIP and IP networks. Services using SIP-I include voice, video telephony, fax and data. SIP-I and SIP-T are two protocols with similar features, notably to allow ISUP messages to be transported over SIP networks. This preserves all of the detail available in the ISUP header, which is important as there are many country-specific variants of ISUP that have been implemented over the last 30 years, and it is not always possible to express all of the same detail using a native SIP message. SIP-I was defined by the ITU-T, where SIP-T was defined via the IETF RFC route.[13] A Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) connection is a Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) service offered by many Internet telephony service providers (ITSPs) that connects a company's private branch exchange (PBX) telephone system to the public switched telephone network (PSTN) via the Internet. Using a SIP connection may simplify administration for the organization as the SIP connection typically uses the same Internet access that is used for data. This often removes the need to install Basic Rate Interface (BRI) or Primary Rate Interface (PRI) telephone circuits.

Deployment issues
If the call traffic runs on the same connection with other traffic, such as email or Web browsing, voice and even signaling packets may be dropped and the voice stream may be interrupted. To mitigate this, many companies split voice and data between two separate internet connections. Alternately, some networks use the TOS precedence or DiffServ fields in the header of IPV4 packets to mark the relative time-sensitivity of SIP and RTP as compared to web, email, video and other types of IP traffic. This precedence marking method requires that all routers in the SIP and RTP paths support separate queues for different traffic types. Other options to control delay and loss include incorporating multiple VLANs (virtual local area networks), traffic

Session Initiation Protocol shaping to avoid this resource conflict, but the efficacy of this solution is dependent on the number of packets dropped between the Internet and the PBX. Registration is required if the end user has a dynamic IP address, if the provider does not support static hostnames, or if NAT is used. In order to share several DID numbers on the same registration, the IETF has defined additional headers (for example "P-Preferred-Identity", see RFC 3325). This avoids multiple registrations from one PBX to the same provider. Using this method the PBX can indicate what identity should be presented to the Called party and what identity should be used for authenticating the call. This feature is also useful when the PBX redirects an incoming call to a PSTN number, for example a cell phone, to preserve the original Caller ID. Users should also be aware that a SIP connection can be used as a channel for attacking the company's internal networks, similar to Web and Email attacks. Users should consider installing appropriate security mechanisms to prevent malicious attacks.

Encryption
The increasing concerns about security of calls that run over the public Internet has made SIP encryption more popular. Because VPN is not an option for most service providers, most service providers that offer secure SIP (SIPS) connections use TLS for securing signalling. The relationship between SIP (port 5060) and SIPS (port 5061), is similar to that as for HTTP and HTTPS, and uses URIs in the form "sips:user@example.com". The media streams, which occur on different connections to the signalling stream, can be encrypted with SRTP. The key exchange for SRTP is performed with SDES (RFC 4568), or the newer and often more user friendly ZRTP (RFC 6189), which can automatically upgrade RTP to SRTP using dynamic key exchange (and a verification phrase). One can also add a MIKEY (RFC 3830) exchange to SIP and in that way determine session keys for use with SRTP.

References
[1] RFC 4168, The Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) as a Transport for the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), IETF, The Internet Society (2005) [2] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Session_Initiation_Protocol& action=edit [3] William Stallings, p.209 [4] RFC 3986, Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax, IETF, The Internet Society (2005) [5] RFC 3261, SIP: Session Initiation Protocol [6] "User-Agents We Have Known " (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20110716170218/ http:/ / www. voipuser. org/ forum_topic_14998. html)VoIP User.org [7] Stallings, p.214 [8] Stallings, pp.214-215 [9] http:/ / www. ietf. org/ rfc/ rfc3262. txt [10] Stallings, pp.216-217 [11] Experiences of Using TTCN-3 for Testing SIP and also OSP (http:/ / portal. etsi. org/ ptcc/ downloads/ TTCN3SIPOSP. pdf) [12] http:/ / www. sipit. net/ [13] White Paper: "Why SIP-I? A Switching Core Protocol Recommendation" (http:/ / www. 4gamericas. org/ documents/ 3G_Americas_SIP-I_White_Paper_August_2007-FINAL. pdf)

Session Initiation Protocol

External links
Computers/Internet/Protocols/SIP/ (http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Internet/Protocols/SIP//) at the Open Directory Project Henning Schulzrinne's SIP homepage (http://www.cs.columbia.edu/sip/) hosted by Columbia University SIP Latest specifications (http://www.sipknowledge.com/eBooks.htm) hosted by SIPKnowledge IANA: SIP Parameters (http://www.iana.org/assignments/sip-parameters) IANA: SIP Event Types Namespace (http://www.iana.org/assignments/sip-events/sip-events.xhtml)

Internet protocol suite

Internet protocol suite
Application layer

DHCP DHCPv6 DNS FTP HTTP IMAP IRC LDAP MGCP NNTP BGP NTP POP RPC RTP RTSP RIP SIP SMTP SNMP SOCKS SSH Telnet TLS/SSL XMPP more... Transport layer

TCP UDP DCCP SCTP RSVP more... Internet layer

Internet protocol suite

10
IP IPv4 IPv6 OSPF ICMP ICMPv6 ECN IGMP IPsec more... Link layer

ARP/InARP NDP Tunnels L2TP PPP Media access control

Ethernet DSL ISDN FDDI DOCSIS more...

Internet

A visualization of routing paths through a portion of the Internet.

Internet portal

The Internet protocol suite is the networking model and a set of communications protocols used for the Internet and similar networks. It is commonly known as TCP/IP, because its most important protocols, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), were the first networking protocols defined in this standard. It is occasionally known as the DoD model, because the development of the networking model was funded by DARPA, an agency of the United States Department of Defense. TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted, addressed, transmitted, routed and received at the destination. This functionality has been organized into four abstraction layers which are used to sort all related protocols according to the scope of networking involved.[1][2] From lowest to highest, the layers are the link layer, containing communication technologies for a single network segment (link), the internet layer, connecting independent networks, thus establishing internetworking, the transport layer handling process-to-process communication, and the application layer, which interfaces to the user and provides support services. The TCP/IP model and related protocols are maintained by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).

Internet protocol suite

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History
Early research
The Internet protocol suite resulted from research and development conducted by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in the late 1960s.[3] After initiating the pioneering ARPANET in 1969, DARPA started work on a number of other data transmission technologies. In 1972, Robert E. Kahn joined the DARPA Information Processing Technology Office, where he worked on both satellite packet networks and ground-based radio packet networks, and recognized the value of being able to communicate across both. In the spring of 1973, Vinton Cerf, the developer of the existing ARPANET Network Control Program (NCP) protocol, joined Kahn to work on open-architecture interconnection models with the goal of designing the next protocol generation for the ARPANET. By the summer of 1973, Kahn and Cerf had worked out a fundamental reformulation, in which the differences between network protocols were hidden by using a common internetwork protocol, and, instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the ARPANET, the hosts became responsible. Cerf credits Hubert Zimmermann and Louis Pouzin, designer of the CYCLADES network, with important influences on this design.

Diagram of the first internetworked connection

The design of the network included the recognition that it should provide only the functions of efficiently transmitting and routing traffic between end nodes and that all other intelligence should be located at the edge of the network, in the end nodes. Using a simple design, it became possible to connect almost any network to the ARPANET, irrespective of the local characteristics, thereby solving Kahn's initial problem. One popular expression is that TCP/IP, the eventual product of Cerf and Kahn's work, will run over "two tin cans and a string." As a joke, the IP over Avian Carriers formal protocol specification was created and successfully tested. A computer called a router is provided with an interface to each network. It forwards packets back and forth between them.[4] Originally a router was called gateway, but the term was changed to avoid confusion with other types of gateways.

A Stanford Research Institute packet radio van, site of the first three-way internetworked transmission.

Specification
From 1973 to 1974, Cerf's networking research group at Stanford worked out details of the idea, resulting in the first TCP specification.[5] A significant technical influence was the early networking work at Xerox PARC, which produced the PARC Universal Packet protocol suite, much of which existed around that time. DARPA then contracted with BBN Technologies, Stanford University, and the University College London to develop operational versions of the protocol on different hardware platforms. Four versions were developed: TCP v1, TCP v2, TCP v3 and IP v3, and TCP/IP v4. The last protocol is still in use today. In 1975, a two-network TCP/IP communications test was performed between Stanford and University College London (UCL). In November, 1977, a three-network TCP/IP test was conducted between sites in the US, the UK, and Norway. Several other TCP/IP prototypes were developed at multiple research centers between 1978 and 1983. The migration of the ARPANET to TCP/IP was officially completed on flag day January 1, 1983, when the new protocols were permanently activated.[6]

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12

Adoption
In March 1982, the US Department of Defense declared TCP/IP as the standard for all military computer networking. In 1985, the Internet Advisory Board (later renamed the Internet Architecture Board) held a three-day workshop on TCP/IP for the computer industry, attended by 250 vendor representatives, promoting the protocol and leading to its increasing commercial use. In 1985, the first Interop conference focused on network interoperability by broader adoption of TCP/IP. The conference was founded by Dan Lynch, an early Internet activist. From the beginning, large corporations, such as IBM and DEC, attended the meeting. Interoperability conferences have been held every year since then. Every year from 1985 through 1993, the number of attendees tripled.[citation needed] IBM, AT&T and DEC were the first major corporations to adopt TCP/IP, despite having competing internal protocols (SNA, XNS, etc.). In IBM, from 1984, Barry Appelman's group did TCP/IP development. (Appelman later moved to AOL to be the head of all its development efforts.) They navigated the corporate politics to get a stream of TCP/IP products for various IBM systems, including MVS, VM, and OS/2. At the same time, several smaller companies began offering TCP/IP stacks for DOS and MS Windows, such as the company FTP Software, and the Wollongong Group.[7] The first VM/CMS TCP/IP stack came from the University of Wisconsin.[8] Back then, most of these TCP/IP stacks were written single-handedly by a few talented programmers. For example, John Romkey of FTP Software was the author of the MIT PC/IP package.[9] John Romkey's PC/IP implementation was the first IBM PC TCP/IP stack. Jay Elinsky and Oleg Vishnepolsky of IBM Research wrote TCP/IP stacks for VM/CMS and OS/2, respectively.[10] The spread of TCP/IP was fueled further in June 1989, when AT&T agreed to place the TCP/IP code developed for UNIX into the public domain. Various vendors, including IBM, included this code in their own TCP/IP stacks. Many companies sold TCP/IP stacks for Windows until Microsoft released a native TCP/IP stack in Windows 95. This event was a little late in the evolution of the Internet, but it cemented TCP/IP's dominance over other protocols, which eventually disappeared. These protocols included IBM Systems Network Architecture (SNA), Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), Microsoft's native NetBIOS, and Xerox Network Systems (XNS).[citation needed]

Key architectural principles

An early architectural document, RFC 1122, emphasizes architectural principles over layering.[11] End-to-end principle: This principle has evolved over time. Its original expression put the maintenance of state and overall intelligence at the edges, and assumed the Internet that connected the edges retained no state and concentrated on speed and simplicity. Real-world needs for firewalls, network address translators, web content caches and the like have forced changes in this principle.[12] Robustness Principle: "In general, an implementation must be conservative in its sending behavior, and liberal in its receiving behavior. That is, it must be careful to send well-formed datagrams, but must accept any datagram that it can interpret (e.g., not object to technical errors where the meaning is still clear)." [13] "The second part of the principle is almost as important: software on other hosts may contain deficiencies that make it unwise to exploit legal but obscure protocol features." [14]

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Layers in the Internet protocol suite

The Internet protocol suite uses encapsulation to provide abstraction of protocols and services. Encapsulation is usually aligned with the division of the protocol suite into layers of general functionality. In general, an application (the highest level of the model) uses a set of protocols to send its data down the layers, being further encapsulated at each level. The layers of the protocol suite near the top are logically closer to the user application, while those near the bottom are logically closer to the physical transmission of the data. Viewing layers as providing or consuming a service is a method of abstraction to isolate upper layer protocols from the details of transmitting bits over, for example, Ethernet and collision detection, while the lower layers avoid having to know the details of each and every application and its protocol. Even when the layers are examined, the assorted architectural documentsthere is no single architectural model such as ISO 7498, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) modelhave fewer and less rigidly defined layers than the OSI model, and thus provide an easier fit for real-world protocols. One frequently referenced document, RFC 1958, does not contain a stack of layers. The lack of emphasis on layering is a major difference between the IETF and OSI approaches. It only refers to the existence of the internetworking layer and generally to upper layers; this document was intended as a 1996 snapshot of the architecture: "The Internet and its

Two Internet hosts connected via two routers and the corresponding layers used at each hop. The application on each host executes read and write operations as if the processes were directly connected to each other by some kind of data pipe. Every other detail of the communication is hidden from each process. The underlying mechanisms that transmit data between the host computers are located in the lower protocol layers.

Encapsulation of application data descending through the layers described in RFC 1122

Internet protocol suite architecture have grown in evolutionary fashion from modest beginnings, rather than from a Grand Plan. While this process of evolution is one of the main reasons for the technology's success, it nevertheless seems useful to record a snapshot of the current principles of the Internet architecture." RFC 1122, entitled Host Requirements, is structured in paragraphs referring to layers, but the document refers to many other architectural principles not emphasizing layering. It loosely defines a four-layer model, with the layers having names, not numbers, as follows: Application layer (user interface services and support services): This is the scope within which applications create user data and communicate this data to other applications on another or the same host. The communications partners are often called peers. This is where the higher level protocols such as SMTP, FTP, SSH, HTTP, etc. operate. Transport layer (process-to-process): The transport layer constitutes the networking regime between two network processes, on either the same or different hosts and on either the local network or remote networks separated by routers. Processes are addressed via "ports," and the transport layer header contains the port numbers. UDP is the basic transport layer protocol, providing communication between processes via port addresses in the header. Also, some OSI session layer services such as flow-control, error-correction, and connection establishment and teardown protocols belong at the transport layer. In the Internet protocol suite, TCP provides flow-control, connection establishment, and reliable transmission of data. Internet layer: The internet layer has the task of exchanging datagrams across network boundaries. It provides a uniform networking interface that hides the actual topology (layout) of the underlying network connections. It is therefore also referred to as the layer that establishes internetworking, indeed, it defines and establishes the Internet. This layer defines the addressing and routing structures used for the TCP/IP protocol suite. The primary protocol in this scope is the Internet Protocol, which defines IP addresses. Its function in routing is to transport datagrams to the next IP router that has the connectivity to a network closer to the final data destination. Link layer: This layer defines the networking methods within the scope of the local network link on which hosts communicate without intervening routers. This layer describes the protocols used to describe the local network topology and the interfaces needed to effect transmission of Internet layer datagrams to next-neighbor hosts. The Internet protocol suite and the layered protocol stack design were in use before the OSI model was established. Since then, the TCP/IP model has been compared with the OSI model in books and classrooms, which often results in confusion because the two models use different assumptions and goals, including the relative importance of strict layering. This abstraction also allows upper layers to provide services that the lower layers do not provide. While the original OSI model was extended to include connectionless services (OSIRM CL),[15] IP is not designed to be reliable and is a best effort delivery protocol. This means that all transport layer implementations must choose whether or how to provide reliability. UDP provides data integrity via a checksum but does not guarantee delivery; TCP provides both data integrity and delivery guarantee by retransmitting until the receiver acknowledges the reception of the packet. This model lacks the formalism of the OSI model and associated documents, but the IETF does not use a formal model and does not consider this a limitation, as illustrated in the comment by David D. Clark, "We reject: kings, presidents and voting. We believe in: rough consensus and running code." Criticisms of this model, which have been made with respect to the OSI model, often do not consider ISO's later extensions to that model. For multiaccess links with their own addressing systems (e.g. Ethernet) an address mapping protocol is needed. Such protocols can be considered to be below IP but above the existing link system. While the IETF does not use the terminology, this is a subnetwork dependent convergence facility according to an extension to the OSI model, the internal organization of the network layer (IONL).[16] ICMP & IGMP operate on top of IP but do not transport data like UDP or TCP. Again, this functionality exists as layer management extensions to the OSI model, in its Management Framework (OSIRM MF) [17]

14

Internet protocol suite The SSL/TLS library operates above the transport layer (uses TCP) but below application protocols. Again, there was no intention, on the part of the designers of these protocols, to comply with OSI architecture. The link is treated like a black box. The IETF explicitly does not intend to discuss transmission systems, which is a less academic[citation needed] but practical alternative to the OSI model. The following is a description of each layer in the TCP/IP networking model starting from the lowest level.

15

Link layer
The link layer is the networking scope of the local network connection to which a host is attached. This regime is called the link in TCP/IP literature. It is the lowest component layer of the Internet protocols, as TCP/IP is designed to be hardware independent. As a result TCP/IP may be implemented on top of virtually any hardware networking technology. The link layer is used to move packets between the Internet layer interfaces of two different hosts on the same link. The processes of transmitting and receiving packets on a given link can be controlled both in the software device driver for the network card, as well as on firmware or specialized chipsets. These perform data link functions such as adding a packet header to prepare it for transmission, then actually transmit the frame over a physical medium. The TCP/IP model includes specifications of translating the network addressing methods used in the Internet Protocol to data link addressing, such as Media Access Control (MAC). All other aspects below that level, however, are implicitly assumed to exist in the link layer, but are not explicitly defined. This is also the layer where packets may be selected to be sent over a virtual private network or other networking tunnel. In this scenario, the link layer data may be considered application data which traverses another instantiation of the IP stack for transmission or reception over another IP connection. Such a connection, or virtual link, may be established with a transport protocol or even an application scope protocol that serves as a tunnel in the link layer of the protocol stack. Thus, the TCP/IP model does not dictate a strict hierarchical encapsulation sequence. The TCP/IP model's link layer corresponds to the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model physical and data link layers, layers one and two of the OSI model.

Internet layer
The internet layer has the responsibility of sending packets across potentially multiple networks. Internetworking requires sending data from the source network to the destination network. This process is called routing.[18] In the Internet protocol suite, the Internet Protocol performs two basic functions: Host addressing and identification: This is accomplished with a hierarchical IP addressing system. Packet routing: This is the basic task of sending packets of data (datagrams) from source to destination by forwarding them to the next network router closer to the final destination. The internet layer is not only agnostic of application data structures at the transport layer, but it also does not distinguish between operation of the various transport layer protocols. IP can carry data for a variety of different upper layer protocols. These protocols are each identified by a unique protocol number: for example, Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) and Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) are protocols 1 and 2, respectively. Some of the protocols carried by IP, such as ICMP which is used to transmit diagnostic information, and IGMP which is used to manage IP Multicast data, are layered on top of IP but perform internetworking functions. This illustrates the differences in the architecture of the TCP/IP stack of the Internet and the OSI model. The TCP/IP model's internet layer corresponds to layer three of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, where it is referred to as the network layer. The internet layer provides only an unreliable datagram transmission facility between hosts located on potentially different IP networks by forwarding the transport layer datagrams to an appropriate next-hop router for further

Internet protocol suite relaying to its destination. With this functionality, the internet layer makes possible internetworking, the interworking of different IP networks, and it essentially establishes the Internet. The Internet Protocol is the principal component of the internet layer, and it defines two addressing systems to identify network hosts computers, and to locate them on the network. The original address system of the ARPANET and its successor, the Internet, is Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4). It uses a 32-bit IP address and is therefore capable of identifying approximately four billion hosts. This limitation was eliminated by the standardization of Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) in 1998, and beginning production implementations in approximately 2006.

16

Transport layer
The transport layer establishes a basic data channel that an application uses in its task-specific data exchange. The layer establishes process-to-process connectivity, meaning it provides end-to-end services that are independent of the structure of user data and the logistics of exchanging information for any particular specific purpose. Its responsibility includes end-to-end message transfer independent of the underlying network, along with error control, segmentation, flow control, congestion control, and application addressing (port numbers). End to end message transmission or connecting applications at the transport layer can be categorized as either connection-oriented, implemented in TCP, or connectionless, implemented in UDP. For the purpose of providing process-specific transmission channels, the layer establishes the concept of the port. This is a numbered logical construct allocated specifically for each of the communication channels an application needs. For many types of services, these port numbers have been standardized so that client computers may address specific services of a server computer without the involvement of service announcements or directory services. Because IP provides only a best effort delivery, the transport layer is the first layer of the TCP/IP stack to offer reliability. However, IP can run over a reliable data link protocol such as the High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC). For example, the TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that addresses numerous reliability issues in providing a reliable byte stream: data arrives in-order data has minimal error (i.e. correctness) duplicate data is discarded lost or discarded packets are resent includes traffic congestion control

The newer Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) is also a reliable, connection-oriented transport mechanism. It is message-stream-oriented not byte-stream-oriented like TCP and provides multiple streams multiplexed over a single connection. It also provides multi-homing support, in which a connection end can be represented by multiple IP addresses (representing multiple physical interfaces), such that if one fails, the connection is not interrupted. It was developed initially for telephony applications (to transport SS7 over IP), but can also be used for other applications. The User Datagram Protocol is a connectionless datagram protocol. Like IP, it is a best effort, "unreliable" protocol. Reliability is addressed through error detection using a weak checksum algorithm. UDP is typically used for applications such as streaming media (audio, video, Voice over IP etc.) where on-time arrival is more important than reliability, or for simple query/response applications like DNS lookups, where the overhead of setting up a reliable connection is disproportionately large. Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) is a datagram protocol that is designed for real-time data such as streaming audio and video. The applications at any given network address are distinguished by their TCP or UDP port. By convention certain well known ports are associated with specific applications. The TCP/IP model's transport or host-to-host layer corresponds to the fourth layer in the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, also called the transport layer.

Internet protocol suite

17

Application layer
The application layer contains the higher-level protocols used by most applications for providing user services over a network and for some basic network support services[. Examples of application layer protocols include the File Transfer Protocol (FTP), the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).[19] Data coded according to application layer protocols are then encapsulated into one or (occasionally) more transport layer protocols (such as TCP or UDP), which in turn use lower layer protocols to effect actual data transfer. As the IP model does not consider the specifics of formatting and presenting data, it defines no layers between the application and transport layers as in the OSI model (presentation and session layers). Such functions are the realm of the applications which often implement such functions in libraries and application programming interfaces. Application layer protocols generally treat the transport layer (and lower) protocols as black boxes which provide a stable network connection across which to communicate, although the applications are usually aware of key qualities of the transport layer connection such as the end point IP addresses and port numbers. As noted above, layers are not necessarily clearly defined in the Internet protocol suite. Application layer protocols are most often associated with clientserver applications, and the commoner servers have specific ports assigned to them by the IANA: HTTP has port 80; Telnet has port 23; etc. Clients, on the other hand, tend to use ephemeral ports, i.e. port numbers assigned at random from a range set aside for the purpose. Transport and lower level layers are largely unconcerned with the specifics of application layer protocols. Routers and switches do not typically "look inside" the encapsulated traffic to see what kind of application protocol it represents, rather they just provide a conduit for it. However, some firewall and bandwidth throttling applications do try to determine what's inside, as with the Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP). It is also sometimes necessary for network address translation (NAT) facilities to take account of the needs of particular application layer protocols. The TCP/IP model's application layer encompasses the fifth, sixth, and seventh layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, which are the session layer, presentation layer, and application layer, respectively.

Layer names and number of layers in the literature

The following table shows various networking models. The number of layers varies between three and seven.
[20] Kurose, [21] Forouzan Five layers [22] Comer, [23] Kozierok Four+one layers Stallings [24] Tanenbaum [25] RFC 1122, Cisco Internet STD Academy[26] 3 (1989) Four layers Four layers Mike Padlipsky's 1982 "Arpanet Reference Model" (RFC 871) Three layers OSI model

Five layers

Five layers

Seven layers OSI model

"Five-layer Internet model" or "TCP/IP protocol suite" Application

"TCP/IP 5-layer "TCP/IP reference model" model"

"TCP/IP 5-layer reference model"

"Internet model"

"Internet model"

"Arpanet reference model"

Application

Application

Application

Application

Application

Application/Process

Application Presentation Session

Transport

Transport

Host-to-host or transport Internet Network access

Transport

Transport

Transport

Host-to-host

Transport

Network Data link

Internet Data link (Network interface)

Internet Data link

Internet Link

Internetwork Network interface Network interface

Network Data link

Internet protocol suite

18
Physical Physical Physical

Physical

(Hardware)

Some of the networking models are from textbooks, which are secondary sources that may contravene the intent of RFC 1122 and other IETF primary sources.

OSI and TCP/IP layering differences

The three top layers in the OSI modelthe application layer, the presentation layer and the session layerare not distinguished separately in the TCP/IP model where it is just the application layer. While some pure OSI protocol applications, such as X.400, also combined them, there is no requirement that a TCP/IP protocol stack must impose monolithic architecture above the transport layer. For example, the NFS application protocol runs over the eXternal Data Representation (XDR) presentation protocol, which, in turn, runs over a protocol called Remote Procedure Call (RPC). RPC provides reliable record transmission, so it can safely use the best-effort UDP transport. Different authors have interpreted the RFCs differently, about whether the link layer (and the TCP/IP model) covers OSI model layer 1 (physical layer) issues, or whether a hardware layer is assumed below the link layer. Several authors have attempted to incorporate the OSI model's layers 1 and 2 into the TCP/IP model, since these are commonly referred to in modern standards (for example, by IEEE and ITU). This often results in a model with five layers, where the link layer or network access layer is split into the OSI model's layers 1 and 2. The session layer roughly corresponds to the Telnet virtual terminal functionality[citation needed], which is part of text based protocols such as the HTTP and SMTP TCP/IP model application layer protocols. It also corresponds to TCP and UDP port numbering, which is considered as part of the transport layer in the TCP/IP model. Some functions that would have been performed by an OSI presentation layer are realized at the Internet application layer using the MIME standard, which is used in application layer protocols such as HTTP and SMTP. The IETF protocol development effort is not concerned with strict layering. Some of its protocols may not fit cleanly into the OSI model, although RFCs sometimes refer to it and often use the old OSI layer numbers. The IETF has repeatedly stated[citation needed] that Internet protocol and architecture development is not intended to be OSI-compliant. RFC 3439, addressing Internet architecture, contains a section entitled: "Layering Considered Harmful". Conflicts are apparent also in the original OSI model, ISO 7498, when not considering the annexes to this model (e.g., ISO 7498/4 Management Framework), or the ISO 8648 Internal Organization of the Network layer (IONL). When the IONL and Management Framework documents are considered, the ICMP and IGMP are neatly defined as layer management protocols for the network layer. In like manner, the IONL provides a structure for "subnetwork dependent convergence facilities" such as ARP and RARP. IETF protocols can be encapsulated recursively, as demonstrated by tunneling protocols such as Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE). GRE uses the same mechanism that OSI uses for tunneling at the network layer.

Implementations
No specific hardware or software implementation is required by the protocols or the layered model, so there are many. Most computer operating systems in use today, including all consumer-targeted systems, include a TCP/IP implementation. A minimally acceptable implementation includes the following protocols, listed from most essential to least essential: IP, ARP, ICMP, UDP, TCP and sometimes IGMP. In principle, it is possible to support only one transport protocol, such as UDP, but this is rarely done, because it limits usage of the whole implementation. IPv6, beyond its own version of ARP (NDP), ICMP (ICMPv6) and IGMP (IGMPv6), has some additional required functions, and often is accompanied by an integrated IPSec security layer. Other protocols could be easily added later (possibly being implemented entirely in userspace), such as DNS for resolving domain names to IP addresses, or DHCP for

Internet protocol suite automatically configuring network interfaces. Normally, application programmers are concerned only with interfaces in the application layer and often also in the transport layer, while the layers below are services provided by the TCP/IP stack in the operating system. Most IP implementations are accessible to programmers through sockets and APIs. Unique implementations include Lightweight TCP/IP, an open source stack designed for embedded systems, and KA9Q NOS, a stack and associated protocols for amateur packet radio systems and personal computers connected via serial lines. Microcontroller firmware in the network adapter typically handles link issues, supported by driver software in the operational system. Non-programmable analog and digital electronics are normally in charge of the physical components below the link layer, typically using an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) chipset for each network interface or other physical standard. High-performance routers are to a large extent based on fast non-programmable digital electronics, carrying out link level switching.

19

References
[1] RFC 1122, Requirements for Internet Hosts Communication Layers, R. Braden (ed.), October 1989. [2] RFC 1123, Requirements for Internet Hosts Application and Support, R. Braden (ed.), October 1989 [3] "The DoD Internet Architecture Model" (http:/ / citeseerx. ist. psu. edu/ viewdoc/ download?doi=10. 1. 1. 88. 7505& rep=rep1& type=pdf), Vinton G. Cerf and Edward Cain, Computer Networks, 7 (1983), North-Holland, pp. 307-318 [4] RFC 1812, Requirements for IP Version 4 Routers, F. Baker (June 1995) [5] RFC 675, Specification of Internet Transmission Control Protocol, V. Cerf et al. (December 1974) [6] Internet History (http:/ / www. livinginternet. com/ i/ ii. htm) [7] Wollongong (http:/ / support. microsoft. com/ kb/ 108007) [8] A Short History of Internet Protocols at CERN (http:/ / www. weblab. isti. cnr. it/ education/ ssfs/ lezioni/ slides/ archives/ cern. htm) [9] About | "romkey" (http:/ / www. romkey. com/ about/ ) [10] Barry Appelman [11] RFC 1958, Architectural Principles of the Internet, B. Carpenter (June 1996) [12] Rethinking the design of the Internet: The end to end arguments vs. the brave new world (http:/ / www. csd. uoc. gr/ ~hy558/ papers/ Rethinking_2001. pdf), Marjory S. Blumenthal, David D. Clark, August 2001 [13] p.23 INTERNET PROTOCOL DARPA INTERNET PROGRAM PROTOCOL SPECIFICATION September 1981 Jon Postel Editor (http:/ / www. ietf. org/ rfc/ rfc0791. txt?number=791) [14] Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Communication Layers p.13 October 1989 R. Braden, Editor (http:/ / tools. ietf. org/ html/ rfc1122#page-12) [15] [ OSI: Reference Model Addendum 1: Connectionless-mode Transmission,ISO7498/AD1],ISO7498/AD1, May 1986 [16] Information processing systems -- Open Systems Interconnection -- Internal organization of the Network Layer (http:/ / www. iso. org/ iso/ home/ store/ catalogue_tc/ catalogue_detail. htm?csnumber=16011), ISO 8648:1988. [17] Information processing systems -- Open Systems Interconnection -- Basic Reference Model -- Part 4: Management framework (http:/ / www. iso. org/ iso/ home/ store/ catalogue_tc/ catalogue_detail. htm?csnumber=14258), ISO 7498-4:1989. [18] IP Packet Structure (http:/ / www. comsci. us/ datacom/ ippacket. html) [19] TCP/IP Illustrated: the protocols (http:/ / www. kohala. com/ start/ tcpipiv1. html), ISBN 0-201-63346-9, W. Richard Stevens, February 1994 [20] James F. Kurose, Keith W. Ross, Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach, 2008, ISBN 0-321-49770-8 (http:/ / www. pearsonhighered. com/ educator/ academic/ product/ 0,,0321497708,00+ en-USS_01DBC. html) [21] Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data Communications and Networking, 2003 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=U3Gcf65Pu9IC& printsec=frontcover& dq=forouzan+ "computer+ networks"& ei=RPZ9SOCvMofctAO02di0AQ& hl=en& sig=ACfU3U2Hh_n83pPtf5uCreCih0HnWvNcxg#PPA29,M1) [22] Douglas E. Comer, Internetworking with TCP/IP: Principles, Protocols and Architecture, Pearson Prentice Hall 2005, ISBN 0-13-187671-6 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jonyuTASbWAC& pg=PA155& hl=sv& source=gbs_toc_r& cad=0_0& sig=ACfU3U18gHAia1pU_Pxn-rhkCnH1v70M6Q#PPA161,M1) [23] Charles M. Kozierok, "The TCP/IP Guide", No Starch Press 2005 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Pm4RgYV2w4YC& pg=PA131& dq="TCP/ IP+ model+ layers"& lr=& hl=sv& sig=ACfU3U3ofMwYAbZfGz1BmAXc2oNNFC2b8A#PPA129,M1) [24] William Stallings, Data and Computer Communications, Prentice Hall 2006, ISBN 0-13-243310-9 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=c_AWmhkovR0C& pg=PA35& dq="internet+ layer"+ "network+ access+ layer"& ei=-O99SI3EJo32sgOQpPThDw& hl=en& sig=ACfU3U38aXznzeAnQdbLcPFXfCgxAd4lFg)

Internet protocol suite

[25] Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, Prentice Hall 2002, ISBN 0-13-066102-3 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Pd-z64SJRBAC& pg=PA42& vq=internet+ layer& dq=networks& hl=sv& source=gbs_search_s& sig=ACfU3U3DHANeIz0sOsd5NK4VXSrgNFYVAw#PPA42,M1) [26] Mark A. Dye, Rick McDonald, Antoon W. Rufi, Network Fundamentals: CCNA Exploration Companion Guide, 2007, ISBN 1-58713-208-7 (http:/ / books. google. com. br/ books/ about/ Network_Fundamentals. html?id=JVAk7r6jHF4C)

20

Bibliography
Douglas E. Comer. Internetworking with TCP/IP - Principles, Protocols and Architecture. ISBN 86-7991-142-9 Joseph G. Davies and Thomas F. Lee. Microsoft Windows Server 2003 TCP/IP Protocols and Services. ISBN 0-7356-1291-9 Forouzan, Behrouz A. (2003). TCP/IP Protocol Suite (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN0-07-246060-1. Craig Hunt TCP/IP Network Administration. O'Reilly (1998) ISBN 1-56592-322-7 Maufer, Thomas A. (1999). IP Fundamentals. Prentice Hall. ISBN0-13-975483-0. Ian McLean. Windows(R) 2000 TCP/IP Black Book. ISBN 1-57610-687-X Ajit Mungale Pro .NET 1.1 Network Programming. ISBN 1-59059-345-6 W. Richard Stevens. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 1: The Protocols. ISBN 0-201-63346-9 W. Richard Stevens and Gary R. Wright. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 2: The Implementation. ISBN 0-201-63354-X W. Richard Stevens. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 3: TCP for Transactions, HTTP, NNTP, and the UNIX Domain Protocols. ISBN 0-201-63495-3 Andrew S. Tanenbaum. Computer Networks. ISBN 0-13-066102-3 Clark, D. (1988). "The Design Philosophy of the DARPA Internet Protocols" (http://www.cs.princeton.edu/ ~jrex/teaching/spring2005/reading/clark88.pdf). SIGCOMM '88 Symposium proceedings on Communications architectures and protocols (ACM): 106114. doi: 10.1145/52324.52336 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/52324. 52336). Retrieved 2011-10-16.

External links
Internet History (http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii.htm)Pages on Robert Kahn, Vinton Cerf, and TCP/IP (reviewed by Cerf and Kahn). RFC 675 (http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0675.txt) - Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program, December 1974 Version TCP/IP State Transition Diagram (http://www.night-ray.com/TCPIP_State_Transition_Diagram.pdf) (PDF) RFC 1180 A TCP/IP Tutorial - from the Internet Engineering Task Force (January 1991) TCP/IP FAQ (http://www.itprc.com/tcpipfaq/) The TCP/IP Guide (http://www.tcpipguide.com/free/) - A comprehensive look at the protocols and the procedures/processes involved A Study of the ARPANET TCP/IP Digest (http://www.columbia.edu/~rh120/other/tcpdigest_paper.txt) TCP/IP Sequence Diagrams (http://www.eventhelix.com/RealtimeMantra/Networking/) Daryl's TCP/IP Primer (http://www.ipprimer.com/) - Intro to TCP/IP LAN administration, conversational style Introduction to TCP/IP (http://www.linux-tutorial.info/MContent-142)

Application layer

21

Application layer
In the Internet model, the application layer is an abstraction layer reserved for communications protocols and methods designed for process-to-process communications across an Internet Protocol (IP) computer network. Application layer protocols use the underlying transport layer protocols to establish process-to-process connections via ports.[1] In the OSI model, the definition of its application layer is narrower in scope. The OSI model defines the application layer as being the user interface. The OSI application layer is responsible for displaying data and images to the user in a human-recognizable format and to interface with the presentation layer below it.[2] It separates functionality above the transport layer at two additional levels, the session layer and the presentation layer. OSI specifies strict modular separation of functionality at these layers and provides protocol implementations for each layer. The interface responsible for displaying the information received to the user.

Internet protocol suite

Application layer

DHCP DHCPv6 DNS FTP HTTP IMAP IRC LDAP MGCP NNTP BGP NTP POP RPC RTP RTSP RIP SIP SMTP SNMP SOCKS SSH Telnet TLS/SSL XMPP more... Transport layer

TCP UDP DCCP SCTP RSVP

Application layer

22
more... Internet layer

IP IPv4 IPv6 OSPF ICMP ICMPv6 ECN IGMP IPsec more... Link layer

ARP/InARP NDP Tunnels L2TP PPP Media access control

Ethernet DSL ISDN FDDI DOCSIS more...

The OSI model

7 Application layer 6 Presentation layer 5 Session layer 4 Transport layer 3 Network layer 2 Data link layer

LLC sublayer MAC sublayer

1 Physical layer

Application layer

23

TCP/IP protocols
The following protocols are explicitly mentioned in RFC 1123 (1989), describing the application layer of the Internet protocol suite. Remote login category Telnet SSH File transfer category FTP TFTP Electronic mail category SMTP IMAP POP Support services category DNS RARP BOOTP SNMP CMOT

Other protocol examples

9P, Plan 9 from Bell Labs distributed file system protocol AFP, Apple Filing Protocol APPC, Advanced Program-to-Program Communication AMQP, Advanced Message Queuing Protocol Atom Publishing Protocol Bitcoin BitTorrent CFDP, Coherent File Distribution Protocol CoAP, Constrained Application Protocol DDS, Data Distribution Service DeviceNet eDonkey ENRP, Endpoint Handlespace Redundancy Protocol FastTrack (KaZaa, Grokster, iMesh) Finger, User Information Protocol Freenet FTAM, File Transfer Access and Management Gopher, Gopher protocol HL7, Health Level Seven HTTP, HyperText Transfer Protocol H.323, Packet-Based Multimedia Communications System IRCP, Internet Relay Chat Protocol

Kademlia KAP, Anonymous File Transfer over UDP/IP (KickAss Protocol) [citation needed]

Application layer LDAP, Lightweight Directory Access Protocol LPD, Line Printer Daemon Protocol MIME (S-MIME), Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions and Secure MIME Modbus Netconf NFS, Network File System NIS, Network Information Service NNTP, Network News Transfer Protocol NTCIP, National Transportation Communications for Intelligent Transportation System Protocol NTP, Network Time Protocol OSCAR, AOL Instant Messenger Protocol PNRP, Peer Name Resolution Protocol RDP, Remote Desktop Protocol RELP, Reliable Event Logging Protocol RIP, Routing Information Protocol Rlogin, Remote Login in UNIX Systems RPC, Remote Procedure Call RTMP, Real Time Messaging Protocol RTP, Real-time Transport Protocol RTPS, Real Time Publish Subscribe RTSP, Real Time Streaming Protocol SAP, Session Announcement Protocol SDP, Session Description Protocol SIP, Session Initiation Protocol SLP, Service Location Protocol SMB, Server Message Block SNTP, Simple Network Time Protocol SSH, Secure Shell SSMS, Secure SMS Messaging Protocol TCAP, Transaction Capabilities Application Part TDS, Tabular Data Stream TSP, Time Stamp Protocol VTP, Virtual Terminal Protocol Whois (and RWhois), Remote Directory Access Protocol WebDAV X.400, Message Handling Service Protocol X.500, Directory Access Protocol (DAP) XMPP, Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol

24

References
[1] http:/ / docwiki. cisco. com/ wiki/ Internet_Protocols [2] http:/ / www. inetdaemon. com/ tutorials/ basic_concepts/ network_models/ osi_model/ application. shtml

Article Sources and Contributors

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Article Sources and Contributors

Session Initiation Protocol Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=582427302 Contributors: A.M., AIMSzpc, AdamRoach, Adem reid, Agnvoip, Alan Smithee, Alansohn, Alf Boggis, Alfyj72, Algocu, AlistairMcMillan, Altesys, Amirshaheen, Amniarix, Andyparkins, Antzervos, Armando, Ashleyarmitt, AspieMind, Ausinha, Avi.dorfman, Azurepalm, B timmins, B1ll1ngsl34, Batsonjay, Bazza37, Bchatelet, Bender235, Biot, Blatkinson, Bluezy, Bobet, Bpadinha, Brandon, Brazil4Linux, Breno, Brest, Bubuka, Calltech, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Carlos-alberto-teixeira, Carre, Cburnett, Cfeet77, Chris Roy, Christopher Mahan, Codecmdr, Conversion script, Cub001, Curtis Newton, Cybercobra, Cyrius, DabMachine, Daniel.Cardenas, Dariuspomaha, DataSurfer, David Johnson, DavidAyers, Dcirovic, DeadEyeArrow, Denisarona, Dewikipeder, Dgtsyb, Dhughes, Donsez, Doug Bell, DrMac, EagleEye96, Ed Poor, Edcolins, Edward Waverley, Edwilson97, Eewanco, Ehjelmeland, Ejabberd, Elgaard, Emvee, Enjoi4586, Ennustaja, Eproulx, Equendil, Eric boutilier, Erikgje, Eshouthe, Etu, Excirial, Faico, Fanf, Flambib, Franl, Frap, Fred Gandt, GDallimore, GentlemanGhost, Geomaster1, Gogo Dodo, Graham87, GreyCat, Gronky, Gshaham, Gtamas, Guaka, Guillaume.steinmetz, Hairy Dude, Harryzilber, Hopper96, Hu12, Hujaza, I don't remember my username, I'm not human, IMSoP, IRedRat, Ibc wiki, Int21h, Isnow, Itai, Jadahl, James nits, James.hamlin, Jay.Here, Jbonocore, Jcgriffiths, Jdi153, Jeffme, Jehochman, JesperANielsen, Jfayel, Jharrell, Jniemi, Joehamiltonjr, Joevf, Johnpseudo, Johnthesmith, JonTeh, Jpdemont, Judzillah, Julesd, Justpossible, Kasperd, Kat, Kbrose, KenCFTeam, Kgfleischmann, Khazar2, Kinema, Kjtobo, Kkkdddiii, Kmorozov, Koavf, Kvng, Kyng, Laurie G, Layer, Leandrod, Liftarn, Likethesky, Lincoln Josh, Linkminer, Lion789, Logixoul, Lradrama, Lupin, Luser, Lzur, MMuzammils, MSGJ, Magioladitis, Magnus Manske, Malcolmredheron, Mange01, MartynDavies, Master of Puppets, Materialscientist, MathsPoetry, Matt Darby, Matt tw, Matthi2, Maury Markowitz, Mboedick, McCarthur, Me and, Metamagician3000, Miguel.lima, Mindmatrix, Molestash, Monk127, Morte, Mpm777, MrJones, MrOllie, Mram80, Mranga, MrsJonesical, Mulad, Mulligatawny, Mvineetmenon, Neustradamus, Nexus501, Noahspurrier, Notheruser, Now3d, Nubiatech, Nyco, Odd bloke, OldMan, Olle.johansson, Oxymoron83, PM800, Pagingmrherman, ParadialEditor, Patcito, Pausch, Pbranfield, PeterB, Pgk, Phatom87, Pinkunicorn, Pmsyyz, Pnetz, Pratyya Ghosh, Pugliavi, R'n'B, Raanoo, Rathee, Rchamberlain, Rchandra, RedWolf, Requestion, RichiH, Rick Block, Riffic, Ringbang, Rjwilmsi, RobLa, Russellbryant, Rzelnik, Salmar, Satch69, Schweini, Scienceguy8m, Sdrtirs, SeanLegassick, Seav, Serych, Seyhan Aydin, Sgodin, ShaunMacPherson, Sietse Snel, Silverfox196, Sim, Sipexpert, Skowa, Smyth, SpaceFlight89, Strait, Strongsauce, SudoMonas, Surf08008, Suruena, Taed, Tanovic, Teemuk, Tekalpha, Thane Eichenauer, TheMandarin, Tietew, Tliberty10, Tom Morris, Torzsmokus, Touisiau, Towel401, Ttlkr, Ttwaring, Tuxa, Tzury, UncleBubba, Utcursch, Verdatum, Voidxor, Voip81, Voixium, WR:ichibantel, Wensong, Widefox, Will Beback Auto, Wk muriithi, Wongm, Wormhole80, Wrs1864, Wtshymanski, Yaronf, YordanGeorgiev, Yun-Yuuzhan (lost password), Zach Vega, Zhong.xie, Zoicon5, , , , 592 anonymous edits Internet protocol suite Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=583183806 Contributors: 130.243.79.xxx, 203.109.250.xxx, 213.253.39.xxx, 66.169.238.xxx, A8UDI, A930913, Aapo Laitinen, Abdull, Abdullais4u, Acceptus, Acroterion, Aeonx, Ahoerstemeier, Alansohn, Albanaco, Aldie, Ale2006, Alek Baka, AliMaghrebi, Aliasptr, Alireza.usa, AlistairMcMillan, Amungale, Ana Couto, Aneah, Anna Lincoln, Anon lynx, Anororn, Arcenciel, ArchonMagnus, Arteitle, ArticCynda, Atethnekos, Avant Guard, Avicennasis, Axcess, AxelBoldt, B4hand, Barberio, Barnacle157, Beland, Bender235, Bentogoa, Bernard Franois, Betterworld, Bezenek, Bhavin, Biot, Bloodshedder, Bmicomp, Branko, Breno, Brian.fsm, Brion VIBBER, Camw, Canthusus, CaptainVindaloo, Carnildo, Casey Abell, Cate, Cburnett, CecilWard, Cf. Hay, Chadernook, Cheesycow5, Ckatz, Clark42, Coasting, Conversion script, Coolcaesar, CrinklyCrunk, Ctm314, Cybercobra, Cynthia Rhoads, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DBhavsar709, DVdm, Damian Yerrick, Daniel Staal, DanielCD, Darkhalfactf, Dave Braunschweig, DavidDW, DavidDouthitt, Denisarona, DerekLaw, Dgtsyb, Dicklyon, Dingdong44, Disavian, Dmeranda, Dnas, Dogcow, Donjrude, Doradus, Dorgan65, Doug Bell, Drphilharmonic, Duffman, EagleOne, Ed g2s, Edmilne, Edward, Edwardando, Eeekster, Ekashp, Electron9, Ellywa, Elwood j blues, EnOreg, EncMstr, Enjoi4586, Epbr123, Epicgenius, Eptin, Equendil, Ericl234, Erik Sandberg, Ethanthej, Etu, Evil Monkey, Evil saltine, Expensivehat, Falcon9x5, Falcor84, Favonian, Ferkelparade, Fixman88, Fmrauch, Fr34k, Freyr, Funandtrvl, GaelicWizard, Geneb1955, Gilliam, Glane23, Glenn, GlobalEdge 2010, Globemasterthree, Golbez, GordonMcKinney, Graham87, Gringo.ch, Gsl, Guy Harris, HMSSolent, Haakon, Hadal, Hairy Dude, HarisM, Harryzilber, Hasty001, Hawkins88, Hcberkowitz, Headbomb, Helix84, Here, Hoary, Holylampposts, Hpnguyen83, Hyad, IMSoP, Ilario, Imcdnzl, Imran, Indeterminate, Indinkgo, Inhumandecency, Inomyabcs, Intgr, Itai, J.delanoy, JTN, Jackqu7, James Mohr, JamesBWatson, Jantangring, Jatkins, JediMaster362, JesterXXV, Jimp, Jmdavid1789, Jnc, Jncraton, Joanjoc, John Vandenberg, Johnblade, Johnuniq, JonHarder, Jorunn, Jrogern, Jsoon eu, Jusdafax, JustAGal, KYPark, Kaare, Kasperd, Katieh5584, Kbrose, Kim Bruning, Kim Rubin, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kocio, Konman72, Koyaanis Qatsi, Krauss, Krellis, Kungming2, Kusma, Kvng, Kyng, Labongo, Larree, Law, Layer, Leapfrog314, Lee Carre, Locketine, Logictheo, Lova Falk, Lugia2453, Luk, Luna Santin, Magioladitis, Magister Mathematicae, Maltest, Mandarax, Mange01, Manop, Marcika, Martyman, Martyvis, Master Conjurer, Matt Dunn, Mattbrundage, Matthew Woodcraft, Matusz, Mav, Mckoss, Mechanical digger, Meiskam, Mendel, Merlissimo, Metaclassing, Michael Hardy, Miles, MilesMi, Mintguy, Mothmolevna, Mrzaius, Mukkakukaku, Mwarren us, Mzje, NE Ent, NMChico24, Nasz, Navedahmed123, NawlinWiki, Nealcardwell, Nealmcb, NewEnglandYankee, Ngriffeth, Nhorton, Nick C, Niteowlneils, Nivix, Nixdorf, Nknight, Nmacu, No3mann, Northamerica1000, Nubiatech, Nv8200p, Obradovic Goran, Oheckmann, Olathe, Otets, OttoTheFish, Oxwil, Oxymoron83, P. S. F. Freitas, Palfrey, Papadopa, Patilravi1985, Paul, Paul A, Paul Koning, Paulkramer, PenlroINFS315, Perfectpasta, Peripitus, Pfalstad, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Phgao, Piano non troppo, PioM, Plugwash, Pokeywiz, Poslfit, Pps, Public Menace, Punjabi101, Putdust, Quinxorin, R'n'B, RaNo, Radagast83, Ramnath R Iyer, Rayward, Rbhagat0, Reaper Eternal, RedWolf, Reliablesources, Renepick, RevRagnarok, Rich Farmbrough, Rich257, Richardwhiuk, Rick Block, Rick Sidwell, Rickh1219rh, Rjd0060, Rjwilmsi, RobEby, RobertG, RobertL30, Roberta F., Robost, Rodeosmurf, Ross Fraser, Rrelf, Rserpool, Runis57, Ruthherrin, SJP, STHayden, SWAdair, Samjoopin, SasiSasi, Seaphoto, Sheldrake, Shii, Shiraun, Shiro jdn, Shizhao, Sideways713, Sietse Snel, Sitush, Sjakkalle, Skullketon, Smartse, Smjg, Snaxe920, SnoFox, Spmion, Stahla92, StanQuayle, Staszek Lem, Stefan Milosevski, Stephan Leeds, Stephenb, Suffusion of Yellow, Sully, Sunray, SuperWiki, Suruena, Svick, Swhitehead, Swpb, Ta bu shi da yu, Tagishsimon, Tarquin, Tassedethe, Techmonk, Techpro30, Template namespace initialisation script, Tfl, That Guy, From That Show!, Thatguyflint, The Anome, The Nut, TheOtherJesse, Theresa knott, Thingg, Thumperward, Thunderboltz, Thw1309, Tide rolls, Tim Watson, Timwi, TinaSDCE, Tmaufer, Tmchk, Tobias Hoevekamp, TomPhil, Topbanana, Tr606, Tyler, Typhoon, Ukexpat, Unyoyega, Vanis314, Vegaswikian, Victor Liu, Violetriga, W163, Wadamja, Waggers, Wavelength, Weregeek, West.andrew.g, Weylinp, Whereizben, Widefox, Widr, Wiki104, Wikid77, Wikiklrsc, William Avery, Wimt, Winston Chuen-Shih Yang, Wolfkeeper, Wonderstruck, Woohookitty, Wrs1864, XJaM, Xeesh, Xojo, Xos, Yakudza, Yas, Ydalal, Yintan, Yudiweb, Yunshui, ZNott, Zac439, Zeerak88, Zfr, Zigger, Zoicon5, Zondor, Zundark, Zvezda1111, ^demon, , 911 anonymous edits Application layer Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=580723614 Contributors: AS, Ahoerstemeier, AlistairMcMillan, Amillar, AndyHedges, Arunachalammanohar, Ashdurbat, B4hand, Bearcat, Brest, BronsonP, Butko, ChazBeckett, Cradel, DDR2Nite, DIonized, Danim, Dave Braunschweig, Denisarona, DeweyQ, Dgtsyb, Dicklyon, Dogcow, Dominio, Eimsand, Ejabberd, ElKevbo, Enjoi4586, Evertw, Fctoma, Frap, Fredrik, Geozapf, GermanX, Gilliam, Graham87, GrapeSteinbeck, Grapht, Gruzd, Harryboyles, Hawaiiboy99, Hede2000, Honcw, Hrvoje Simic, Hu12, Ipahophead, IvanLanin, Jafeluv, James smith2, Jamie, Jasper Deng, Jauerback, Jaybeeunix, Jaymcjay, Jdc1197, Jerome Charles Potts, Jnc, Johnuniq, Jorunn, Kbrose, Kbthompson, Kesac, Lababidi, LiDaobing, Looxix, Lost.goblin, Lugia2453, Lulu of the Lotus-Eaters, Lysdexia, MainFrame, Mange01, Markushx, MartinHarper, MattieTK, Mfloryan, Mhby87, Mild Bill Hiccup, Minesweeper, Morte, MrsValdry, MulberryBeacon, Mwtoews, Ngriffeth, Nhorton, Night Gyr, Nixdorf, Orphan Wiki, Oxymoron83, Panarchy, Pelleasdaphnis, Pgallert, QueBurro, R'n'B, Ramprasad.ap, Reconsider the static, RedWolf, Rich Farmbrough, Rik G., Ringbang, Rserpool, SatyrTN, Schlesselman, ScottDavis, Shii, Shivdeepak, Solarra, Squideshi, Stemby, Stephan Leeds, Stonehead, Stryn, Sureshganapa, Suruena, Teammm, Template namespace initialisation script, Theopolisme, Tmopkisn, Ttony21, Unglesb, Useight, West.andrew.g, Wisamsafi, Wknight94, Wmasterj, Yacht, Yerpo, Zac439, Zfr, , 199 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:SIP signaling.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SIP_signaling.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Dewikipeder at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Noir at en.wikipedia. File:Internet map 1024 - transparent.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Internet_map_1024_-_transparent.png License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Barrett Lyon The Opte Project File:Crystal Clear app browser.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crystal_Clear_app_browser.png License: GNU Lesser General Public License Contributors: Everaldo Coelho and YellowIcon File:SRI First Internetworked Connection diagram.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SRI_First_Internetworked_Connection_diagram.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Russavia File:SRI Packet Radio Van.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SRI_Packet_Radio_Van.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Russavia Image:IP stack connections.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IP_stack_connections.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: en:User:Kbrose Image:UDP encapsulation.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:UDP_encapsulation.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: en:User:Cburnett original work, colorization by en:User:Kbrose

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License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/