Chapter 3

Mitosis and Meiosis

Prokaryotes, Archaea, and Eukaryotes

The major difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is the presence of a true nucleus in eukaryotes

Eukaryotic Cell Organelles

Nucleus contains the genome

- linear, double stranded DNA

Golgi apparatus
Golgi Nuclear Nucleolus envelope Chromosomal Nucleus DNA

- protein modification
Mitochondria
Polyribosomes Ribosome Rough endoplasmic reticulum

- energy
production (ATP)
Mitochondrial DNA Mitochondrion Microtubule Centriole

Cytoplasm Membrane protein Plasma membrane Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Lysosome

Eukaryotic Cell Organelles

Endoplasmic reticulum
lipid production and some protein translation

Chloroplast (plant, algae, and some protozoans)

photosynthesis

The Centrosome
Found in most animals and lower plant cells Not membrane bound and is found in the cytosol Composed of cylindrical structures - centrioles

The centrosome functions to organize the microtubules

Microtubules dynamic protein polymers Composed of subunits: tubulin tubulin

The centrosome functions to organize the microtubules

Polarity
(-) or fixed end associated with the centrosome (+) end extends toward cell periphery

Spindle fibers that attach to chromosomes during the early stages of mitosis and meiosis are composed of microtubules

Chromosome Colored Body

Chromosomes are composed of double stranded DNA and protein called chromatin
Euchromatin loosely packed Heterochromatin condensed and readily visible

At interphase (period between nuclear division), chromosomes are diffuse and not readily visible Classified by location of spindle fiber attachment site at the centromere
On the surface of the centromere is a proteinaceous substance where the microtubules attach - kinetochore

Giemsa-Stained Chromosomes

Telocentric

Chromosomes are classified based on centromere placement

For any particular chromosome the placement of the centromere is fixed - divides chromosome into 2 parts (p : short arm , q : long arm)

Chromosome Complement: Diploid

Diploid contain two sets of chromosomes Homologous chromosomes (homologs) One chromosome comes from each parent humans have 23 homologous chromosome pairs 2n = 46 dogs : 2n = 78 fruit fly : 2n = 8 garden pea : 2n = 14 house mouse : 2n = 40 lily : 2n = 24 Indian fern : 2n = 1260 !
2n indicates cells are diploid

Homologous Chromosomes
The physical location of a gene on a chromosome is called its locus. Gene loci (location)

A Homologous pair of chromosomes A

Chromosome Complement : Haploid

Haploid cells some eukaryotic cells and human gametes (sex cells) - only 1 set of chromosomes - meiosis products: egg and sperm - contain one member of each homologous pair: n = 23

Karyotype Analysis
Detect gross chromosomal abnormalities Determine sex of the individual
Homogametic sex () all gametes contain X chromosomes Heterogametic sex () gametes contain an X or a Y chromosome

An Example of a Karyotype

A normal

- Homogametic

The Cell Cycle

4 principle stages:
Gap 1 (G1)
DNA replication (S) Gap 2 (G2) Mitosis (M) G1, G2, and S = interphase

Go = leaves cell cycle, remains

viable

Mitosis: Cell Division

Mitosis-Promoting Factor (MPF): initiates the mitotic phase of the cell cycle Composed of 2 proteins
Cyclin B: oscillates in quantity Constant gene product: CDC2 kinase : enzyme that performs a phosphorylation reaction

CDC2 only functional when combined with cyclin cyclin dependent kinase (CDK) Degradation triggered by anaphase promoting complex (APC)

Mitosis: Cell Division

Cell Cycle Checkpoints

G1 /S
Checks cell size Examines DNA for damage S-phase promoting factor (SPF)

G2/M
Determines if DNA replication is completed Examines for damaged DNA

M
Spindle fibers properly assembled and attached to kinetochore

Preparing for Mitosis : S phase

DNA replication

A pair of sister chromatids

Centromere (DNA that is hidden beneath the kinetochore proteins)

Kinetochore (proteins attached to the centromere)

One chromatid

One chromatid

Mitosis Begins - Prophase

Shortening and thickening of the chromosomes Sister chromatids become visible

Nuclear envelope and nucleolus disintegrates

During prophase, the centrosome divides and moves to opposite poles of the cell

Each newly divided centrosome radiates out microtubules forming spindle fibers and asters. Microtubules elongate, shrink at their + end and attach to the kinetochore

Microtubules from different poles attach to sister kinetochores

Purpose ensure sister chromatids move to opposite poles during anaphase

During metaphase, the chromosomes move to the equator of the cell

Chromosomes align themselves at the metaphase plate marking the end of metaphase

(help to push poles apart)

During anaphase, sister chromatids move to opposite poles

Physical separation of the chromatids check point in the cell cycle Migration to opposite poles of the cell destruction of cohesins

Regulation of sister chromatid separation

Spindle fibers separate the daughter chromosomes

The kinetochore microtubules contract, dragging the chromosomes toward opposite poles

In anaphase, the chromosomes are pulled through the cytosol

Two mechanisms:
Proteins within the kinetochore act as a microtubule motor hydrolyzes ATP and moves toward the (-) end of the centrosome The chromosome is pulled toward the centrosome as the (+) end of the centrosome disintegrates

In telophase, the 2 daughter cells begin to return to the interphase state

- chromosomes uncoil direct protein synthesis

- nuclear envelope and nucleolus reforms - cytokinesis : 2 daughter cells form

Mitosis in Onion Root Cells

Mitosis in an Animal Cell

Mitosis in a Plant Cell

Meiosis: generation of haploid cells

Haploid animal gametes and spores are formed from diploid cells
As a result of halving the diploid number there is one copy of every chromosome present in the haploid cell

DNA replication occurs before meiosis as well as before mitosis

Two Nuclear Divisions Are Necessary without Further Replication of DNA

Meiosis is a two-division process that produces 4 haploid cells
Meiosis I
Meiosis II

Meiosis I: Stages include

Prophase I: Leptomena, Zygonema, Pachynema,
Diplonema, Diakinesis Metaphase I and Anaphase I Telophase I

Meiosis II: Stages same as mitosis

Meiosis : Prophase I

chromosomes condense and tips are attached to the nuclear membrane pairing of homologous chromosomes bivalents

Recombination: Exchange of DNA between Nonsister Chromatids

Prophase I in Meiosis

Crossing over in the tetrad Note the exchange of DNA

Recombination nodules Enzymatic machinery that correlates with recombination

Meiosis : Prophase I
Nucleolus vanishes Nuclear membrane breaks down Spindle fibers attach to one kinetochore in each tetrad

Meiosis : Metaphase I

Movement of tetrads to metaphase plate

Homologous chromosomes (each containing 2 sister chromatids) pulled to the same pole
(cohesin only remains between sister chromatids)

Anaphase I of Meiosis

Dyad or Monovalent (half of tetrad)

Figure 3.25

Meiosis I : Reductional Division Reduces the number of chromosomes from 2n to 1n Two sister chromatids represent one chromosome Dyad or monovalent present at pole of the cell

Meiosis II: An Equational Division

A mitotic division with the chromatids pulled to opposite poles For each cell entering meiosis, 4 haploid cells are produced

Meiosis: A Summary
Reduces the diploid number of chromosomes by half - separation of alleles ; Mendels Law of Segregation Randomness of how the tetrads align on the metaphase plate and separate during meiosis I - Mendels Law of Independent Assortment Produces genetic diversity - Recombination during Prophase I

Meiosis: Segregation
Heterozygous (Aa) cell

Meiosis I Prophase

A a

Homologous chromosomes segregate from each other. This leads to the random segregation of the alleles into separate gametes.
half the gametes receive one homolog, the other half receive the other homolog

Metaphase

Anaphase Telophase

Meiosis II

Haploid cells

Meiosis: Independent Assortment

y

r y R

r Y Y Heterozygous diploid cell (YyRr ) to undergo meiosis

R
y Y

Meiosis I (two possible arrangements in metaphase)

Meiosis II y R Ry R Ry y r rY Y r rY Y r ry

y
r ry

y
R RY

Y R RY

each gamete has an equal probability of receiving a particular combination of alleles

Independent Assortment and Recombination Lead to Genetic Diversity

Recombination and independent assortment occur simultaneously
** both can produce allele combinations not present in either parent
2 ABCD 2 abcd

2 ABcd 2 abCD

1 ABCD 1 abcd 1 AbCD 1 aBcd 1 ABcd 1 abCD 1 Abcd 1 aBCD

In a 2n cell with 2 sets of homologous chromosomes : a single recombination event in 1 homologous pair 8 different gametes possible

2 ABCD 2 abcd

2 ABcd 2 abCD

1 ABCD 1 abcd 1 AbCD 1 aBcd

1 ABcd 1 abCD 1 Abcd 1 aBCD

* Similarities : Mitosis & Meiosis

before both Mitosis & Meiosis I : DNA replication occurs producing sister chromatids from each chromosome

Meiosis II & Mitosis : Spindle fibers separate sister chromatids

* Differences :Mitosis & Meiosis

Haploid and diploid cells enter mitosis, only diploid cells complete meiosis Homologous chromosomes pair in Prophase I of meiosis with no pairing in mitosis

Kinetochore attaches to spindle fibers on

sister chromatids going to opposite poles (mitosis) homologous chromosomes (meiosis)

* Differences : Mitosis & Meiosis

Centromere mitosis splits, sister chromatids go to opposite poles meiosis I does not split ; sister chromatids go to the same pole Mitosis a conservative process Meiosis generates genetic diversity

Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

Spermatogenesis Takes Place in the Testes

The male produces 4 functional sperm for each spermatogonium that enters meiosis

Oogenesis Takes Place in the Ovary

The female produces only one functional egg for each primary oocyte that completes meiosis

Life Cycle in the Corn Plant

Diploid sporophyte meiosis gives rise to spores Spores germinate into alternate generation Haploid gametophyte which produces gametes by mitosis In corn mature corn plant is the sporophyte

Generation of a corn plant requires a double fertilization event.

Some organisms exist as haploids in their mature form (many fungi, protists)
Use mitosis to produce more haploid cells

Some haploid cells have the ability to fuse with other cells
therefore, in these organisms, gametes are produced by mitosis Fusion generates a diploid cell that can go through meiosis

Purpose?
Increase in genetic diversity

Mitosis in fertilized frog cell