CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

A. Literature Review

There are several terms closely related to the topic. In order to get deeper understanding,

it is necessary for the researcher to describe each of them briefly.

1. English Teaching and Learning

a. Definition of Teaching and Learning

1) Teaching

Brown (2000: 7) defines teaching as “showing or helping someone to learn

how to do something, giving instruction, guiding in study something, providing with

knowledge, causing to know or understand”. Brown also states that teaching is

guiding or facilitating learning, enabling to learner to learn, and setting of condition

for learn. Teaching is as any activity on the part of one person intended and facilitates

learning on the part of another.

Teaching is also defined as a change or modification of behavior containing

three things which are necessary. They are: experience, discrimination, and

association (Madsen, 1970: 8).

Hornby (1974: 886) in his “Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current

English” gives the same definitions of teaching as a derivation of the word “to teach”

as follows:

a) give instruction to somebody

b) cause somebody to know or be able to do something
 c) give to somebody knowledge, skill, etc
d) give lesson

All of these ways of defining teachings may differ, but all of them point to one

thing, that is teaching is giving information and knowledge to someone which can

change their behavior containing experience, discrimination, and association.

2) Learning

Webster (1979: 1032) defines the word “learn” in his dictionary as follows:

a) to gain knowledge of a subject; to acquire information concerning, as by

instruction, study, observation, experience, etc.; to acquire skill in anything; as to
learn the news, or a lesson
b) to come to know; as I learned that he had been sick
c) to come to know how
d) to fix in mind; to memorize
e) to acquire as a habit or attitude
f) to teach: formerly a standard usage now substandard learning

Learning is a relatively permanent change in a behavioral tendency and is the

result of reinforced practice (Kimble and Gamezy in Brown 2000: 7). This definition

is clarified by Brown (2000:7) into the following notion:

a) Learning is acquisition or “getting”;

b) Learning is retention of information or skill;
c) Retention implies storage systems, memory, cognitive
organization;
d) Learning involves active, conscious focus on and acting upon
events outside or inside the organism;
e) Learning is relatively permanent, but subject to forgetting;
f) Learning involves some forms of practice, perhaps reinforced
practice;
g) Learning is a change in behavior.

Learning is different from acquisition. Language learning is taking on

language naturally and it takes place in the informal setting. It is a subconscious

 process. Language learning happens when one is taught a language in the formal

setting and it is a conscious process. Language acquisition usually happens in the

process of learning one’s first language and language learning takes place in learning

one’s foreign language.

According to Allen and Valleta (in Brown 2000), there are some factors that

influence the success of foreign language learning, i. e. motivation, language aptitude,

and the amount of time spent in learning; the more a language learner uses language

to communicate, the better he becomes at communicating. In more details, the factors

that characterize the success of foreign language learning are integrative and

instrumental motivation of learners, contact with the foreign culture, socioeconomic

factor, sex differences, the classroom situation, teacher and student’s relationship and

the presentation of the materials.

The success foreign language learning depends on an elaborate interaction of

characteristics and motivation of the learner and circumstances in which the learning

takes place. In learning English as a foreign language, it is necessary to decide the

particular type of English to be mastered. There is no single type of English that is

used in the English speaking world. On the other hand, in learning English one must

attempt to initiate exactly the forms, the structure, and the utterances of the native

speakers of the particular kind of English he wishes to learn.

b. Components of the Teaching and Learning Process

Gagne in Rustiyah (1994: 39) states that learning objectives, content, method,

resources, media, management, evaluation, learner, teacher, and development of the

teaching and learning process are the teaching and learning components.

Kemp (1977: 39-40) states that the teaching and learning components were goals,

topic and general purposes, learner characteristics, learning objectives, subject content,

pre-assessment, teaching and learning activities and resources, and supporting facilities.

Some of the teaching and learning components are as follows:

1) Learner

Breen and Candlin in Richards (1985: 22-23) say about the learner’s role

communicative methodology as follows:

“The role of learner as negotiator-the self, the learning process, and the object of
learning-emerges from and interacts with the role of joint negotiator within the
group and within the classroom procedures and activities which the group
undertakes. The implication for the learners is that he should contribute as much as
he gains, and thereby learn in an independent way”.

Richards also mentions Johnson and Paulston’s statement about the learner’s roles

in an individualized approach to language learning as in the following points:

(a) the learner is the planner of his own learning program and thus ultimately assumes
responsibility for what he or she does in the class room;
(b) the learner is the monitor and evaluator of his/her own progress;
(c) the learner is a member of a group and learns by interacting with others;
(d) the learner is a tutor of other learners;
(e) the learner learns from the teacher, from other students, and from other teaching
sources.

Rubin and Thompson 1983 (in Nunan: 57-57) suggest that good or efficient

learners tend to exhibit specific characteristics as they go about learning second language.

Nunan mentions the types and learning preferences as follow:

1) Concrete learners
These learners tend to like games, pictures, films, video, using cassettes, talking
in pairs, and practicing English outside class.
2) Analytical learners
These learners liked studying grammar, studying English books and reading
 newspaper, studying alone, finding their own mistakes and working on problems set
by the teacher.
3) Communicative learners
These learners liked to learn by watching, listening to native speakers, talking to
friends in English and watching television in English, using English out of class in
stores, trains, and so on, learning new words by hearing them, and learning by
conversations.

4) Authority oriented learners

These learners preferred the teacher to explain everything liked to have their own
textbook, to write everything in a notebook, to study grammar, learn by reading, and
learn new words by seeing them.

He adds the characteristics of the good language learner as follow:

1) find their own way

2) organize information about language
3) are creative and experiment with language
4) make their own opportunities and find strategies for getting practice in using the
language inside and outside in the classroom
5) learn to live with uncertainty and develop strategies for making sense of the
target language with wanting to understand every word
6) use mnemonics (rhymes, word associations, and so forth) to recall what has
been learned
7) make errors work
8) use linguistic knowledge, including knowledge of their first language in
mastering a second language
9) learn to make intelligent guesses
10) learn chunks of language as wholes and formalized routines to help them
perform ‘beyond their competence’
11) learn production techniques (e.g techniques for keeping conversation going)
12) learn different styles of speech and writing and learn to vary their language
according to the formality of the situation

2) Teacher

Some of the instructional systems are totally dependent on the teacher as the

source of knowledge and direction; others see the teacher as the catalyst, consultant,

diagnostician, guide, and model for learning. In the classical audio-lingual method, the

teacher is regarded as the source of language and learning. The teacher is similar to a
conductor of the orchestra, whose prime goal is to keep the players in tune and time, and

without whom no music could be performed (Richards, 1985: 23-24).

Teachers should be able to lead students to learn totally like developing their

cognitive, affective, and psychomotor; optimalize the teaching - learning process and the

result, investigate the students’ potentials and personality, and motivate students’ hope

for their future life (Samana, 1994; 29). Usman (1994: 7-10) states that the teachers’ roles

in teaching are as the demonstrators, learning managers, evaluators, mediators and

facilitators. As demonstrators, the teachers should master the content of the materials to

be taught to their students and always improve their skill related to their specific

knowledge. As learning managers, the teachers should be able to manage the class

because the class is the learning environment and the aspect of school environment to be

organized. As mediators and facilitators, the teachers should have enough knowledge

about educational media. It is because educational media are the instruments of

communication to make the teaching and learning process more effective. As evaluators,

the teachers should be able to evaluate the process and the result of the teaching and

learning process. It is because evaluation will indicate the achievement of goals and

objectives of the teaching and learning process.

Richards (1985: 24) quoting Breen and Candlin about the role of a teacher writes:

“The teacher has two main roles: the first role is to facilitate communication
process between all participants in the classroom, and between these participants
and the various activities and text. The second role is to act as an independent
participant within the learning and teaching group. The later role is closely related
to the objectives of the first role and arises from it. This role implies a set of
secondary roles for the teacher; first, as an organizer of resources and as a
resource himself, second as a guide within the classroom procedures and
activities… A third role for the teacher is that the researcher and the learner, with
much to contribute in terms of appropriate knowledge and abilities, actual and
observed experience of the nature of learning and organizational capacities”.
 Concerning English as a foreign language, Allen and Valleta (1972) state that the

teacher is the key figure in the language course. The factor that sets the tone for the

learning activities, may simply encourage students’ progress. All language teachers are

fluent speakers of the language they are teaching. A professional teacher continually tries

to improve their competence in the foreign language.

A teacher has an important role in the successful foreign language teaching

learning. The teacher is the one who is probable to establish the conditions and

manipulate all factors, which can facilitate and promote the learning such as the

activities, the materials, method used, etc.

The attitude of the language teacher influences the students’ success. A positive

attitude on the part of the teacher is essential to success.

3) Materials

Kemp (1977: 45-47) states the content must be closely related to the objective and

students’ needs. What is specified with respect to the content (the syllabus) and with

respect to learner and teacher roles suggest the function for materials (Richards, 1985:

24). He mentions the roles of instructional materials as follows:

(a) The materials will facilitate the communication abilities of interpretation,

expression, and negotiation.
(b) Materials will focus on understandable and relevant communication rather that on
grammatical form.
(c) Materials will command the learner’s interest and involve their intelligence and
creativity.
(d) Materials will involve different types of text, and different media, which the
participants can use to develop their competence through a variety of different
activities and tasks.
 4) Teaching and Learning Methodology

A method refers to a language-teaching philosophy that contains a standardized

set of procedures or principles for teaching a language that are based upon a given set of

theoretical premises about the nature of language and language learning (Richards, 1985:

32).

Edward Anthony (In Brown 2001:14) states that a method describes as an overall

plan for systematic presentation of language based upon a selected approach.

According to Richards and Rodgers (In Brown 2001:14), a method was an

umbrella term for the specification and interaction of theory and practice.

A method, according to Brown (2001:16) was a generalized set of classroom

specifications for accomplishing linguistic objectives. Method tends to be concerned

primarily with teacher and students roles and behaviors and secondarily with such

features as linguistics and subject matter objectives, sequencing and materials.

Laortie (in Freeman 2000) states that method serve as a foil for reflection that can

aid teachers in bringing to conscious awareness the thinking that underlines their actions.

Stern (1983: 474) states Anthony’s terminology about the distinction among

approach, method and technique. According to Anthony’s terminology, an approach

constitutes the axiomatic or theoretical bases of language teaching. A method is a

procedural and the selection of materials to be taught, the graduation of those materials,

their presentation, and pedagogical implementation to induce learning. Within one

approach, there can be more than one method, while a technique is implementation. An

approach is simply defined as a theoretical assumption, a method is the teaching strategy,

and a technique is specific classroom activities.

 5) Media

Instructional media refer to audiovisual materials, books, and duplicated materials

that serve instructional functions in education. (Burden & Byrd, 1999: 137).

Lado (1964: 173-202) states two main types of media as technological aids in

language teaching are language laboratory and visual media. The visual media contain

pictures, whiteboard, marker, charts, slide and slide projectors, film strips, opaque

projectors, overhead projectors, motion pictures, and television.

Burden and Byrd (1999: 144-159) also have a similar idea. They state that a wide

variety of media and resources are available for instructional purposes including audio

visual materials, books and duplicates materials, and other resources. Audio visual media

consist of non-projected visual (chalk boards, display boards, flip charts, etc.), projected

visual (overhead projector and transparencies, filmstrips, slides, and opaque projector),

audio media (phonograph record, audiotapes and compact disc), multimedia (interactive

video, multi-image system, etc), film and video, electronic distribution system (radio,

television, etc.), computer-based instructional media (computer), and simulation and

games.

Books and duplicated materials consist of textbooks, resource materials, and

workbooks. Other resources are the classroom, the school, the community, free and

inexpensive materials (brochures, pamphlets, statistical reports, etc.), media created by

the teachers, and the classroom helpers (bulletin boards, cloth boards, posters, etc.).

2. The teaching and Learning of English as a Second language and Foreign

 Language

Judd in Kennedy (1989:39) says that when English is studied as a foreign

language. It means that English is studied as one among many foreign languages and

servers little communicative function for students once they finish the actual course.

Communicative use is limited. Translation may also be stressed. The use of English for

any purpose outside the classroom is minimal and of short duration.

Fries (1956) states that a person has learnt a foreign language when he has

mastered his first language. Foreign language learning is of ten undertaken with a variety

of different purposes. The success of failure of a course in a foreign language may be

evaluated by the progress of the students in language acquisition and cultural

understanding and in development of a positive attitude toward language learning. (Allen,

1972).

There are some factors that influence the success of foreign language learning, i.e.

motivation, language aptitude and the amount of time spent in learning ; the more a

language learners uses language to communicate, the better he becomes at

communicating. In more details, the factors that characterize the success of foreign

language learning are integrative and instrumental motivation of learners, contact with

the foreign cultures, socio economic factor, sex differences, the classroom situation,

teacher-students relationship, and the presentation of the materials.

The success foreign language learning depends on an elaborate interaction

characteristics and motivation of the learners and circumstances in which the learning

takes place. In learning English as foreign language, it is necessary to decide the

particular type of the English to be mastered. There is no single type of English that is
used in the English speaking world. On the other hand, in learning English one must

attempt to initiate exactly the forms, the structure and the utterances of the native speaker

of the particular kind of English he wishes to learn.

Concerning English as a foreign language, Allen and Valleta (1972) state that the

teacher is the key figure in the language course. The teacher sets the tone for the learning

activities, may simply encourage students’ activity and the teacher plays a prime role in

effecting students progress. All language teachers are fluent speakers of language they

are teaching. A professional language teacher continually tries to improve their

competence in the foreign language.

A teacher has an important role in the successful foreign language teaching

learning. The teacher is the one who is probable to establish the conditions and

manipulate all factors, which can facilitate and promote the learning such as the

activities, the materials, method used, etc.

The attitude of the language teacher influences the students’ success. A positive

attitude on the part of the teacher is essential to success.