r---:--:--'r c.

+
Soil Profile

Geograpily of India

It is a vertical series of soil horizons from the ground surface to the parent rock. The profile results from the same parent rock having similar horizons and soil profiles, but with varying characteristics according to their location (Fig. 6.2). India is a vast country having great variations in its terrain and climatic conditions. The geo-climatic conditions of India have affected the general distribution of soils, their texture, structurecolour, pH value, and porositv. In general, the soils of India follow the climatic and vegetation
belts.

Soil is formed under specific natural conditions and each of the elements of the natural environment contributes to this complex process described by soil scientists as the process of pedogenesis or soil formation. The soil of a place is closely influenced by the nature of parent rock, surface features of reliel climatic conditions, natural vegetation, land use praitices. organisms, insects, micro-organisms (bacteria), and time. These factors do not act on soii independently or in isolation, but in close association with each other leading to a whole networi of inter-relationships of quite a complex nature. The material for soil formation, termed by soi-l scientists as the parent material, is derived from the rocks exposed on the surface. The relief and characteristics of slope along with the work of the varioui agents of weathering, determine conditions for the disintegration of the rock materials. Thus, the original soil charJcteristics, including the chemical cclnstituents, are borrowed from the rock below. Soils may be transported bv running lt'ater, wind or other agents of erosion, or may remain in the original position. Wh"r, roi r-'mains in its original position, it is said tobe in situ, arrd in that state it is further modified by the climate, particularlv moisture supply, plant growth and bacterial activity dependent or, [her.
factors.

As a natural resource, soil is of immense value to humans. Its nature and fertility determines the agricultural productivity on which depends the carrying capacity of the soil and the level of development of the rural communities.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS OF INDIA

A number of attempts have been made to classify the soils of India during the last century. The first scientific classification of Indian soils was made by Voeleker (1893J and Leather (18g8). According to them the Indian soils may be classified into four categories, namely (i) alluvial,
(ii) regur (biack-earth), (iii) red soil, and (iv) lateritic soil. Subsequently,_on-the basis of texture, structure, colour, pH value and porosity, the All India ^ and Land Use Survey Soil Organisation attempted a classification of soifs of India in 1956. In 1957, the National Atlas and 'fhematic Mapping Organisation published a soil map of India in which Indian soils were cla'ssified into six major gr-orrpr and eleren sub-groups. in 1963, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, under the supervision of S,P. Ray ehurdh.y, published a soil map of India in w'hich the soils have been divided into seven groups. More iecently, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, on the basis of texture, struciure. colour, pH value, and porosity has identified the following types of soil groups. [Tiable 6.1 (rig. 6.J)].

5. [,ater 6. Mour
8.
10.

l.

Alluvial soils

Red: Grel'

2. Red soils 3. Regur (Black-earth) 4. Desert soils

9. Subn

soils

Snou

n:s
F lr

L":
|,=-

:E

Ei

::
iE

5. Laterite soils 6. Mountain soils

7. Red and Black soils

8. Grey and Brown soils 9. Submontane soils

10. Snowfields.

i6,6;
Table
Soil typa
1. Alluvial soil 2. Red soil 3. Black (Regur) soil 4. Desert soil 5. Laterite soil 6. Mountain soil 7. Red and Black soil 8. Grey and Brown soil 9. Submontane-soil 10. Snowfields

Geography of India

5.1

Types of soils, their Area and percentage

Area in million hectares
143.1

to Total Repofting Area

Percentage

Develope

43.36
18.49
15.09

61.0

:s mainly re( rorizon belo Their other ;arbonates i

49.8
14.6 12.2 18.2
17.8

:hosphate, n

4.42
3.70
5.51

5.40
1.09
1.73 1.21

3.6 5.7 4.0

lower pli :=igation lr-a -.nseed), por

=e re

uplands.

3. Black or

11.

Other soils

12- Tbtal reytorted area

iird largest s

31ack soils, al

;:1ii:f:"flffffi:;ffi
2. Red Soils

1. Alluviat Soils The alluvial soil covers about 143'l million sq km accounting fbr about 48.4 percent of the totaj reporting area. The alluvial soils occur rnl- ii;rI* Saiuj:Gtung, n*n__uputra plains. ^""J'r; also found in the v.areys ,f They are N";;l;, alii ,# ;;,"rn and festern coasrar (Fig' 6'2)' These soils # prains trr" a"u.i, ulJrgl,t do,n f.omtt"-ui,,utuyu, from the silt left out by the -"t;t;;;;dtom o. r"". rrr" .orou. oriiJ"ir;,"r soils ,a.res 'et,ejtinf ash grey and the texture is i.rrigrr, grey to sandy t siltyJoam. Th";; ,l"irr'*" both well ;r;i;;; and poorly areas, while in the reverei t..r'r" u,"^ These soils mav be divided i"tt th"li Khad,arsoil: The khadar soirs are low-lying, inundated by floods during tn--t'-i"y'rllson. frequentry Thus, tr," m,uJu. occupies the rivers and is enriched by flesh flood plains of the tirt i"porlt, y"u.. ii" r.rr.a*.tracts are generalry concretions' and nodules of impure rich "rr"ry in .ul.ir*.urborr"t" o, xorkor.In the drier its stretches of saline and alkaiine areas, it arso exhib_ loc_ally k;;;, as,reh,, kallar or thur, (ii) The Bhangar soil is above the flood "ino."r..r."s 1"""1.1;l; g;nerally -"il-iruirr"d but contain, 1r".."r,", (kankars) of impure calcium carbonate' Th" t;liiS"ture varies from loamy soil to crayeyJoam. drained and suited to wheat, ri.;, It is we, -;;":sugarcane, pulses, oilseeds, barseem.(fodder), fruits and rich in h"-u,, [r,o,pr,oJi";;i;,"r,,," and organic rhey are,

cent of the to rocks of Cret

\Iadhya Prad, ardJharkhan earrh soil, the The colou:

clayey texture

,1-UJ:ffiTl*:i}j:il*T,i3"*

il;ili,;,

however, defi high water ret rvide cracks rr season. When mud. In the dr
10-15 cm deep pulses, millets

4. Dese*

So

;;;;,

Red soils occupy the second largest area of about 61 million hectares or 1g.5 per cent of the totai reporting area' Thev ate founJ mainly over the p"rirrrrtu i-m Thmil in the u'J ri"dJlr"i in the east to r<u,r,i"-.a and Nadu in the south to "o'th, Kachchh in the west ffi.d[151""d These soils are also found in tracts in western Thmil Nadu, Karnataka, southern Maharashtra, Andhra pradesh, chh,3yiss1h, ji"'kh";i,

Sprawling ove total reportinS conditions and Aravallis, nortl parts ofPunjat The desert percentage of low moisture returns. The ar guar,fodder,

<

landscape of th

ar

Mirzapur, Sonbhadra

luttri r.ui.;i];;r*".a,

o.,rru,

;;;l;-l;;;tered patches in Bunderkhand, Bhilwara, uduip,r., (Rajasthan).

'c, 1

il

I I

and, carbonates and small quantity of s-oluble salts. In general, these soils are deficient in lime, phosphate, magnesia, nitrogen, humus, and potash. I.ri"rrre leaching i, a -".ra.e ,;;h"r" soils. In the uplands, they are thin, poor, gravelly, yrray, or stony urJ po.orr, light-coloured soils, but in the lower plains and valleys, th+ u." ii.h, deep, dark'.oto,ri"a f"riil"'lou*r. i, fu.", where irrigation water is available, they are devoted to wheat, cotton, pulses, tobacco, millets, oilseeds linseed), potato, and orchards.

Developed on Archaean granite, these soils are also known as the omnibus group. Their colour is mainly red becatue of the presence of ferric oxides. Generally, the top tuy?. ir'."a, while the horizon below is yellowish in colour. The texture of red soils varies f.ori ,u.rd to clay and loam. Their other characte,ristics include porous and friable structure, absence

of lime, kankar

3. Black or Regar Soils

Black soils, also known as Regur (cotton-soil) and internationally as 'tropical chernozems,, are the ihird largest soil group in India. sprawl over about 50 miliion hectares accounting for 15 per lhey cent of the total reporting area of the iountry. Getting their parent material from the weathered rocks of Cretaceous lava, they stretch or". ih" gr"ui". pu.,l, or Gujarat, Maha.ashtra, western \Iadhya Pradesh, north-western Andhra Pradesh, kurnutaku, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, andJharkhand, up to Rajmahal Hills. They are mature soils. C)ver the greater p*i, of the black earth soil, the average annual rainfall varies between 50 and 7s cm. The colour of these soils varies from deep black to light black In general, these soils have :layey texture and are rich in iron, lime, .ul.iu-, poturh,?lr.-i.riuand magneqium. They are, :lowever, deficient in nitrogen,-phosphorous and'organic matter. Moreover, these soils ha'e a rrgh water retaining capacifv. They are extremely_coripact and tenacious when wet, and develop ''''ide cracks when dry' In other words, theyswell gr"utly and become sticky when wet in rainy :eason' When the soil is wet, it becomes difncult 1, pro"gll the field as the pror.gh gets stuck in :rud' In the dry season, the moisture evaporates, the soil Jhrinks and develop, *ii" Eracks, often -rl-15 cm deep' Thesesoils are highly proiuctive, and thus well suited for the cultivation of cotton, -:u1ses, millets, linseed, castor, tolaict, sugarcane, vegetables, and citrus fruits.

---i
re total feY are

plains
t\-as or

srev

rc,

poorlr
areas

luentl-'

ol thr rich t exhib) The

rkars)
s well
.s
-v

4. Desert Soils
Sprawling over about 15 rnillion hectares, the desert soils account for over 4.42 per cent of the total reporting area of the country. These soils are developed under the arid and semi_arid conditions anJ deposited mainly !r *i"a altion They are found mainly in Rajasthan, west of the

and
are,

Aravallis, northen Gujarat, Saurashtra, Kachchh,

parts ofPunjab.

*"rt"r,

parts of Haryu.ru, u.rd the south-western

total

th

to

west
;htra, rand,

low moisture content and low water retaining capacity."If irrigated,"they give high agricultural returns' The availability of water from the Indira-Gurrdhi Curu'i has t.ansfo"r*ed ti" agricultural
guar,fodder, and less w.ater requiring crops.
landscape of the desert soils of western Rajasthan. These soils are mainly devoted to bajra,pulses,

The desert soils are sa.ndy to gravelly with low organic matter, low nitrogen and varying percentage of calcium carbonate. These soils contain hrigh p"r."rtage of solubie salts, but have

i j_.t5- Laterlte Seils

GeograPhY of India

Subm

The se si,ils r,'err: siurlied firsl b'r' tiie Britistr geographer F' Buchanan

in 1905' Their name has been i'Later'.,rhicir r*-hen wet. are as soft a' soils, rr*urlt'brick'. These ier-:r'ed iron..l li:e l-atrn rr.<.lrd l..,urrer. Du,. itecoiiir q,-rite harc{ anC r:}r,'ri,-i,v rin cir,viirg. These are ihe typical.soils of the monsool: lead to the iiirnaic 1.hich is charactei:ised bl u"orcn,ri rain{a.li. The alternating wet and dry seasons The rec leaciiilg a\,,-ai, r)f thr,: :iiir:r,cus cra.iter ci'r.he i',lcks ieading to the formation of such soils' ..lour of the si.,iis i:. due to rh,., presence r.ri iron-i;xide. These sails developed rnainl,v_ in th= those i:. highland a.reas <;[ ti:e plareau. fhe soils in the irigirei- arees are generally more acidic than ilie !,,r,.'lr irt{ i.r';'ti.. 3'7 per cent : tr,aterite soils cr;ver eE area i.rf aboni 12.2 uriilion heclares acior.lnting for about Ghar' Western of tht tctal rr:poil.'rng art:;.r of the cti:iltr'.;. The', are _found 11a,inly in the hilis Beng' Ila.sterr Chats. liajr::ahai l{ills, Sa.tpr-i,,o, \'irloihou, Crissa, Chliattisgarh,Jharkhand, West l\r:rtli Cachar l{ilis of Assatli, an,* the Garo Hil1s of Meghalava' lime ar': Th*se sE:ils are rich i*iron and aluminiilin. butpoorin nitrogen, potash, potassium, are mainThey manuring' to well respond they rrg;-nii: ;:':altsir. Althi:riuh thev he''-e laur fertilitr', <iei'oti:ci tc ;:ice. ragi. sugart:zine. arld cashelviruls'

.J

Salrr

6. Msuntaiar $eils
area Covering an area of al:cui i8.2 niillion hec:rales or about 5.5 per cent of the total reporting a- : 200 betlt'een rhe corrnir r,, these scils are i+urrd in the vailevs arxl hili slupes cf the Himalayas systematicallr -: ii()li metres. Tliesr- s*iis arr, gi:ncr::rlir imr:;;riure and are still to be prObedThese s sirrcir.li:e ;incl textr-ire, ri,l:r lr,-i-n' ii*ri: siJi-loar* to loarn. Their colour is ciark brown' car br,, clivirled illtc: iit ica-,i:}. p,,rizois , and lii) high aititude soils. the.deodar':' ' i,,odzo1s orcripv rhe niid-iaiiir:de;:ci:r: in rhe Himalayas corresponding-n'ith and Fradesh, Himachal Jarnmu '. arrri bliie-piro o,=0, r;i Assarri. Ilar.lreiing, Lliiar"akhand, "lhe,v to rn'-:' are devoted conteut. K;:shririr. th*r* s6iis ar,3 rrlirii,.-- ili chai"actei:virh low'humris

_-, :,:: ::. Peai -: :

.

--

,j'

-:L:l

:,4

i(a rt

Tir*r'-Liigll aitii::tle soils, de;:encl.irg on Lhe foresi ciitrrei', siope, anri rainfall are classifie: hroit.. eailli: i.,''ire anrl i.rri-1*am. The :ub-soii sur{ace of these soils remains frozen under s:T'heir sr;ii -1:r+r'iie is generail:.' ir:ss dc''eillped'

i'ice. icgunits. ir;cjder and *ilhards.

::
a

- -,

?. Red and Blaek Soils

'L:iltl: soii is fuutcl ir: isr:laied palches in Bundelkhand, and to the east of Arar.a'' ' -: T'}:e rr,,j ;.in.:l ' I{;iiasrhai, ,rnd ...4arar {Fig" 6.3}. Thel drlvel0ped over ttre granite, gneiss. and quartzite --'

jl.cii:,,t:.'.l..rj|=l..]{'];ii.;!,,'i.'*r:rii;d-.il.,*o"slliisarerelative1ylessproductive,1rutPerfor=
iri:;i;;.ii:r::; i-i;i:tliii'itn=. Ti,r,'1. are devi:ted trl lnaize,
L"ra.}ra,

li*{j.i

millets, pulses. and oi}seeds

S" Grey

and Erc'"1c* Soils ili:r:erl b.,' lh.e rveathtring +f g:ra-n-ire, srleiss' and quartzite.-These ai' -liijrj i,.i.--: i.r,-.ri,rr .)i ,roii-ilxidr: ihaernatite and limonite) these soiisvar-r'f:-'1,.r,',
.

fhest r<,iir h;,', r

ti.ial:ie s,-,ils.

(Fig.6.3)' la'blar:k anci brr;r,-n in c,;i1r::.'f iiese si-,ils are t'oundin Rajasthan and Gujarat

9. Submontane Soils
s

been
as

roft

nsoon to the re red

in

These soils are found is the Tarai region of the sub-montane stretching fromJammu and Kashmir to Assam in the form of a narrow belt. These soils have been formed by the deposition of the eroded material from the Shiwaliks and the Lesser Himalayas. The soil is fertile and supports luxuriant growth of forests. The clearing of forests for agricultural purposes has made this area highly susceptible to soil erosion.

the

ose in

10. Saline and Alkaline Soils

The saline soils are characterised by the presence of sodium chloride and sodium sulphate. In these soils, the saline and alkaline efflorescence appears on the surface as a iayer of rvhite salt through capillary action. These soils are known by different names in different parts of the country. They are called as reh, kallar, usa.r, rakar, thur, karl,and chopan. 'fhese soils are found in Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Maharashtra. Texturally, these soils vary from sandy to sandy-loam. They are deficient in nitrogen, calcium and have very low water bearing capacity. These soils can be reclaimed by improving drainage, by applying gypsum and/or lime and by cultivating salt resistant crops like barseem, rihainchq and other leguminous crops.

:ent oi
Ghats.
enSal.

te and

nainh'

rrea of )0 and

11. Peaty and Marshy Soils

Peatv soils originate in the areas of heavy rainfall where adequate drainage is not available. These are generally submerged during the rainy season and utilised for the cultivation of rice. These soils are rich in organic matter, highly saline, but deficient in phosphate and potash. These soils

llv. h.
e soi].
:, pine u and
maize.

mainly occur in parts of Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala and in the Sundarban delta.
They are also found in the deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, and the Rann of Kachchh.

12. Karewa Soil

Karewas are the lacustrine deposits in the Valley of Kashmir and in Bhadarwah Vblley of the Doda District of theJammu Division. These are the flat topped mounds thai border ttre Kashmir Valley on all sides. They are composed of fine silt, clay, sand, and bouldery-gravel. fhey are characterised with fossils of mamrnals and at places by peat. According to geologists, during the Pleistocene Period, ihe entire Valley of Kashmir was under water. Subsequently, due to endogenetic ibrces, the Baramullah Gorge was created and the lake was drained through this gorge. The deposits left in the process are known as karewas (Fig. 6.a). According to Middlemiss, the thickness of karewas is about 1400 m. In fact, the karervas have been elevated, dissectedand in great measure removed by subaerial denudation as well as by the Jhelum river giving them the present position. The karewas are mainly devoted to the cultivation of saffron, almond, walnut, apple and orchards. The karewas, devoted to saffron cultivation are fetching good income to the growers. The karewas of Palmpur, Pulwama, and Kulgam are well known for their production of superior quality of saffron.

ied

snolI',

al1is

i:

of the n rrell

loose ,m red
r

13. Snowfields
The area under snow'and glaciers is about 4 million hectares. The high peaks of the Greater Himalayas, Karakoram, Ladakh, and Zaskar (Zanskar) are covered by ice and glaciers. The soils

r-:--:----r
l v.*v

GeograPhY of India
f I

KASHMIR VALLEY

wind is respor 60 per cent of The main a

The areas adr', of these, water categories: (al

hich the run r''hich the rilis

ffi -l

upper Karewas
Lower Karewas

Source : AflerTarrdon 1982

Fig.

6.4

Karewas
fc,:

in these areas is immature, generally without soil erosion. Itremains frozen and is unsuitable the cultivation of crops.
PROBLEMS OF

INDIAN SOITS

problems of the Indian soils ge (i) soil erosion, (ii) declining fertility of soil, (iii) salinity and alkalinity, (iv) water-log$ng, and (v) desertification.

The forces of nature often destroy the soil cover of an area. The process of soi] destruction is the result of natural forces. Soils are however, also being damaged and destroyed by human activities, such as deforestation, over-grazing of animals and unscientific use of agricultural land. The main

(i) Soil Erosion

Soil erosion refers to the_ removal of top soil. Soil erosion is a growing menace in many parts of India. When the top soil is removed, it is known as sheet urrd *h"., the runoff makes gullies, it is known as gully erosion. In India, soil erosion ".orio.r, is a universal problem. In the areas where rainfall is heavy water is the main agent of soil erosion, while in the aiid and semi-arid areas

-,rind is responsibie for soil erosion. According to one estimate about 180 million hectare (about :,0 per cent of the total area of the country) is adversely affected by soil erosion. The main agents of soil erosion are water, wind, sea-waves, glaciers, and shifting cultivation. The areas adversely affected by the different agents of erosion have been shown in (Fig. 6.5). Out -,f these, water is the most important agent of erosion. Water erosion may be classified under three :aregories: (a) surface erosion or the uniform removal of soil from the surface, (b) Rill erosion in '.''hich the running water makes finger-shaped grooves in the land, and (c) guily formations, in '.''hich the rills are enlarged, making the land bad and unsuitable for cultivation. A typical example

84'E

92"E

100"E

- fv7.11:) t.._......._..1
1..................1

UtrY
G\
rble for

\:,la

l,:,:{

r is the
tivities,
e main

ty

and

100

rarts of

100

makes ) areas

I areas

Fig.

5.5

Soil Erosion

Soils
to rvind is responsible for soil erosion' According the country)

t';ql:":ll :1::i:t-i1:'i] :H'H; #;:;i;i1rc ;;r 'J; "r ;; ;;;;i"; *r"a''" *1"-"'i ",". '6li ff : ;:lfl H.' :? ff il 1'i::: :*i: T:' ?$;:*]; j:,g;S:?;flIj by the diff",",,t ig"",,
u

o':,-"tl'fli::r"?:,""t^1li:1::"

hectare (about

,r:::"T,T*1::i;

lto::::i""y::?, "1^"Ji'i"" w*".:1,:,'".1'Ll,::':-:1t""1,ili:.,H:; iffi:::3:?J,"'T;ill['ffi;J#;il;;;?;;" j]'Pill,!i]il]'#::l',x :l'ffi :Jl[i]#ffi;;i'ffi ffi ;"",r"'-i"",i1i1:T"*i:,": t,,g".,n"r:r.o":'"' :,ff3ff;:'fl"T#T";;;;;i", ifhich the runrung warer rrra,'er ,rrbsr ""-fi;f;;rrrr,rituut" 1,:l: r?l-d:.:::"11fl1{.:,X':l'## for cultivation. A typical example lanc
ln".t"a
ivhich the rills are enlarged, making the

fl

ffia,i"e

sz"E

1oo'E

,4,i:r"..n /.:1..:r/ r
t.'.'.1

urt! @\
^ e I|];
Glacial Erosion

:UE

Desert Erosion (Aeolian) Gully cum sheet Erosion

Erosion due to Jhuming Sheet Erosion Coastal Erosion Limit of Wind Erosion

ic.erf12 --

and

-ts0I
akes reas reas

Fig.

6.5

Soil Erosion

of lndia

g}u)' erosion is provided in the Chamb.al valley in. Madhya pradesh. Rajasthan, and Uttar of sully (nq. 0.61. Gully erosion is atso significant *:*'1":I:,,p,.,"_:,* lr.pi."i","1Tples "':'1o: in the shiwalik tracts of Punjab, Hiryaru,-Himachal rrua"irr,Su-mu and Kashmir, u-;;"rilffi: uttar Pradesh and along the southein slopes of Himalayar, uid the western and Eastern Ghats.

:f

Wind erosion
'*-estern Madhya
i+'estern

lndia. Thousands Madhya The tidal water s:iJs along the co Fradesh, Orissq a The largest arr Fradesh, Mahara ifected areas of s slopes of Shiwalil Chotanagpur Plat
Punjab.

(ii) Declining

Being utilised for

:arural fertility of :,1ten complain at are using more in6 :estifies to the diu -ce) over several
=Tected

The cultivation ol
regions.

(iii) Water-Logt
-L-n area

is said to t erne of a crop bt :ecline in the leve {part from soil ieen damaged by :,r.,:ng the Indira G -trdequate develop "*a)'in the reclam

fiv) Saline and

n"uinu. and Btuff

Chambal Flavines

Cultivated land

Fig.

6.6

Gully Erosion in ChambalValley

Sril salinity and aI =;aporation is ger ;.ads and the cana c.d alkaline efflor s::face as a layer r :icrares (2.4olo of t ::rmations.

nd Uttar
gnificant
rakhand.

Ghats.

Wind erosion is significant in the arid and semi-arid areas of Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Aestern Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. Wind erodes soil along the coastal plains of Peninsular Lrdia. Thousands of hectares of fertile lands of Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, and ^ estem Madhya Pradesh have been adversely affected by this process. The tidal waters of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal cause considerable damage to the s:ils along the coastal areas. Severe erosion of beaches along the Keraia, Tamil Nadu, Andhra kadesh, Orissa, and Gujarat coasts is the example of sea-wave erosion.
The largest area affected by soil erosion is in the state of Rajasthan, followed by Madhya hadesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. The worst affected areas of soil erosion include: (i) Chambal and Yamuna rivers (Fig. 6.6), (ii) the southern slopes of Shiwaliks, Lesser and Greater Himalayas, (iii) the Western and Eastern Ghats, (lv) the Chotanagpur Plateau, and (v) the arid and semi-arid areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, and
Punjab.

(ii) Declining Soil Fertility

Being utilised for centuries, and multiple cropping without fallowing the agricultural land, the natural fertility of soil is depleting fast. The farmers of Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh often complain about the decreasing fertility of their soils. It has been reported that the farmers are using more inputs each subsequent year to get the return to the level of the previous year. This testifies to the diminishing fertility of land. In fact, the unscientific rotation of crops (wheat and rice) over several decades has depleted the soil fertility in the Great Plains of India substantially. The cultivation of leguminous crops after a soil exhaustive crop can improve the soil fertility
affected regions.

(iii) Water-Logging
An area is said to be waterlogged when the water table rises to the extent that soil pores in the root zone of a crop become saturated, resulting in the restriction of normal circulation of the air, decline in the level of oxygen, and an increase in the level of carbon dioxide. Apart from soil erosion, there are many ill-drained, low lying areas in India where the soil has been damaged by water-logging (F.ig. 6.7). Water logging has affected substantial tracts of land along the Indira Gandhi Canal (Rajasthan) and the canals of Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh. Adequate development of drainage and lining of the canals to reduce water seepage can go a long way in the reclamation of water-logged areas.

(iv) Saline and Alkaline Soils

Soil salinity and alkaliaity are found in the relatively less rainfall recording areas where the rate of evaporation is generally higher than the rate of precipitation. They also develop in the Khadar lands and the canal irrigated areas. Under such conditions, the ground water level rises and saline and alkaline efflorescence consisting of salts of sodium, calcium, and manganese appear on the surface as a layer of white salt through capillary action. According to one estimate, about 80 lakh hectares (2.4010 of the country's reporting area) has been adversely affected by saline and alkaline

formations.