GEOG205 Intro to GIS

Lecture 2
What is a GIS?
It can stand for a number of things

G
Geographical Geographic Information System Science

I
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S
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GIS predates cellphones and originated as a system of see through sheets of data placed on top of a map. IT is often said that Peter Borough is the father of GIS. The definition of GIS can be broken down even further; it is an integrated system of geography and information. It is spatially mapped and arranged.

Components of a GIS
Every GIS is composed of 5 elements: hardware, software, data personnel to run the system and a set of institutional arrangements to support the other components. This can be simplified to a diagram like the following

Data can be either spatial or Attributes. Spatial data is where something is whilst attribute data contains details that the Spatial data doesnt, such as names, classifications and descriptions.

What Questions can it answer?

In a ski0feild environment a GIS can be useful for both staff and customers. It can locate facilities such as restrooms, hire locations, ski runs etc. Data such as wind, rain/snow fall, temperature, and snow depth can all be accessed and viewed on a map, as well as accidents and areas which maybe closed off.

What does a GIS look like?

A GIS can be on a computer, table, Cellphone or a server. It can be access through a program like ArcGIS or implemented into an online environment. Google Earth is a very simple GIS but is more considered to be a Geographic Browser.

Why Does GIS matter?

Knowing where things happen is very important when managing resources etc. Here are a few important uses: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Environmental resource management Emergency planning and routing Provision of health, education and retail services Market analysis Crime

The process on the LHS is similar to what would happen when a new Nuclear power plant is being located. Without the help of a GIS this process would take a very longtime and the GIS streamlines it all.

Specific Applications
- A Telco would use a GIS to locate terrain suitable for a new cell phone tower. - A pipeline company finds the least expensive route for a new pipe. - An electric utility models its circuits to minimize power loss and plan the placement of new devices - Police dispatcher finds the fastest route to an emergency - A firefighting team predicting the spread of a forest fire

Why is GIS so popular?

It gives a high-tech feel to geographic information. Maps are fascinating and using them in computers makes the map much richer Increasing interest in geography and geographic education GIS is an important tool in understanding and managing the environment GIS can save organizations a lot of money

GIS is often described as a geographical equivalent of a spreadsheet, it allows you to answer what if questions with spatial dimensions.

Lecture 3
When representing the real world in a GIS it varies in difficulty depending on the environment you are modeling. An area of bush, do you represent all the individual bushes? Or do you represent an area that has bush cover? What about empty areas that often occur in bush?

Towns and cities are easier to do, they often follow patterns and objects (buildings) are better documented and identified than bushes But what about an alpine environment, its all white? All geographic features can be represented by 5 different entities.

Points
It marks a spot, a tree, house, weather station Has NO spatial dimensions But it does have location and coordinates They are represented by symbols and indicate location of events (virtual or real)

Lines
Its a one dimensional feature that has only length. No width, but can be weighted It has beginning and an end represented by two coordinates Can be real (river) or virtual (administrative boundary)

Polygons
Represent an enclosed area, is a 2D shape with at least 3 sides Has a perimeter and area

Surfaces
Represents continuous features o Rainfall o Cloud cover o Soil pH o Snow density o Elevation 2D or 3D Its a continuous set of data, with potentially infinite sets of points. Each point will have a value associated with it These can be represent be either DEMs or TINs

DEM
Digital Elevation Model (or Digital Terrain Model (DTM)) It models a continuous surface and its resolution is relevant to the frequency of observations. Its raster based and for a more detailed version, it requires more observations

Originally, DEMs were used to store elevation data, but now they are used for a variety of purposes, such as: Modelling Cut + fill estimations Contour Maps you can generate contour lines for DEMs and vice versa Visibility Analysis Identification of routes susceptible to landslides or flooding Background display for other information

TIN
Triangulated Irregular Network A TIN is vector based and used to store and display surface models. It allows extra data to be gathered in areas of complex relief without too much redundant data. If there are few points, map data will look blotchy

Network
A network is a set of linear features connected at intersections and interchanges. It is used in a bunch of different things such as driving time/distance analysis and optimum routing

When modeling real world data, they often dont fit into categories of available entities. When scales change, often the entity used to display the feature will change. At 1:50 a tree could be represented as a polygon, at 1:500, a points, and at 1:20,000 the forest that tree was in could be represented as polygon again.

Lecture 4
Maps will always have a scale, which is the ratio between the distance on the map and the corresponding distance on the earth. Some common scales follow: 1:24,000 1:100,000 1:250,000 1:1,000,000

The smaller the scale (1:1,000,000) the larger the area, but the less detail the map will have. As the scale increases (1:24,000), so does the detail, but it covers less area.

Geographic Coordinate Systems

Longitudes (Meridians)
Lines of Longitude run vertically from Pole to Pole, they are all equal length and furthest apart at the poles. The prime meridian (0) is called Greenwich. The longitudinal values are measured in relation to Greenwich. They go from -180 to +180 (west to east)

Latitudes
These are at right angles to the longitudes and form concentric circles with the widest being the equator and narrower as they reach the poles. At the poles, they are represented as points. Latitudes are measured in relation to the Equator and range from -90 (South Pole) to +90 (North Pole)

To get a location of something using a GCS (Geographical Coordinate System) you measure the degrees, minutes and second (DMS) or use a decimal Degree. This method assumes the earth is a perfect sphere and it is therefore smooth and regular. A Spheroid defines the shape and size of a GCSs surface A flattening is the difference in length between two axis, expressed as a fraction or decimal: f = (a-b)/a Depending on your location, the flattenings will be different.

Projected Coordinate System

A projected coordinate system is defined on a flat, 2D surface. A map projection uses mathematical formulas to relate spherical coordinates (from the globe) to flat, planar coordinates. There are a large number of map projections and three major types exist. But by projecting the spherical earth onto a flat surface, there are distortions and each project will account for these in different ways.

Cylindrical Projections

Provides a continuous picture of the earth with all angles preserved. It is used for nautical navigation. The most common cylindrical project is the Mercator projection. This is used by google maps and it severely distorts the areal scale. The linear scale is also incorrect. Chch to the Falkland Islands is ~12200km on Google Maps but in reality, its ~8300km

Azimuthal Projections

Only half of the earth is visible and distortion will occur at all four edges, but distance, for the most part, will be preserved.

Conic Projections

Are is distorted, but the scale is mainly preserved. This projection is rarely used.

In ArcGIS, data will be projected on the fly as you add it.

Lecture 5
Where do you get GIS Data?
Satellites o Take photos of the earth, not only in the visible spectrum. Infra-red is used to see information about vegetation. There are many satellites and different orbit patterns. o Active Satellites bounce radio waves or lasers off the earth surface and record the time taken to return (LIDAR) o Passive Satellites just take photos. o Advantages of using Satellites to collect data is Images always in digital form Different wavebands Captures large areas o Disadvantages: Lots of rubbish High volume Expensive. VGI Volunteered Geographic Information o Reviews o Locations o Photos Census and survey Data o Field surveys where surveyors go door to door or collect data from the street. NZ health Survey, NZ Crime and Safety Survey o Government Statistics Collected by the Government as part of required activities (Census). Statistics NZ, NZ Police, Immigration o Government Administrative Records Tax records, auto registrations, property taxes Aerial Photos

These are low cost and can cover vast areas. They are often high resolution and can be taken anywhere. However, they arent referenced so require geo referencing to associate it with points on the earth. Field Data o Surveying Locations of objects determined by angles and distances from known locations Uses expensive field equipment Uncommon to survey large areas. o GPS Collection of satellites used to locate you on the earths surface using trigonometry. Before May 2000, there was selected availability (Originally a US Army Tech.) to 100m accuracy.

Getting GIS data is very expensive, there is a lot of hours required to collect it and the equipment can be very expensive. There are two types of sources; Primary (direct measurement) You actively go and get the data, research groups, NIWA o A Ski pass. Every time you use it, your data is collected; Time, Demographic info, Frequency Secondary (indirect derivation) Someone else has collected the data and supplies it to you o Land Information NZ (LINZ). They provide a lot of secondary data for NZ

There are three modes of data sources, Temporal, Thematic (Vector/Raster) and Spatial. E.g.: Temporal 1530hrs, 14feburary 2002 Thematic wet slab avalanche triggered by two off slope skiers Spatial Mt Hutt, south facing slope

Key Issues
If you get given rubbish data, the results will be rubbish. Making sure the data is actually available Finding data Data requirements Metadata data about data, all the information regarding who got it, where, how etc.

What do you need to know about your data?

What is the age of the data? Where did it come from? In what medium was it originally produced? What is the areal coverage of the data? To what map scale was the data digitised? What projection, coordinate system, and datum were used in maps? What was the density of observations used for its compilation? How accurate are positional and attribute features? Does the data seem logical and consistent? Do cartographic representations look clean? Is the data relevant to the project at hand?

In what format is the data kept? How was the data checked? Why was the data compiled? What is the reliability of the provider?

There is a triangular relation between speed, Quality and Price when collecting data

Data Input
The process of converting Data from its existing form to one that can be used by the GIS Keyboard entry o From locations recorded on a map o Optical Character Recognition (OCR) can be used, but often is inaccurate. Manual digitizing o Uses a big board connected to a computer which you place a map on and use a mouse to record data points. o Paper maps are unstable, they can rip, warp, deform Automatic digitizing o Uses a scanner to trace lines and automatically convert the rater into a vector. These can be inaccurate and the output quality/resolution often lack. o Older building plans, CAD drawings and property Deeds are scanned to reduce wear and tear and to enable easier access and indexing o Film and paper maps and aerial photos are scanned and Georeference to provide context Electronic data Transfer o You scan it, Georeference it, then draw and trace features. o You can scaling it so it fits Georectifying o Georectifiy scaling so it fits correctly o When the overlaid imagine is in place, you draw the features and these are placed on the underlying map.

A lot of GIS data is free, but it is also sold as a commodity

Lecture 6
Surveying
Surveying is the process of taking measurements and performing calculations to define the shape of the given landscape, feature or structure. Taking field measurements to digitize the environment You often have to balance tradeoffs when surveying, to get a higher resolution, you will take longer and the job will cost more. Some areas are very difficult and dangerous to reach. You also need to balance productivity and accuracy. Physicals conditions can also effected the data collection (visibility, wind etc.)

Field Data Capture

To successfully capture the correct data you need to have clear goals before beginning. You need to know: o The accuracy, +/- X o Resolution how often measurements are taken o The extent of the spatial and temporal collection o Its important to understand the different people require different levels of accuracy o Areas you are surveying can be hazardous, so correctly identify hazards and risks before going into the field will help increase productivity

Absolute vs. Relative Accuracy

Absolute Accuracy in relation to an established coordinate system (NZTM), time consuming and difficult to get good accuracy Relative Accuracy in relation to a local reference (BM), easy to get accuracy better than 5cm and can use a low accuracy benchmark and still have good accuracy

Benchmarks
These are a physical reference point, which are easily located, often in areas of high (relative) elevation for easy surveying. Must be stable and durable. These are vital to monitor change and to establish an absolute position. They are ideally surveyed and publicly listed (LINZ). Two BMs closed together can help the accuracy of transects.

Maximizing Data Quality

Reduce sampling (resolution) where the slope is uniform and increase it when the slope is variable. Keep in the back of your mind, how this will look on a computer. Safety should never be compromised, and in areas that you cant reach, uses non-contact methods

Geography Application

GPS Global Positioning System

GPS uses 32 Satellites orbiting the earth to accurately give you your position on the earths surface to (with the right equipment) 0.01m. A GPS unit does this by timing how long signals take to be received from the satellites. The satellites all have very accurate atomic clocks and are in sync. Once the GPS unit has received these time signatures, it uses trilateration to give a 2D fix (3+ satellites) or a 3D fix (4+ satellites). The more satellites that the GPS unit can connect to, the more accurate the location will be. GPS was originally developed by the US military and civilian use was limited to an accuracy of 100m (selective availability). However, a process known as differential correction could give results with

greater accuracy. Selective availability was turned off. Over the years it has been progressively upgraded to produce faster data rates and more power. There are other systems similar to GPS, Glonass (Russian), Galileo (EU) and Compass (China)

Errors
Like all technology, GPS can have errors Obstruction, due to buildings, plants and landform features. The GPS signal is physically blocked from reaching the receiver Multipath Incorrect GPS signals are refracted off features and give in accurate readings. Very common when operating under tree cover. Satellite Geometry when the satellites are close together results in a poor PDOP (Position Dilution of Precision) Atmospheric conditions cloud cover etc., can reduce the changes of picking up a GPS signal

Almanac
The Almanac contains the Navigational paths of all 32 satellites in orbit. It helps speed up getting a location fix as the GPS unit knows where to look for signals. It can also be used to plan for projects that require high accuracy.

Ephemeris
The Exact location of the Satellite, used to establish a GPS position

Accuracy
GPS is 2-5x worse at giving your vertical position in comparison to your horizontal position. Post-Processed Differential Correction Uses a fixed base station with the location known in relation to GPS and a fixed benchmark. The rover then talks to the base station and GPS to get an accurate position.

Flavors

Total Station

SfM Structure from Motion

This is a computer modeling technique that reconstructs 3D geometry from a series of 2D images taken while moving around the feature. It uses feature recognition (thousands of points) and aligns like points between images. It then uses algorithms to determine the location of the camera in relation to the points. When a basic geometry is established, more feature points are added. SfM take a long time to produce. Capturing the data can take around an hour (using quad copters etc.) but combining 37 photos can take upwards of 9 hours, using a computer with 8cpus and 128 GB of ram.

Lecture 7/8
Cartography
Cartography is the art, science and technology of map making, map use and the study of maths. It is an artistic rendition and is often mistaken for an old version of GIS. All maps are graphical representations of data and their spatial relations. Maps are concerned with where and what, location and data, spatial distributions and attributes. The data doesnt have to be replicated in typical form, it is spatialised Cartography is all of the following Maps Grounded diagram

Set of complex graphics Spatial means of representing the world Symbolism of reality A filter on the world A model of the world A mass medium Lies An ancient discipline combining art and science.

Cartography has a long history, maps have been produced and used for a very long time, the oldest being Eastern Chinese maps dating back to 4000bc This said, only certain ancient cultures used maps. The earliest world map was made by the Babylons. Abel Tasman was the first to map New Zealand Maps are used by everyone, from the general public, to politicians and scientists, but each group of people need maps designed to convey information in a way that they can understand.

Why make maps?

Navigation Territory Geological Change Demographic Changes Spatial Relations

Maps serve three basic functions, aside from providing a convenient means of storing spatial data; 1. Navigation 2. Visualization 3. Measurement

Types of Maps
Political Map shows administrative boundaries Physical map a reference tool, showing outlines of selected natural and human made feature on earth Topographical Map shows elevation variance using contours and shading Cognitive map use to show perceptions of space and place Thematic map communicates geographical concepts such as population, climate, land use etc. o These address spatial structure rather than the existence of location of geographical phenomena. o There are a number of thematic maps: Choropleth Data collected for areal units Commonly used to map census data Group the observations into a set of classes based on their data The classes are shaded appropriately A variation is the cartogram differs from traditional maps as they use a variable other than area to derive the size of areal units on the map.

Proportional Symbols The size of the symbol relates to magnitude of the variables value Isoline Represent continuous surfaces using isolines (isobars) Used to show temperatures, barometric pressures, rainfall, sea level depth (Dot) (Dasymetric)

Maps are limited to what they can show. Maps can lie and misrepresent data. They only represent a signal occurrence of a spatial process. Maps are created using complex rules and symbology and can be difficult to understand to an untrained viewer.

Why Design Maps

The tradition view is focused on map making and implicitly assumed that if you know how to make a map then you know how to use a map. However, this isnt often the case. Map makes rarely collect data these days. Therefore, maps need to be carefully thought about.

Goals of map design

The main goal is to communicate your message regarding the data you have. This needs to be done with: clarity (conceptually and visually) Oder Balance body of the map is the largest component

Visual contrast Unity and harmony (pleasing to look at) Visual hierarchy

Important aspects need to be made to look important, but you dont need to show everything. Maximum information at minimum cost

Checklist
1. Fill the page with your map and balance the elements

2. Make sure the color ramp is clear and intuitive 3. Make sure the colors used follow general connotations (blue is water, green vegetation etc.) and make sure the colors are suitable for the audience (some cultures associated colors differently) 4. Make sure map elements are clear and visible

Cartography and GIS

GIS output is frequently in the form of a map, which are used to communicate ideas. Maps are not reality. Theyre just technical and artist documents

Web Cartography
Allows for quick updates and have a greater ability to control the map. However, cant always be sure of the datas authenticity. Accessibility can also be an issue.

Lecture 9
Remote Sensing
Remote sensing is the science and art of obtaining information about an object, area or phenomenon through the analysis of data acquired by a device that is not in contact with the object, area or phenomenon under investigation Remote sensing captures electromagnetic radiation and converts it into data that we can understand. Everything on the Earths surface emits some type of electromagnetic radiation.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

By capture data in different frequencies we get a view of different elements of the data. False color images are when the colors have been altered to something visible.

Energy Laws
The Stephan-Boltzmann theory states that emitted energy increases with the forth power of surface temperature Wiens Law states that the higher the surface temperature, the shorter the wavelength of emission maximum.

There are two types of satellite sensors, passive and active. Passive sensors only receive electromagnetic signals whilst active sensors send and then recorded the returned data.

Atmospheric Energy Interactions

All insolation (INcoming; SOLsolar; radiATION) passes through some distance, or path length, of atmosphere. As it passes through the atmosphere, it is scattered (Rayleigh Scatter). The Sky is blue because blue light is scattered.

Atmospheric absorption results in the effective loss of energy to atmospheric constituents. The most effective absorbers of solar radiation are CO2 Ozone and Water vapor

Earth Energy Interactions

Radiation that is not absorbed or scattered by the atmosphere can reach and interact with the earths surface. There are 3 ways that this takes place 1. Absorption

2. Transmission 3. Reflection this is the important one, Remote sensing satellites pick this radiation up When the surface is smooth, radiation is reflected uniformly and accurately, much like a mirror. When the surface is rough, the radiation is diffused and we get scattered reflection.

Spectral Response
Different objects reflect different wavelengths, not only in the visible spectrum but also ultra violet and infrared. By comparing the response patterns over many wavelengths we may be able to distinguish different features opposed to if we were only looking at a single wavelength.

Image Characteristics
In Remote Sensing, a photograph is an image that has been captured over its specific wavelength and recorded on film. All photographs are images, but not all images are photographs. Images are composed of pixels, where each square contains brightness values. The resolution of an image is how many pixels there are in the image. An image histogram graphs how many pixels of a certain brightness value there are in an image. When a Remote Sensing device captures data, it is captured in bands (of wavelengths). The bands can be combined in different ways to produce an image highlighting certain aspects.

Spatial resolution
It is a measure of the smallest area identifiable on an image

Spectral Resolution
The number of bands that are detected across the spectrum

Temporal Resolution
Refers to the number of measurements with respect to time (repeat sensing across the same area)

Radiometric Resolution
The number of digital levels used to express the data collected by the sensor. It is commonly expressed as the number of bits (binary digits) that are needed to store the maximum level. Also the measure of a sensors ability to discriminate small differences of magnitude or radiation within the ground area that corresponds to a single pixel.

Ideal RS System
1. A uniform energy source providing energy over all wavelengths at a constant, known output 2. A non-interfering atmosphere would interfere or modify the energy coming from the source 3. A series of unique energy-matter interactions at the earths surface these interaction would generate wavelengths that are known and unique when compared to every other feature. 4. A super sensor one that is sensitive to all wavelengths. It would be simple, reliable and require little power and be accurate and economic to operate. 5. A real-time processing and supply system A computer would receive the information and process it, geometrically and radiometrically correct it and supply it in an interpretable format.

6. Multiple data users have in depth knowledge of the respective disciplines and of remote sensing data acquisition and analysis techniques.

In reality
1. Energy source the sun is not uniform, and emitted energy levels can vary with time and location. Different earth materials emit energy with varying degrees of efficiency. 2. Atmosphere restricts what when can spectrally view, and it varies with wavelength, time and place. 3. Energy-matter interactions at the earths surface the spectral world is full of ambiguity. Different materials can have very similar spectral similarity making it difficult to distinguish between the materials. 4. The sensor No single sensor is sensitive to all wavelengths. They all have a fixed spectral sensitivity, which limits the wavelengths they can detect. They also have a limit on how small an object on earth can be seen (spatial resolution). There is also a tradeoff, photographic systems have great spatial resolution but poor broad spectrum sensitivity. Whilst nonphotographic systems have great spectrum sensitivity but poor resolution 5. Data processing and supply can be arduous, often taking a long time to interoperate the data. Needs reference data and experience to do so effectively. 6. Multiple data users no single application of data acquisition and analysis procedure will satisfy the needs of all data users.

Lecture 10
Image processing
A (digital) image is a collection of pixels with numbers representing them. The values on a pixel range from 0-255 Image processing can be categorized into four different categories:

Preprocessing
Radiometric corrections Correct for sensor irregularities, such as sensor noise and atmosphere noise Geometric corrections Correct for sensor/earth variation and convert data to latitude/longitude

Image enhancement
Contrast stretching Usually the first, and often a vital step when enhancing an image. It improves the visual quality and contrast of an image The key to understanding how contrast stretching works is to understand the concept of an image histogram. There are a number of different contrast stretching methods: Linear Takes a range of values and re distributes then between 0 and 255 Histogram-equalized stretch A uniform distribution of the input range of values across the full range may not always be an appropriate enhancement, particularly if the input range is not uniformly distributed

To contrast stretch a histogram you apply this formula: A = lowest brightness value b = highest brightness value c = smallest value in picture d = largest value in picture

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Density Slicing This is based on combining different values within a specified range or interval into a single value. It works best on single band images and it is especially useful when a given surface feature has a unique and narrow set of values Suppose the range of the predominant DNs is 30 to 150; every 5 successive DNs are combined into a single value; this produces 150 - 30 = 120 divided by 5 = 24 single value increments. All other DNs can be assigned another level, usually black. This yields a simple map of the distribution of the combined DNs. The new sets of slices are commonly assigned different colours in a photo or display.

Spatial filtering Filters are used to either smooth the image (suppress high frequencies) or enhancing/edge detection (suppress low frequencies). Filters pass over each pixel in an image and the values are replaced by values calculated from the surrounding pixels. It is important to know what the kernel size (area around the pixel in question) is, as this will determine the analysis result. Filter (kernel) sizes are usually 3x3 but it is not uncommon for them to be larger (generally odd numbers). There are a number of different filter types: Low-pass o Designed to emphasize larger homogenous areas of similar tones in an image. It also reduces the smaller details in the image. The image is smoother after a low=pass filter is applied. o Average and median filters are examples of low-pass filters high-pass o Do the opposite of low-pass filters and sharpen the appearance of fine detail. o Run a low-pass filter then subtract that off the original image to give a high-pass filtered image edge enhancers/detectors o Used to highlight linear features such as roads or field boundaries. Can also be designed to highlight features moving in a specified direction. Mean filter, used to reduce noise in an image, Low-Pass o Has 3x3 filter and the central box is the average of all the cells surrounding it. Mode filter o Replaces the central cell with the most common value in the surrounding filter. o Be careful, because it can greatly alter the original data. o It removes patches of one or a few pixels. Laplacian filter, uses derivatives to find areas of greatest change, High-pass

Convolution o Its a way of multiplying two arrays of numbers of different sizes but same dimensionality to produce a third array of numbers with the same dimensionality. o The process is performed by sliding the kernel over the image, starting at the top left corner. o The kernel is moved through all positions where it fits entirely (although there are implementations that differ in how they deal with edges) o The value is calculated by multiplying together the kernel value and the underlying image pixel value for each cell in the kernel and then adding all their numbers together. And many more.

The benefits of a spatial filter is that they can be applied to any image, to clarify it and reduce data without losing information. Can also be used to detect edges.

NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index

NDVI is used to assess the amount of vegetation there is in an area. It uses information from the red (RED) and near-infrared (NIR) spectrums. ( ( ) )

NDVI can be effected by atmospheric conditions, clouds, soils, anisotropic (directionally dependent) effects and spectral effects.

Image transformation Image classification and analysis

Lecture 11
Multispectral Scanning
Many sensors can only gather information from a narrow wavelength range. You can combine sensors into a scanning system which can pick up multiple wavelengths, this is called a MultiSpectral Scanner (MSS) and is the most commonly used scanning system. There are two ways MSS work Across-track scanners, these scan the earth in a series of lines Along track scanners, (push broom) these use the forward motion of the satellite to scan long swaths of the earth. Each sensor has longer to collect data this way

There are a large amount of MSS sensors NOAA-AVHRR (1100m ground resolution) GOES (700 m) Geostationary Operation Environmental Satellites MODIS (250, 500, 1000 m) SPOT (10 20 m) Been around for a long time, and has a long term reference history of geo spatial data IKONOS (4, 1 m .. ms vs. pan) commercial based satellite Quickbird(0.6 m) Landsat TM and ETM (30 60 m)

Was designed as an experiment to test the feasibility of collecting multispectral data from an unmanned satellite above earth. It was successful due to its combination of sensors with bands tailored to suit Earth observation, functional spatial resolution and good areal coverage. There have been 8 versions of Landsat so far

The satellites follow different orbits depending on their uses: Polar orbit orbit from north pole to south pole Geostationary orbit stay in a fixed point above the earths surface. Sun Synchronous, crosses the equator at the same time everyday

Classification
Humans use visual interpretation to classify features and patterns in an image. However, using digital image classification is difficult. Each pixel in the image needs to be assign to water land forest etc. The result of this is a classified image comprised of a mosaic of pixels where each belongs to a particular theme. It is essentially a map of the original map.

Information Classes
Categories of interest that the analyst is trying to identify in the image. Like different vegetation types of different geologic units.

Spectral Classes
Groups of pixels that are uniform (or similar) with respect to brightness values.

Supervised Classification
The analyst first decides what categories/classes to look for They then identify areas in the image that a representative samples of the surface cover types of interest. Reverses the process of supervised classification. The computer groups spectral classes and these are the matched by the analyst.

Unsupervised Classification
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Lecture 12
CAD Computer Aided Design
Earliest form of GIS, developed for architecture and planning Entities are represent by points, lines and polygons It was never all that popular because it doesnt use real world coordinates and Individual objects do not have unique Identifiers, making it difficult to apply attribute. CADs cannot store and information regarding relationships between objects, making it difficult for spatial analysis operation

Raster Data Model

The raster data model represents features as a matrix of cells in a continuous space with each layer representing one attribute (although other attributes can be attached to a cell) Most analysis occurs by using map algebra on the cells and producing a new layer set.

The size of each cell in the layer will affect the final result of any analysis (and how it looks) The cell size should be the minimum mapping unit and based on the original map scale. By using a smaller cell size than the original, you arent increasing the amount of data. The map will be bigger (storage space) and take longer to process. Using a cell size too large, will result in loss of information. Cell value - each cell has a value which represents the characteristic of a spatial phenomenon at the location. The value can be an int or a float. Cell size This determines the resolution of the model. Raster bands Can have a single or multiple band Spatial reference Raster data must have the spatial reference information so that they can align spatially with other data sets in a GIS Satellite imagery Digital elevation Models (DEMs)/Digital Terrain Models (DTMs) Digital Orthophotos(DOQ) Bi-Level Scanned Files Digital Raster Graphics (DRGs) Graphic Files GIS Software-Specific Raster Data Advantages o Data structure is simple o Overlaying on DEMs etc. is simple. Disadvantages o You cannot tell the location of a feature within a cell and the number of features within a cell o Use of large cells to reduce data volume causes small areas to be misrepresented or lost o Raster maps were less acceptable o It is difficult to change the projection o The smaller the cell size means large arrays and therefore more storage space required.

Elements of the raster model

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Types of raster data

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Advantages/Disadvantages

Vector Data Model

It is used in GIS because of its precise nature, storage efficiency, cartographic output and its ability of functional tools for operations such as map projections Used primarily for discrete data such as roads, train tracks and representation of human features. Elements in a vector model are represented by Points (x,y coordinate) Lines (series of points joined by straight lines) and Polygons (series of points connected by lines to form a closed shape).

Topology
Topology is the science and mathematics of relationships used to validate the geometry of vector entities, and for operations such as network tracing and tests of polygon adjacency.

Data is stored as a sequence of coordinates and areas a built by connecting these coordinates as a series of arcs. Advantages of this is that only one version of a boundary is required to be stored as the computer has relational data for each side of the separation. Points in topology are stored as a single point with coordinates and any data/relationships relating to it. Simple lines carry no inherent spatial information about connectivity, you only need topology if the line is part of a network, area or surface feature.

Spaghetti Data Model

Vector data composed of simple lines with no topology and usually no attributes. Spaghetti lines may cross, but no intersections are created at those crossings. These are simple and easy to manage, but have a lot of duplication so require large storage space. The neighborhood problem Lines give the appearance of a network but the spaghetti data model provides no information of any connections/interactions. The same happens with polygons, they may seem connected and adding identifiers does not solve the problems. You need a set of instructions that inform the computer where the separate elements are in relation to their neighbors. The island or hole problem This arises when polygons are nested or in a hierarchy

The Computer can easily recreate the image, but there is no reference to the clay surrounded by the loam being the same as the clay surrounding the loam. The coordinates surrounding the boundaries are also stored twice. Spaghetti vs. Topology Spaghetti data model contains no structured relationships and geographical feature data is stored without relationships or structure. Topology data is stored in such a way that that relationships between features can be queried or analyzed.

Network Data Model

Used to model the flow of goods and services There are two types of networks, Radial (networks flow upstream or downstream) and Looped (selfintersections are common occurrences) A network is modeled using nodes and weighted arcs (lines). Network topographical relationships define rules about how flows can move through a network.

There are many uses for Network Data Models: Direct path analysis Optimum routing Closest facility analysis Drive time analysis Driving directions

TIN (Triangular Irregular Network) Data Model

A TIN is a topological data structure that manages information about the nodes comprising each triangle and the neighbors of each triangle. Each triangle has associated values stored in a referenced table.

Advantages/Disadvantages
There is good spatial representation and has compact data structure. Because of the math behind it, vectors produce accurate graphics and updating/editing is easy. However the data structure is complex and doesnt play well with digital images. Overlaying two data models can be difficult and plotting this data can be expensive and time consuming.

Lecture 13
What is a raster?
A raster is a cell that contains a single GIS or remote sensing data value. A single raster makes up a larger raster data model. It is obtained from Satellite and Air imagery as well as scanned maps. In raster models attributes are assigned to each pixel, the bigger the pixel, the lower the resolution and the more generalization occurs. The pixel (or cell) can be any size (cm2 m2 etc.) and it contains one feature. There are 4 steps to creating a raster: 1. 2. 3. 4. Start with a map Overlay a regular grid onto the map Code each cell with unique number based on map features There are a few ways to do this, use the average, what is at the center of the cell, or what is at the grid node (where grid lines intersect) 5. Resultant raster has cells with unique value. A raster layer has some very important characteristics: Location, specified by XY coordinates Cell minimum mapping unit Resolution size of cells Region groups of adjacent cells of the same value.

Why use raster data?

It is has a simple data structure It is better suited for spatially continuous data (elevations, pH, air pressure, temperature, salinity etc.)

Better for creating visualizations and modelling environmental phenomena Easy analysis of large datasets

Raster GIS
A GIS that uses raster data must be able to: Have data input Run operations on layers Output data

ArcGIS Spatial Analyst add-on is specifically for raster data. There are also a number of different programs such as Taiga and ENVI which also use rasters

Operations
Operations that are run on raster layers are categorized as the following: Local On a single layer, you can reclassify the raster assigning new values based on a specified criteria. Example is forestry is given value of 10, reclassify everything else to 0 and forestry to 1, easier to work with. On multiple layers, you can overlay each layer the add/subtract/multiply/divide/etc. to create a new layer Compute new attribute of cells within a spatial neighborhood using interpolation, spatial filtering and view sheds. Sometimes referred to as neighborhood statistics

Focal -

Zonal - Calculates the characteristics of the geometry of zones within a grid. - Perimeter, area Global Boolean

These all depend on the extent to which the function is dependent on one or more cells of each layer

Lecture 14
Raster Analysis
Proximity
Proximity analysis is used to work out how far one feature is from another. It can answer questions such as: How close is this well to a landfill? What is the distance between two locations? Do any roads pass within 1km of a stream? What is the nearest or farthest feature from something?

Some of the proximity raster function in ArcGIS are: Euclidean Allocation - Allocates each cell a value based on its nearest target cell

Euclidean Direction

Euclidean Distance

Overlays
Raster overlays are fundamental GIS operations and it distinguishes a GIS from CAD and DBMS Visual overlays are used to produce maps and other visual presentation, hence general graphic and cartographic criteria must be applied to achieve a clear, well balanced outcome. Overlays that produce a new data outcome are more complex and require a range of spatial operations that depend upon the data structure and methodological design used in the analysis. A raster overlay is simpler than vector overlays and it uses a concept called map algebra. You use the coarsest cell size in the equation and it is very fast and efficient.

Map Algebra
You can directly add, subtract, divide, multiply, exponentiation, max, min cell attributes. You can also add weights to different layers depending on their importance

There are two main difficulties when it comes to performing map algebra on raster layers. 1. Resolution you will always use the coarser resolution 2. Scales of measurement - Nominal have no numerical meaning e.g. soil types - Ordinal data is ordered rather than has independent values - Interval no real zero, intervals between ints are equal e.g. temperature - Ratio real zero, negative possible, intervals equal It is important that you are aware of the scale of measurement before you do any map algebra otherwise your output is garbage.

Lecture 15

The bottom two are the best example of a vector view and a raster view. You cannot do networking on a raster layer. A vector file is made up of three components: Shape file (.shp) Index (.shx) Database file (.dbf)

Topology
Topology expresses the spatial relationships between features and lets you know where everything is in relation to everything else. There are 3 basic topological relationships: Connectivity describes connections between lines Containment describes features contained within one and other Contiguity describes proximity

Without topology you dont have any spatial analysis

Spatial analysis
Spatial analysis is the transformations, manipulations and methods that can be applied to geographical data. It adds value to the data, helps to support decision making and reveals patterns and anomalies not apparent otherwise. This is the crux of GIS, adding value to geographical data and turning that data into useful information. There is a multitude of spatial analysis methods: Spatial interpolation Geographically weighted regression Network analysis Hot spot analysis Geodemographic analysis GIS queries Measurements Point pattern analysis Distance analysis Spatial autocorrelation Geostatistics

1. GIS queries in vector

These are the simplest operational capabilities of GIS. You can use a spatial query to gather data by working with map features, such as selection with the cursor or using connectivity, containment or contiguity queries. You can also select features based on their attribute data. These can be used to create subsets of the data or chloropleth maps

2. GIS measurements in Vector

GIS employees a number of algorithm to calculate area, distance and volume, that would be difficult and tedious when using a standard map Distance and length measuring the distance between lines in space Shape particularly area objects Slope and aspect input to many models (soil erosion and storm run-off)

Uses Pythagoras Theorem a2+b2 = c2

Lecture 16
Vector Analysis

Buffering
Based on the concept of proximity, it separates the map into two areas, those within the specified distance of the selected features and those not within the specified distance. The features can be points, lines or polygons.

Buffers show a sphere of influence over a geographic object as well as showing a zone of protection keeping undesirable geographic elements away from objects. Buffers can be used to show many different things: 1. Displaying the area where state or government regulations prohibit development. 2. Displaying the area that is influenced by a proposed or existing shopping mall. 3. Displaying a buffer around a school, which will act as an area where no alcohol stores can be built. 4. Designating areas that would be affected if a toxic plume were released from a neighbouring refinery. 5. Megans Law

Vector Overlay
Layers can be combined to produce new layer through geometric intersections. When the layers have been combined, the output will contain all the spatial data and attribute data from the input layers.

One of the important ideas to understand behind vector overlays is Boolean operators

Sliver polygons can occur when overlaying vector data. These are formed by small differences in the way that identical lines have been drawn.

There are a number of map manipulation tools available: Clip extracts input features that overlay the clip features

Eliminate Split clips portions of the input coverage into multiple coverages

Dissolve Aggregates features based on specified attributes

Merge combines input features from multiple input sources (of the same data type) into a single, new, output feature class. They can be points, lines, polygon feature classes or tables.

Networks
Networks can be used to show transportation or utilities. There are a number of other applications: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Shortest path Closest facility Traveling salesman Allocation Location-allocation Routing emergency response vehicles Optimizing school bus networking Tracing pollution upstream New retail locations

It is important to remember that a grad of lines is not a network.

Lecture 17
Topography Representation of the Earths Surface Topology Rules and behaviors of how points lines and polygons behave Terrain can be modeled in two different ways: DEM Digital Elevation Model - Represents the topography of the earth or another surface by drawing a virtual landscape. It is fundamentally a raster layer in which each cell value represents and elevation. - It is arguably the MOST VALUABLE base layer for environmental research/management - You can do a lot with a DEM

- Derive key topographic attributes (slope aspect, hillshade) - Topoclimate analysis - Hydrological analysis - Soil mapping/analysis - Erosion hazard mapping - Habitat/Ecological studies There are a number of ways to collect DEM data

SRTM Shuttle Radar Topographical Mapping LIDAR LIght Detection And Ranging very precise and can see through vegetation Contour lines can be transformed into DEM but it is difficult and often inaccurate. The reverse however, is very easy to do. Hillshading - a technique for producing shaded relief maps. These simulate the effect of a light source and create shadows cause a 3D appearance. - The are two factors that can alter the appearance of a hill shade, the azimuth (direction of incoming light) and altitude (angle above the horizon) of the sun Viewshed Analysis calculates the area visible from a certain point. - The output is a raster should visible and non-visible areas.

Vegetation or buildings may not be taken into account when performing a viewshed analysis. You also need to be aware of haze and weather that may affect the view as well as, over long distances, the curve of the earth.

TIN Triangular Irregular Network

Lecture 18
GIS applications in health: It can be used to model obesity trends, the percentage of people obese, and this can be visualized over time The World Health Organization can use it to help understand trends is disease spread 90% of health data has a spatial or geographic component. This is evident in John Snows cholera map that shows clusters of cholera deaths located around one well. Health data is often sensitive and private. GIS can remove all identify data but still provided detailed results. GIS can assist with planning for new medical services It can identify places that are in need of services before its too late IT is important to remember that if you have crap data, you will get crap results.

Lecture 19
GIS applications in crime use socioeconomic data to draw information from. Socioeconomic data is population related and is taken from individual members and then collated. Much of NZs socioeconomic data can be drawn from census data which is updated once every 5 years. It has a margin of error of 1%, so in the scheme of things, it is quite accurate. To make it easier to understand NZ census data, NZ was divided into a number of different areas: 20 regional councils 74 territorial authorities 1860 area units 38365 meshblocks if there are a smaller number of the same answers in a meshblock, then the data is excluded as it would be too easy to identify individuals.

There are a number of ways socioeconomic data can use GIS: Emergency services Businesses site and delivery systems Industry transportation, communication. mining, pipelines Government urban planning, local administration Education research, teaching, administration Health and health care

What can GIS offer crime analysis? Establish any patterns in crime distribution Analyze relations between demography, housing, social and physical conditions and crime Evaluate the impact of crime prevention programs Effective aid in the planning of police operations against crime Broken window theory come down hard on minor, stops people going into major crimes.

Geographic profiling
An investigative technique used to determine the most likely location of a criminals residence based upon the geographic location of crime sites It is based on the principles of: Routine activity Distance decay Least effort principle Rational choice

Megans Law
Sex offenders must be X kms away from parks, schools etc.

Lecture 20
A lot of different businesses use GIS Insurance Media Banking Retail Real Estate Marketing

And these businesses all have different requirements from a GIS Mapping Analysis Decision support Visualization Data dissemination

TO successfully implement a GIS that serves the needs of the business there are 5 steps that need to be taken Initial awareness - Understanding what the company already has - CEOs dont implement GIS, they are disconnected and dont know exactly how it works, they need to be shown. - The data that is had may not be in standard form The business case - You can send request off to vendors to see what their product(s) can do for you Scan the external environment. This can be done by attending conferences or workshops, or by sending a Request for Information (RFI) - The vendors need to show what their systems are capable of, what support they have, pricing, and what software/hardware is required. - It is also good to be shown how the product has been successful in the past at saving companies money. - An internal investigation can also be undertaken. - User needs analysis determine if GIS is necessary by speaking to people and asking what they want from a piece of software. People are resistant

to change. You can use grid charts or data flow diagrams to get points across - Cost/benefit analysis - Costs - Procurement costs - Costs of working group, travel, interviews, consultants - Start-up costs - Hardware, software, modification to buildings, network costs - Data conversion costs - Creation of database - Other data costs - Purchasing external datasets - On-going costs - Software and hardware maintenance and upgrades - Training - Benefits - Quantifiable efficiencies in present practices - Quantifiable expanded capabilities - Quantifiable benefits from sale of new products or services - Intangible, unquantifiable benefits - Unquantifiable unexpected intangible benefits - Risk analysis identify any risks (size, structure and technology) - You need to remember that introducing a new piece of software/ system to a company will require retraining and may initially decrease productivity. Analysis and design - Data and process modelling - Detailed spatial modelling process what entities are need? How to represent the entities? How do entities relate? - Attribute data conceptual logical physical design - Bench-marking - There are a number of different packages, picking the best one to suit needs and hardware/performance is often difficult. - You often have to pick the software then build the hardware based on that. - You can use quantitative (time taken) and qualitive (the feel of the software) to judge each package. - Pilot Studies - Demonstrates the potential of GIS to colleagues - Gain support of an influential person or department - Provides project team with direct hands-on experience of GIS - Allows project team to gain a feel for the type of company and type of support to which they will be committing - Allows assumptions about timescales and resources to be tested. Implementation - Use GANNT and PERT charts to monitor project completion - Database rollout critical and time consuming. Need to have data conversion and integration plans. - Roll out if done poorly people will be opposed to the new system.

Maintenance and review - Periodically audits the status of the system - Comparison of costs, benefits time scales - Identify problems or opportunities.

Lecture 21
A profession is defined by a number of attributes Specialized body of knowledge Mission Formal organization Common language Specialized training Culture and lore Code of ethic Licensing/Certification

GIS is often referred to as a jack of all trades master of none

Ethics
Ethics are the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of right and wrong. it deters unethical behavior provides a support system for members serves as an enabling document acts as a basis for adjudicating disputes enhances a professions reputation acts as a source for public evaluation

The GIS certification Institute (GISCI) has four ethical obligations Society - Do the best work possible - Be objective - Practice integrity - Be aware of consequences, good and bad - Contribute to the community to the extent possible, feasible and advisable - Make data and findings widely available - Speak out on issues - Call attention to unprofessional work - Admit when a mistake has been made and fix it Employers - Deliver quality work - Keep current in the field - Document work - Have a professional relationship - Hold information confidential - Avoid conflicts of interest (disclose if there) - Accept decisions unless illegal or unethical - Be honest in representations

- Complete work with requested resources - State limitations of data, software, methods, etc. Colleagues and the Profession - Respect the work of others - Accept and provide fair comments on work - Honor property rights (esp. software, data) - Respect existing working relationships - Contribute to the discipline - Publish results so others can learn of them - Volunteer time to professional activities - Support colleagues in professional development. Special attention to underrepresented groups whose diverse backgrounds will add to the strength of the profession - Many companies will pay you to attended courses for Professional Development Individuals at Large - Respect privacy - Protect individual privacy, esp. about sensitive information. - Be esp. careful with new information - You will work with information that is very specific - Respect individuals - Encourage individual autonomy - Be truthful when disclosing individual data - Treat all individuals equally, without regard to race, gender, or other personal characteristic not related to the task at hand.

Certification
A GISP is a certified GIS Professional who has met the minimum standards for ethical conduct and professional practice as established by the GIS Certification Institute (GISCI) By gaining certification you will be recognized by employers and colleagues as having demonstrated professional competence and integrity in the field. Shows you have established and maintain high standards of both professional practice and ethical conduct In NZ you can gain the Geographic Information System Professionals Asia Pacific (GISP-AP) certification, it is equivalent to GISP in the US and is the highest level of certification in NZ To gain it, you need to submit a portfolio which is assessed by the Spatial Sciences Institutes (SSI) certification panel

Law
By working in GIS you have to be very careful with the information you receive. It could be very sensitive data. Can geographic data, information, evidence and knowledge be regarded as property? Normally yes, but who owns the data? Can geographic information always be legally protected? Factual information gathered by the sweat of the brow as opposed to original, creative activities is not protectable by copyright law

For copyright protection to apply to a database, it must have originality in contents. For a database right to apply, it must be the result of substantial investment. Can information collected directly by machine, such as satellite senor, be legally protected? Not in the view of companies like GeoEye

How can tacit geographic and process knowledge such as that held in the heads of employees and gained by experience be legally protected? Write some obligations in the contract and be ready to sue

How can you prevent theft of your data or information? Digital technology makes it easy to disguise the look and feel of you GI. TO fix this you need to be proactive and reactive. Watermark your data (salting) or fingerprint it (add false roads)

Who owns information derived by adding new material to source information produced by another party? Data + extra element = immensely more valuable. You both benefit

Privacy
GIS is at the heart of surveillance, postal addresses give geographic identification Credit scoring - Increased cases of bad dept. - Banks close in less affluence parts of a city - Data used to identify potential market areas where mortgages and loans might be more difficult to recover - Clients rated on the likelihood of their ability to repay based on existing knowledge of past defaulters Redlining - Examine the relative influences of place-based factors on a spatial pattern of automobile insurance premiums in LA

Lecture 22
Roger Tomlinson Father of modern GIS
Hardware will become faster Software will become more robust and user friendly GIS in government

Jack Dangermond Founder of ESRI

Trends in the geospatial technology sector - Networks are getting faster - Measurement is becoming pervasive and more real time - Software is more open and robust - Geographic science is driving tools and analysis Future of the geospatial technology sector - Greater integration

More mash-ups Easy to use visualization in browsers Cloud computing

Changing from Data to Analysis

Future Challenges
Global data layers - Globalization - GIS held back by lack of basic data layers - Wider use of GIS should global layers exist - Street centerlines - Surface imagery - Terrain dataset - Hydrological data The GIS profession - Loose assemblage of university academics, government employees, commercial workers. Needs a universal curriculum. - Code of ethics and certification - Disparate GIS-related societies pool resources to create a charter (professional body) - Establish standards - Best practices - Basic qualifications The GIS curriculum - Roadblock - Global curriculum for GIS - GIS in schools. There is little to no exposure Near-universal empowerment of GIS users - Volunteered GIS - Extend work in public participation in GIS

- Develop easy to use, and safe software for the majority Global population statistics - Global census data is out of date, and questionable. Hard to tell the effects of global events - Big picture problems - Global partnership could and should benefit everyone The transition from geo-centered to ego-centered mapping - LBS location based services are a new challenge to cartographers - Goal of LBS mapping to supply service tailored to the precise needs of users, not a product - Migrate from developer to user-centered visualization - No more north arrow, lines of lat/long but view of present position and heads-up perspective - Move away from traditional cartography. Dont want to know scale, direction etc., just want to know where they are on a map. Combatting terrorism yet preserving culture - GIS and GI can make contribution to anticipating threats and combating terrorism - Can also aid attack

Lecture 23