HISTORY

It all started back in 1506 when no one else than Leonardo da Vinci described a compression less engine-his description may not imply the idea was original with him or that is was actually build. The same thing was done a century and a half later, in 1673 by Christian Huygens. In 1794, Robert Street built a compression-less engine whose principle of operation would dominate for nearly a century. English inventor Sir Samuel Morland used gunpowder to drive water pumps in the 17th century. The first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially was patented by Samuel Brown in 1823. It was based on what Hardenberg calls the Leonardo cycle, which, as this name implies, was already out of date at that time. The Italians Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci patented the first working, efficient internal combustion engine in 1854 in London but did not get into production with it. A steam engine is a device that converts the potential energy that exists as pressure in steam, and converts that to mechanical force. Early examples were the steam locomotive trains, and steamships that relied on these steam engines for movement. The Industrial Revolution came about primarily because of the steam engine. The thirty seconds or so required to develop pressure made steam less favoured for automobiles, which are generally powered by internal combustion engines. The first practical steam engine was patented by James Watt, a Scottish inventor, in 1769. Steam engines are of various types but most are reciprocal piston or turbine devices.

TYPES OF CYCLES
1) Otto Cycle Otto demonstrated the first true 4-stroke cycle in 1876 after giving up active management of Otto & Langen and going back to an 1861 design of his own. Rather than relying on the atmospheric imbalance to provide the power stroke, he instead turned the initial explosion into the power stroke and used the flywheel to help maintain momentum and return the piston down the cylinder. He replaced the rack and pinion with the connecting rod and crank to improve efficiency and remove slack from the mechanical transfer of the power from the piston to the flywheel. His design had four strokes to complete one entire cycle.

 First Stroke: Intake A specific mass of air is sucked in the engine cylinder at constant pressure. Second Stroke: Compression It is an isentropic adiabatic process in which air fuel mixture (in case of petrol) is compressed Third Stroke: Power This is divided into two processes. Process 1: At constant Volume, heat is added to the engine cylinder when the piston is at top dead centre. Process 2: It is again an isentropic process in which expansion takes place when the piston goes from top dead centre to bottom dead centre. Fourth Stroke: Exhaust In this process, heat is rejected out of the engine cylinder. Nowadays the engines we are using that runs on petrol are all work on Otto cycle.

2) Diesel Cycle The Diesel cycle is a compression ignition (rather than spark ignition) engine. Fuel is sprayed into the cylinder at (high pressure) when the compression is complete, and there is ignition without a spark. This cycle can operate with a higher compression ratio than the Otto cycle because only air is compressed and there is no risk of autoignition of the fuel. Although for a given compression ratio the Otto cycle has higher efficiency, because the Diesel engine can be operated to higher compression ratio, the engine can actually have higher efficiency than an Otto cycle when both are operated at compression ratios that might be achieved in practice.

Process 1-2: isentropic compression Process 2-3: Heat is added to the engine cylinder at constant pressure. Process 3-4: isentropic expansion

Process 4-1: reversible constant volume cooling 3) Stirling Cycle In Stirling cycle, Carnot cycles compression and expansion isentropic processes are replaced by two constant-volume regeneration processes. During the regeneration process heat is transferred to a thermal storage device (regenerator) during one part and is transferred back to the working fluid in another part of the cycle. The regenerator can be a wire or a ceramic mesh or any kind of porous plug with a high thermal mass (mass times specific heat). The regenerator is assumed to be reversible heat transfer device.

Process 1-2: isothermal expansion heat addition from external source Process 2-3: const. vol. heat transfer internal heat transfer from the gas to the regenerator Process 3-4: isothermal compression heat rejection to the external sink Process 4-1: const. vol. heat transfer internal heat transfer from the regenerator to the gas. The Stirling cycle was invented by Robert Stirling in 1816. The execution of the Stirling cycle requires innovative hardware. That is the main reason the Stirling cycle is not common in practice. Some important points: Unlike internal combustion engines, a Stirling cycle does not exchange the working gas in each cycle, the gas is permanent. The heat is supplied outside the engine, so any heat source can be used, e.g.: coal, gas, solar energy, nuclear power, etc. The pressure changes are very smooth and its torque is uniform, it has no valves, exhaust pipes, etc. Thus, Stirling cycle is quiet and has less maintenance points. To achieve competitive efficiency, it needs to work on high pressures which cause tremendous problems of sealing.

 The working fluid has to be an ideal gas. Helium or hydrogen is typically used because of their high heat conductivity and low molecular masses which lead to faster heat transfer. 4) Atkinson Cycle Invented by British engineer James Atkinson, the Atkinson Cycle is one in which the stroke of the piston can vary in length across the four cycles in a four-stroke internal combustion engine. Typically, the length of the stroke during the power cycle is increased to promote efficiency; however, because this can come at the expense of a shorter intake stroke, there is some loss of powerfor this reason, this type of engine design is best suited for use in a hybrid system where the electric motor can compensate for these power losses. The Atkinson cycle is designed to provide efficiency at the expense of power density. Its expansion ratio and compression ratio can be different because of its unique crankshaft design.

Process 1-2: Isentropic or reversible adiabatic compression. Process 2-3: Isochoric heating Process 3-4 Isobaric heating Process 4-5 Isentropic expansion Process 5-6 Isochoric cooling Process 6-1 Isobaric cooling

Atkinson cycle recently used in Ford Ecoboost Engine which we noticed at AUTOEXPOThe Motor Show 2014 held at Greater Noida from 7th Feb 2014-11th Feb 2014.

5) Lenoir Cycle The Lenoir cycle is approximated by the air-standard cycle shown in Fig. 3-20. The first half of the first stroke was intake, with air-fuel entering the cylinder at atmospheric pressure. At about halfway through the first stroke, the intake valve was closed and the air-fuel mixture was ignited without any compression. Combustion raised the temperature and pressure in the cylinder almost at constant volume in the slow-moving engine (process 2-3). The second half of the first stroke then became the power or expansion process 3-4. Near BDC, the exhaust valve opened and blowdown occurred (4-5). This was followed by the exhaust stroke 5-1, completing the two-stroke cycle. There was essentially no clearance volume.

6) Miller Cycle The Miller cycle, named after R. H. Miller (1890-1967), is a modern modification of the Atkinson cycle and has an expansion ratio greater than the compression ratio. This is accomplished, however, in a much different way. Whereas an engine designed to operate on the Atkinson cycle needed a complicated mechanical linkage system of some kind, a Miller cycle engine uses unique valve timing to obtain the same desired results. Air intake in a Miller cycle is unthrottled. The amount of air ingested into each cylinder is then controlled by closing the intake valve at the proper time, long before BDC.

As the piston then continues towards BDC during the latter part of the intake stroke, cylinder pressure is reduced along process 7-1. When the piston reaches BDC and starts back towards TDC cylinder pressure is again increased during process 1-7. The resulting cycle is 6-7-1-7-2-3-4-5-6. The work produced in the first part of the intake process 6-7 is cancelled by part of the exhaust stroke 7-6, process 7-1 is cancelled by process 1-7, and the net indicated work is the area within loop 7-2-3-4-5-7. There is essentially no pump work. Subaru B5-TPH engines runs on the miller cycle. These were some the heat engine cycles on which automobiles engine work.

TYPES OF ENGINE
Here comes a very basic topic as we engineers always start the topic engine by discussing what the types of engine are or how the engines are classified. Engines are Classified on various basis: Classification Number of strokes per cycle Types 2 stroke 4 Stoke 5 Stroke 6 Stroke

Type Of fuel Burned

Petrol Diesel Biodiesel(B10, B20, B100) Hydrogen LPG CNG M85(Blended form) Spark ignition Compression ignition
1-3-4-2 1-2-4-3 1-3-2-4 1-4-3-2 1-2-3-4

Method of ignition

Firing order (examples is only for 4 cylinder engine)

Reciprocating or rotary

Reciprocating piston cylinder arrangement Rotary type- Wankel engine Single Cylinder 2 cylinder, 3 cylinder, 4 cylinder, 5 cylinder 6 cylinder, 8 cylinder, 10 cylinder, 12 cylinder, 16 cylinder, 18 cylinder 22 cylinder, 24 cylinder V type Inline type W type H type U type X type K type Radial DOHC SOHC Overhead camshaft with bucket tappet Overhead camshaft with rocker arm Camshaft in block with pushrod Air Cooled Water Cooled

Number of cylinders

Arrangements of cylinders

Arrangement of valves and valve train

Type of cooling

TYPES OF ENGINE FOR SPECIFIC VEHICLE

Vehicle Single cylinder Cars Hatchbacks Sedan SUV Sports cars Convertible Off roaders Coupe Trailors Semi trailors Farm trucks

Types of Engine Twin Inline V W type cylinder type

Trucks

Buses Motorcycles 3 wheelers Moped Motorcycle with 2 wheelers

TYPES OF ANALYSIS USED

1) Combustion Analysis Combustion analysis is very useful for getting physical and chemical conditions of the cylinder. For implementing the analysis, we need to have a Combustion pressure sensor, crank angle encoder and a power supply. Combustion pressure sensor: The sensor is having unlimited life time for combustion pressure measurement application. Optimized piezoelectric sensor for continuous cylinder pressure monitoring of engines. The sensor is connected to the charge amplifier with a robust integrated high temperature Viton cable. The good linearity and long term stability ensures reliable and repeatable measurements over a long period of time. These sensors measure the pressure inside the cylinder and can be installed by using spark plug, glow plug. Outcome of Combustion Analysis Indicated power P-V diagram and P- diagram

 Calculate 5%,10%,50%,80%,90%,95%,99% mass fraction burnt angle Estimated end of combustion Angle Calculate heat release rate, heat release rate crank angle, pressure rise rate, pressure rise rate crank angle, maximum pressure, maximum pressure crank angle Calculate Start of combustion Calculate total heat release 2) Performance Analysis In performance analysis, we have to use lotus concept tool to play with the engine performance parameters like torque, power and speed. As we are fabricating an off road vehicle, our main concern will be the torque which should be as high as possible without altering any other parameters. After having the result from the software simulator, we need to use the optimizer tool to optimize the result keeping in mind that we have to get the high torque below the redline rpm. 3) Thermal Analysis Engine is made of many components of different materials and their properties. Any material has its limit to sustain any type of force or pressure. In engine, while internal combustion process, a high amount of temperature is produced inside the chamber which also affects mostly all parts in terms of material property. So we need to do a thermal analysis on these components like Combustion chamber Inlet and exhaust valves inlet and exhaust manifold Crankshaft Gudgeon pin Connecting rod and some other parts.

4) Stress Analysis While engine in running condition, many of the parts or components suffer dynamic forces and vibrations. These vibrations produce stresses on the components. So we need to have the static as well as dynamic analysis of some specific components like crankshaft, connecting rod, Gudgeon pin, cylinder, and some other parts. We all need to have the fatigue analysis of the same.

PARAMETERS CONSIDERED IN DESIGNING OF ENGINE

1) Injection timing It plays an important role in combustion process, if the injection is too early majority of the combustion takes place in the compression stroke causing high compression work

and heat losses losing much of useful energy, if the injection is retarded then majority of the combustion takes place in the expansion stroke causing a loss of expansion, hence a correct injection timing is required to achieve MBT timing. 2) Injection pressure The injectors task is to inject fuel and mix with air. If the injection pressure is low, the fuel droplets will be large and proper mixing is not feasible which results in improper combustion resulting in high emissions, especially particulates. 3) Air-fuel ratio The problem of air utilization arises when we try to increase the fuel quantity per cycle, this air utilization problem results in excessive soot which cannot be burned before exhaust. This black smoke or soot in the exhaust limits the air-fuel ratio. Therefore a minimum of lambda 1.25 is maintained. 4) NOx emissions As the emission regulations become more stringent, the need to reduce the NOx emissions in an engine is inevitable. NOx is primarily formed because of the high temperatures and presence of abundance of oxygen to oxidise the nitrogen during combustion. The allowed engine-out NOx level for this particular engine model is 5 g/kWh. Furthermore the NOx emissions are reduced using a SCR. 5) Cylinder peak pressure Since the engine is operated at higher BMEP the pressure in the cylinder increases and for mechanical reasons the cylinder pressures are limited to 250 bars. 6) Exhaust temperature and pressure The exhaust temperature and pressure are limited because of the design limitations. The max permissible exhaust temperature and pressure are 953K and 5.5 bars respectively. 7) Turbine and compressor speeds(if equipped) The turbine wheel and compressor wheel are not entitled to run faster than certain speeds due to mechanical limitations. And from manufacturers data it is noted that a Titanium 85mm compressor wheel can run up to 124,000 rpm and using this relation, the speed limit is chosen for the scaled diameter. Engine Performance Parameters Practical engine performances of interest are torque, power and specific fuel consumption. Power and torque depend on an engines displaced volume.

OPERATING VARIABLES THAT EFFICIENCY AND EMISSIONS

AFFECT

SI

ENGINE

PERFORMANCE,

The major operating variables that affect spark ignition engine performance, efficiency and emissions at any given load and speed are: Spark timing

Variations in spark timing relative to top-center affect the pressure development in the SI engine cylinder. If combustion starts too early in the cycle, the work transfer from the piston to the gases in the cylinder at the end of the compression stroke is too large. If the combustion starts too late, the peak cylinder pressure is reduced and the expansion stroke work transfer from the gas to the piston decreases. There exists a particular spark timing which gives maximum engine torque at fixed speed and mixture composition and flow rate. It is referred to as MBT-maximum brake torque-timing. This torque also gives maximum brake power and minimum brake specific fuel consumption. Mixture Composition The unburned mixture in the engine cylinder consists of fuel (normally vaporized), air, and burned gases. The burned gas fraction is the residual gas plus any recycled exhaust used for NO control. Mixture composition during combustion is most critical, since this determines the development of the combustion process which governs the engines operating characteristics. It is necessary to consider the effect of mixture composition changes on engine operating and emissions characteristics in two regimes: 1) wide open throttle (WOT) or full load and 2) part throttle or load. At WOT, the engine air flow is the maximum that the engine will induct. Fuel flow can be varied, but air flow is set by the engine design variables and speed. At part throttle, air flow, fuel flow, and EGR flow can be varied. Load and Speed

One common way to present the operating characteristics of an internal combustion engine over its full load and speed range is to plot brake specific fuel consumption contours on a graph of brake mean effective pressure versus engine speed. Operation of the engine coupled to a dynamometer on a test stand, over its load and speed range, generates the torque and fuel flow-rate data which such a performance map is derived.

Compression Ratio In an actual engine other processes which influence engine performance and efficiency vary with changes in compression ratio: namely combustion rate and stability, heat transfer and friction. Over the load and speed range, the relative that these processes have on power and efficiency varies also. while the geometric compression ratio is well defined, the actual compression and expansion processes in engines depend on valve timing details and the importance of flow through the valves while they are opening or closing(which depends on engine speed). Of course our ability to increase the compression ratio is limited by the octane quality of available fuels and knock.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF EFFICIENCIES

1) Combustion Efficiency Combustion efficiency is defined to account for the fraction of fuel which burns. It typically has values in the range 0.95 to 0.98 when an engine is operating properly. Combustion Efficiency is defined as the amount of heat released during combustion over the heating value of the fuel burned.

2) Thermal Efficiency Efficiency indicates how well an energy conversion or transfer process is accomplished. For thermal efficiency, the input, Qin, to the device is heat, or the heatcontent of a fuel that is consumed. The desired output is mechanical work, Wout or heat, Qout, or possibly both. Because the input heat normally has a real financial cost, a memorable, generic definition of thermal efficiency (n) is n= Output/input 3) Volumetric Efficiency Volumetric efficiency in the internal combustion engine design refers to the efficiency with which the engine can move the charge into and out of the cylinders. More specifically, volumetric efficiency is a ratio (or percentage) of the quantity of air that is trapped by the cylinder during induction over the swept volume of the cylinder under static conditions. Volumetric Efficiency can be improved in a number of ways, most

effectively this can be achieved by compressing the induction charge (forced induction) or by aggressive cam phasing in Normally Aspirated engines as seen in racing applications. In the case of forced induction Volumetric Efficiency can exceed 100%.

DESIGN PROCEDURE
Data required before starting the designing of the engine Basic engine data like number of cylinder, arrangement of cylinder, Stroke to bore ratio, type of heat transfer model using for the calculation. Fuel and Fuel System data Combustion and heat transfer data Scavenging data Ports and Valves data Pipes and plenum data Throttle data Compressors/turbines and charge coolers data Inlets and exits data Connections data Links data Reflections data Sensors and actuators data for valves timing For doing analysis/simulation of the engine, we are using lotus engine simulation software for single cylinder. It is freeware software available on the lotus website. First we will do the Combustion analysis on combustion analysis tool in which we have to play with the graphs between rate of burn v/s crank angle, mass fraction burn v/s crank angle, pressure rise v/s crank angle(or volume), cylinder pressure v/s crank angle(or volume)

Engine designer need to analyse a number of engine configurations and performance characteristics, including: Torque and power curves, airflow, volumetric efficiency, fuel consumption, emissions Steady state or full transient analysis Variable valve timing and lift Acoustic analysis of intake and exhaust systems Manifold and cylinder thermal analysis