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INDIA IN

1880.

Sir

RICHARD TEMPLE,
G.C.S.I.,

Bart.,

CLE.,

D.C.L.,

LATE GOVERNOR OF BOMBAY, LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR OF BENGAL, AND FINANCE MINISTER OF INDIA.

SECOND EDITION.
WITH TWO MAPS.

LONDON: JOHN MUKEAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

188L
The right of Translation
is

reserved.

LONDON:
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND
SONS, LIMITED,

STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.

2)S

TO HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS

ALBEET EDWARD,
prince of Ml:iles,
IN

MEMORY OF

HIS VISIT TO INDIA,

ON WHICH MOST AUSPICIOUS OCCASION

GREAT BENEFIT WAS CONFERRED
ON THE
PRINCES, NOBLES,

AND PEOPLE

OF THAT EMPIRE

WITH A POTENT AND ENDURING EFFECT

ON THEIR HEARTS AND MINDS,

THIS BOOK

IS,

WITH THE GRACIOUS PERMISSION OF

HIS

ROYAL HIGHNESS,

BY HIS DUTIFUL AND LOYAL SERVANT,

THE AUTHOK.

157^503

PREFACE.

This work presents briefly to the world the results of an

experience extending over nearly thirty years in India.
is

It

also intended to be a general reply to the important en-

quiries wliich

have been from time

to

time addressed to

me by

the

many

persons in English society,

selves in the welfare of the

who now interest themIndian empire. As the attention

incumbent on those English-

which English people are bestowing upon India must greatly

affect her future prospects, it is

men, who have long resided in that country, to place their

knowledge

at the disposal of the public.

The subject naturally

Questions have been

divides itself into

numerous branches.
explained
in

asked by some, regarding every one of the

are

many

topics

which

mentioned

or

the

following pages.

The

characteristic of

any work, which deals with India

as a whole,

will be the diversity of the matters

embraced in the exposition.

This variety

is

inseparable from the magnitude of the Indian

empire, and enhances the difficulty of preparing an adequate

description.
If,

in undertaking to give such a description

from

my own
that the

knowledge, I shall seem presumptuous, I

demands

of public

duty have compelled

may state me to visit

every part of the Indian empire from Thibet to Ceylon, from

the

Khyber pass

to the frontier of It has

Ava, from the valley of Assam been

to die city of

Candahar.

my

fate to serve in the

three Presidencies of Bengal, Madras,

and Bombay, and in every

province of the empire with one exception, to be brought in

contact with the Native States and the North-west frontier,

and

vi

PEEFACE.
some capacity
or other,

to be employed, in

under

all

the depart-

ments of the
to

State.

These circumstances are mentioned in order

this

shew how the materials have been acquired upon which

is

volume

founded.

I have,
of,

with

trifling

exceptions, not only

is

beheld but

made

sketches

every scene which

described in

these pages.

I have been from first to last concerned in, or

of,

otherwise personally cognizant

are here discussed.

almost

all

the affairs which

Nevertheless, despite the utmost care in

is

rendering the statements accurate, there

casually into

the fear of falling

some

error of detail
interests.

and widely scattered

this
risk,

among many diverse concerns With the view of obviating

has been laid before some
it

nearly every
is

chapter

friend

who

an expert in the matters which

comprises.

The chances
diminished.

of accidental mistakes
I

have been thereby much

have to thank warmly those of

so good as to accord to

my

friends

who have been

criticism

me

the benefit of their

and

revision.

Chapters

II.

and

III.,

on the objects of beauty in nature and

in art, also Chapter XXIII.,

on wild animals and

sports, are

specially designed for the consideration of intending travellers

who

at the outset desire to rapidly

form an idea of the sights

attempt
is

most worth seeing in India.

conjure up before the

An

there

made

to

memory some

visions of these things of

beauty, which are joys for ever to all

who have

perfectly seen

them, but to which no word-painting can do justice.

India might well have furnished
to Childe Harold.

many

places of pilgrimage
" Niobe,

To him Delhi would have seemed a

" lone

of nations,"

and a
at
;

mother of dead empires

"

the Taj

mausoleum
where

Agra would have

"

appeared " a beautiful thought

"
;

softly bodied forth

the Nerbadda would have been the river

" the delicate waters sleep prisoned in

marble

and the

rainbow spray of the Gairsopa cascades would by him have been

likened to the " Iris sitting like
"

Hope upon

a death-bed " or as

Love watchinn; madness."

PREFACE.

vii

inspired the verse of

The sacred groves near the temples of India might have Wordsworth when he wrote,

"... solemn and capacious groves Of vast circumference and gloom profound, beneath whose sable roof May meet at noontide Fear and trembling Hope Silence and Foresight, Death the skeleton And Time the shadow, there to celebrate
. .
.

United worship."

Chapters VII., VIII., and IX., on the mental and moral

progress
of

the

Natives,

on

national
it is

education,

religious

establishments and missions, may,

to moralists, philanthropists,

hoped, be of interest

and those concerned in the pro-

pagation of religious truth, whose hearts yearn towards their

Asiatic fellow-subjects living in need of enlightenmept.
If

the facts and considerations therein set forth shall be accepted,

then hope will spring eternal in the breasts of

all

who

are

moved by

charity" towards the distant races

which Providence

has committed to the care of England.

Chapters

XIX. and XX., on

public health, sanitation, and

relief of famine, will leave

on the minds of humane reformers

for alleviating the

some impression of the measures requisite

physical
ills

of an Eastern population.

Chapters VI., XII., XIII., XVII.,

XVIII., XXVII., and

XXVIII., on the material progress

products, commerce, finances,
offer to the

of the Natives, the revenues,

statistics, will

and the summary of

student

of

statesmanship and political economy

capabilities

some general information regarding the resources and

of the country, their present growth,

and the prospects of their

development.
Chapters IV., X., XI., and XII., on the duties of civil
generally, on law,
legislation, crime, police, prisons, the
officers

adminis-

tration of the land-tax,

and the nature of the landed tenures,

will explain the practical

work that actually devolves on those

of

who manage

the

affairs

an empire

consisting

of

many

viii

PREFACE.
which are

nationalities with divere types of civilization, all of

strange to English experience.

Chapters XIV.,
railways,
electric

XV., and XVI., on works of

telegraphs, roads

irrigation,

and communications, will

afford to those

who know what

the application of science has

done, and

may

yet do, for material improvement, an assurance

that these national concerns are occupying a due place in the

thoughts of Anglo-Indian statesmen.

Chapters XXI. and XXII., on learned research and physical

science, will indicate to

Englishmen how

their

countrymen

in

the East, amidst countless distractions and avocations, do yet

pursue

many

of the highest

ways

of culture,

and

..." musing
Or wake the

mount where

science sits sublime,

spirit of

departed time."

Chapters V.,

XXIV., XXV., and XXVI., on the Native

army, the foreign relations, and
help to those

States, the naval defences, the

the conclusion,
reflect

may furnish some

who

patriotically

on the best means of holding a widespread dominion with

the strong

arm

of authority, of guarding this

mighty heritage

against danger from without, and of vindicatinsf British risfhts

in Asia.

The

effect

of all

the

chapters

in

combination

will,

it

is

hoped, be to display the present state of the Indian empire,

its

elements of security,
its

its

prospects of danger,

its

sources of

weakness,

basis of ultimate prosperity.

eyes, India is a region of kaleidoscopic bright-

To European
ness
;

in the heated atmosphere everything seems to dance

and

quiver under the noonday glare.

of the strange, quaint, fantastic,

Some

notion

may be

gathered
aspect of

and often

fairy-like

the sunny land, from

W. H.
life

Russell's " pictured page," recount-

ing the tour of the Prince of Wales, or Rousselet's illustrated

volume depicting the

of the Native States, or Grant Duff's

graphic notes of travels in India.

There

is

a vivid freshness

PREFACE.
also in the descriptive passages of
Asia.'

ix

Edwin Arnold's 'Light

of

Tlie rural scenes are presented to the

" In
tlie
.

nund's eye, where,

mango-sprays

The sun-birds

flashed,
,

Bee-eaters

hawked
. .

Chasing the purple

butterflies,

The pied fish-tiger hung above the pool, The egrets stalked among the buffaloes, About the painted temple peacocks flew.
.
.
.

the swart peasant urged

* * * *

The

great-eyed oxen through the flaming hours,

their velvet flanks."

Goading

The urban
"

scenes, too, are delineated,

where dwell
and grain,

'Jlie

traders cross-legged 'mid then- spice

The housewives bearing water from the The weaver at his loom, the cotton-bow
The dyers

well,

Twanging, the millstones grinding meal,

Wet

from the vats

*******
;
.

stretching waist-cloths in the sun

. .

line of drums and horns, which went With steeds gay painted and silk canopies To bring the young bride home and here a wile

There a long

Stealing with cakes and garlands to the god."

The marvels
would be

of the gorgeous East must, however, be seen in

;

order to be realized

to set

them

forth appropriately in

words

to " describe

the undescribable."

But
sliall

my

story will

have been told in vain, unless the reader

feel

be induced to

an affectionate regard

for India

and the Indians.

K. T.

The Nash, Kempsey near Worcestek.

December
1,

1880.

CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
I.

CLAIMS OF INDIA ON THE CONTINUOUS ATTENTION OF ENGLAND.

Need

of steadfast attention to Indian affairs on the part of English-

men Changeful
1880

character of India under British rule

observing current events

Circumstances

those connected with art

To

those coucerned in

Necessity of Therefore survey undertaken India in interesting and sportsmen To missions To the and public To economists and statesmen
of to travellers

science

friends of

affairs

CHAPTER

II.

OBJECTS OF BEAUTY IN NATURE.

Objects of beauty in divers places

nowadays
season

Different characteristics of the country on the north and on

hill

Variety of

climatic aspects

Improved Phenomena
facilities

for travelling

of the rainy

the south of

ranges forming the backbone of the Indian contiretreats

for

Pleasant mountain European during summer Fine views from mountains looking towards the sea Noble prospect from Himalayas looking towards the plains of India scenes Marble rocks Cascades Mountains clothed with perpetual snow the world peaks yet discovered Lake Scenery of Cashmir valley Features the several
nent
residents
Riv^er

Loftiest

in

region

of

Indian races Picturesque effect of their costumes

CHAPTER

in.

OBJECTS OF BEAUTY IN ART.

Architecture under British rule
cutta,

Interesting views

at

Bombay,

at Cal-

and on

lines of railway

Beauty of Native architectureBuddhist caves, rock-cut temples, Ancient frescoes Sacred mountains of the Jains Hindu Brahmiuical structures Mention the
pagodas and monasteries
or of
finest

European churches

and cathedrals


CONTENTS.

temples
Largest

Mountain

fortresses

Muhammadan

architecture

dome in the world Citj;^ of the dead Mosque, palace and tomb of Akber the Great Grand mosque at Delhi Pearl mosque Matchless beauty of Taj Mehal mausoleum at Agra

Interesting
CHAPTER

Beautiful

palaces

Excellence
many
places

PAGE
of

remains at

...

2^

IV.

EUROPEAN CLASSES, OFFICIAL AND NON-OFFICIAL.

Inaportance of the Covenanted Civil Service

competition
Civil

Results of new system of Interesting duties servants Historic names of Servants and the past Military employDistinguished names among them Several engineers covenanted Medical Military and The clergy Eminent prelates Uncovenanted European and EastIndian Europeans Mercantile firms Chambers of commerce Indigo-planters Tea and Coffee-planters The Angloof civil in
officers

in civil

political

classes

of

officers

officers

civil

officers

Indian press

..........
CHAPTER
V.

Non-official

43

NATIVE STATES.
Relations of the Native States with the British

Loyalty of Order of the Star of India Imperial assemblage at Delhi Visit of the Prince of Wales Advantages the empire from the existence of Native States Education of youny; Native Princes Internal administration of Native States The Nizam~i States Their military Mention of of the Deccan Jammu and Cashmir Protected Sikb States Rajput Princes Mahratta Princes, Sindhia, Holkar and the Gaekwar importance of the The Princess of Bhopal Travancorc Deccan Mysore Kingdom of Nepal Khan of Khelat Eminent
Government
Native Sovereigns during the war of the mutinies
to forces

largest

Political

Native Statesmen

.........
CHAPTER
VI.
in itself

59

MATERIAL PROGRESS OF THE NATIVES.

Census of the population
Cultivable waste in
colonies

Expansion of cultivation

Gradual growth of the people numbers Land can yet sustain increasing people India Emigration from India British
to

Sufficiency

of food supply in

India

Her

wealth under


CONTENTS.
xiii

British rule

Remittances of money, public and private, to England

cattle

PAGR

Outlay of English capital compared with the present

Natives

Increase of

nations in wealth

Maintenance of the poor Public opinion regarding material improvements Industrial employments General condition
of the Natives

India W(>alth of former times as Capital largely accumulated by the Western Reasons why India
in
is

inferior to

.........
CHAPTER
VII.
tribes

77

MENTAL AND MORAL PROGRESS OF THE NATIVES.

Effect of British rule

on the character of the several

classes of the peoi)lc

The temper the MubamThe peasantryThe aboriginal madans The Parsis The Native nobility The landlord-class mental The traders The priesthoodThe educated
of classes
Tlieir

improvement, moral conduct and religious belief

Their political aspirations
science

Their

lojalty

Vernacular press and dramaAdvancement of Natives in the

Native munificfuce Culture of physical

.

public service

In other

professions

England State

of the Native

Good effect of Natives visiting mind and disposition generally.

VIII.

107

CHAPTER

NATIONAL EDUCATION,
Educational policy declared in 1854
sidered relatively to the population

Present

number

of scholars con-

both private and public

lower education respectively

Middle schoolsWant of technical instructionNormal schools Vernacular literature Superior education Universities in India AfBliated colleges Characteristics, m.oral and of Native graduates Instruction in medicine engineering Degrees science Agricultural instruction Schools of art Ethical teaching Female educationZenana missionsEducation of European
intellectual,
-In civil

Government policy regarding superior and Primary schools Village schoolmasters

Educational resources financially,

in

P^ast-Indian children

....
CHAPTER
IX.

...

.and

138

RELIGIOUS ESTABLISHMENTS AND MISSIONS.

The

State

Church

in India

Maintenance of

religion

Their religious endowments in part maintained

by Native rulers by the British

CONTENTS.

Eeligious establishments of the PortugueseAttitude of the British Government respecting Christian missions Native States The Eoman Catholic Church in IndiaProtestant missions Unabated Approximate of of High authorities favour of missionsCharacter of Native Christians Prospects of Native Church Special missions from Oxford and Cambridge Moral of missions generally
Government
religion
in
efforts

PAGE

religious
in

societies

statistics

results

effect

162

CHAPTER
LAW AND
Constitution of Indian Government

X.

LEGISLATION.

English law in India Councils in India constituted Law Commission in London of India Their popularity Public confidence courts in the in the High Courts of Judicature Special regarding debtedness of the peasantryArbitration Patriarchal ruleNonregulation system Answer to charges of Need of
Sacred character of
of justice under British rule
for legislation

by Parliamentary enactments Hindu and Muhammadan law Administration

Civil

interior

legislation

in-

over-legislation
.

continuity in administration

.178

CHAPTER
CRIME, POLICE
General character of crime in India
Thagi,
its

Xr.
PRISONS.

AND

Good

conduct of the

peoj^le

horrid characteristics,

its

repression

widows by burning, its suppression

of marriage expenses
Political

Female
Its

Self-sacrifice of

Hindu

infanticide

Regulation
Its
re-

imiwrt of dacoities in the Deccan Occasional occurrence of serious Penal code and former faults criminal procedure Regular police organization Condition of village or rural police General regulaGypsy tribes
riots

tions regarding

arms

ments therein

Juvenile reformatoriesConvict settlements

CHAPTER
XIJ.

Prisons under British

rule

Recent

improve.

195

LAND-TAX AND LANDED TENURES.

Nature of land-tax

The tax

is

a portion of the rent, and a percentage

on gross value of the produce

record of rights

Property in land created or recognised by British Government Value of such property Fee-simple estates belonging

Immense work

of field survey

and


CONTENTS.
Europeans

to

Importance of village communities in northern India

Tenures Indebtedness of Antiquity of peasant proprietors in some Tenant-right Privileges of Protection accorded occupancy tenants Tenants at
in

Permanent

settlement in Bengal and elsewhere

Madras and Bombay

village officers

cultivators

..........
will

districts

to

212

CHAPTER

XIII.

REVENUES.

Land revenue

Average rates of incidenceTributes and contributions Excise Assessed taxes CustomsAbolition of tax English import duties on English piece goods The
its

from NativeStates
imported

Opium revenue Objections discussed Stamp contrarevenueTotal general revenues Government and municidistinguished from revenue proper Taxation pal new taxes deprecated
to it

salt

salt

of

receipts as

for local

pxirposes

Projects for

....

230

CHAPTER

XIV.

CANALS AND IRRIGATION.

Canals

jacent to India

Canals in Asiatic countries adIrrigation sj'stem of canals from wells Native works of In Hindostan In the PanjabIn BeharIn OrissaIn the of the Godavery and the Kistna In Tanjore From the Tumbadra river From the Indus in Sind Lakes the Madras Presidency In the Bombay Presidency Principal from which canals have been drawn Rivers from which canals remain be takenDifferent plans of constructing canals Proportion of or protected lands the whole cultivated areaCanal water-rent Financial returns from the canals InNavigation of the canals Immense value of canal
for

navigation and for irrigation

Irrigated and unirrigated tracts in India

irrigation
-British

deltas

in

for irrigation

rivers

to

irrigated

to

direct benefits

irrigation to the country

........
CHAPTER XV.
Bombay

246

RAILWAYS AND ELECTRIC TELEGRAPHS.

Lord Dalhousie's design
west frontier

Line from Calcutta to North From Bombay to Madras From Lahore to Karachi Projected extension to Candahar Line
for

railway system

From Calcutta to


CONTENTS.
to Agra In Rohilkhand and Oudh In Behar In In Central IndiaIn Berar and NagpurIn Southern India From Goa southern DeccanIn BurmaRailways of two kinds, Guaranteed and State Advantages of the Guarantee system Passenger EoUing stock State railways Goods railways Broad and narrow Capital furnished by Native States time of war and of famine Introduction of gauges Railways Guaranteed railway Companies telegraph Lines belonging And the GovernmentTelegraphic communication between India and Endand Also between India and other countries

from

Bombay

Bengal

to

traffic

traffic

for

in

electric

to

to

264

CHAPTER

XVI.

ROADS AND EMBANKMENTS.

Roadmaking under Native

of British roads

Under British rule Principal and character Their noteworthy part superseded features Bridging and metalling Pack-bullocks Carts with draught-bullocks substituted Embankments the Indus Bengal, Behar and Orissa In the valley
rule
lines

Their

value

in

in
.

of

281'

CHAPTER

XVII.

PRODUCTS, NATURAL, AGRICULTURAI, AND INDUSTRIAL.

Comparison of Indian products with those of other countries Cinchona Coffee Tobacco Cotton Indigenous staple

Tea Local

manufactures of cotton by steam machinery

Production and manufactures of jute
tion
in

past

times and ])rescnt

of

portance

laws

to forests

Indiistrial

The department Conduct of the people Mineral resourcesCoal IronGold Precious

forest

Preservation
products

Factory Their destrucconservancy Their climatic imlej^islation

The

forests

pasturage

Communal

forests

Forest

in relation

stones

of art and industry

Still flourishing

on the whole

Effect

on Native taste

Merits of Native art

Exhibitions
.

288

CHAPTER

XVIII.

COMMERCE, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL.

Foreign trade of India in former times

The "Green's"
Suez Canal

ships

Africa, Asia

Direct dealings of India with the Continent of Euroj)e and Australia France Tlie United States Italy

The " East-Indiamen ships The Peninsular and Oriental Company The
"

CONTENTS.
xvii

The Mauritius
for

Particulars of trade United Kingdom Shipping the most part British Coasting trade Balance of trade How India of her export adjusted The Home remittances'Value Internal trade of India trade Food-supply generally Land communication Kiver navigation Eegistration of
witli

PAOB

to

sufficient

it

Tendency towards equalization of

prices

.....

309

CHAPTER

XIX.

PUBLIC HEALTH AKD SANITATION.

Organization of Sanitary Department
tion in

Popular instrucWater- works of towns Sanitary engineering principal Conservancy Utilization of sewage Lodging-houses in towns Dwellings Examination of foodSmall-poxVaccinationContagious Hospitals and dispensaries
hygiene
cities

Purification

Vital

statistics

of water

supply

in

in

villages

diseases

......

321

CHAPTER XX.

Famine under Native

1874

Under British ruleIn Behar and Bengal elsewhere in 1877 Public charity 'In India Mortality Advantages of railways in England Calamity in 1874 compared with that of 1877 and 1878 Prepreventing mortality Sanitary department Distressed cautions people to be prevented from wandering Relief works Village spection Relief houses People not demoralized nor pauperized by operations Good-conduct of the peasant proprietors Prospects of material improvement Supply of food by private enterprise
rule in

In Madras,
for

Bombay and

in-

relief

330

CHAPTER

XXI.

LEARNED RESEARCH.
Spirit of research has long existed

and Learned works the In the presentBooks written explain Oriental ideas to Civil and European readers Works of history Ethnological works history Biographies Military in countries beyond the Indus Asiatic Society of Books of Bengal at CalcuttaBombay branch of Royal Asiatic Society Antiquarian remains Archaeological SurveyPreservation of ancient
still exists

in

past

to

historic

fiction

political

travel

ruins and

monuments

........
b

343


xviii

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

XXII.

PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
Great Trigonometrical
at

Astronomical observatory Madras Meteorological observations Botanical Gardens, and Herbaria The Geological Survey Natural History Imperial museum at Calcutta Ornithology Zoological Gardens Death of Basevi and Stoliczka Pisciculture Organization of an agricultural departmentModel farms Popular instruction in agriculture Veterinary
Survey

Topographical

PAGE

Survey

art

......

353

CHAPTER XXm.
WILD ANIMALS AND SPORTS.
Advantages from sport Big game in champaign country and in mountains Season for sport Spearing the wild boar Tiger-shoot-

ing

The " man-eater "The pantherDangerous when he becomes

a man-eater
cheeta

alligator

Wounds from carnivorous animalsThe hunting The bearThe elephant The bisonThe rhinocerosThe The Himalayan ibex and Ovis AmmonAnglo-Indian

literature relating to wild sports

......

363

CHAPTER XXIV.
NAVY AND MARINE.
Early naval enterprises
Piracy The Indian Navy Naval arrangement between the Government of India and the Admiralty in London The Persian Gulf Defence of Indian harbours and coasts Steam Navigation Companies The Indian Marine Marine

Surveys Tidal observations ShipwrecksNative passenger ships Port of CalcuttaCyclones the Bay of Bengal on the Hughli Madras Dockyards at Calcutta and BombayWet dock and foreshore at BombayKarachi harbourExamination of harbours Lighthouses
in
Pilots

pier

lesser

.......

374

CHAPTER XXV.
THE ARMY.
Constitution of the armies in India

The European soldier Marked improvement of his condition Short service system Former local European army Strength of European garrison in India The


CONTENTS.
Volunteer movement

xix
FAGB
of
its

The

Native army

Basis

fidelity

Three Native armies, according

tribes

to the three Presidencies

Physique and conduct of the Native armyEnlist His pay and allowancesRecent difSculty OiBcering of the Native armyNative in obtaining corps The regular and irregular systemsEuropean The Native cavalryThe ordnance department The commissariat The transport Audit and accountEstablished strength
their quarters

among the Native

soldier

soldiery

Families

Castes and

of Native soldiery in

ment of the Native

recruits

officers

officers

staff

service

of military forces

.........
CHAPTER XXVI.
FOREIGN RELATIONS.
straits

384

India's neighbours, north, cast,

and west Aden Southern Arabia of MuscatThe Persian GulfMesopotamiaThe MalaccaThe kingdom of Ava Adjacent provinces of China of Eastern Thibet Yarkand and Kashgar North-v^est India Afghanistan Opinion in India regaiding RussiaKokand Bokhara and Khiva Boundaries of Afghan dominionsRussian Caubul Position of Badakshan and BalkhRelations of embassy Persia towards Herat Russian advance on Merv Yarkand Persian province of Khorasan Importance of Herat Freedom of Afghanistan from Russian influence Amir of CaubulKhyber Pass Kurrum Valley The Pishin Value of Candahar
Socotra
frontier
to

frontier

414

CHAPTER XXVII.

Publication of Budget in India

Statement of income and expenditure Apprehensions expressed by some authorities regarding Indian finance Want of the revenue Control of expenditure The military expenses Cost of the administration Provincial European and Native agencyCost of material improvements Guaranteed railways State railwaysCanals and works Total outlay on public works during recent famines Recurrence of famine Loss by exchange on mittances by Government of India E^ngland Former proposals regarding gold standard The national debt Equilibrium between ordinary income and expenditure Audit and account Government paper currency Coinage mints Savings-banksPresidency banks Cash balances
elasticity in
civil

services

irrigation

Its results

re-

to

........
at

441

XX

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

XXVIII.
PAGE

STATISTICAL SUMMABY.

Area of India

and Population Several people Agriculture Works of employments Embankments Tenures CrimePrisons Hospitals and Dispensaries Education Universities Literature and telegraph Emigration Railways Roads Foreign sea-borne trade Coasting trade Harbours Shipping Frontier trade Tea and Manufactures cotton and jute Exports wheat and Coal ForestsArmies Finance Revenues and ExpenditureCoinage and paper currency
religions, castes,

professions

of tlie

irrigation

Police

Civil justice

Post-office

electric

Coffee
rice

of

of

receipts

Equilibrium of income and ordinary expenditure

CHAPTER XXIX.
CONCLUSION.

471

Recent war in Afghanistan

lations contradicted

Its results

and

lessons

Prosperity of the
Adverse
to

Indian empire, despite some inevitable drawbacks

calcu-

by existing

as to

why England

should retain

merits in the character of the

under British rule

Hapjjy prospect

Satisfactory answer question possession of India Virtues and Natives Their general contentment
facts

rising before

them

488

DIRECTIONS TO BINDER.
Map Map
of India, showing the
of

Railway in India

......
Mountain Ranges
.

Frontispiece.

At

the end.

INDIA IN
CHAPTER
I.

1880.

CLAIMS OF INDIA ON THE CONTINUOUS ATTENTION OF ENGLAND.

Need of
steadfast attention to Indian affairs

on

tlie

part of Englishmen
of observing

Changeful character of India under British rule

curient events

Therefore

Necessity

survey undertaken of India in 1880

stances interesting to travellers and sportsmen

art

and science

affairs

To the of missions To those concerned To economists and statesmen.

friends

To those

Circumin public

connected with

The

possession of India by England involves grave responsi-

bilities,

and comprises recondite problems.

of

Consequently the
their conscience is

attention
stirred

Englishmen

is

excited,

and

with emotions transcending the patriotic pride with

is

which the Indian empire

tractions

regarded.

But amidst the

dis-

of English

life,

such attention and such emotions

are fitful

and spasmodic, instead of being continuous.

Never-

theless, continuity of thoughtfulness is essential, because,

under

British rule, India

is

changing with a rapidity of which eastern

nations seldom afford an example.

fore

Immutability has heretostill is

been characteristic of India, and

in

so in

some

respects.

But
to

many

other matters, mutation and mutability are rather

its

be attributed to the country and to

people.

Some

things

indeed,

such as

the

costumes and ornaments, the styles of

domestic architecture, the festivals and ceremonies, the religious

observances and structures, remain the same from epoch to
epoch.

Antique carvings, sculptures and frescoes are often

found to represent in externals the same people

whom we
B

see

2
to-day.

INDIA IN
But under the

1880.

Chap.

i.

plastic touch of western civilization,

the face of the land, the economic conditions of the country,

are undergoing modification,

and the

religious ideas, the

moral

sentiments, the social habits, the political aspirations, of

classes of the people are

many

changing

fast.

Whether these move-

ments
dence.

shall

be for better or for worse, must depend on the

conduct of England under the guidance of an all-wise Provi-

Wonderful

as India has been in her past,

and

is

in

her present, she will be equally wonderful in her immediate

future.

This tendency to change produces some difficulties in the

governance of India, which have been as yet imperfectly perceived.

Men who
it,

have specially studied the country or

tra-

velled in

or taken part in its administration, Mdll naturally

think that the knowledge acquired at the time and on the spot
will be always valid, that the experience gained under certain

conditions will

be ever applicable.

However valuable such

knowledge and experience may

for

be, as constituting a preparation

judgment, they must be supplemented constantly by fresh

study and

new

observations.

There

is

danger

lest data,

sound

in themselves, should lead to

unsound conclusions, by reason of

the shifting character of the circumstances.

Hard
task

as

may have

been the labour of mastering the manifold conditions of the

country at any given time,
the
further

must yet be

undertaken of learning the variations wliich have subsequently

occurred and are
still

occurring.

Those who are conversant

with the country must, by the study of current events, strive

to

march abreast

of Indian progress,

and

to

keep pace mentally

Otherwise

with the advancing tide of change in the East.

they will be moved rather by the recollection of India as she

was, than by the consideration of India as she actually
is.

Therefore

it

behoves those

who have

fresh

memories of the

coimtry, to record their recollections before the freshness begins

to fade.

By

such a record they set up landmarks to denote the

is

steps

by which the age

advancing, and leave such vestiges on

Chap.

i.

VARIETY OF INTERESTING CIRCUMSTANCES.

the sands of change as

may

lielp to

guide the students and

workers who are to follow.

Witli this view I undertake to

present a survey of the India of 1880, the year in whicli I left

its

shores.

My

work

will be a survey as exact

and compre-

hensive as can be contained in the limited space, and will be

nothing more than a survey.

spect of the past as

It will comprise only such retro-

may

be occasionally necessary to elucidate

the present.

It will not

determine disputed matters, nor vinIt will often,

dicate specially

any

set of opinions.

however,

present

both sides of debatable questions, and indicate any

It will be a

dangers which seem to threaten the general weal.

short account of the most interesting facts
as developed at the time of writing.

and circumstances,
will not

The exposition
as

be technical, but will aim at being popular.

The statement must be

are

as

varied

the

considerations

multiform,

and the conditions

many-sided.

For India

presents phases interesting to all sorts of men.

To the

traveller she opens a field

where the

peculiarities of

the eastern world and the results of ancient systems

may

be

observed, in combination with the achievements of the Anglo-

Saxon race and the

effects of

modern

civilization.

To the painter she

figures

offers scenery,

ranging by gradations from

features,

tropical to alpine conditions,

and a variety of national

and costumes, not

to be seen in

any other dominion

under one Government.

To the

architect

and antiquary she presents either standing

from
circumstances,

specimens, or ruins, or antique remains, of several styles of

arcliitecture,

originating

different

and

emanating from diverse states of the human mind.

To the hunter and sportsman she promises by

flood

stirring adventures

and

field,

in burning heat, in frost

and snow, wherein

fierce

the wildness of nature

may

be enjoyed and the

courage

of the brute creation admired.

To the

geologist she displays,

among

countless other forma-

tions, the loftiest gneiss

and granite peaks yet discovered, many

B 2

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

i.

coal-bearing strata, and one of the grandest masses of bedded

trap to be found in the world.

To the botanist she

toil,

yields, as the

reward of plant-collecting

the

specimens of vegetation varying from that which

flourishes near the equator, to that

which thrives near the line

of the

of everlasting snow.

To the entomologist she exhibits many

loveliest forms of insect
life.

finest

and

To the
species

ornithologist she exemplifies in her

birds,

woods and

forests

whole orders and genera of

together with

many

rare

and

varieties.

To the meteorologist she manifests wondrous and mighty phenomena, which specially invite scientific cognizance, as they
affect the rainfall

and the contingencies of drought and famine.

philologist she
civilized,

To the ethnologist and

of

shows several types

mankind, aboriginal or
;

Caucasian or Mongolian,

Scythian or Aryan
languages.

together with the roots or bases of several

To the moralist she indicates the

christian world,

effects

produced on

human

conduct by the three most wide-spread religions of the non-

and by Christianity
of

itself; also the influence

exercised

on

the thoughts

men by

several

systems

of

philosophy.

To the missionary she holds out the hope

yet seen in the world, for religious effort

of the largest field,

among

the heathen,

under the protection of a strong government, which ensures

equal security to
all religions.

To the journalist and

wliich

publicist she

originates

discussions

may

be conducted and controversies which

circle of readers.

may

be

waged, before an ever-widening

To the
for

politician

and administrator she furnishes a sphere

ability to

exercising the

arrange complex affairs on

the

greatest scale, divine the feelings

and wishes of

alien races,

maintain diplomatic control over semi-independent States, and

render foreign rule acceptable to an indigenous population.

Chap.

i.

VARIETY OF INTERESTING CIRCUMSTANCES,

jurist she demonstrates the

To the

manner

in

which foreign

codes and systems of law

may

be considerately administered by

a ruling nation, and the best principles of western jurisprudence

applied to the governance of eastern races.

To the

civil

engineer she affords a scope for storing the

bounteous resources of nature to be used by man, reducing

the effect of distance in
desert,

an enormous

area,

reclaiming the

and augmenting many

soldier she

fold the produce of cultivation.

To the

propounds professional questions regarding

the secure occupation of a vast country by scattered bodies of

troops, the defence of

mountainous

frontiers, the concentration

of forces for extreme efforts,

and the organization of armies

large opportunities for barter
for

drawn from many

nationalities.

To the merchant she develops

factures,

between nations, raw produce being exchanged

manu-

new

products being introduced, and industries, with

the aid of capital, being commenced, of which the growth

may

be indefinitely great.

To the mariner she

extent, a rock-bound or

discloses

sand-encumbered

some few harbours of great coast, and seas where

nautical observation.
of applying the

the periodical

phenomena demand
European sanitation

To the hygienist she proves the necessity

principles of
insalubrity.

to the conditions of tropical

To the economist and

silver

financier she suggests for solution

many

problems, relating to the balance of trade, the remittance of

with value measured by a gold standard, the want of

elasticity in the revenue, the returns

on the capital outlay by

these matters, as they

the State, and the growth of the public debt.

To the statesman she

collectively concern the

proffers all

maintenance of a widely-extended and

progressive empire in peace, wealth, strength and safety.


INDIA IN
1880.

Chap.

ii.

CHAPTEE

II.

OBJECTS OF BEAUTY IN NATURE.

Objects of beauty in divuvs places

adays

Variety

of climatic aspects

lm}irovcd Phenomena

facilities

for

travelling

now-

of the rainy season

Different cliaracteristics of the country

hill

on the north and on the south of

ranges forming the backbone of the Indian continent

tain retreats during

summer

for

European residents

Fine

Pleasant mounviews from

fro)n

Himalayas Noble prospect looking towards the plains of India Puver scenes Marble rocks Cascades Mountains clothed with perpetual snow Loftiest peaks yet covered in the world Lake region Scenery of Cashmir valley Features of their costumes. of the several Indian races Picturesque
mountains looking towards the sea
diseffect

If a series of sketches were to be

interesting
objects
in

made

of the beautiful

aud

every province throughout India, the

is

spectator might imagine that the country

one vast book of

beauty.

But while some regions

are continuously beautiful,

many

outlying districts have an ugly and ill-favoured appear-

ance, to

which no part of Europe, except, perhaps, Eussia, can

furnish a parallel.
exist in

The

objects of beauty

and

interest,

which

India

are, in their

quality and variety, probably not

surpassed in any country of the world, and exceed any description

that

can be given of them in words.

;

But they

are

somewhat scattered
far

and though by no means few, they are

aspect, often

between.

The intermediate spaces wear an

and sometimes even
repulsive.

inattractive,

Visitors who, after

becoming versed in the description of India, actually traverse

expansive tracts of the country and find nothing to please the

Such disappointment was more common in the past generation than it is in the
eye, at first sight be disappointed.

may

present.

Some

thirty or forty years ago,

a traveller to visit

it was impossible for more than a few of the places worth seeing

Chap.

ii.

IMPROVED

FxiCILlTIES FOll

TRAVELLING.

in the country.
lives in

Men who

spent the most active years of their

an empire containing

many

provinces, were acquainted

with only one province.

Hardly a person could be found who

Indeed,

had seen most of the interesting views in the country.

to see

them

all

would, in those days, have required the devotion

of a lifetime to that single purpose.

The search was tedious

were
wliile the

and
rare.

protracted, while the

gems

of scenery or antiquity

The pilgrimage was toilsome and troublous,

spots,

hallowed by beauty of aspect or by interest of association,

Therefore the things seen were often dispropor-

were remote.

tionate to the distances travelled,

travelling.

and

to the

time spent in

This circumstance

may have

given to some the

impression that the glories of India are overrated and overpraised.

But within the

in the interior,

last

twenty years the introduction of railways

coasts,

and the employment of steamers along the

have already caused

many

parts of the country to be easily

and quickly approached, and will soon render almost every part
accessible.

The phrase of the grand tour

of India represents a
tourist.

project

which can be executed by an ordinary

to the

In the

course of a few months a visitor may, without

undue fatigue or
he
relieved

imprudent exposure

weather and climate, see most of the

transit rapid

finest sights in India.

By

and

facile

is

from the tedium of slowly crossing the intermediate spaces

devoid of interest
his thoughts
;

and proceeds straight

directed.
is

to the point

whither

and hopes are

fast,

Thus the knowledge of

still faster,

India has increased

and

increasing

not only
those
fixed,

among

the travelling classes of England, but also

lot
is

among
is

Englishmen whose

cast,

and whose residence

in the Indian empire.

facilities for

Still,

notwithstanding the augmented

seeing and the ambition of so

many
it

to see every-

thing, there lives not the

man

of

whom
is

can be said that

he has seen
is its

all India, so

extensive

the country, so diversified

configuration,

and

so dispersed are its wonders.

When

the thoughts are fixed upon these wonders and glories,

8
it

INDIA IN
must
at the

1880.

Chap.

ii.

same time be remembered that the greater part

is

of the country
it

neither wonderful nor glorious, that

it

much
are

of

is

commonplace, and that some portions of

even

hideous.

Nothing

for instance

can be more wi-etchedly plain in

appearance than the

treeless, shrubless, shelterless plains in the

northern province of the Madras Presidency, in the

Bombay
Satlej.

Deccan, or in the districts lying between Delhi and the

In western India and even in

tlie

southern slopes of the western

liills

Himalayas, there are low ranges of

denuded of vegetation,

which have
instance

all

the bareness of the mountains in Arabian or

African deserts.
in

Indian villages are in some provinces, for

in

Bengal,

Behar,

and on the western

the plainest parts

coast,

eminently picturesque, but in

many

provinces are uncomely

of the
collo-

and unprepossessing.

Still,

even

country often verge on the picturesque, and a chance

cation of objects produces an interesting scene.

The sunlight

brightens

up rude

objects, casting vivid lights against strong

shadows,
shade.

and fixing attention upon the play of light and

The dress and the implements The costumes

of the peasant, though of

rough, are interesting.

most

classes of the

people are variegated in colour, and set off even the dullest
landscape.

Wherever the

old ancestral tree in the midst of

the village affords a spreading shade, the village folk cluster in

very attractive groups.

As. might be expected, the wonders and glories belong partly
to nature

and partly

to art,

and are

all affected

by climate.

By most Englishmen, who have

the Indian climate
is

not travelled in the East,

probably imagined to be damp, sultry,

enervating, the prolonged stillness being broken occasionally

by tempests, and
of tropical

to possess all the disagreeable characteristics

latitudes.
first

This

is

but too true of

to

the

Indian

regions

wliich

became known

Europeans, and from

which traditional ideas have

originated.

But

in the empire,

now comprised under the territorial name of India, there are many varieties of climate. In some regions, for example

Chap.

ii.

PHENOMENA OF THE RAINY SEASON.

weeks and even

the northern, the noteworthy characteristics are the constant

agitation of the hot air for several
for

some

months consecutively

the sharp biting cold at certain seasons

first

during the last hours of night and the

hours of morning

the generally prevailing dryness often verging the moisture sufficient during the
first

upon drought
of

months

summer and
Although,

autumn, and deficient during the remaining months.

sometimes, unseasonable rains spoil the standing crops, and

floods
is

sweep away the reaped but ungarnered harvest,

still

it

the dread of drought which generally haunts the

It is

minds of the

people.

only in some lines of country that the rainfall

can be described as unfailing, with variations often on the side

of excess, but never on that of deficiency.

The long range

of

the Western Ghat mountains, on the west coast of India, forms a mighty wall 1500 to 2000 feet high, for
miles.

many hundreds

of

Against the crests of this natural wall, there beat the

masses of vapour drawn by the sun's rays from the Indian

ocean or from equatorial seas, accumulated during several hot

and

dry months, and

propelled

by the wind
is

during

the

heat of summer.

Of the vapours one portion

first

condensed on

touching this high land, the

which

is

encountered, shedding

rain in wonderful quantities, feeding the sources of great rivers,

tearing

up the

hill-sides

with torrents, or adorning them Avith

pass

cascades.

The remaining portions

"

onwards,

with the

driving breezes, to fertilize India.

These are the phenomena

so familiar to
all.

which constitute the

monsoon "

Similar

circumstances occur in the mountains flanking eastern Bengal

and dividing

it

from Burma, in the eastern division of the

littoral provinces

Himalayan range, and in the

shore of the

on the eastern
of

Bay

of Bengal.

The vapours, from the Bay

rainfall

Bengal and from

of air,

southern seas, are propelled by currents

and condense into a marvellous

from contact
In the

with the

highland which stops their aerial course.

is

eastern section of the Satpura range which

of the

the backbone

Indian Continent, near the source of the Nerbadda

10
river, the

INDIA IN

1880.

Cjiap.

ii.

moisture-laden clouds, blowu across the great plateau

of the Deccan, are gathered together.

They

are hindered

by

the mountain summits from proceeding further, and are there

changed into rain which supplies perennial moisture to the

neighbouring regions.

But with

these,

and perhaps

some

other, large exceptions, there is

an abiding anxiety in most

provinces lest the clouds should

fatness on their way.

move

on, without dropping

In general terms (subject always

to exceptions) the

Satpura

range, crossing the country from east to west, causes a climatic

division of the empire.

South of this range, that

of

is

in the

Deccan
the

and in the Presidencies

is

Madras

and Bombay,
but

climate

equable, hot

generally,

but seldom reaching

seasons,

extreme heat, cool and slightly cold at some

seldom approaching severe cold

on the whole showing a high

It

temperature on the average of the year.

may

be described

in southern India as equably hot all the year round except in

mid-winter,

when

it

is

mild, and in mid-summer,

when
at

the

constant breezes are cooled by the rains.

range, extreme degrees
of heat are

North
with,

of the Satpura

met

and

some

seasons at certain hours a degree of cold which appears acute

to the senses.

In the early part of summer the winds, heated in

their passage across the western desert, rush over the inhabited

plains

with blasts like those of a furnace, from which the

if

wayfarer will recoil as

smitten with

fire.

Even through
its

the weary watches of the night the wind pursues

course.

These are "the hot winds" so well known to many.

it

Then

is

that the earth becomes like iron, and the heaven looks

like brass.

In the centre of these phenomena

lies

the historic

city of Agra,

which

is for

a time one of the hottest places in

it

the

habitable globe;

though
at these

is

almost rivalled by Delhi

is

in this respect.

But

same places there

during the

short winter a bright, cold, dry climate, and about

new

year's

day there

is frost at night.
is

Further north, in the Panjab, the

is

intense heat

nearly the same, but the winter

longer and

Chap.

ii.

DIFFERENT CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COUNTRY. 11

In
all

colder.

these provinces there

is

a rainy season of three

months' duration, to mitigate the heat.

the Panjab about Multan,

The southern parts of

and the province of Sind in the

valley of the Indus, are almost rainless.

of the desert, the air

From

the proximity

becomes scorching.

In the daytime, the

people bear the rigour as best they may, crouching in their

darkened houses

at

night,

when

sleepless,

they sometimes

dash cold water over their bodies in order to obtain a brief

repose.

They

are,

however, re-invigorated by a cold, though

short, winter.

In the delta of the Ganges and in lower Bengal,

is

the climate

quite different, being

damp and much

milder

as regards both heat

and

cold.

North of the Satpura range, and in the Indus valley, the

physical constitution
of

the

Natives

is

decidedly superior.

Their stature

is

taller, their

thews and sinews stronger, their

is

nervous force greater.

their

Their character
to violence.
is

more
and

robust,

and

temper more inclined

South of the Satpura

their

range, their physical frame

qualities less firm
;

of lesser build,

moral

with the exception of the Mahrattas, and

some other
seldom

hill

tribes,

whose resolution and endurance are

their

surpassed.

In Bengal,

disposition

is

milder,
of

but their mental faculties are more acute.

The drought
cognomen

northern India has been well said to be the "arida

nutrix
of

leonum,"
Singh
of
life,

in

allusion

to

the

Sikhs

whose

has

leonine

significance.

The
the

harder

conditions

imposed by the extreme of dry heat alternating with

degrees
of cold,

considerable

nourish

sturdier

races

of

men.

For Europeans, southern India

offers

perhaps more comfort,

or less discomfort, than northern India, less liability to violent

illness,

with a better chance of long residence without

air.

specific
of

ailment and without change of scene and

enfeebled

To persons

condition, obliged to live in the

plains, the south

will probably prove

more favourable.

But

in northern India,
is

the Briton, of average health and constitution,

stronger and

12
healthier,

INDIA IN
more able

1880.

Chap. n.

to preserve the vigour

which he originally

brought with him from Britain.

If a comparison in respect of
it

violent illness should appear favorable to the Panjab, then

is

to

be

remembered

that,

from
all

the

first,

resort

to

the

Himalayas has been easy

those plains.
insalubrious,

for

whose health suffered in

in northern India
chill
is

The aiitumnal season

doubtless
is

very
in

from the

nocturnal

setting

while the earth

is

still

damp from
Europeans,

the rainy season, and that

the

time when
It

all

who

can,

escape

to

the

mountains.

may

be doubted whether a European, residing

uninterruptedly in the plains of the Panjab, would be as free

from acute disease as he would be in southern India under

like conditions.

But in northern
Ijy

India, even those

who have
rapidly

been most exhausted

restored

the heat

of

summer

are

by the bracing and exhilarating winter.

Opinion

among Europeans, however,

south, in the east or west.
to praise those parts

differs greatly respecting the rela-

tive advantages, or disadvantages, of residence in the north or

Many Europeans
of

will be found
longest,
least.

most in which they have lived the

and

to disparage those parts

which they know the

It is well that

they should

all

cherish their respective views,

in whatever part

which prove that they have enjoyed happiness

of India their lot

may have been

cast.

They generally

possess

a faculty for accommodating their taste and preference to the

external conditions amidst which they are thrown.

The

diversity of these conditions

characteristics

may

be exemplified by the
retreats,

different

of the

mountain

where the
Simla

Government
the summer.

of India

and the several Local Governments spend

is

For the Government of India, there

firs
;

with
the

its

oaks,

and rhododendrons, and

for the Panjab,
hills

its

distant view of
its irrigated

snowy range

Dharmsala with

valley and near

for the

snowy

almost overhanging the spectator

North-western Provinces, Naini Tal with its fine lake em;

bosomed in the mountains

ferns,

for Bengal, Darjiling

its

with

its tree-

creepers

and semi-tropical vegetation,

cloud-effects,

; ;

Chap.

ii.

PINE VIEWS FROM MOUNTAINS.

13

and
for

its

view of the grandest snowy mountains in the world

its

Assam, Shillong with

forests,

green undulations, partly clad

with pine

and

its

distant prospect of the

Brahmaputra
its

river; for the Central Provinces,

precipices,

Pachmari with

sandstone
;

unfathomable

rifts,

and

summer

cascades

for

Rajputana, majestic
for Beluchistan,

Abu

with
its

its

darkling masses of granite

of limestone formafor

Quetta with
aloft,

panorama
;

tions

towering

barren and naked

Bombay, Maha-

bleshwar with
steep
scarps,
;

its

horizontal strata of igneous rocks cut into

its

and

distant view of the sunset across the

its

ocean

for

Madras, Utacamand with

its

rolling plateaux

and

rounded summits,

botanic gardens and park-like drives.

Similarly, the finest

and most celebrated views in the empire

the degrees of latitude embraced, and

comprise a diversity of scenery, hard to be imagined, but

still

intelKgible,

when

the altitude of the mountains above the plains, are borne in

remembrance.
In southern India, the western horizon of the sea
is

seen from

mountains eight thousand

feet

high.

The sun, descending

and

towards his couch in the ocean, casts a sheet of light over the
waters,

which

is

visible

from summits thirty miles

off,

produces a sparkling background to the scene.

let

For instance,

there be taken such a view as that

which may be seen from

parts of the Nilgiri or " blue-peak " mountains.

The summits

tower in the distance, with their violet hues which have given
the

name

of

" blue " to

the range.

In the foreground are

houses

verdant coffee-plantations,
factories, in the

studded with bright

and

middle distance are dark precipices of granite,

is

and

on the extreme horizon

the

sheen of the sunlight

glimmering on the ocean.

Prom Wynaad

a like position let the

eye be turned towards the

country, a series of low hills and valleys.

lie

In the early
lifted
filled
flat

morning, while the mists

low and thick before they are

and dissipated by the advancing day, the valleys seem

with vapours, as white and thick as wool, presenting a

14
surface.

INDIA IN
The ridges

1880.

Chap,

ii,

of the hills rise

all, is

up dark,

as if islanded in a

sea of clouds.

Beyond them

the horizon of the distant

ocean, not glittering this time, but cold and grey.

In further illustration of the same characteristic in scenery,

let the

view from Matheran, the summer

retreat of the residents

of

Bombay, be considered.

In the foreground there are plutonic

rocks, bold

and precipitous, yet fantastically shaped and grouped,

also interspersed with vegetation.

The middle distance by

consists

of a plain, intersected in all directions

rivers, creeks

and

estuaries, terminating in the broad harbour of Bombay, which

is

surrounded by promontories and tongues of land, whereon

the city of
bright,

Bombay

is built.

Although the water looks dimly

and the land

is

too faintly grey for the city to be clearly

discernible, still the

knowledge that so teeming a population

there, heightens the effect

and

so

numerous a shipping are

on

the imagination.

Beyond

it

all,

there lies the shining ocean,

almost merged in the sunset sky.

Then the
of the

spectators realize

what the poet conceived, when he sang

"

sun

setting,

Not as in northern climes obscurely bright. But one unclouded blaze of living light."

In the Himalayan regions a like

other manner.

effect is

produced in an-

The mountains

rise

abruptly to a great height,

overlooking plains some thousands of square miles in extent.

The
five

traveller

may
feet.

see a grand

view from an altitude of four or

it

thousand

He will behold

better

by retreating

inside

the mountains, and ascending summits of ten

feet,
is to

or twelve thousand

near Simla, near Landour, or near Darjiling.

The prospect

be best enjoyed on one of the clear evenings which occa-

sionally break the

monotony

of the rainy season,

when winds

have
is

lifted the curtain of clouds

and

mists,

when

the atmosphere

transparent, and

when

all

the hues and tints of the earth

have been

intensified

by moisture.

In the foreground are

there
float

darkened rocks and

clouds lighted up by

forests,
tlie

among which

fleecy

sun with orange colour.

In the middle

Chap.

ii.

lUVER SCENES.
flat as

15

distance the plain lies

sunlight,

a mirror, empurpled by the waning

rivers,

and intersected by

which wind across

it,

like

serpents of supernatural glitter.

In the extreme distance

is

the

long horizon of the plains, resembling that of the ocean, and

blending with the sunset-sky gorgeous with a splendour wliich

can be displayed only in ethereal spaces, and cannot be matched

on

earth.

The imagination

is

elevated by the knowledge that

the lines of brightness athwart the plains represent famous and

classic rivers,

such as the Ganges, the Jamna, or the

Satlej.

The scenery on the banks of the Indian

rivers is at its best

when they burst through

ing out into the plains.

clefts of the

mountains, before spread-

from the Himalayas at

of

The Ganges debouches picturesquely Hardwar, the holiest of all the places
after passing

Hindu

pilgrimage.

The Godavery

through a

tortuous defile, which has been well compared to the valley of

the Rhine between

Bonn and Bingen,

by a

is

dammed up by

a great

dyke, whence

numerous canals are drawn.

The Mahanaddi

pierces its hilly barriers

series of gorges, before entering

upon the

x^lains of Orissa.

Of the many
river

river scenes in the

country, two

may

be selected for their exceeding beauty.

Near Jabalpur in central India the

for

Nerbadda wanders
of marble, from

more than a mile amidst

to a

cliffs

and

bluffs

fifty

hundred

feet high,

which enclose the narrow stream

on both sides as with walls.

The water, thus

confined, has

an

immense depth and intense hues

Being very pure and
reflections
still

of mingled green
it

and

blue.

in the cold season,

receives perfect

from the snow-white rocks.

The

effect of the river,

with the reflections from the marble on either side almost joining each other in the blue water,
either

when viewed

in perspective
description.

by sun-light

or

by moon-light, transcends

The voyager, rowing

little

softly along the gentle stream, stops his

feels as if left alone

bark for a moment, and

in its marble palace.

with the

Nerbadda

On

the western coast, the Gairsopa river, flowing from the

falls

Mysore plateau,

over a sheer precipice of eight hundred and

16
fifty feet,

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. n.
to

and leaps with one nnintornipted plunge from head

If witnessed

base of this great descent.

during

flood, it is said

to stun the senses, deafening the ears with its

thunder, and
its

blinding the eyes with

early winter,
it

its

spray.

When

seen at

best during

divides itself into four

falls,

which can be com-

bined in one comprehensive view, and which are named locally,

the " Eaja," from
its stately and measured cadence, the " Eoarer," sonorous impetuosity, the " Eocket," from the peculiar

from

its

play of

its

waters as they shoot downwards, and the "

its

Dame
The

blanche," from the grace and elegance of

traveller,

movement.

wending

his

way through

the dark forest at eventide

towards the famous cascades, finds his night's rest disturbed

by the weird unearthly moaning of the waters as they fall. Emerging from the forest before sunrise, and facing the waterfalls,

he sees nought but a thick sheet of mist and spray, hung

like a white pall in front of the waters, from beliind

which he

hears the resounding voice of the cataract.

After the sun has

ascended the heavens, the misty curtain

waters are displayed in
all their

is lifted,

and the

falling

variety of motion.
rises,

As

the sun

descends towards the west, the spray

waterfall like a thin veil of gauze,

hanging around the

colours.

and receiving rainbow

The Himalayan region

though inferior
features.

displays, as

might be expected, a rich

scenery equal to that of the Alpine region in some respects,

to it in regard to the lakes

and other prominent

make, because, by
is

Those travellers who reach the perpetual snows of the

to

Himalayas have a much longer ascent

reason of difference in latitude, the line of permanent snow

so

much
are so

higher than in the Alps.

They behold

sights, in

grandeur

not superior to those beheld in Switzerland, though the summits

much

higher.

It is doubtful whether,

when range

after

range of mountains have been climbed, the superiority of the

altitudes finally attained adds essentially to the effect
eye.

upon the
not re-

The snowy ranges

as seen

from Simla
its

itself are

markable, but from mountains in

neighbourhood, such as the

Chore summit, the sacred sources of the Ganges and the Jamna

Chap.

ii.

SNOW-CLAD MOUNTAINS.
and Janinotri, can be
Simla

17

called Gangotri

seen, as represented by-

domes, towers and pinnacles of dazzling snow.

The town and

aspect,

station

of

itself

present a

striking

with their bright habitations of light and picturesque

perched aloft on the heights, and serving as a

architecture,

crown

to the cedar-clad

mountain.

There are some points in the Himalayas which must be

chosen for special notice.

In the province of Kuniaon at

Bhinsa near Almora, the view of several groups of snowy

mountains 26,000
less

feet high (above sea-level), at a distance of

is

than forty miles,

is

surpassingly beautiful.

The middle

distance

so fortunately placed, the

is

atmosphere, in favourintervenes between the

able weather,

so clear,

and so

little

spectator and the

granite, that he is

stupendous masses of snow-clad gneiss or

momentarily cheated into the belief that the

soaring summits and the tortuous glaciers are close to his eye.

The view
valleys, not

of

Kinchinjanga upwards of 28,000

station

feet high, as

seen from the

of Darjiling, is

finer

still.

The low
same

more than 2000

feet high, are so situated that the

spectator can look

down

into their very depths, from the

standpoint whence he looks up to

thus can
see,

the

snowy summits.
that at the

He

almost in one glance, a distance of 26,000 feet

It

from depth to height.

happens,

too,

moment

when
fine

the

summits are

brightest,

the shaded valleys appear

gloomiest.

To say

that,

during one of the very few perfectly

days which occur in the year, these snowy summits are at

fire,

sunrise tipped with

and are

at sunset bathed in rose colours,

would be
the

to give but a faint description of the

manner

in

which

mind

of the beholder

is

impressed.

Ordinarily, even in fine'

weather,
is

so

among this eastern section of the Himalayas, which much more wet and verdure-clothed than the western, the
movements and
in fascinating

clouds gather round about the mountains, and play over the
vast landscape with graceful
forms.

All that has been eloquently written by travellers in

other countries, regarding the clouds being suspended as gorgeous

18

INDIA IN

1880.
is

CuAP.

ii.

banners around the everlasting summits,

scenes.

applicable to these

In the vicinity of Darjiling a

still finer

view

is

obtained

by-

ascending the range 10,000 to 12,000 feet high, which divides

Sikhim from Nepal.

The spectator there beholds, on

and on

his right

front the Kinchinjanga group,

of

his left front the group

Mount
In

Everest, of which the central peak, upwards of 29,000

feet high, is the highest

known

in the world.

this quarter is situate the lake district of Sikhim,

on the

very top of a range from 12,000 to 15,000 feet high, bordering

eastern Thibet.
lie

Of these lakes (which are

six in

number and

near together) four are situated above the line within whicli

vegetation can grow, being at nearly the same height as that of

the loftier summits in Switzerland.

The prevalence

of

tem-

pestuous weather, during most seasons of the year, renders them

difficult of access.

When they are

;

seen during the mid-autumn,

the most favorable time, the sterile ruggedness of their craggy

surroundings

is

sublime

the

gneiss rocks having been riven

forces.
it is

and splintered by some tremendous explosive

lake the colour of the water
is different,

In each

in one

murky, in

another purplish, in another turquoise-blue, in another ambergreen.

In the background there are the bare ochre-brown

hills

of Thibet,

which from the

effect of the

atmosphere have a colour

rises

of aerial pink.

Behind them there

up the pyramid

of

Chimalari 25,000 feet high, draped in snow from the head to

the base of
its

cone,

and piercing the sky with a sharp apex.

the most beautiful

Cashmir must be included in any notice of the Himalayan

region, as
it

constitutes, if taken all in

all,

part of the whole empire.

river,

From

the upper basin of the

Jhelum

which valley

is

Cashmir proper, there branch

still
is

off

many

lovely valleys of the best Alpine character,

Alpine only.
fraught with
is

In Cashmir there are two lakes, of which one

poetic

and

liistoric associations,

while the other

it.

famed

for

having the snowy mountains mirrored in

Still,

these lakes

may

be equalled or surpassed by the lake region of northern

Chap.
Italy,

ir.

SCENERY OF CA8IIMIR VALLEY.

tlio

19

and with

lakos of Switzerland they cannot bo exactly

compared.
interest,

It is rather the coml)ination of divers

elements of

the ruins and

remains representing several distinct

phases of civilization, the quaintness of the modern architecture,

the picturesque approaches and surroundings, the great extent
of the plateau, environed

by snowy mountains on
river,

all sides

and

permeated by a navigable

which constitute the peculiar

it

charm of Cashmir, and which make

men.
If its merits be analysed

an object of desire

to all

and examined separately, each

one of them
collectively,

may be matched

elsewhere.

But

if

they be regarded

then in their beautiful entirety, they are perhaps

unmatched in any country. Nevertheless, there are some objects

in Cashmir

which deserve, and will repay, special

of Vernag, the source of the
is

analysis.

The fountain
shape.

Jhelum, near the

eastern extremity of Cashmir,

Its colour varies

a sheet of water of an octagonal

to turquoise, to emerald,

from azure,

catching

reflections

from

the surrounding architecture

and

foliage, yet tinging

each reflection with the prevailing blue, like

the Italian waters at Capri or Sorrento, and having a depth

wdiich the

eye essays to penetrate but never fathoms.

tints of the

The
foil to

autumnal

umbrageous

trees

around make a

the dark-hued water, and impart vividness to the reflections.

From

the temple-crowned

summit

of the Takht-i-Suleman, or

" Solomon's throne," near Sirinagar the capital of Cashmir, a

panoramic view

is

obtained of the whole valley.

Far beneath

the eye, lies the city of Sirinagar, like Venice founded amidst

the waters, with the

fare,

Jhelum

river forming its

its side-streets.

main thorough-

and the branching canals

On

one flank

there rises the citadel, on the other flank there

stretch the

poplar avenues where the national games and races are held.

Hard by
above.

is

the transparent expanse of the lake, catching the

reflections of the

rocky ranges around and of the floating clouds

On

its

margin stand the groves of plane-trees, the royal

tlie

gardens, summer-houses and fountains, where the poet laid

scene of Lala Eukli, and whence emperors, borne in luxurious

c 2

20

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

ii.

barges over waters fringed with

tlie lily

and the

lotus, issued

mandates of war or peace

the city, the

to

Caubul and
a
silver

to Dellii.

Beyond

Jhelum looks

like

streak, pursuing a
till it

serpentine course through the verdant plains,

of broad light

joins a line

which represents the distant Walar

lake.

Along

the horizon, on all four sides, there are

snowy

ranges,

bounding

the valley on the north, east and west, towards the Himalayas,

and on the south separating

it

from India.

At

the end of

summer,

after rain, there are breaks

in the long

snowy

line.

At

all

other seasons

the

whole horizon forms a

circle

of

uninterrupted snow.

Whether

in the Himalayas, or in the plains

and valleys of

the Indian continent, the trees constitute one of the chiefest

ornaments of the country.

provinces, are

Many

districts,

and even some

characterized
forests,

by sylvan beauty.

Among

the

mountains the cedar

umbrella-shaped

with their massive trunks and their

the ancient glories of Lebanon

foliage,

make

shrink into littleness by comparison.

as the Persians say, the grace of the

The cypress resembling,

human

stature, loves to

grow out
precipice.
leaflets,

of the

crevices of the rock or

on the brow of the

The

fir,

with

its

dependent branches and weeping

represents funereal melancholy.

groves,

The yew grows thick The

still

in

shadowy

where Druids might have worshipped.

forth

lofty

magnolia bursting

with white

blossoms seems

sprinkled with newly fallen snow.

casts its

The umbrageous plane

teak,

shadow over the

classic waters of Cashmir.

In the Indian continent, the

shoots

as the forest monarch,

up with an arrowy trunk, and a head crowned in summer flowers. The " coronetted " palmyra, the orange-coloured with
feathery date-palm, the tapering bamboo, cluster in the
or
fields,

around

the

homesteads.
agitated

The

casuariva

whispers

and
inter-

murmurs when
twines
its roots

by the

sea-breeze.
till

The pipal

with ruined buildings,

the masonry becomes

enveloped like Laocoon in the folds of the Python. with

its

The banyan,

tendrils drooping to the earth, forms trunk after trunk

;;

Chap.

ii.

TICTURESQUE EFFECT OF INDIAN COSTUMES.

21

in

rows like the supports of a Gotliic structure, viewed in

perspective, with arches of boughs

and a leafy

ceiling.

The
and
races

effect of

Indian scenery upon the mind

of the people, their

is

much enhanced

by the aspect
their
is

costumes, their equipages

of all the Indian

surroundings.
or
less

The complexion
dark and
is,

more

to that extent, uniform.

The Caucasian type

ordinary diversity.

of head

and

cast of countenance prevail,

is

the Mongolian being rare.

In other respects there

extraall

In physiognomy, in stature, and in

Bengali
differs

physical characteristics, the

widely from the

Sikh of the Panjab

the

the stately Rajput from the short Mahratta

;

the rough
refined

handsome Telugu from the dwellers in the Ganges valley Muhammadan on the Indus from his weaker but more
and gracefully shaped brethren of Madras.

Opinions

may

vary as to the relative merits or demerits of the aspect of

these several races.

Among

the Hindus, the Rajputs and the

Sikhs will

probably be thought the most picturesque, and

the Rathans of the trans-Indus frontier,

among the Muham-

madans.
often

In every part of India, both among rich and poor,

subjects can be found well

among homeless wanderers,

artist's

worthy of the

brush or pencil.

The Indian costumes

have a generic resemblance, though with

many

specific varieties.

In some parts of the country, say near Benares, or Lahore, or

Jeypore, or Madura, a gay crowd on festival days, with its sea
of turbaned heads, will present a brilliant
colour.

and varied mass of

After the sight of such comely multitudes, disappointfelt

ment may be

by

visitors

on meeting crowds at Calcutta or

is

in Bengal wdiere the dress

generally wliite;

though even
with

there, the light colours are often very effective in contrast

the rich greens of the foliage.

Among
to

the upper and middle classes on gala occasions, the

dresse? are quite resplendent with gorgeous colours, recalling

memory

the most ornate stories regarding the splendours of

mediteval Europe.

Yet the colours are not gaudy nor garish

though

florid,

they are not flashy.

Nowadays

in the costumes,

the Ijrightest fabrics of the west are tastefully mingled with the

22
rich dyes

INDIA IN
and
stuffs of the east.

1880.

CiiAP.

ii.

Though not versed

theme

in chro-

matic theories, the Natives are naturally gifted with an eye

for colour,

which renders

their practice the

of admiration,

even

among accomplished
still

persons.

This

talent

of

theirs

displays itself

more wdien the gentry,

and other
social rites.

chiefs or princes

hold

civil

and

religious ceremonies, or institute festivities in

celebration of marriages

Then the most

glowing descriptions of barbaric

of the strange
solidly

and curious

pomp and gold will fall short reality. Much of the show will be
precious metals shining, and
still

and substantially

real,

more precious stones

tinsel,

glittering.

Much

also will be the merest

spangle and finery.

Yet the
of the

effect of

tawdriness will be
of colour, under

mitigated or removed by the general

the
all-pervading
glare

harmony
or

sun,

in

the flare of the

torch-lights.

The embellishment

of the

equipages, once con-

spicuous in these spectacles, has been in part lost from the

introduction of European
vehicles.

The elephants, however,

as of old.

and the camels are caparisoned and bedecked

The

favourite bullocks, constituting the very pink of animal beauty,

are still to be seen drawing cars of antique build.
If

on any

signal occasion large

their

numbers

of elephants are marshalled, with

riders, a

ornamented trappings, and their gaily dressed

is

noble spectacle

presented.

When

in former times the troops,

w^ere,

or the untrained militia as

they really

of the Native

sovereigns used to be reviewed, their gait, arms and accoutre-

ments were attractive

have a uniform and

to the ordinary spectator,

though perhaps
these troops

not admirable to a professional eye.

Nowadays

drill in imitation of

the English army,

whereby the picturesque

effect is lost
Still,

without an equivalent
sovereign

gain in warlike precision.

when a Native

parades his state and dignity through his capital, scenes arise

not far short of those described by historians.

eyes, the radiant aspect, the

The gladdened
for

beaming
forth,

-faces

of the people, on

beholding

their

king issue

may

afford scope

the

reflections of moralists

and

politicians.

23

CHAPTER

III.

OBJECTS OF BEAUTY IN ART.

Ai'cliitccture luidtT Britisla rule

Interesting
caves,

views at Bombay, at Calcutta,

and on

lines of railway

Native architecture
monasteries

Buddhist
frescoes

European

churches and cathedrals

I'ock-cut

Beauty

of

temples,

pagodas and

Sacred mountains of the Jains Hindu Mention of the temples Mountain Beautiful palacesExcellence of Muhammadan architecture Interesting remains at many places Largest dome the world City of the dead Mosque, palace and tomb of Akber the Great Grand mosque Delhi Pearl Mosque at AgraMatchless beauty of Taj Mehal
or Brahmiuical structures
tresses
finest

Ancient

for-

in

ac

mausoleum.

The

objects of beauty in Indian art,

and especially of archi-

tecture, are equal to

those

in

nature, like
setting.

gems

set in gold,

where the jewels are worthy of their

For a long time the British Government contributed

or

little

nothing to the category of national architecture.

Indeed,

the style of
fective as to

many

British structures

was
to

so erroneous or de-

exercise a debasing

influence on

the minds

of
it

those Natives,

who might be induced

admire or imitate

as being the production of a dominant,

civilized, race.

and presumably a more

Most of the early buildings erected under and many of the recent buildings still are, of a plain and uncouth fashion architecturally, however useful or commodious they may be practically. Of late years the Government has moved in an esthetic direction, and at
British rule were,
Calcutta,

Madras and Bombay,

fine edifices

have sprung up
styles

in which the Gothic, Italian

and Saracenic

have been
of the

adapted with
east.

much

taste

and

skill to the necessities

department of architecture has been established, from

24
wliicli

INDIA IN
the

1880.

Chap. hi.
artistic

Native princes are beginning to obtain

designs for their palaces, colleges and civil structures.

At Bombay, along
tlie

the

shore of the bay,

there

is

a long

line of stately piles befitting a capital city in

any country of
with the blue

world,

some

of

which were designed by

as seen

Sir Gilbert Scott.

The view of them

them, the
several

from Malabar

Hill,

sea before them, the city on their flank, the

harbour behind
in

ranges of Concan

hills

the distance,

and the Western Ghat mountains bounding the horizon, has

often
It

been compared with the scenery of the bay of Naples.

probably

would

rival

the

Neapolitan

scenery,

if

only

there were the

transparent atmosphere and azure sky of the

Mediterranean.

In Calcutta, the Eden gardens, rich in tropical vegetation, and

embellished by ornamental water, form a fine foreground to the

view of the

State buildings.

There, on a clear evening, the

varied scenes, the semicircle of palatial structures, the foliage

and serpentine water of the gardens, the

tall

masts of the

shipping in the river close by, the moving crowd of horses and

equipages thronging the strand, the guns of Fort William overlooking the whole like sentinels, combined with the ceaseless

hum of voices, make up a marvellous effect. Many of the largest public works under
not designed for artistic
a very
effect,

British rule, though

do yet incidentally present

handsome appearance and have surroundings fraught

For example, the Bliore Ghat
incline,

with

interest.

between

Bombay and
to

Poona, where the railway ascends the Ghat range

feet,

a height of nearly 2000

has very fine scenery in the

rainy season,

away by the wind and display the precipitous and wooded mountain-sides,
the thunderclouds are blown

when

streaked in all directions with rain-swollen torrents, which leap

in

many

series of cascades

from the crests

to the bases of the

full

precipices.

This spectacle,
all

when seen

to

advantage,

is

admitted by

railway travellers to be one of the most remark-

able in the empire.

In the Madras I'residency, the railway, as

Chap. hi.
it rises

ARCHITECTURE UNDER BRITISH RULE.

25

from the Malabar coast at Beypore throTigh a gap in the

lofty granitic

Nilgiri mountains, with the

side, or as it

summits on

either

ascends from the Coromandel coast through the

to the central

wooded valleys

plateau, delights the traveller

with the sights to be seen as he rapidly passes onwards.

The

views are striking and sugg&stive, fi'om the pontoons which form
a
floating

passage across

the Hughli at

Calcutta, from the

railway viaduct a mile in length over the sandy bed of the

Sone river near Patna, from the bridges across the Jamna at
Allahaljad and at Delhi, from the lofty structure of iron-work,

imbedded deep in the ground, which crosses the

line over the

Nerbadda

at Broach.

The British Government has not yet constructed any sacred

edifice

which, in respect of ecclesiastical architecture, could be

placed in any high rank.

At many

stations in northern India,

however, handsome churches have been erected.

at the " Bailey guard " in

The mementos

Lucknow, where
at

so

much

of genius

and bravery
Englishman.

is

buried, stir

emotions in the breast of every

The memorial garden

Cawnpore, and the marble

figure of the angel over the

Well where the British victims of

the massacre repose after their sufferings, engage the reverent

and sorrowful regards of

all beholders.

The Portuguese
of

raised, at their chief settlements, cathedrals

much

architectural pretension according to the style of the

is

time.

In the midst of the ruins of old Goa,

the church,

whither congregations from

new Goa

occasionally resort,

and

where the remains of

the

St.

Francis Xavier are on great festivals

faithful.

exposed to the view of the

At Bassein near Bombay,

unroofed

Portuguese

churches

were

ruthlessly

by the
original

Mahrattas for the sake of the timber: but the walls, arches,

columns

and windows

still

bear

witness

to

the

grandeur of the structures.

The

ruins, interspersed

amongst

the dense foliage of the place, wear, by moonlight especially, a solemn and melancholy aspect.

Whatever be the estimation, favourable

or unfavourable, of

26

INDIA IN

1880.

CiiAP. in.

European achievements, attention

is

at present

centred and

fastened upon the art and of architecture under Native dynasties,

iwhich were rooted for centuries in the country,

making
The
is

there as
political

they hoped a lasting home, and were inspirited by

enthusiasm, social
pride and religious fervour.

Natives are sometimes thought to be deficient in the sense

of the picturesque
;

certainly they do not cultivate

it,

as

it

cultivated in Europe, and

they seldom express

is

it

in words.

But that they possess

of striking

it

naturally,

proved by their selection

for their edifices.
is

and beautiful situations

There

With

almost aK of their numerous structures, the beauty

increased

by advantages of

site.

is

hardly throughout the whole

continent a fine and effective position, on summit, eminence,

river-bank, junction of waters or
wliich they have failed to

commanding point of occupy with some structure.

it

prospect,

From
interest.

the

historic roll of these works,

is

only possible

to select those

which have victorious beauty or consummate

Buddhism
political

as

religious reformation,
left

and
its

as a social

and

movement,

grand traces of
effaced,

handiwork.

Of

these traces

many have been

;

while some yet remain,

though in a defaced state

many,

again, having been carved in

the hardest rock, are imperishable.

The

" topes," or

mounds, form an extensive

replete

class of remains.

They were
Their shape

originally

with beautiful ornamentation,

to the imagination.

which can now be recalled but imperfectly

is

that of enormous beehives raised hundreds of

or as memorials of

feet in height, as shrines enclosing relics,

religious events.

The most conspicuous among them

the Bhilsa group near Bhopal.

is

the principal " tope " of

This mighty

mound was
its

origi-

nally constructed in

masonry, coated with a thick envelope

in cement, and surmounted with a structure on

structure

apex

both

and casing have long been

lost.

It is placed

on the

Chap. hi.

BUDDIITST ROCK-CUT TEMPLES.

low
liills,

27

crest of a ridge of

and when

first

reared

must

liave
tlie

gleamed from
district.

afar, lilce a
its

beacon, to the inhabitants of

is

Around

base

a passage walled in with large

lofty

slabs of stone,

and divided into equal divisions by four

these two, the northern

gateways, of which two, the northern and the eastern, remain

standing.

Of

is

the

finest.

It is a

quaint and most suggestively beautiful remnant of the past.

Over the entrance there

is

a fajade consisting of sculptures in

grey stone, representing elephants and various figures, together

with the principal symbols of the Buddhist system.

diately behind
it,

Immewith
its

a tall tree has

grown up,

setting

off,

dark foliage, the hoary tints of the sculptures.

the form

delineation of

and
but

details of the northern gatew^ay has

been prefixed

to Fergusson's

work on Tree and Serpent worship.

Of

these

features,

little

has been destroyed, and quite enough remains

to enable the visitor to

understand what the structure must have

is

been.

plaster cast of the eastern gateway

in the Indian

Museum at South Kensington. Many of the rock-cut temples,

Buddliism.
of the

or the cave temples, belong to

The fondness
sides

for excavating their sacred places out

mountain

was a

characteristic of the early races of

especially,

India.
as at as at

Amidst the Western Ghat range of mountains

hills

Nasik and elsewhere, also amidst the Eastern Ghat range,

Khandagiri near Cuttak, in the

which branch

off

from

the

Vindhyas towards the Ganges, and in other

hill ranges, these

interesting excavations are to be found.

The
nearly

total

number

of

them, discovered as yet, amounts to

one

thousand.

Ofttimes, the traveller, arriving laboriously at the arched entrance

of

an excavation, peers curiously into the cavernous, and once

holy, recesses.

Turning round

for a

moment, he beholds the

spreading landscape, the very prospect which Buddhists of old

commanded,

as they

contemplated the wealth and civilization

at their feet,

of the plains

and valleys

whence the support of

In some of these places

these national institutions was derived.

are inscriptions graven

on the rock even as early as the reign

28

INDIA IN

1880.

CiiAP.

iii.

of the Buddhist emperor Asoka, the

historic iigure

shadowy outline of whose

still

looms grandly through the mists that

obscure

these times.

In the more modern of the Buddhist cave temples there

stone figure,
seated
or

is

standing, and

sometimes

colossal, of

Buddha, with the ineffable calm of impassibility in the countenance.

The

forefinger solemnly points to

warn men to look from

of dust,

mortality to immortality, from the seen things of time to the

unseen things of eternity.

indicates
tlie

The hand, holding a pinch

wise, yet grave,

insignificance of worldly greatness.

The bearing

and aspect are gentle and

severe.

and in some degree

group

Of the Buddhist caves and rock-cut temples, the

is

finest

that of Ajanta where, in a narrow and sequestered vale

among

the hills

which branch

off

eastwards from the Western Ghat

mountains, the trap rocks are almost honeycombed with the

excavations.

The

valley,

now an

utter

solitude

shut in by

mountain
living

barriers

from contact with the outer world, was once

priests,

thronged with a community of

in seclusion.

monks and worshippers

doorways, shrines,
sculptures gene-

The

pillars,

capitals,

seats for the priests, stalls for the

rally, are characterized

monks and

by simplicity of design and execution.

Some of the walls were decorated with frescoes, well drawn and richly coloured, representing domestic scenes, secular and
religious

ceremonies, festivals duriia^ peace and after victory

If these frescoes

in war, royal and priestly processions.

had

survived they would have been inestimably precious relics of

the past, but they have for the most part perished.

Enough,
of decay

however, of them remains to recall to

eye, the people

life,

before the imaginative

and things of that

;

period.

The process
is

can hardly be arrested

but the Government

;

causing copies to

be made of some among them

and copies of others were made

Gill.

by

their enthusiastic admirer

Major

To the Buddhists belong many of the caves at Elura, a- place ^\ hich was signalized by the achievements of the Brahminists

Chap. hi.
after the

BUDDIHST PAGODAS AND MONASTERIES.

29

overthrow of Buddhism, and which will Lc mentioned

presently.

Near the point where the railway incline surmounts the

lofty crest of the

Western Ghats, there

Its

is

a single cave taking

its

name from
roof arched
of the

the village of Karli.

doorways and fagades,

its
its

rows of columns with groups of elephants for their capitals,

and ribbed, render

it,

perhaps, superior to any one

it

Ajanta caves, and constitute

the finest

known specimen
a temple

of a Buddhist excavation,

Near the city of Gya in Behar, there

in form resembling the
is

is

at

Buddh Gya

reared straight from the ground to a height of a hundred feet,

Hindu temples dedicated

basement.
still

to Shiva.

It

a tower broad at the base and tapering towards the top, with
flight of

an outer

steps at the

From
fate

the terrace

at the top of the

basement there
tree,

projects

the withered

trunk of the sacred

in

harmony with the

which has
there are

overtaken the structure.

the ruins of a
still

At Sarnath near Benares,

is

grander fane.
a Buddhist population

In Sikhim near Darjiling there

types of Buddhism.

which enables the observer to study the modern and debased

Their chaxDcls and monasteries are placed in
the midst of beautiful

Himalayan

scenery, overlooked

by the
shaped

snowy
like
pillars

range,

and surrounded by

forests.

The

roofs are

vast umbrellas with

overshadowing eaves;

the wooden
ijorticoes

of the doorways are richly painted

and the

adorned with frescoes.

At

the entrances there pass in and out

processions of high priests, abbots and monks, arrayed in vest-

ments of red and purple.

The

large images of

Buddha have the

In one of
a threefold

same mien and expression

shape.

as the ancient scidptures.

the chapels the representation of

Buddha assumes
is

In the centre of the group

the

deity, or abstract

wisdom, in

whom
is
;

no sex male or female can be distinguished

on the right

he

sacred apparel
policy,

on the

who promulgated the faith, and who wears a left is he who propagated it by arms and
;

and who has a martial garb

the figures being

three

'SO

INDIA IN
lif^-size.

1880.

Chap.

hi.

times the

The material

of these remarkable images

;

is

terra-cotta of Thibetan

workmanship

the figures

are

highly

and

tastefully coloured,

and seen in the subdued

Sanctity attaches alluding to his

light of the

chapel, with

some
artistic

of the richly clothed priests in

effect.

the front,

produce an

to the

group

recently, an aged

monk when
;

own

end,

was

asked whither he was going

tliat

he replied, pointing to the

figures,

he was going to meet those beings in another world.

In Nepal there are two large Buddhist pagodas of the Burmese

type.

One

of these

is

on an eminence

to

which the ascent leads

by a

flight of steps.

The

traveller toiling

up the

stairs in the

shade of the

trees, casts

a longing gaze at the brilliantly gilt

apex of the pyramid, which seems so close above him, and yet
so hard to reach.
.

In British Burma, living Buddhism

vantage.

may

be seen to

fair

ad-

The

forests

supply the richest material, teak and other

woods, for building, and suggest to the builders those designs

which are derived from the shapes developed in sylvan growth.

Consequently, the wooden structures and the wood-carvings in
the Burmese pagodas are extraordinarily elaborate.

The

rich

sombre and uniform colour of the wood and the shaded

pillars, ceilings, cornices

light,

save the eye from being tired by the infinitude of detail in the

and pinnacles.

To these dark backthe Irawaddy river,

grounds, the priests, with their orange and saffron coloured vest-

ments, give a graceful

there
is

relief.

At Prome, on
hills,

a cluster of

low wooded

which are covered with

numerous pagodas, rearing their pointed finials somewhat like the masts of shipping and surmounted by tapering structures
cased with gilt copper.

The

arcliitecture is in

unison with the

also,

palms, plantain-trees and groves around.

At Moulmein
it

the heiglits are crowned with pagodas whence a noble landscape

may

be surveyed, with the city in front, behind

the plain

watered by three converging rivers and the horizon bounded by

the mountains of Siam.

At Rangun,

the Shwe-dagong, or

Dagon pagoda,

is

among

the

Chap. hi.
cliief

SACKED MOUNTAINS OF THE JAINS.

tlio

ol

ornaments not only of Burma, but of

Placed on a wooded ridge,

British Indian
of near

empire.

it rises to tlie heiglit

300

feet

with

its

towering structure, encased with, burnished

series of delicate curves

gilding,

and narrowed gradually by a

towards an apex shaded by the sacred " htee "

or

umbrella.

Seen from a distance,

it

seems to spring up from

among

tlie

groves with a pyramid shining in the sunlight, and then to

shoot up into the sky with an obelisk of flame.

The Jains possess many

India.

fine structures in different parts of

The adherents of the Jain

faith

occupy

tlie

summits of

the forest-clad Paras-nath which overlooks the plains of western

Bengal, and of

Abu

wliich stands as a lofty outwork of the

Aravali range.
is

Their religious stronghold in the present time,

on the heights of the solitary Satrunj mountain, near Palitana

in the peninsula of Kathiawar.

The numerous

cupolas, obelisks

and

spires, often bright

with the whitest marble, seem to pierce

are laden
^^ith

the sky.

The shrines

the weight of gorgeous

of the sect

offerings, sent

by the wealthy members

from almost

every populous city in the empire.

edifices, half

From
is

the terraces of the

temples half fortresses,

plains, once

to be seen

an extensive
cities,

view of the rich

studded with historic

sites

of

which the names alone survive, even the

being untraceable.

On

the horizon are the waters of the Gulf of

Cambay.

The Hindu,
Buddhist;
served.

or Brahminist in contradistinction to Buddhist,

remains are often, though not always, more recent than the
they are therefore more numerous and better pre-

The Brahminist Hindus excavated some

rock-cut temples.

of the finest of the

To them

chiefly belongs the series of exca-

vations in the Deccan,

this

known
The

as the caves of Elura.

Among

wonderful set of works, the temple of Kailas (or Hindu

is

paradise)

pre-eminent.
of the

architects first hewed, out of the

trap formation

hill-side, a

broad passage
first

all

round a
solid

rocky mass, leaving this mass in the

instance a

32
block.

INDIA IN

1880.

CiiAF. in.

Inside this block, again, they hollowed

out spacious

chambers, on the interior walls of which they sculptured figures.

On

the

exterior also of the block they carved

a variety of

devices.

They then coated the whole with many-coloured

Thus they produced a fane
as large as a
all,

pigments.

modern

church, not built, founded or constructed at

solid

hnt excavated

and entire out of the precipitous rocks of the mountain.

outer sides of the surrounding passage they
for

Lastly, from the

excavated niches

sculptures.
its

This

train

of operations

renders the temple unique of

kind in the empire.

On

the same side of the mountain with the Kailas temple are
of

numerous rock-cut temples,

Elura so famous.

which the

interiors are richly

and elaborately carved, and which have made the name of

The island

of Elephanta in the

Bombay harbour
interest.

has some

Brahminical caves of almost equal

The

visitor,

while

gazing in the dim light at the gigantic sculptured figures, and

the massive yet richly carved columns, looks tlirough a vista
stretching towards the bright landscape

and the blue waters.

and expansiveand dimenhowever,

In the Hindu temples of recent centuries, in northern and

Oeiitral India, there
is

want

of height, size

ntss.

Ingenuity seems to have been bestowed on ornamenin

detail,

tation

while the general

neglected.

proportions

sions
is

were

comparatively

This

fault,

not perceptible in the Hindu

temples of the elder time,

which are distinguished

the

for breadth of conception,

grandeur of
details to

design, correctness of proportion

and subordination of

main

features.

In Cashmir, the ruined fane of Martand (or the sun)

consisting of huge blocks of dark stone.

is

massive in construction and plain in ornament; the material

It has

compartments
cloistered

somewhat
ture

like nave, transepts, aisles,

and an extensive

enclosure, of

which the gateways were magnificent.

to
resist the

The
Tlie

strucvisitor.

was meant

ravages of time.

Chap. in.

HINDU OR BRAHMINICAL STRUCTURES.

its

33

observing

broken arches, overthrown columns and leaning

sides, perceives that

some earthquake must have caused a de-

struction

which

is

manifestly apart from the process of decay.

Inspection disproves the truth of the tradition which attributes

the mischief to

Muhammadan

iconoclasts.

These ruins grey,

with their background of Cashmir landscape and of snowy

mountains, form an impressive object.

At Patau near Katmandu,

by the Gorkhas.
eaves,

the capital of Nepal, are the

temples of the aboriginal Hindu dynasty which was overthrown

These fanes are

still

in good

preservation.

Their roofs, tipped with gilt copper cupolas, have overhanging

somewhat

after the

Thibetan or Chinese fashion.

Their

masonry
sistency

consists of bricks of great size,

baked

to a firm con-

and covered with a

sort of

pink enamel.

Their black-

wood carvings
stories.

are set off with ornaments of burnished brass,

resembling shields.

They have considerable height with

also

several

Their background

consists

in

part

of

snowy

mountains.

At Brindaban on
of the birth

the river

the most classic ground of

Jamna near Mathra and A^ra, in Hindu mythology, where the scene
laid, there is

and childhood of the god Krishna was

Hindu

fane,

having proportions and dimensions somewhat like

those of a church,

and

built with grand material, the

stone

being of a deep red colour.

is

The

interior, fairly well-preserved,

the

best example of

Hindu

art in

the plains of northern

India.

On
called

the

seashore of Orissa,
at sea

stands
it

the

Black Pagoda, so
It is a

by mariners

who
is

regard

as a landmark.
is

noble ruin, although what

the great temi^le
to
itself.

now

seen

only the vestibule of

felt

There has been doubt

by some

as

whether the structure was ever completed, or after completion sank from failure of the foundations laid in a sandy soil it probably was completed. If finished in the same proportions
;

and

detail

with wliich

it

was begun,

it

the most beautiful buildings ever raised by

must have been one of Hindu hands. The

D

34

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. hi.

ruin inspires sentiments tinged with melancholy, standing as

it

does near the beach, with the billowy sands surging round

it,

and within sound of the sea waves. At Mahabalipuram near Madras, masses of rock
selves
littoral

rear

them-

up on the

sea-side,

protruding through the low-lying

ground or the sandy beach.

Upon
laid

each one of these

their

separate rocks the

Hindu

arcliitects

transforming

hands,

hewing the shapeless masses into shapely forms of

top,

dome, cupola and convex

based not upon
stone.

and excavating stately

interiors,

artificial foundations, but

upon the everlasting

The

finest

of these rock-cut fanes is second only to

that of Kailas

at Elura,

already described.

the vicinity is built in the ordinary

One temple in way upon rocks jutting

laid the

out into the

sea,

and the surf

It
"

at

high tide dashes up the

steps at its entrance.

was near here that Southey

scene of his poem,

The Curse of Kehama."

this respect unlike northern or central

In southern India, in
India, the

Hindu temples
as
is

of recent centuries

have imposing

proportions

well as

most elaborate ornamentation.

The

temple

itself

usually lofty, and stands in the midst of a

is

spacious courtyard, which

or

surrounded by walls and has one

more

"

Goparums

"

or

gateways, often as

many

as

four.

Sometimes there are several enclosures, one within the

multiplied.

other,

each having gateways, in wliich case the number of gateways

is

These lofty gateways have magnificent facades,

architects,

reflecting

honour upon the Hindu

and constituting

some

of the

most noteworthy features in the country.

Such
In one

are the gateways at Tanjore, at Srirangam, on the sacred island

in the river Cavery near Trichinopoly, and at Madura. of the principal courtyards at Tanjore there
is

the figure of a

sacred bull about twenty feet high, a granite monolith;

men

nowadays marvel how the vast block was carved and transported to
its

present

site.

Often the taste of the architects

displayed itself in the construction of noble colonnades, such

Chap. in.
as that at

MENTION OF THE FINEST TEMPLES.

Rameshwaram, on one
of the islands of

35

which ahnost connects India with Ceylon.

tion to the fanes
aisles,

Adam's bridge, At Madura, in addi-

and gateways, there are numerous courtyards, corridors and colonnades, replete with figures carved in
fine perspective

stone,

and often presenting a

with a beautiful

play of light and shade.

The precincts

are crowded with the

sell

busy and gaily dressed multitudes of those who buy and

in the temple;

the scene in

its

way

is

hardly equalled any-

where

else in the empire.

Benares, in the north, which notwithstanding rival claims to

pre-eminence, must be regarded as

the

most sacred

city of

Hinduism, has a host of temples, none of which are remarkable

for their dimensions.

The

city, lining

the liigh bank of the

Ganges, can best be viewed from a barge, dropping gently

the current at sunrise,
the holy river.

down

when
is

the people issue forth to bathe in

Then

perceived the unequalled river-frontage

of towers, lattices, porticoes, spires

and

cones.

the the

names

of all the principal Native sovereigns

The palaces bear and chiefs of

dedicated
terraces

Hindu faith in all parts by Hindu piety to

that his

of the empire.
all

and stone platforms,

The structures are manner of religious uses, with on some of which every earnest
after

Hindu prays

body

death

may

be burned to
state.

ashes as the best passport to a

steps, flight after flight, are

new and

happier

The

thronged with multitudes eagerly

pressing for immersion in the water which, according to their

faith,

washes away

sin.

The architectural ambition of the Hindus was not limited

sacred
structures, but

to
for

extended to palaces and buildings

royal uses, to fortresses, and also to Vv'orks of public utility,

whereby the names

of founders

might

live

in the grateful

memory
The

of posterity.

particular wells,

known by

the

name

of

" Baoli " are

contrivances on a laborious scale for ensuring a supply of water

at all seasons in arid tracts. to a

Enormous

cisterns are excavated

depth of a

hundred

feet or more,

with broad steps leading

D 2

36

INDIA IN
to the deepest part

1880.

Chap. in.
galleries at various
fall

down

and with spacious

heights all

round the reservoir, according to the rise and

of

the water at the several seasons so that there

to it always.

may

be access

The

finest

specimens of this remarkable class of

structures are found in the province of Grujerat on the west coast.

Sometimes towers were erected of stone-work elaborately

carved, in celebration of victories
of the Italian campaniles.
;

of a shape resembling that

is

Notable among these

the tower

of victory at Chitorgarh in Eajputana, a

placed on
of

a celebrated hill and looks

monument which is down upon the scene

some

of the

most gallant deeds ever performed by Eajput

Gwalior on the confines of Hindostan, of

patriotism.

The

fortresses of

Asirgarh in the Satpura range, of Daolatabad and Gawilgarh

in the Deccan, of

Guty

in the

Madras Presidency,

of

Nandidurg

in Mysore, frown sternly from their beetling crags, and have

features of rugged grandeur enhancing the effect of their historic
associations.

The picturesque Mahratta hill forts, built on rocky eminences in the Western Ghat range, were the eyries whence Sivaji, like
an
eagle,

used to swoop upon the plains, namely, Junir, where

;

he was born

Eajgurh, where he founded his predatory rule

Pertabgurh, where he openly rebelled against the

Muhammadans

and assassinated
and controlled

their

envoy

Eaegurh, where he held his court

till

all

western India

death closed his reign.

The scenery around these places is in unison with the momentous events which occurred in them. Little, save mounds and hillocks and the remnants of structures here and there, remains to mark the extensive site of the
ancient
city

Ghogra.
eloquence

of Ayodhya, The splendour of

or

Ajudhia, on the banks of the

this city is the

theme

of descriptive

in

the

epic

poetry of

the Hindus.
its

And

every

educated Hindu turns his thoughts towards

glory as the

representative of the golden and heroic epoch of his nation.

Near Bijayanagar,

in

the

Madras Presidency, where the

Chap. in.

BEAUTIFUL PALACES.
their
final,

37

Hindus made

but ineffectual, stand against the

conquerors,
there
exist

encroachments of the

Muhammadan
Hindu
art

the remains of magnificent temples, the best memorials of

some

of wliich are

among

and

architecture, while others

have

lofty,

though gloomy,

interiors.

The ruins

of the city

cover an extensive area; the palaces and many-storied towers,

the stone platforms raised for witnessing state spectacles, the

fountains and conduits, the elephant stables, have a style of

antiquated simplicity, which

there solid rocks are

is

most

interesting.

Here and
site

hewn and
divine

fashioned into gigantic and

grotesque figures

of

incarnations.

The
cliffs

of

the

city is remarkable, in the

midst of granite

and boulders,
with

watered by canals from the rock-bound stream of the Tungabadra.

The scenery of the

pillars of the

river,

with

its

rapids,

its

rocky barriers mirrored in the placid pools, and with

the
is

monolith

ancient viaducts

still

standing,
place.

in

harmony with the

The palaces
of

historic halo

which surrounds the

Hindu kings

are often built on the

margin

of artificial lakes, in the midst of

which are

islets

adorned with

gardens and summer-houses.

brated palaces at

Such, particularly, are the celein Eajputana.

Udeypur

Such, also,

is

the

situation of the palaces at Ambair, the old capital of

State, near the

the Jyepur

modern and well-planned

It

city of Jyepur.
is

The
com-

palatial

summer-pavilion at Dig, near Bhurtpur,

of

paratively recent construction.

embodies

many

of the finest

principles of Indian architecture,

and

is

the most beautiful of

the modern structures.

Amongst the old palatial buildings there may be noticed the palace of Mandla near Jaba]pur in central India, specially remarkable as having been constructed by an aboriginal dynasty
of Gonds,

and of Chandragarh near Arcot in the south, where

is

the native chief

said to have signed

away

to the

East India
is

Company
of the

the strip of what was then sand, but

city.

now

the site

Madras

38

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. hi.
is

Foremost among the palaces of India

Tirumal Naik at Madura.
bules, anterooms
Its courtyards

the palace built by

its vesti-

and arcades,

and

halls of audience, its rotund chambers,

vaulted roofs and arches lofty as those of a church, combine to excite the admiration of the beholder and to render

name of its founder renowned. memory of Tirumal Naik, by reason

the
tradition of his tragic end.

A mystery

enshrouds the

of the generally received

It is believed that searcliing for

hidden treasure he was enticed into a subterranean chamber by

some Brahmin
left

conspirators,

who suddenly

closed the door,

and

him

to starve in darkness.

The Muhammadan

architecture

is

one of the chief ornaments

of the Indian empire,

and has the highest claims upon the

in

attention of Englishmen.

The Muhammadans
secular

India can indeed boast of

many

structures

of size

and beauty,

forts, palaces,

halls of

audience, summer-houses, colleges, caravanserais

places.

and marketedifices,

But

their highest efforts

were given to religious

Saints being
their

mosques, shrines and tombs.

costly shrines were
raised

much

venerated,

to preserve

example in the

mind

of the faithful.

Though

tomljs were often built in affecstill

it

tionate

remembrance of the departed,

for so

was sometimes
life-

the custom for sovereigns to build their mausolea in their

time,

which accounts

many tombs

being so magnificent.

Some conquering
more beautiful

dynasties have bequeathed more

monuments
left

of usefulness as signs of their occupation, but

traces of their conquest, than the

none ever

Muhammadans.

In boldness of design and breadth of idea they always equalled

and often surpassed the Hindu

term.
all

art,

and

infinitely excelled it in
artistic sense of

respect of taste, in the most aesthetic

and

the

They

were in the very first rank of the architects of

nations, ancient or modern, respecting simplicity of form,

adjustment of proportions, gracefulness of curvature, chasteness

of

ornament and quality

of

colouring.

Some

of their later

CiiAP.

III.

EXCELLENCE OF MUHAMMADAN ARCHITECTURE. 39

poems, so
artistic

structures were like

was the composition.

The combination of these merits in the highest degree was

hardly attained
reached
itself
its
till

the reigns

of the

Mogul emperors, and

Still, it

zenith in the time of Shah Jehan.

first;

shewed
or
its

almost from the very

there,

despite

some crudeness

awkwardness here and

progress
to

and something of angularity,

may

be traced from dynasty to dynasty, from province

province, from century to century.

till

Nor did
later

it

suffer

any
at

deterioration

buildings
edifices,

were,

in

days,

erected

Lucknow.
to

These

however

lofty or imposing,

belong

an

inferior style of art.

Thus, for example, the structures

province of Gujerat near Bombay,

at

Ahmedabad

in

the

may

not present specimens

which could be singled out

for special

mention, but nevertheless

are replete with beautiful details of interest to every student of

architecture.

similar interest attaches itself to the buildings,

sacred and secular, at Bijapur, at Golconda, and at Bedar, all in

the Deccan

to the ruins of

Mandu

in central India

to the

remains of Toglilakabad and other

the site of the comparatively

cities,

wdiich were built near

city of Delhi
;

modern
;

to the

mosques at Jounpur near Benares

to

the ruins of
is,

Gour in
however,
these

Bengal, including the fine Adina mosque, which

much overgrown by
there are

the teeming vegetation.

Among
for notice.

some structures which must be chosen

At

Bijapur, the

dome

of the

tomb

of king

Mahmud is the largest

Its structural
all architects.

in the world, exceeding even the

duomo of Florence.

arrangements are well worthy of being studied by

It is one of the

most imposing, though hardly one of the most

In beauty
it is

beautiful, buildings in the empire.

surpassed

by the mausoleum

of king Ibrahim close by.

At Golconda,
of the kings, at

near Hyderabad, the collection of

domed tombs

the foot of the frowning citadel, has caused the place to be

named

the city of the dead.

Cairo.

It

of the Caliphs near

somewhat resembles the tombs Near Delhi, the Kutab Minar,

soaring aloft to a prodigious height, in shape

somewhat

like

an

40
obelisk,

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. in.

and covered with elaborate carvings, has excited the

all beholders.

wonder and admiration of

Mogul empire was first consolidated by Akber the Great, are the mosque and palace built by him as a country seat at Fatehpur Sikri, near Agra also his tomb at Sikandra in the same neighbourhood. The design of
Of a
later period,

when

the

these buildings

is

very

fine,

and the contrast of colour in the

white marble, and the dull-

material afforded

by the

brilliant

red sandstone,
recalls
it

is

remarkable.

The

style

in

some respects

memories of Hindu architecture,

triumphs which followed.

wliile in other respects

displays nascent beauty, and affords promise of the arclii-

tectural

The emperor, though a

his queens

Moslem, was imbued with cosmopolitan ideas respecting religion

and philosophy, and had chosen one of
from a royal

Hindu house
called

in Eajputana.
at Lahore, one built

The two mosques

by imperial
minister,

orders,

and

" Padshahi," the other built

by a

and called
of the

"Waziri," are in a more advanced

style.

The body

Padshahi mosque
are of marble.

is

of red sandstone, wliile the three cupolas

is

The Waziri mosque

quite different, being

floral devices.

adorned with exquisitely coloured glazing in

The Muhammadan

artists cultivated the art of fixing beautiful

colours on earthy substances.

The number

of such

men

being

limited, they died out during the wars

and revolutions, leaving

Traces of

no successors in
structure

their art

which has thus perished.

the art survive, however, in the mosque at Tatta in Sind, which

is

the

gem

of that province.

The Muhammadans
in
wliite

also

practised the art of mosaic with inlaid stones, imitating leaves

and flowers with coloured

This art
still

stones, inserted

marble.

survives

The

"

Jama "

among their descendants. mosque at Delhi, of a later period,

is is

built

by the

emperor Shah Jehan,

in good preservation as one of the prime

ornaments of the empire, and

probably the most beautiful

mosque on a very
world.

large scale that has ever been seen in the

Its vast dimensions, swelling cupolas

and

lofty arches

Chap. hi.
its

PEARL MOSQUE AT AGRA.

41

spacious courtyard, arcades, gateway, cloisters

steps,
is

produce ultimately an imposing

first

effect.

and flight of But even this

his

hardly perceived at
is

by the beholder, because

its

ad-

miration
its

so riveted

by the grace of
its

forms, the nicety of

proportions, the delicate adjustment of its

colouring.
its

component

parts,

and the harmony of

For the material of

this

noble structure the marble lends

stone
its finest red.

brightness and the sand-

Besides the "

built
for

Jama " mosque

for the

which, as

its

name

implies,

was

the general attendance of all the faithful,

special

mosques were designed

self

attendance of the emperor himsuite.

or

of

liis

immediate family and

In the palace
mosque, built

precincts, inside the fortress of Agra, there is a

by the same emperor,

marble.
well
it

of faultless construction, entirely in white

It

was named the Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque, and

It

deserves that designation.

possesses

superb characteristics ascribed to the

inferior to the

many Jama mosque.

is

of the
It is

Jama mosque
loveliness.

in size, but

superior even to

that

mosque in

It is carefully preserved

by the

State as one of the most precious

gems

of the empire. of
tliis

The spectator standing in the courtyard

Pearl

Mosque

mth
the

the gateway beliind him, the arcades on either hand, and

its

mosque with

cupolas in front, beholds notliing but sky

lifts

and marble.

As he

up

his eyes towards the dazzling white,

the cloudless sky has an intense azure.

The

perfect contour

of the cupolas strikes the vision, while the atmosphere behind

seems

to

have

infinite depth.

Then, under the arches in the

broad recesses of the building, there are the cool shades of the
marble, diversified by the play of reflected lights, and affording
grateful relief to the eye fatigued witlt beauty.
edifice for divine

A more

lovely

worship has probably never been

erected.

The supreme

effort of

Muhammadan

genius was the design and

construction of the

mausoleum

erected at

Agra by the emperor

Mumtaz-i-Mahal,

Shah Jehan in memory

of his beloved empress

whence the building has acquired the common name of the Taj

42
Mahal.

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. hi.
assisted in the details

Some

Italian artists

may have

of the ornamentation.

But

to the

Muliammadan alone belongs

tliis

the imperishable renowm of having reared

the peerless

queen of
maintain

all

the structures in India, perhaps in the world.

The
all

British authorities, proud of possessing this unequalled treasure,

it

in good preservation and adorn

its

gardens with
it

the choicest flowers of the West.

People who have seen

con-

stantly during the greater part of their lives, never tire of seeing
it

again and again.

Artists despair of representing

it

on canvas

and in truth no drawing that can be made, no account that can

be given, will do justice to
it.

There

is

almost equal

diffi-

culty in analysing the reasons

beautiful.

why

it

appears so exceedingly

Doubtless, the colouring

is

one important cause.

The marble which, in that dry climate, is but little sullied by the stains of time and at a short distance seems, in the sunlight,
to be pure as

a snow-wreath, the liquid blue of the sky in

the cloudless winter season, the sombre green of the funereal

cypresses, contribute to the effect,

which every one

feels

but

none can fully explain.

liigher causes
;

There must, however, be other and

among

these are the perfect proportions and the

exact balancing of one part against the other.

tliis

In support of

view

it

may

be noted that in other places, imitations on a

smaller scale have been attempted, with only slight deviations

from the form and proportions of the

is

original,
lost.

but the

effect

marred, the beauty gone, the resemblance

If the edifice
still

be well-nigh indescribable when viewed by day,

it

more does

transcend description

if

seen by night,

when

the moonlight

rests

upon the marble, and by contrast deepens the gloom of

the cypress shades.

When

all

nature

is

hushed, a sentiment

arises of solitude in the pale presence of the

monument,

until

the

liistoric

dead ascend in dim procession before the imagina-

tion,

and a feeling of awe mingles with a sense of the over-

powering beauty of the scene.

43

CHAPTER

IV.

EUROPEAN CLASSES, OFFICIAL AND NON-OFFICIAL.

Importance of
competition
the

Covenanted Civil Service

duties
of
civil

Interesting
names
officers

Eesults
servants

of

Historic
and
of

new system names

of of

Civil Servants in the past

Distinguished
officers

Military

officers in civil

political

employ

among them

Eminent

engineers The clergy Military and Uncovenanted European and East-Indian Non-official Euroi)eans Mercantile finns Chambers of commerce Indigoplanters Tea and coffee-planters The Anglo-Indian

Medical

Several
civil

classes

covenanted

prelates

officers

press.

The Covenanted
country.

Civil Service

is

the most important class in the

of

It consists of

928
;

officers,

whom

7 are Natives, and

the remainder 921 English

there are 623 in the Presidency of

It

Bengal, 158 in that of Madras, and 147 in that of Bombay.

represents before the Natives the essential tonalities of British

rule,

and personally symbolizes

to

them the mind and intent

of

the Government.

It supervises the collection of the revenue,

the repression of crime, the administration of justice,

relations of the State

and the

with the people.

There are some impor-

tant matters, indeed,

official

which are in great part managed by other

the
education,

classes

such as the finances, the public works, the

relations,
liigher

political

and foreign
the

the

application of English law, the general legislation; though in

these
share.

also

Covenanted Civil Service has a considerable

But

in so far as the action of

Government concerns
for

or

affects the daily Kfe, the

domestic comfort and the ordinary

for

affairs

of the peox^le,

the arbitrament

weal or

woe

rests

with

the Covenanted Civil Service.

officially

The members

of this Service,

termed the Civil Servants, are generally too much

absorbed in the work before them to reflect

position.

They

are conscious of being

much on their own representative men in the

44
eyes of the Natives.
of

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. iv.

According to their conduct, the character

is

England herself

measured by the mass of the Indian

in India evince unpopular

people.
qualities,
interior.

Even

if

some Englishmen
little

they are seen but

by the population in the

demeanour,
life

But the

disposition, temper, ability,

and conversation
to millions of

of the

Covenanted Civil Servants, are familiar

of the

men.

Thus the Natives, when thinking

live,

government under which they

and of the nation from

which

it

emanates, judge mainly from what they see of the

It is well that

Civil Servants.

England should be gauged by

the standard of some of her best sons.

More than twenty

years have elapsed since a fundamental

change was made in the mode of appointing

instead of being nominated

men

to this Service,

according to which they are admitted by open competition,

by the Directors
so

of the East India

Company.

The Service enjoyed

much

repute under the

Company, and had w^on such

historic fame, that the results of

the change from nomination to competition have been awaited

with some anxiety by English opinion.

sation in English
society turns

Wlienever the converIndia, the question is

upon

asked whether the new class of Civil Servants, who enter

by competition,

is

equal to the old class of Civil

Servants

who

entered by nomination, and wdiether on the whole the

is

change

working successfully.

The answer may be given in The change has not

all
it

the affirmative without any hesitation.

produced, and probably will never produce,

its

the benefit which

is

advocates and admirers predicted, but

producing the

benefit

which might

fairly

be expected.

The competition does

not indeed allure the most successful alumni of the universities

Kingdom. Nor is that combination of ability and energy in unison, which amounts to genius, found more in
in the United

the

new

Service than in the old, for this quality, which never

has been, and doubtless never will be, wanting

among

British

people in India, cannot be tested by examination and will not

be ensured by regulation.

But young men

are procured, of

Chap.

iv.

THE COVENANTED CIVIL SERVICE.

45
inas

more than average acquirements and more than ordinary

dustry.

Under the
Such

old system of nomination, inferior

men

regards diligence
sionally.

and capacity crept into the Service occawhich must be specially harmful in a

instances,

country like India, are not found under the system of competition.

Some men

will prove to be unsuited,

by habit

of

mind
sion
;

or from physical failings, for the

work

of their profes-

but such cases are infrequent.

effect

The predictions formerly

be mere book-

hazarded to the

that

many men would

worms, inapt in horsemanship and other pursuits essential or

incidental to an administrative career, have happily failed to

be verified by the event.

Formerly the mettle of the old

Service was sorely tried in the pacification of newly annexed

territories, or in

quelling disturbances and rebellions.

Eecently

the spirit of the

pestilence

new

Service has been evoked

of people.

by famine and
Its

menacing many millions

to be surpassed in

members
They

have in these

fiery trials displayed zeal, constancy,

endurance,

and energy not

Anglo-Indian annals.

are filling the office of Magistrate

districts

throughout the empire

and Collector in almost all the an office which concerns more

immediately the welfare of the Natives than any other.

Some

of

them
tariat

are arriving at a position

which

entitles the holders to

fill

the higher administrative posts.

They

are entering the secre-

under the several Local Governments, and the secretariat

of the
seat in

Government
the

of India

one of them has just obtained a

Council of the Governor-General.

Most

of the
ofl&ces

district judgeships are

now

held by them, which are also

;

of direct concern to the welfare of the Natives of

and soon some

them

will be ascending the

bench of the High Courts.

In general terms there are two branches in the work of

Covenanted Civil Servants, the executive or administrative, and

the judicial.

Formerly in some divisions of the empire, the men

were interchangeable between the two branches, while in other

divisions

they have long been kept separate.

But
is

at

the

present time, the plan almost universally adopted

in this

46
wise.

INDIA IN
The young
officers are, for a

1880.

Chap.
all

iv.

very few years,

employed

in the executive or administrative branch, in order to

familiar with the vernacular, the
people.

become
of the

ways and the customs

by a
final distribution,

They

are then divided

some

being assigned to the executive or administrative branch and

some
In

to the judicial, according to the needs of each

branch

after that, they are not interchanged

between the two branches.

this

distribution, the

aptitudes, acquirements

and

prefer-

ences of individuals are considered as

sistently with the necessities

much
service.

as possible con-

of the

Though many
judicial line,
is

men from

the

first

bend

their

minds towards the

yet with the majority the executive or administrative line

regarded as the more interesting of the two.

It is in the administrative line that a

man

as Magistrate

and

Collector receives charge of a district, with an area of 3000 to

5000 square miles, and a population of one

Looking
at

to

two millions.

the

great

and varied

interests

entrusted to his

keeping in relation to the revenue, the treasury, the landed

tenures, the j)olice, the magistracy, the prisons, the public education, the municipalities, the sanitation, the local

funds and the

works of material improvement

emergencies in which

at the

all his energies

many contingencies and may be summoned for the

;

at the relations which must be maintained with all classes of the Natives in a firm, judicious, considerate and conciliatory manner; he comes to

preservation of the people from danger

regard his district almost with the same sort of feelings with

which a great landowner regards

his broad estate.

He

learns

to take a lively interest in the concerns of the district, in the

industries of the people, in their manufactures, their productions, their trade, their festivals

and

their local customs.

With

many
ship.

individuals

among them, he
must

will form a lasting friendcultivate is a discriminating

One

of the faculties he

insight into the character

and disposition of those with

will be surrounded
this very faculty,

whom

he comes in contact.

He

by many Natives
and who

who

are themselves

endowed with

Chap.

iv.

DUTIES OF CIVIL SERVANTS.

47

intuitively perceive, or learn

by subtle observation, the strong

and the weak points in the character of every Englishman in

authority.

He

will oft be surrounded

by

flatterers,

and will

constantly meet with those

deceive him.
ideas, feelings

who

desire to mislead, cajole or

In seeking

for

an expression of the sentiments, he must be careful

and

reflections of the Natives,

not to let his

own view be
;

perceived, nor to evince

any sign of a

foregone conclusion

for

they are but too apt to cliime in with

the opinion of official Europeans, or at least to avoid indicating

any opinion of

their

guard in this respect

own to the contrary. If he be not on his when conversing with Natives, he will
are very reserved in communicating
it

find that instead of ascertaining their views, he is only hearing

an echo of his own.

As they

their views to official Europeans,

is

harder for him to reach

the inner

mind

of the Natives, than for a non-official European,

before wiiom they have less reserve

and with

whom

they will

converse without fear of possible consequences.

Wliile inces-

santly watchful against wrongfulness concealed under specious

and plausible masks, he must beware of the uncharitable

insinuations against their neighbours, in which Natives are too

prone to indulge and which are more dangerous than open accusations.

There

is

nothing which good Natives,

who do

their

duty incurring enmity thereby, dread so much as the risk of

their conduct being traduced before

him by

covert suggestions,

and of

his

mind being

poisoned, as

it

were, and set against them.

Wliile cautious

not to allow interested persons to

make

separate or personal representations to

him regarding matters

to all sorts

under investigation, he cannot be too accessible

and conditions of Natives.

at certain hours, or at

In his own house, on certain days,

his pressing duties

any hour which

may

leave comparatively free, also during his drives and walks, he

should be ready and willing to receive Natives, to talk with

them, so as to catch the tone and

feel the pulse of the people.

His recreation in the cool hours of the morning will be

to

inspect the city or the station near his headquarters, promote

48
sanitation,

INDIA IN
examine
material
schools,

1880.

Chap.

iv.

inspect public works

and form
the

plans

for

improvement.

He

will

take

same

pleasure in doing this as a landlord takes in going round his

gardens, parks and farms and considering plans for the im-

provement of the property.

His ambition

is

to leave

behind

him some
and a sign

useful work, as a
of his

mark

of his sojourn in the place

improving hand.

For nearly half the year, he quits his headquarters and

marches with tents about the

district.

This

camp

life

under

canvas constitutes the most enjoyable part of

Ms

Indian career.

He

then has intercourse at

all

hours of the day with classes of

Natives,
central

who can hardly be observed with advantage at the station of the district, and who can be best understood
at their

when met with

through the

remote homes.

While he

is

riding

fields,

halting in the villages, shooting

by the way,

lounging after a march in the shaded anteroom of his tent under

the spreading boughs of trees, or warming himself by the bonfire

outside his tent door on cold or frosty nights, he

is

on much

more easy and familiar terms with the Natives than he could
possibly be at his headquarters, where he
less
is

surrounded more or

with his

staff

and subordinates.
;

Often he pursues the

wild sports of the east

the district

and then he learns many things about and the people which could not otherwise be learnt.
on sights of beauty and
interest

At

every turn his eye glances on picturesque objects, and someit rests
;

times

all

which help

to endear to

him the

district

where

his lot for a time is cast.

After some weeks or some months of marching and touring,

during which time he has seldom heard the English language

spoken, he returns to his headquarters with his physical frame
invigorated, his

mind

refreshed,

liis

imagination stored with

new

ideas and his will braced with fresh resolves.

Many

of the

beneficent plans, which he then conceived, he proceeds to carry

out, as

he once more

sits

in his central office during the long

hours of the
close

summer

days.

In the

hum and

the heat of these

and crowded rooms, and amidst the whirl of never-

Chap.

iv.

SEVERAL BRANCHES OF CIVIL SERVICE.

foi'

4i)

ending business, he longs

travel once

the day to

come round

for

him

to

more

in the interior of his district, at the season

rising crops,

when nature decks herself with the dew that glitters on the and when she is freshened by the health-giving
breezes of an eastern winter.

Indeed, that part of the British administrative system, which

directly concerns the majority of the Natives, is centred in the
office of

Magistrate and Collector.

So long as these very im-

portant officers continue to be able and efficient, as they have

heretofore been, the administration will be regarded

by Native
of

opinion as in the main successful.

They

are usually esteemed

by comi^etent observers as being among the best types

the English in the east.

prelate of the Church, acquainted

is

with countries of the East and West,

that as a class they are

said to have declared

among

the best

men he

ever knew.

The junior

Civil Servants, in the executive or administrative

branch, undergo in the districts a training to suit

life

them

for the

which has just been described. which they are attached.

They pass examinations

of the

in

the vernacular language or languages

division of the

empire

to

divisional

Commissioner of revenue and police

is

the

superintendent of the Magistrates and Collectors in several

districts

which make up a

division.

There are several such

Comniissionerships under each of the Local Governments (except

Madras).

The Commissioner
and

is

thus at the head of a province,

or part of a province,

in several respects represents the

Government.

He

is

a high functionary in the eyes of

the

Natives, and the statements, just

trates

made regarding

the Magis-

and

Collectors, apply to him.

The

District Judges, also

Covenanted Civil

Servants.,

form a

very important class of functionaries.

Their duties are not only

judicial, consisting of the trial of original suits

and the

liearing

of appeals from

some

classes of Native Judges, but are also in a

considerable degree administrative.

The

District

Judge

is

the superior

of the

several

Native

50

INDIA IN

1880.
district,

Chap.

iv.

Judges who are serving in the

and the

visitor or

inspector of the various courts establislied therein.

He makes
the
is,

tour from place to place inspecting these courts, examining their

returns,

testing

their

procedure,

and learning

popular

estimate of their character and efficiency.

sort of minister of justice for the district
;

He

in short, a

upon

his diligence

and watchfulness the convenience of

tion of the

suitors,

and the promo-

many

interests relating to civil justice,

must greatly
Judge.

depend.

The juniors in the

judicial line serve as Assistant

office of District

Judges, and so become trained for the

It is

from among the District Judges that

men

are selected

for the Ijench of the

High Courts

and many able and learned

men have been

tribunals.

thus obtained to discharge the duties of these

It is impossible here
district

to

describe

the

varied work, besides

work, which

is

done by Covenanted Civil Servants in

at

many

capacities,
fiscal

as political Eesidents

Native Courts, as

heads of

departments, as Chief Commissioners of provinces,

as Secretaries to

Government,

as

Members

of the Councils, as

Lieutenant-Governors of divisions of the empire, and sometimes

as Governors of Presidencies.

There

is

every hope that the historic traditions of the Civil

Service in the past will be emulated

future.

by the

Civil Service in the

All

the

well-wishers

of India

will

pray that the

memory

of good

men

departed

may

encourage the

new

Civil

Servants, and that the spirit of the most illustrious of their

predecessors,

of

Warren Hastings,

of Teignmouth, of

Mount-

stuart Elphinstone, of Metcalfe, of Macnaghten, of

of Mertins Bird, of
rest

Thomason,

Edmonstone, of John Lawrence,

may ever
a very imcivil

upon them
to the

in their labours.

Next
political

Covenanted Civil Service, there

is

portant class of officers

drawn from the army

officers

for

and

employ.

These

used formerly to be taken from

;

the European officers of the Native armies

they are

now taken
or

from the

Staff"

Corps.

The greater part of the diplomatic

Chap.

iv.

EMPLOYMENT OF MILITARY

OFFICERS.
;

51
also

political

appointments in the country are held by them

many

of the civil appointments in several provinces,

namely the

Panjab, Oudh, British Burma, Assam, the Central Provinces,

Sind and Berar.

as those of the

In these capacities their duties are the same

;

Covenanted Civil Service

is

and

all that

has been

stated regarding that Service,

applicable to

them

also.
;

They
of

have always been most zealous, able and

efficient

many

them, having been originally chosen on account of their promise

of talent, have

become eminently distinguished.

Some

of the

best

and

greatest

names

in Anglo-Indian history have belonged

;

to this very important class of officers

Clive,

such names as those of

Munro, Malcolm, Alexander Burnes, Henry Lawrence,

Mark Cubbon, John Low, James Outram, John Jacob, Herbert Edwardes, John Nicholson, Henry Durand. Of these, Munro
became Governor of Madras, Malcolm Governor of Bombay, and

Durand Lieutenant-Governor

of the

Panjab.

Many

of

them

survive, either in retirement, with

names destined hereafter to be

inscribed on the rolls of history, or in active service, with abilities

capable of preserving the brightest traditions of their profession.

There are other classes which, though not having the

style of covenanted, are yet

official

under covenant with the Govern-

ment, having been sent out from England under this condition.

These

classes

have of late years

are

grown much

in

importance, and their

members

now

filling places of

con-

sequence in the
officers,

public

service.

Such are the educational

entrusted the

generally graduates of the universities of the United

to

Kingdom,
the

whom

practically

is

management
Coopers'

of

the national education.

Such are the Civil Engineers, trained in

Civil

Royal College of

Engineering at

Hill.

Such are the Forest

France and Germany.

officers,

despatched from England, after

having been professionally instructed in the forest schools of

Such are the

scientific officers, geologists,

botanists, chemists, meteorologists, astronomers, appointed

from

England.

The Indian Medical Service has been

in part

employed with
E 2

52
the Native
officers.

INDIA IN

1880,

Chap, iv

Army and
its

its

members have

heretofore been military

But

largest

and most important employment has and employes

of the

been among the

civil officers

Government,
medical

and among the Natives.

the

One

of its highest functions has been

education

of the

Natives as medical

men and

practitioners.

At the Presidency towns of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay, its members have an extensive private practice, not only among their own countrymen, but also among the Natives.
It furnishes to

Government
contributes

skilled advisers in every branch of

sanitation.

It

largely

to

the

advancement
its

in
;

India of those sciences which are cognate to

in botany especially
it

own work

has held a distinguished place.

It has

raised the British character in the estimation of the

classes of the Natives,

humbler

by reason of philanthropy
Its
is

scientifically

directed in performing surgical operations, and in superintending

charitable dispensaries.

influence

with the middle and

upper classes of Natives

considerable.
its

By

recent arrange-

ments

it

will

be relieved of

military work, and will be

it is

devoted to those civil duties for which

so signally qualified.

The

several Corps of Engineers in India were separate bodies

until the amalgamation of the forces of the East India

Company

with the Royal Army.

talent

They contained
as

as high

an average of

and capacity, and

as

many

shining lights of the public

service,

any corps that ever

Baird

existed.

The names

of

some

of its
as

members

will live in Anglo-Indian history, such

names

Proby Cautley and

Smith in the North-western

Provinces, Robert Napier (now Lord Napier of Magdala) and

Alexander Taylor in the Panjab, Arthur Cotton and Anderson

in Madras, Haig in the Central Provinces, Michael

Kennedy

and Eife in Bombay.

The position

of the civil engineers

under their covenants has

constitute

been already mentioned.

They now

the

larger

Department of Public Works, a In-anch of the service which has grown rapidly of late years owing to the extension of canals and the construction of

number

of the officers serving in the

CiiAi'. IV.

THE CLERGY-EMINENT PRELATES.

Although the Government
is

53
striving

railways by the State.

to educate the
still at

Natives for the profession of

civil engineering,

the present time, the

is

employment

of a large

number

of

Europeans

necessary in this profession, and for an indefinite

period the direction of the great public works

must remain in

European hands.

The clergy
European
civil

consist

mainly of the Chaplains of the English

the servants of the State both

Church in the service of Government who minister among the

soldiery,

and among

all

and military,

also of Presbyterian Ministers

and of Eoman

Catholic priests

who

attend to the troops and other establish-

ments of

their respective communities.

They constantly
also visit the

visit

the hospitals of the European troops, and accompany

into the field on active service.
civil stations scattered
is

the forces

They

numerous

over the country, but their scanty

;

number

altogether too few for such extensive charges

consequently

societies are

formed

for bringing

out additional clergy from

England.

The Bishops

of the English

Church were three in

it

number

two more have been recently added, as

was found
also

necessary to strengthen the episcopate by reason of the grow-

ing needs of the community.

The Bishop

of Calcutta

is

metropolitan in India.
several wdio exerted

Among

these prelates there have been

an elevating influence on the State and

of Bishops
Pratt,

the

community.

The memories

Heber, "Wilson,
reverently

Cotton,

Milman, and Archdeacon

are

and

affectionately cherished.

There

is

a large class of European

officials

who

are termed

uncovenanted, to
are not so
tition

distinguish them from the covenanted.

as they once were,

They
compe-

numerous

owing

to the

of educated

Natives for the numerous ministerial ap-

pointments which
the Government

may
to

be designated as clerkships.

And

in

situations superior to ministerial appointments, the policy of

is

employ Natives

as

much

as

possible.

Still, Europeans, uncovenanted, are largely

employed in several

important branches, especially the Financial department, the

54
I'olice,

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

iv.

the special branches of revenue such as salt and opium,

capacities.

and in many other miscellaneous

Some

of

them

have been employed in the administrative work of

districts in

the Panjab and other provinces, and have there sometimes

distinction.
late years

won

The

rules regarding furlough

and pension have of

of East

been greatly modified to their advantage.

to

The same remarks apply

Eurasians.

the class
itself,

Indians
suffer

or

Their

home

is

in India

and they

more

and more from the competition of the Natives.

vantage
act
it

This disad-

is

quite inevitable

but they are striving to counter-

by improved education.
struggle will

They

will doubtless succeed in

;

maintaining their position in the country

feared that the

but

it

is

to be

be hard for them.

Many

of

them have served

various capacities
;

the State with usefulness

and honour in
classes

some

of

them have

also been distinguished.

The

description, thus given of the official

European

in India,

would by

itself

convey but an imperfect idea of the

European community, which consists largely of non-official

classes.

Even
as the
failed,

those Indian regions most favoured

by

climate, such
Nilgiris,

mountains of the Himalayas and of the

have

and probably will ever

fail,

to afford a field for British

colonization.

The

British conqueror will never establish colonies

as

of his

countrymen in India,

Alexander established colonies

of his Greeks in Asia.

Piepeated attempts at such colonization

It

on the part of British people have proved unsuccessful.

in India, could be reared at all after

seems doubtful whether the children, of European parents bred

two or three generations.

The climate
are, as

is

unfavourable to children, even of European

parents bred in Europe, after five years of age.

European parents
unsuitable

a rule, anxious to send their children to England for

education.

The

circumstances

of

India

are

to

Anglo-Saxons as labouring men.

Still,

non-official

Europeans in India have been, and will

continue to be, numerous and influential.

The beginnings of

CiJAP. IV.

NON-OFFICIAL EUROPEANS.

5o

British rule in India were factories

at the three Presidency

and settlements, not only

These establishments have

towns of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay,

but at

many

places in the interior.

been closed long ago, but the three Presidency towns have

grown into centres

of Europeans,

of empire

and of trade under the leadership

cities of

and take rank among the populous

the

world.

It

has been well said of these

cities that,

unlike so

many

Indian capitals in the past, they are not merely courts

after

and camps which perish

a revolution, but are founded

on the lasting interests of commerce.

Although the Natives

acquire a large and increasing share in the trade with foreign

countries, still

much
of the

of that trade remains in

European hands.
under European

Though many
guidance

new and

advancing industries have fallen

under Native management,

;

many

also

are
is

and the influx of European capital

constant.

Not-

withstanding the improvement in the stamp of Native lawyers

and the

rise of the

Native Bar, the Native suitors

still

employ Madras

English lawyers and barristers in most of the important causes

before the

High Courts
and
is

of Judicature.

At

Calcutta,

and Bombay the English Bar has always formed an important

institution,

rising into influence at several centres in the

interior of the country.

Some European
to the disasters

firms in the Presidency towns have

succumbed
firms

which appear

to be of periodical recurrence in
part.

an age when speculation plays too great a

Of those
is

which remain, the heads and some of the partners reside in

England more than formerly

and the business in India

con-

sequently entrusted more to agents.

The merchants of personal

still

weight and individual eminence, though

are not quite so

happily numerous,
It is

abundant

as tliey used to be.

is

commonly

said that the race of

merchant princes

diminished, although

the

number

of

Europeans engaged in trade has increased.

Nationalities, other than British, have alw^ays been represented

in the mercantile
}r()povtiun to tlie

community, and have of late borne an increasing

whole.

The Erench

are not so

numerous

as

56
they once were
;

INDIA IN

1880.

CiiAP. iv.

the Aiistrians, the Italians and the Eussians

;

appear but slightly

but the Gemians

are

fast

gi'0\\'ing

in

importance and the Americans are rearing their front of enter-

Added to these, the Greeks, the Armenians and the Jews now included in the English-speaking community, all
prise.

enjoy
to the

much mercantile repute and entitle Calcutta and Bombay name they love to claim, that of the hall of all nations.
of

The Chambers
centres,

Commerce, long astablished

organs
of

at these great

are

the

principal

European

non-official

opinion in the country, and are repertories of commercial intelligence.

They are represented in the several legislatures by members whom the Government chooses from their body. They express Native as well as European sentiments they are
;

the chief,

though not the

sole,

interpreters

of independent

opinion to the Government; they raise their voice on

many
their

matters

fiscal,

economic and

financial.

The patriotism of

sentiments and the accuracy of their extensive information

secure to

them the willing

attention of the Government.

On

grave and emergent occasions, demanding the organization of

public charity, they are looked up to as the leaders of inde-

pendent

action,

and they unfailingly enact a worthy

European
indigo-planters
acres,

part.

In Bengal the very important

leasehold

once

formed

class,

owning broad

possassing large

interests

and dwelling in

fine country-seats.

But
In

the properties were vitally affected by the agrarian troubles

of 1860, and the

men have
still

for the

most part passed

;

aNvay.

Behar, however, they

sive

survive

their

busy

factories, exten-

establishments,

picturesque

houses,

gardens

and parks

constitute
in

some

of the

most remarkable and interesting sights

crisis

that province.

During the

of

the

famine which

threatened the safety of the province in 1874, their services in

obtaining transport for the importation of grain by the Government., for tlie support of the people in danger,

was

as beneficial

to the public interest as

It
is

it

was honourable

to themselves.

as

tea-planters

and

coffee-planters

that Europeans,

Chap.

IV.

TEA AND COFFEE-PLANTERS.

British,

57
India.

chiefly

have

happily

increased

in

They

have now

covered, or are covering, with their plantations, the

slopes of the
hills

mountains which hem in Assam, a portion of the

east,

bounding Bengal on the

the territory ceded by the

Bhotan State, the greater part of Darjiling and British Sikhim,

much
of

of the

Kumaon

province, the north of Hindostan,

in the Panjab,

some

the Kangra valleys

and

to the south

many

portions of the Nilgiri section of the

Western Ghat mountains,

In

including valleys, slopes and ridges in the State of Curg, the

district of

Wynaad and

the kingdom of Travancore.

many

of these plantations,

they have introduced steam machinery

and many
to

scientific appliances.

They

offer a

good occupation

young men from

England,

who

are

prepared to undergo

a thorough apprenticeship in the business,

details of the work.

and to master the

But experience has shewn that the manageand the preparation of the tea or the
a
difficult profession,

ment

of the plantation,

coffee for market, constitute

and demand
knowledge,

a professional training.

It

was the want of

this

at the outset, which contributed to the

many
is

failures

which

occurred.

Those,

who

witness the success which

would

little

imagine, unless they studied the history of

now apparent, many

concerns,

how much capital was dissipated in the beginning, how many fortunes were impaired, how many hopes were
wrecked.

Many

of these disasters, however, inculcated lessons

after,

from which those, who came

It
is

have judiciously

profited.

to

be hoped that in future these concerns will have

an unbroken career of prosperity, educing

many

of the best
civili-

qualities of the Anglo-Saxon, supporting the pioneers of

zation in regions heretofore unoccupied

for

and affording an outlet

of

some of the superabundant and unemployed energies

press,

England.

The Anglo-Indian newspaper

always flourished.

as

an

institution, has

It circulates not

only

among the European

Indeed

community, but also among the educated Natives.

from
it,

the Natives gather largely their ideas regarding public

58
matters and political
regard to
also.
it,

INDIA IN
afiairs.

1880.

Chap. iv.
also

The Europeans

pay much

although they read the newspapers from England

It criticizes

with the utmost freedom and independence

the policy and proceedings of the government in India, and

spares

no

pains

to

present

information collected from

It obtains contributors

all all

parts of the Indian empire.

sections
classes.

from

of

the

European community, including

the

official

Some

of its contributors have held high offices

under

Government,

as the State permits its servants to

communicate
on the

their thoughts

and

their

knowledge

to the newspapers,

condition that they avoid matters of a confidential or controversial nature, or topics that

may

be otherwise objectionable,

and rather encourages them

to publish compositions

which may

promote the cause of science or enlarge the bounds of knowledge.

The
its

press also endeavours with

all

much

success to lay

before

readers

the

newest intelligence of the day in

of all

Europe and in the world, together with the substance

in the English prints.
It exercises real influence,

the most interesting discussions and the best-reasoned opinions

and

is

of

much use and assistance in the governance and management

of the country.
Its editors enjoy political consideration,

and
or

among them retired, who

rature,

there have been several,

in
their

now either deceased day were among the leading minds

of

the country and were ornaments of current Anglo-Indian lite-

namely John Marshman, Meredith Townsend, George

J.

Smith,

O'B.

Saunders,

Dr.

Buist, Kobert

Knight,

J.

M.

Maclean.

59

CHAl'TEK

V.

NATIVE STATES.
Eelations of the Native States with the British

Native sovereigns during war of the mutinies

Imperial

GovernmcRt Loyalty of Order of the Star India

of

assemblage at Delhi

Visit

of the Prince of

Wales Advan-

tages to the empire from existence of Native States

Internal administration of Native StatesTheir military forces Mention of largest StatesThe Nizam of the Deccan Jammu and Cashmir Protected Sikh States Eajput Princes Mahi-atta Princes, Sindhia, Holkar and the Gaekwar The Princess Bhopal Travancore importance of the Deccan Mysore Kingdom of Nepal Khan of Khelat Eminent Native Statesmen.
Native Princes
of

Education of young

Political

The Native
tude in
tlie

States constitute a political entity of

some magni-

Indian Empire.

In round numbers they have an

area of half a million of square miles

and a population of

fifty

millions

of souls.

The sum

total

of their revenues cannot

"Be precisely stated, but

sterling annually.

may

probably exceed fifteen millions

in their

Though sovereigns

own

dominions,

they are all more or less under the control of the British Govern-

ment, as suzerain and paramount power.

existing treaties,

In accordance with

some

of

them

are potentates enjoying

much

consideration, while others are hardly distinguishable from feudal

barons.

They have had the most diverse

relations with

England

in past times.

With some
it

of them, the pure mirror of English

friendship has never been

dimmed

or sullied

from the beginits

ning

with others,

has been at one time shattered, and

fragments have been afterwards reunited.

With some,

the

English connection has been an unbroken series of alliances,

services,

rewards and concessions,

former
collisions

all

thankfully remembered.

To

others,

with

English
into

power have

left

ungracious memories

now

lapsing

oblivion.

Whatever

00
tlieir

INDIA IN
past

1880.

CiiAP. v.

circumstances

may have

been, they are all con-

scious that their destinies are linked with those of England,

and that there

safety,

is

community

in interest, in peril

and in

between themselves and the supreme authority.

the mutinies suddenly broke out in 1857, the conduct

When

of the Native sovereigns,

and the attitude

of their States,

were

watched by the English with anxiety.

Had

these

Native

powers turned against the paramount power, and sided with

the mutineers,
the

flames

of

revolt,

which blazed over so

In

many
that

districts,

would have enveloped the whole empire.

moment, though some

the

of the States, as distinguishable

tlieir

from the sovereigns, did misbehave, though sometimes

troops joined

mutineers and their vassals rebelled, yet

almost
tions

all

the sovereigns personally, together with their relaretainers, displayed a firm allegiance.

and

Herein they

acted according to the instinct of self-preservation, being con-

vinced that they would be buried in the ruins of the British

Government

if

it

should

fall.

Nevertheless,

it

must be
to

in

generosity admitted that they gave full play to

loyal sentiments.
British cause, at the

noble and
the

They rendered a

priceless

service

moment

of its extreme depression.

They

deserved then, as they will ever deserve, to be esteemed as

bulwarks of imperial

stability,

and

as

conservative
forces

elements

in a country where subversive

and explosive

may

at

times burst forth.

Enjoying an undisturbed existence under

an all-protecting power, they are the natural foes of revolutionary disturbance.

They were once apprehensive

and successors, in event of

lest the British

Government

should refuse acknowledgment of their right to adopt heirs

lineal descendants failing.

As

des-

cendants are not unfrequently wanting in these old families,

it

became very important that the principle

of adoption should

be permanently recognised, because in the absence of such recognition,

any State might, on the demise of the sovereign without

male

issue, revert or escheat to the

paramount power.

All fears

Chap.

v.

VISIT OF

THE PRINOE OF WALES.

01

on this account were set at rest by a decree of the British

Government
to the

in 1858, sanctioning the right to adopt according

institutes.

Hindu and Muhammadan

to every
to

The decree was

This measure

communicated

Native State, and to every Chief who

was held

be governing his

own

territories.

was carried when Lord Canning was Governor-General, and

has caused fragrant memories to gather round his name.

The creation
a moral effect
will

of the Order of the Star of India has produced

chiefs,

upon the Native princes and

strengthen more and more.

which time

serve

to

This measure, so

graciously intended, cements their relations with the Britisli

Crown, elevates them in the estimation of their subjects and

associates

them with the

British functionaries, as

members
most

of

the same Order, in a fraternity of honour.

The favour
is

of the
higlily

Sovereign, respecting admission to the Order,

prized

among them
visit of the

and

its

insignia are

worn by them with

1870 was

pride on all public occasions.

The

Duke

of

Edinburgh
States,

to India in

loyally accepted
subjects, as a

by the Native
of favour

and by Indian British

mark

shewn

to the nation.

The

fealty

and loyalty of the Native States have been strengthand their

ened, their Oriental sense of grandeur has been gratified

imaginative faculties have been stimulated by the addition of

the imperial style to the titles of the British Sovereign, and
Ijy

the gracious visit of the heir-apparent to the British Crown.

The

visit of the

Prince of Wales was regarded by them as most

auspicious,

and was productive of great good among them and

It constituted, in their eyes, a fresh tie,

their subjects.

binding
Tlie

them indissolubly
by them and

to

the

British

Crown and
it,

nation.

august proceedings, connected with

will ever be

remembered
and with
Delhi

their successors, with pride in the past,

hopefulness for the future.

The State ceremonials

on

at the Imperial

Assemblage

at

New

Year's

Day

of 1877,

was held before the

largest gather-

ing of Native sovereigns, princes and chiefs that has ever been

62

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

v.

seen under British rule.

any meeting

of allies

Probably it was never equalled by and feudatories around the emperor in the
empire.
It left a

brightest days of the

Mogul

happy impression
nationalities of

on the minds of
memories.
India,
Its

all present,

and mil be a sunny spot in their

fame spread among the

many

and

confirmed the popular ideas regarding the final

It will serve as a

consolidation of the empire.

landmark in

the recollections of

many

millions of men.

The appointment
functionaries,

of several Native princes to be Councillors

of the Empress, in conjunction with

some

of the highest British

body.

had an ennobling influence upon the Chiefs as a The selection of two among them to be honorary
of the Order of the

Generals in the British army was regarded as a high honour.

The creation

Crown

of India, to

which

Native princesses are admitted, will exercise an elevating influence socially, in a country

where the need of such an

effect

was peculiarly

felt.

The Native

States supply

some

of the unavoidable deficiencies

of a foreign rule,

among

a people with

whom

a versatile fancy, a

passion for external display and a spirit of veneration for visible

glories, are often

predominant.

The

citizens

and the country-

folk gaze with glistening eyes, eager looks

tion,

and intense admira-

upon the

glitter of chivalric

pageantry and the

pomp

of

eastern royalty.

The middle and upper

classes regard the regal

or feudal spectacles with an enthusiastic pride

tutes the nearest approach to patriotism of
yet, capable. It is

which constiare, as
felt

which they

noteworthy that these sentiments are

subjects, as

as

much by the Natives, who are British who are suljjects of the Native States.
graciousness, on the part of the British

by those

Considerateness and

Government towards
Harsh-

the Native States, are popular in the British dominions.

ness or undue severity, on the part of the British

Government

towards the Native States, would be unpopular in the British

territories,

and would excite unfavourable comment among the

educated Natives especially.

Chap.

v.

INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION IN NATIVE STATES.

as

G3

The Native States operate

pent up in the British

an imperial safety-valve to

release several kinds of discontent

which would otherwise be

territories, and, failing to find

any vent,

might burst forth injuriously.

Persons

who cannot meet with

any scope under a foreign rule, who are too proud to submit to a system fashioned upon modern principles, and are yet too
innately active to remain without
evil,

some employment good

or

can always discover some congenial sphere under the

rulers.

Native

Many

intractable characters who, if restricted to

British centres of political influence,

would themselves become

agitated

and would communicate and

their agitation to others,

may

resort to Native courts

capitals, where,

though not innocuous,

they are not so noxious as they might otherwise have been.

Thus, as
it

were,

many

acrid

humours

of the imperial

body are

drawn
States

off from, its vital parts to its

remoter members.
polity,

In the golden age of the Hindu were

ruled

many

of the Native

on a patriarchal

system

with

paternal

benevolence, and were founded on

filial

obedience.

Even

the

Muhammadan

period was adorned by

many

instances of statesof all-

manlike administration.

But during the dark night

pervading disturbance before the

these States, with scarcely

dawn

of British ascendency,

any exception, groaned under utter

misgovernment.

Out

of the chaos, hideous forms of crime, like

Thagi, evolved themselves.

evils

Though the more

salient of these

were repressed

after the establishment of British control,

yet

much

misrule continued, the English being too

much

busied,

in reducing their

own

political

household to order, to note the

their feudatories.

administrative shortcomings

of

Of recent
felt

years, however, the Native States,

to

though not actually forced

follow the lead

of the

paramount power, have yet

the

constraining power of moral compulsion, and have

been

moved by

a worthy ambition to emulate improvements which

are sanctioned

by the highest example.

less fidelity,

Consequently they

have imitated, with more or

most of the reforms

In some

introduced by the British Government, for instance, judicial

organization, education, sanitation and public works.

64
respects, for instance,

INDIA IX
the

1880.

Chap.
of the land

v.

management

revenue,

they have followed the English in adapting the results of Western wisdom to the peculiarities of Eastern society. In
arrantring customs unions, accepting

commercial reciprocity and

laudable

relinquishing

transit

duties,

they have evinced a

readiness to fall in with the

ways

of imperial

uniformity.
self-

In stamping out barbarous and inhuman practices, like

immolation of widows and female infanticide, they have obeyed

the dictates of civilized morality.

Thus

it

has come to pass that

many
Some
as

of the Native States of them, indeed, are

are comparatively well-governed.

indicated by economists as rivalling the British territories in

prosperity,

and by pliilanthropists
diffusion

emulating the British

contentment.

Government in the
praise, accorded

of popular

The

with justice to Xative States, has sometimes

If Xative rule

operat^ed to the disparagement of British rule.

is

so good, how,

it

is

asked, can the British rule be evincing

its

superiority

In

fact,

however,

it is

from their contact with

the British that the Native rulers have become what they
are.

now

Nevertheless,

if

those independent Europeans

long resided in Native territory, or those Englishmen

who have who are

cognizant of both British and Native rule, were to be questioned, there

would be a preponderance of testimony in favour

of the British system.

The opinion of Natives would be

still

more valuable, were

sable partiality.
British Government,
lot

it

not clouded with a natural and excu\je

However wide may

the popularity of the

many
for

of its subjects imagine that their

rule.

would be happier and better under Native many, who sigh

national
the
Still,

There

are
Ije

some regime that in

of

its

essence shall

experience has shewn that whenever, in

adjusting
territories,

boundaries

dominions, or

in

exchanging

the English officers have had to propose the transfer

of villages or districts, from British to Native rule, they have

received remonstrances from the Natives concerned.

Sometimes

remonstrances have been couched in such language of dismay as implied the sincerest flattery of British rule.
these

Chap.

v.

EDUCATION OF YOUNG NATIVE PRINCES.

65

The British Government wisely

educating under
sovereigns,
its

seizes every opportunity of

own

auspices,

young Native
in
their

princes.

Several

now

reigning,

have

youth

been

thus

educated.

In the next generation, almost every prince will

have been educated after the

European method, either by

private tuition in the palace, or at institutions established for

youths of princely degree.

Some

of these institutions, such as that at Ajniere for the

kingly families of Eajputana, or that at Eajkot in Kathiawar

for the cliiefs of

western India, have been dignified -with a English has been spontaneously chosen by

collegiate status.

the Native States as the language for their diplomatic corre-

spondence with the British Government.

These circumstances

induce the chiefs to regard themselves as alumni and the

paramoimt power as the alma mater.

The Native sovereigns and

the utmost
to

their advisers are skilful in raising

amount of revenue, with the least possible trouble the people. The average rate of revenue per head of the
generally

population will

be

found higher

in

the

Native

States than in the British territories.

This will be regarded by

It is

the admirers of Native rule as a proof of its superiority.

partly due to the greater flexibility of the Native system, which

quality
rigidity

is

often

more
British

profitable

to the exchequer

than the

of the

method.

But

it

should be accepted

as a proof that, at least according to

an oriental standard, the

Sikh
India
greatly

British taxation

is

mild and moderate.

Native States,
States,

Many
States, States,

of

the

notably the Protected

the the

Eajputana Baroda

some

of

the

Central

State,

and

others

have
pass

been

enriched by the British railways which

territories
;

through their

the British
reigns,

demand having been made upon them by Government on that account. Some Native soveno
the Nizam,

as

Sindhia and Holkar,

have furnished

funds for the construction of railways in their dominions.

the other hand,
it is

On

to be remembered that the Eajput States

66

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

v.

made

great concessions to the wishes of the British

Government
railways

respecting

customs arrangements with which

the

were connected.

In cases where British canals have passed

through Native States, such as the

new

canal from the Satlej,

a contribution has been given by the States.

In

civil

expenditure,

the

Native States are careful and

economical for the most part.

in
all

They shew a
of the
festivals.

politic profusion

that relates

to

the

functions

priesthood,

the

religious observances

and the popular

injurious

In their military expenditure they sometimes persist in an

extravagance which
is

to

the commonweal.

They
suffice.

generally employ a large

number

of untrained

men, where a

much

smaller

number

of well-disciplined
forces at a strength

men would

They sometimes maintain

which might, under

to

some conceivable circumstances, prove embarrassing

their

own

Some few of them possess arsenals and magazines, also factories for making guns, powder, arms and ammunition. The armament of the
States as well as to the

paramount power.

Native States

is

a matter needing watchfulness, but

is

a very

delicate subject for the

paramount power

to

approach.

The

British

Government

does, however,

what

it

judiciously can, in

suggesting a policy of reduction.

difficulty

The Native States have some

in reducing

their

military establishments, as such

reductions are regarded as invidious, and are very unpopular

with certain sections of their people.

hastily or harshly undertaken,

If such measures

were

some disturbance would probably

if

ensue.

Still, it

would be well

these forces were fewer than

they actually

are.

Experience has shewn that they cannot

territories

always be depended upon, when the British

are loyal to the British cause.

are

seriously disturbed, even though their sovereigns

and masters and of

In the war of the mutinies,

however, the troops of the

Jammu

and Cashmir

State,

the Protected Sikh States were loyal, and fought in the field

on the British
siderable

side.

During the recent Afghan war, a controops, belonging to the

body of these

Native States

Chap.

v.

THE NIZAM OF THE DECCAN.

67

L-

of the Panjab, were despatched into the field,

and did much

the

useful service on the north-west frontier.

These Native States

vrith

on that
alacrity,

occasion

sent

their

contingents
well.

utmost
political

and the troops behaved

The moral and

effect of this
also,

movement was
of

considerable.

The Native

States,

from
at

all parts of the

empire loyally offered to place their

the
British

forces

the disposal

Government on that

occasion.

Favourable as this picture of the Native States

may

seem,

if

compared with that of former times, yet

it

would be incomplete

mthout some reference to each of the principal States. The Nizam's dominions have, for nearly a whole generation,
been governed by an eminent

Muhammadan
of the

statesman,

first

in

the capacity of minister of the late Nizam, and secondly as

co-regent during the minority

present Nizam.

The

amelioration effected within this time will hardly be realised

by any, save those who

which used

are acquainted with the

many

cankers

to eat into the heart of that hapless State.

The
the

Arab

mercenaries,

nominally

the

servants,

but

really

masters of the Nizam, professedly his guard, but in action his

controllers,

have been brought witliin a manageable compass.

Kich

districts

have been rescued from the avaricious grasp of

military chiefs, to
for

whom

they had been mortgaged in security

to

arrears

of

pay due

the

troops.

The

Eohillas,

who

prowled about the country in herds like hungry wolves, are

resting in enforced quiet.

The mob

at the capital,

Hyderabad,

once a seething and surging mass of devilry, has been cowed

and quelled.
class

A regular

administration in civil affairs has been

introduced throughout the country.

of Native in
for

There has been formed a

administrators of independence in character,

fertility

resource

and vigour in
education,

conduct.

Something
sick,

is

effected

public

medical aid to the

and

repairs of roads.
its

Though a regular settlement

of the land with

revenues and tenures, after the British model, has been but
introduced, yet

partially

many

steps have been taken in this

F 2

68
direction,

INDIA IN
especially with

1880.

Chap.

v.

view of rendering the land-tax

The artificial lakes for irrigation, which equitable and moderate. abound in some parts of the Mzam's dominions, and which
attest the

enlightenment of the Hindu dynasties preceding the

imperfectly perhaps,

Muhammadan conquest, have been repaired,

but
still

with some degree of

efficiency.

The State ship was

this
its

once water-logged with financial embarrassments, and was fast

sinking beyond hope of recovery.

From

catastrophe

it

was saved by the business-like firmness of

for a

minister

and

time

its

finances were

on the high road to solvency.

seems to have been some retro-

Of

late years, however, there

gression,

partly

by reason of the excessive strength of the

still

military forces which are

retained.

These forces are far

is

beyond the

real

needs of a State, in which order

preserved

by a
which
wall.

British subsidiary force

is

and a British Contingent, and

environed on

all sides

by British

territory as

by a

The Arab

element in this State

should

always be

watched.

The

chiefs at the

head of these Arab bands were

Their sons and

pure Arabs, of some ability and ambition.

successors, born of Indian mothers,

have a quieter disposition

though
not
so

and are well

affected.

Their Arab troops,

still

formidable as they once were, are

of importance in the

Deccan, being superior in energy and courage to the inhabitants

of that province.
recruited
It is

very necessary to prevent their being

by the influx of comrades from Arabia.

of the

The sovereign
is

combined State of

Jammu and

Cashmir

the son of Golab Sing

who played

a historic part in the

wars that caused the annexation of the Panjab, and whose troops were ranged under British command during the memorable
siege

of Delhi, thereby producing a

moral

effect

on northenlight-

western India.

He

possesses less statecraft, but

father.

more

enment, than his

He

maintains an army, sufficient

but not overgrown, and was raised in 1877 to the honorary rank of a General in the British army. He succeeds well
in
tlie

management

of his

fellow-tribesmen, the

Rajputs of

Chap.

v.

PROTECTED SIKH STATES.

Himalayan range
population
;

69

the lower

but

is

less

successful with the

Muhammadan

of Cashmir.

He

has long been

associated with gracious and pleasant memories in the minds of

hundreds of Englishmen, by reason of the hospitable

facilities

which he
But, alas
!

affords to visitors for seeing the sights of Cashmir.

the

name

of

happy valley
to

so affectionately given to

Cashmir by countless admirers, can be applied nowadays only

to
its

scenery,

and not

its

inhabitants.

Of

late

years

epidemic pestilence and desolating famine have wasted half the

people to death, and driven the remainder to despair.

Seldom

has nature in such beauty looked upon

man

in such misery.

The group of

principalities styled the Protected

Sikh States,

intervening between Delhi and the Panjab, were snatched by

the British from the jaws of Eanjit Sing,

when he

threatened to

devour

all his

neighbours.

They remembered

their deliverers

who
in

in turn were

menaced with destruction

at the outburst of
first to

the mutinies in 1857, and were

among

the very

appear

arms on the British side against the mutineers.

They
power
In the

declared that their swords should be

drawn
for fifty

for

that

under whose wing they had nestled

chronicles of feudal chivalry there
fidelity
is

years.

not a brighter example of

liege,

on the part of feudatories towards their

than that

exhibited

by some

of these States, Pattiala,

Jhind and Nabba,

Ties,

.towards the British suzerain in the darkest days of 1857.

destined doubtless to be indissoluble, were then formed between

them.

Subsequently these States have derived prosperity from

the public works, railways and canals, of the British Govern-

ment, and have consolidated their

civil

administration after the

fashion of the Panjab territory, with which their

are
so

own

territories

greatly intermingled.

They maintain military

Satlej

forces

adequate but not excessive, composed of those martial elements

in

which the valley of the

If there be

abounds.
is

Their situation,
a

on the national highway of northern India,

one.
is

commanding

any Native States

in

which the administration

really comparable with British rule, they are here.

70

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

v.

In the Himalayan region round Simla there is a group of These suffered grievously under Protected Hindu States.

Nepalese domination upwards of

liberated

fifty

years ago, from which

They remember their by the British. they were liberators with a gratitude which finds expression even in the
present time.

large congeries

of States

is

formed under the name of

Kajputana or Eajasthan, of which the principal are Udeypur, Jyepur and Jodhpur. These Eajput chiefs have, next to the
Brahmins, the purest blood in India.

In antiquity of descent
;

they rank peerless among the Native sovereigns

flower of Indian heraldry
is

the pink and

acknowledged to be with them.

invasions they

During the
able fame
of

earlier

Muhammadan

won

imperish-

by deeds like those of the defenders of Saragossa, Antwerp or of Londonderry; and in their hill-forts were

heaped up hecatombs of
the advance of the
blished.

men

slain for the fatherland.

With

Mogul empire, their autonomy was estaThey sheltered Akber the Great in his infancy some of them gave sultanas to the imperial seraglios, and by marriage mingled their blood with that of succeeding Moslem emperors. The immunities, secured by them, were continuously enjoyed during the wars and treaties which terminated in the establish;

ment

of British supremacy.

During the war of the mutinies they

were steadfast in their allegiance to a supremacy in their eyes

80 beneficent.

They

retain to this day,

more than any other

Their administration,

Native States, the original image of Hindu polity, untouched by

the defacing fingers of

modern change.
have endured

partly patriarchal partly baronial, has a rough and rude efficiency.

During recent
and
sacrificed

years, they

some inconvenience
salt

some predilections

in conforming to the British

proposals regarding the revenues

from

and customs, in
Sindhia

order to

fulfil

the behests of the paramount power.

in

The Mahratta sovereigns

Holkar,
l^ear rule

Central India,

and

over alien clans and vassals, which difficult

task they perform with

much

considerate circumspection and

Chap.

v.

MAHRATTA
fair

PRINCES.

71
in

with a

degree

of success.

The Mahratta, however,

Central India has but a slight hold on the local Kajput chiefs

and the indigenous

tribes.

In the event of any grave conis

juncture arising, sojne trouble in that quarter

to be feared,

Sindhia for a long time enjoyed the advantage of having his

financial

and

territorial

affairs

managed by

very

able

minister.

He

devotes special attention to his military busito the

ness; his troops, limited

number

settled

arrangements with the British Government, are maintained

by existing by

him

in a fair state of efficiency.

In 1877 the honorary rank

of a General in the British

Holkar
of his
affairs

is

assiduous in

army was conferred upon him, personally supervising the management

revenues and finances especially, and of

generally
:

Ms

political

there

is

no Native prince in

all

India more

diligent than he in State business, for

sesses

which indeed he pos-

an aptitude developed by education and training. Both Sindhia and Holkar are much esteemed and respected by the Mahratta subjects of the British Government in the
Deccan.

The Baroda State comprises some

the empire.

of the richest territories in

After the death of

Khande Eao

the

Gaekwar

of

Baroda, whose loyalty to the British Government was conspicuous, the affairs of the State fell under

mismanagement,

which led
and
to

to the deportation of the late

Gaekwar Malhar Eao,

his

detention as a State prisoner.

An

adopted son

regent,

was placed on the throne, with the princess Jamna Bai as and a very able minister, one of the best in India, was
appointed to conduct the administration, which
is

accordingly

prospering.

The State

of

Bhopal

is

well governed by a Native Princess,

the head of a

Muhammadan

family whose loyal allegiance to

the British Government has been conclusively proved.

Among
known
pathies.

the princes of Bundelkhand, the Eaja of

as

an enlightened

ruler,

and

as a
for its

man

of broad

Pannah is sym-

His

territory is still

famous

diamond mines.

72

INDIA IN The State

of

1880.

Chap.
Satlej,

v.

Bahawalpur, on the bank of the

was

carefully administered by the British Government during the

minority of the Nawab, who, after having been duly educated

in the of
liis

Western manner, has been recently placed in

territories.

full

charge

The kingdom of Travancore, in the south, has an

fertile,

area,

very
gifts

of coast

and mountain, endowed with the choicest

possessing various commercial advantages.
coffee plantations. Its affairs
;

of nature and

It

includes

many

were well managed

by the

late

Maharaja recently deceased

of Kolhapur, in the

he had been liberally

educated, and long had the services of a very able minister.

The State

Bombay

Presidency, has been

managed by

excellent Native officials, chosen

by the

British

Government, during the minority caused by the lamented death

of the late Eaja while on a visit to Europe.

In western India there are several States of the South

Mahratta country which are at present in a quiet and orderly
condition.

Some

of

them have

at times

been centres of

political

mischief

and in event of a general disturbance, attempts would

fidelity.

probably be made to corrupt their

It is to

be remembered that these States adjoin the Deccan,

is

where the mind of the people

of Mahratta rule.

affected
still

by the past associations

kept
alive, in the

The memory
the

survives of the Mahratta

It is

uprising against the

Muhammadans.
sight

popular

imagination, by

of

the

mountains

and

fastnesses close at hand,

which rendered that uprising

last,

practiat

cable at
time, be
this

first

and successful at

and which might,

any

made

the basis of rebellious movements.

Traditions of

nature are always apt to be perpetuated in mountainous

regions.

disposition of the
of

The British Government should continue to note the Deccan mountaineers,' and mark the features the wild territory where they dwell. The condition of the cluster of States, which form the Kathiaof late years,

war peninsula, has been greatly ameliorated

order has been substituted for disorder.

and

In some departments,

Cn.M'. V.

THE MYSORE STATE.

73

such as the land revenue, these States adhere to their old ways
but in other branches they adopt
of the time,
all

the improved methods

and are thriving apace.

The same happy account

may

be given of the neighbouring State of Cutch.

There are

many

lesser States in western India, Pahlanpur,

Eadhanpur, the Mahi Kanta, the

Eewa Kanta and

others, all in

a satisfactory condition at present.

In some of them, however,

trouble has in former times arisen, and might again arise.

In north-eastern India, the uncivilized State of Bhotan has

remained quiet, since
the last war.
its

barbaric insolence was chastised during

of

The Raja

Manipur has

loyally co-operated

with the British Government in dealing with the disturbances

and has received a British decoraSikhim has become virtually a dependant of The State of Cuch Behar has been the British Government.
raised
tion.

by the

frontier tribes,

The Raja

of

managed by the
Raja,

British

Government during the minority

of the

who has been

well educated.
is

The Mysore State

about shortly to be placed under the

administration of the Raja on his coming of age.

The

deter-

mination of the British Government to take this step, has had a

good

effect

on Native opinion throughout the empire, and has

been viewed with satisfaction by the Native sovereigns and

chiefs.

The British Government has managed the State

years with all
to

for

many
who

the advantages of an enlightened system,

train

and has striven

up a

class of

Native administrators
his country.
It

will assist the

young Raja

in

managing

contended in 1877 and 1878, zealously and humanely but without adequate success, against a severe famine, which
afflicted this territory

and was protracted beyond

It also

all

precedent

in the records of misfortune.

advanced large sums of

money

to this State

during that terrible time.

There are two Native States, bordering upon India, which

by treaty have

relations with the British

Government, namely

Nepal and Khelat.

The mountain kingdom

of

Nepal stretches from the malarious

74

INDIA IN

1880.

Cha?. v.

forests fringing the base of the eastern

Himalayas

to the water-

sheds of perennial

snow which divide India from

Thibet.

It

has been within living wholesale massacres.

capital,

memory
The

the scene of dynastic broils and

tales of

bloodshed at

Katmandu

the

on the succession

to the kingship

and the ministership,

shock the ear of humanity.

This State was for

many

years
a rod

ruled by a Native soldier-statesman,

of iron.

Jung Behadur, with

With him
than

discipline

and order were the

first objects,

rather

equity and

moderation.

The former, however,

became famed
for its

having been permanently secured, gradually led to the introduction of the

justice.
latter, until

his regime

In this instance, the old Native ways were followed,

to imitate the British

and no attempt was made

affairs.

model in

civil

But in military matters the British system has been

effect, so

copied with marked

If the qualities

far as can be seen externally.

of the Nepalese

tested, its proficiency in the art of

army were to be seriously war would probably prove

of self-reliance about the
is

to be respectable.

There

is

an

air

Nepalese

officers

of rank,

which

seldom observed in the

Natives of India in the present age.

Such a demeanour

is

the natural outcome of the pride with which the limited, yet

dominant, clan
aboriginal

of

Gorkhas remember that they subjugated

races superior to

Himalayan
But

them

in

art,

industry

and

civilization,

though inferior to them in war, policy and

for the intervention of

organization.

the British power

;

they would have overrun north-eastern India

of

and in the event

any

political

convulsion they would re-assert themselves.

of Englishmen visiting the outlying The valley of Katmandu, Nepal proper,

They manifest jealousy

Nepalese
territories.

where the British

political

Eesident

is

stationed, is freely tra-

versed by visitors of

all nationalities.
is

But the valley where

the real Gorkhas live and which

regarded by them as the

is

birthplace of their power and the nest of their warrior brood,

not to
'J'he

Ije

belield

by European

eyes.

B.ritisli

relations with the

Khan

of Khelat have, of late.

Chap.

v.

THE KHAN OF KHELAT.

much
closer than formerly.
chiefs

75

been drawn
dealings

Formerly, the Khan's

with

his

and

vassals

were unsatisfactory
with destruction
liis

disputes arose

which threatened

his authority

and

his

realm with anarchy.

Since the treaty of 1876,

external relations
satisfactory,

with the British Government have

his territories

been

and the dissensions in

have been

happily composed.
co-operation

He and
the

his

chiefs

have rendered loyal

throughout

recent

Afghan war.

Without

asking for the aid of British troops, they preserved security and

good order for some months in the Bolan Pass, a vitally important point in the British military communications with southern

Afghanistan.

Owing

to

their

good arrangements,, under the

guidance of the Agent to the Governor-General, vast quantities

of British
stores

and material were despatched up the Pass,

without any attempt at plunder being made, and even without

any

thefts occurring.

The value of

this service

on the part of

the EJiian and his State will be appreciated by those

who know

the troubles which arise from the raiding and marauding in

many

parts of the trans-Indus frontier.

His loyalty and the

good conduct of his State, at that trying time, have been

substantially acknowledged

by the Government of India.

From

this

review

it

will be apparent that the Native States

add strength to the eastern dominions of the English Crown,

exert an influence

upon the people

of India,

and are w^orthy

to

members
have

of the British empire.

The general advantages

There
remains

the country, arising from the existence of the Native States,

been

already

explained.

one

special

advantage, with the mention of which this

conclude.

exposition

may

A class

of Native statesmen is raised up,

who have

a better

chance of showing originality of talent and force of character than they could possibly have in the territories administered
directly

by the British Government.

it

Thus the ruling race

susceptible.

acquires a far better idea, than

could otherwise have had,

is

regarding the development of which Native ability

7(5

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

v.

and the part which Natives can fill when thrown on their own Many Native statesmen have been produced of resources.

whom
may

the Indian nation

may justly be

proud, and

among whom

be mentioned Salar Jung of Hyderabad, Dinkar Eao of

Madhava Eao of Baroda, Kirpa Eam of Jammu, Pandit Manphul of Alwar, Faiz Ali Khan of Kotah, Madho Eao
Gwalior,

Barve of Kolhapur, and Purnia of Mysore.

77

CHAPTER

VI.

MATERIAL PROGRESS OF THE NATIVES.

Census of tho population

Gradual

growth of the people

iu

numbers

Exjmnsion of cultivation

Land

can yet sustain increasing people

India

vable waste in India itself

Emigration

Culti-

from India to British colonies

wealth under British rule

Sufficiency of food supply in

Keniittances of money, public and private, to England

capital in India

Outlay of English Reasons Capital largely accumulated by the Natives Increase of why India Western nations wealth Maintenance of the poor Public opinion regarding material improvements Industrial employments General condition of the Natives.
Wealth of former times as
to

Her

compared with the present

cattle

is

inferior

in

The

aspect

of the country, the principal

objects

of interest

therein,

the European community, and the Native

it

States,

having

been briefly described,

becomes necessary

to

approach the

very important topics relating to the condition of the Native

population in the British territories.

Thoughtful Englishmen, though they can hardly be familiar

with a country so distant and so peculiar as India, feel a conscientious

and benevolent interest in the welfare of the Indian

people.

As they cannot become

personally
so

cognisant of a

subject, so vast in its

details,

component parts yet

minute in
it,

its

they are content to leave the management of

for the

most
age,

part, to responsible experts

whose minds, from youth

It is possible for
-a

to

are dedicated to this

purpose.

them,

however, to entertain, evince and express

determination that

every effort shall be exerted for the good government, the ad-

vancement and the

effectually.

civilization

of India

and

this they

do

Such a determination on
the

their

j)art

produces an
itself.

elevating influence on public opinion in England

operates

It

powerfully on

disposition

of

the Englishmen

78

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

vi.

engaged and employed in India, sj^urring the slothful, firing the

ambitious, encouraging the dejected.
of the Natives, causing
It affects the sentiments

them

to

believe that there exists in

senate, a sympathetic

England a gracious Sovereign, an august

people.
It

makes them

feel that there are, in

England,

many
to

who

care for their fellow-subjects in the East,

who

listen

the cry of the distressed,

may

be reasonably urged,
Tliis belief is

who who burn

attend to any grievance that

for

any wrong that may

convictions

be done.

growing stronger year by year in the

its

Native mind, promoting

contentment, settling

its

and establishing

its loyalty.

The thoughts,
Such progress
be considered

then, regarding India, wdiich are

uppermost in

the minds of Englishmen, relate to the progress of the Natives.

is

mental and moral, as well as material.

in its material aspect. of India
is

It

may

first

The population

much larger than

that of any nation

in Europe or America, and exceeds the population of

in the world except China.

any country

resources of

Hence anxiety is often felt lest the India should some day prove unequal to so heavy a
cultivable land, lest pauperism should arise arid

pressure and so severe a strain, lest the people should grow too
thickly on
spread.
tlic

For the due

is

consideration

of

this

problem,

some

knowledge

essential as to
is
it

whether the population during the

nineteenth century
centuries,

greater or less than during the preceding

is

whether
is

increasing fast under

British

rule,

whether

it

likely to increase in the immediate future

it

and

whether, in event of such increase,

will readily find subsistence

within the limits of the country.

Unfortunately, statistics of

the population were never collected by the Native rulers in any

adequate manner; and no proper light

is thrown upon this fundamental matter by the archives of Native rule. At the

commencement
looked.

of British rule, the primary importance of numbering the people was never perceived or was quite over-

Generation after generation of English

lieing recorded

officials

passed

away, without anything

beyond vague

or imperfect

Chap.

vi.

CENSUS OF THE POPULATION.

It

79
to

estimates of the population.

was thought that

make a

census of the empire, or even of a province separately, would

excite the fears of a timid

and suspicious people and might even

cause some civil disturbance.

The

first

steps towards

making
tlien

a census were taken twenty-five years

ago in north-western

India

the example was followed

;

first

by one province
all British

by

another

and in 1872 the

first

census of

India was

made.

It

was

effected without

any opposition on the part of

essential a

the people.

A retrospect

of British rule during this nineteenth

century causes us to wonder

adopted at an earlier time.

why so Had

measure was not

such an enumeration been

made

in each province as soon as possible after its acquisition,

for the

and then

empire as soon as the British conquests and

dominions assumed imperial proportions, had also a fresh enumeration been

made from time

to time

and

its results

compared

with previous enumerations, so that errors might be detected,

discrepancies reconciled and conclusions verified,

we should
But in

at

present possess a body of information valuable to the philanthropist, the

administrator,

and the economist.

fact

there are not in

any large division

of the country, excepting

the North-western Provinces, and in parts of the Presidencies

of

Madras and Bombay, antecedent records with which the

of the recent
its

results

imperial census can be compared with

accuracy.

a view to testing

fresh census will shortly

be taken, and doubtless the operation will be repeated after each succeeding cycle of years.
This census

may show

that in

some provinces the normal

the recent famines.

rate of increase has

been arrested by

statistical basis

having been obtained by

enumeration, there will be a registration of births and deaths, so

that the knowledge

may

be kept abreast of the progress of the

is

population.

Such a registration

attempted, and though very

imperfect as yet, will improve year by year.

Eecent enumerations have indicated

former
statistics, in

little

increase over the

the provinces where the numbers had been

well ascertained on former occasions, but a startlin2r increase in

80

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

vi.

those provinces where the

ascertained before, as for instance in Bengal,

numbers had never been properlyand in parts of

total
for

southern

India.
far

In their grand
all

the empire,

the

numbers
excess

exceeded

previous estimates.

The remarkable

may have

induced some thinkers to apprehend that the

people are multiplying to a degree which the resources of the land can hardly bear. This apprehension rose to a pitch almost
of alarm

when

the famine of 1874 overtook some of those

North-eastern Provinces where the census had shown so great The nascent alarm has an excess over former calculations.

subsequently yielded to sober consideration.

Still,

the

question,

so

frequently

and

anxiously asked,
is

whether the population has sensibly increased or

increasing,

remains for the most part to be answered by conjecture or

inference.

In north-eastern India the population has certainly

;

increased largely within the last two generations

in some few other portions of the empire.
in most provinces^
is

perhaps also
it

Whether

increases

more than the best judges can pronounce. materially increasing, on the whole, but not slightly is It But the correctness or according to the latest information.
incorrectness of this information will not be ascertained until

enumerations shall have been made on several future occasions.

Just before the commencement of British rule the population

may

have, owing to war, revolution and devastation,

for

become

less

than at any time

many

ages.

It

may

have, owing to the

maintenance of peace under British

rule, increased

somewhat

and recovered
land.

its

former standard of strength, without as yet

exceeding what was the normal complement of people in the

Doubtless,
are,
it is

seen to be very dense in

many

places.

There

however, remains and monuments to show that in

it

bygone ages

must have been

at least as dense, perhaps

even

denser, in those very places.

On

the one hand, some districts

have, within the time embraced

by authentic

history,

been

re-

claimed from savagery or have been peopled within the

of living men.

memory

On the

other hand, some districts

now abandoned

CiiAP. VI.

GROWTH OF THE PEOPLE

IN NUMBERS.

81

to the wildness of nature,

have indisputable marks and traces

of a remote civilization
flourishing people.

which could be produced only by a

universal,

In a country where marriage

tion of raising

is

where the ambiencouraged

up progeny
civilization

is

unchecked by those restraints

imposes, and
will
is

which western

often

by

religious

dictates,

the

children

be very numerous

in the aggregate.

But the marriages

Infantine mortality

are too early to be per-

fectly fruitful, consequently the families are

seldom large and

often very small.

is

occasionally deplorable,

and the ravages of disease among the young children are almost
constant.

The death-rate among adults

extreme damp,
for

is

higher than

among

European nations.
districts,

In some of the most thickly inhabited

several

months

in

each year,

reduces

human

vitality to a

low ebb, and men sink away

like candles burning to their sockets.

The

chilly

damps

of

autumnal nights follow days when the pores of the skin have
been kept open by heat.
There are malarious exhalations
is

when
Hence

the

air is

hot,

and the ground'

still

saturated with

the moisture of the rainy season that has but recently ceased.
fevers prevail so largely that scarce a person in the

whole population escapes.

after year

The accession of these

of

fevers year

must undermine the constitutions

many

people.

Crowds

of pilgrims huddling together in a vast concourse at

holy spots become infected with cholera, and fleeing in terrified

bands, spread the pest far and wide.

Though
great

in

some
for

districts

the population

have pure water

for

from streams

drinking
in
is

and ample means

bathing, a
places
their

advantage

a hot climate, yet in

many

drinking-water

impure

and

directly

provocative

of disease,

and

their

resources for bathing are scanty.

Epidemics, varying in type

from time

to time,

sweep away multitudes, and famines, more

life,

or less destructive of

recur periodically.

Thus, as regards population, the existing influences tend in

some respects towards expansion, and

repression.

in other respects towards

82

INDIA IN
the

1880.

Chap.
at

vi.

From
tion

want
it is

of agricultural statistics

the

outset

of

British rule,

impossible to test the extent to which cultiva-

has increased within the nineteenth century.

There

is,

however, a consensus of testimony as to the magnitude of the

increase.
beasts, has

The shrinking

of the area, affording cover to wild

been noted in the traditions of one generation of

sportsmen to another.

Within the past

forty years, the records

of the settlements of the land revenue in

many

parts of the

empire, and the

known

rent-roll of estates in other parts not

subjected to settlement, have afforded positive evidence to the

same

effect.

In some

districts the

latest settlement

records
of

prove that the increase has proceeded apace.

The expansion

cultivation, then, clearly indicates increase of rural population.

It has

been said indeed that the land, becoming poorer, sus-

tains fewer people,

and that consequently an increase of popula-

tion need not be inferred from an expansion of cultivation.

if

But
not

the land has become poorer, as

still

may

be the case in some disgradual, and

tricts,

the deterioration

must be very

enough

to affect

any inference regarding the increase or decrease

despite all drawbacks,

of population.

Inasmuch

as,

towards improvement, the population

many tendencies point may increase. Eeflective

which
it

persons will be anxiously considering whether the country can

support a

much

larger people than that

now

contains.

In respect of density or of sparseness, the population varies

extremely in different parts of India.
full
it

In some parts
;

it is

either

near to overflowing or

is

manifestly too full

in other parts

is

thin or manifestly too low and needs

recruitment.

comparison, of the total population with the whole cultivated

area,

would not be a

satisfactory test in
it

an empire so vast and

so diversified.

If made,

would show an average density, not

In

excessive according to standards accepted in other parts of the

world, and not beyond the sustaining power of the land.

general terms, India, though on a wide and general average

fairly well peopled, is too thickly

peopled in some parts and

Chap.

vi.

CULTIVABLE WASTE IN INDIA ITSELF.

National benefit would arise
if

83

too thinly in others.

the people

were

to migrate

from one centre of industry to another, accordthis

ing to need.

But

would he an undertaking contrary

to

their disposition,

and certainly beyond the power of any governclasses are migratory, yet the people in

ment.
the

Though some

main

are domestic

and home-abiding.

They

are attached

to their ancestral rights

till,

in land, are fond of the fields they

and cling

to the

humblest of their homesteads.

The subits

division not only of the property in the land, but even of

occupancy,

is

generally considerable and sometimes too minute,

it

though as yet

has hardly anywhere passed the limits of

reasonable endurance.
If,

however, the people were stirred by the colonising impulse

races, there is still,

which moves hardier and sturdier

bounds of India
the
itself,

within the

a vast quantity of arable land awaiting

invasion

of

the

plough.

Some
in

observers,

noting

the

wonderful aptitude with

wMch

many

places the Natives of

India utilise for cultivation every available piece of ground,

may
tliis

naturally conclude that culture has already approached

its

possible limit throughout the empire.

limit has been reached long ago.
enciuiry
is

In such places indeed In other places, however,

when

specially turned towards the cultivable waste,

outlying lands are found, some here and some there, the grand
total of

which would be anticipated hj few except

Adjoining India and

statisticians

or

surveyors.
British

now

incorporated in the

empire,

Burma

offers

a practically immense scope for

the immigration of farmers and farm labourers.

of agricultural labourers find

Large numbers

employment

in Ceylon.

During

the crisis of the famine of 1874 in Bengal and Behar, a consideration of the density of the population, subjected to danger,

induced the authorities to take stock, as

waste.
at It

it

were, of the available

was soon perceived that within two hundred miles the utmost, and often within a few miles, unoccupied land
a large expanse of cultivable waste in the centre of the

existed enough to afford an outlet for the overflow of people.

There

is

G 2

84

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

vi.

Panjab; and similar instances might be readily adduced. If then, any national peril of this nature should begin to threaten,
there
is

a safety-valve within India

itself.

trict or province,

landed property

is

so

When, in any dismuch in demand that it

fields,

cannot be bought, and tenants can no longer obtain

then the

pressure of circumstances will drive agricultural capitalists

cultivators to the nearest of the untilled

and

and untenanted

tracts.

Irrespective of the land yet to be brought under cultivation,

the land already cultivated

may

be

made

to yield

much more

than at present.

In some respects, the skilful and elaborate

strikes

husbandry
admiration.

of

the Natives

competent observers with

of their crops are

The manuring and preparation

found
to

sometimes
supposed.

be

better

than

has

been commonly

The

harvests,

which in autumn and spring wave

over the land in expanses apparently unlimited because unbroken

by hedgerows, convey the idea of a natural fertility to which some justice has been done by industry and practical knowledge.

The

sight of

hundreds of square miles of land,

rest or cessation

tilled

and cropped without

during

many

centuries, yet

remaining rich and productive, seems to forbid the apprehension

that any process of gradual exhaustion can be going on.

Though

most of the agricultural products are of ancient

origin, yet

many

products are of comparatively recent introduction, and

scarce a decade passes without

some new product

rising into

prominence.

The

irrigation

from the wells sunk deep into the

ground, having ingenious water-lifting machinery which relays of

men and bullocks ply day and night for many weeks consecutively,
impresses the spectator with a notion that the bounties of nature
are fully applied

by

art to

the use of man.

The canals

for

irrigation in India

are

magnificent, dwarfing

by comparison

the modern system of irrigation in any country of Europe, or of

Asia, except perhaps China,

and

all

the ancient canal systems

save that of Mesopotamia.

Notwithstanding these favourable symptoms, however,

it

may

be admitted that, in some parts of the country a slight deteriora-

Chap.

vi.

EMIGEATION FKOM INDIA TO BRITISH COLONIES. 85

is

tion of the soil

probably setting

in.

With many products

it

the crop

is

not nearly as heavy and valuable as

ought to

be.

Eleven bushels of grain per acre are produced in India as

compared with thirty in England.

quently observed of virgin
soil

Fresh examples are

fre-

yielding crops

which are not

are not artifi-

equalled in succeeding years.

ductive elements drawn
cially rejDlaced.

Such

facts indicate that the pro-

away from the ground

is

The husbandry The materials

in

some

respects, primitive

and imperfect.
defective.

for

manuring are often very

Despite the canal system,

much

rain-water, to be

reckoned by millions of cubic

to the sea.
It is not

feet, rolls

year after year wasted

mere dreaming

to

hope that practical and

to

technical education will teach the

husbandmen

improve their

culture and will counteract the otherwise inevitable exhaustion

of the

soil,

that

new

products will be introduced and irrigation

extended, and that thus the land

may be

enabled to sustain even

it.

more people than the teeming millions who now stand upon

The countries adjoining

cannot receive immigrants.
of

India, being poor

and mountainous,
of the colonies

But heretofore some

England have

offered a field for immigration,

under climatic

and

social conditions favourable to the Natives of India.

Thou-

sands of Indian families have been willing to emigrate.

The

stream of emigration from India to the Mauritius, to Natal, to

the

West

Indies,

and

to Guiana,

began

many

years ago, and

became quite brisk from 1873

ened, partly owing
to

to 1876.

It subsequently slack-

fluctuations in the

sugar trade.

The

emigrants came
that
is

chiefly

from the mid valley of the Ganges,

Benares,

the

provinces of Behar and

and from the

northern parts of the Madras coast.

They appeared in numbers

etiect

enough

to to

stock the labour markets of the colonies, but not

enough

produce any perceptible

on a dense Indian
their

population.
colonial

Of those who emigrated, some stayed in

home, but

circumstances.
facilitating

many Much care was

and

returned to India greatly improved in

taken by the Government for

ensuring the welfare of the

emigration

for

86
emigrants.
for

INDIA IN
The matter

1880.

Chap.

vi.

really depends on the colonial

is

demand
and

Indian labour.

That demand

at present too

fitful

uncertain to favourably affect

if it

the

prospects

of

India.

But

ever shall be steady and continuous, and shall promise

wages much higher than those of India, then there will be

plenty of emigrants to found
tropical

new Indian

provinces in the

regions

south of the equator, and even in parts of

is

Australia.

There

not, however, practically,

any chance of

emigration to the colonies becoming, even at the best, sufficient

to relieve

any over-peopled Indian province.

of future contingencies,

Irrespective

anxiety has

been ex-

pressed lest the supply of food for this vast population should
fall

short on

some dire

occasion.

Indeed in 1877, when

it

seemed

likely that the

Madras and Bombay

famines would be pro-

longed over a second year and that a

in northern India, a thought of this kind did

across the

new famine would appear flit for a moment

The transient
fear,

minds

of the authorities.

how-

ever, passed

away.

Although the twelvemonth between the

summer

of 1877

and that of 1878 was the most formidable year

in respect of famine that has passed over India during this

century, there was not any protracted anxiety as to the food

supply

failing,

nor was there any failure whatever.

In 1874,
in

when

severe famine

hung over many millions

of people

Bengal and Behar, there was

from Calcutta
;

much

exportation of food-grains
this should be prohibited,

it

was proposed that

on.

but the Government of India declined to issue such prohibition,

and the exportation went

In ordinary times, and even in

is

times of partial famine, India

a food-exporting country, and

nothing short of a general and severe famine would stop this

exj)ortation.
possiliility, is

Such a famine, thougli within the bounds

of

unprecedented in the annals of calamity, and in

reference to the several climatic zones and the

latitude
able.

many

degrees of

and longitude comprised in India,

Bengal was
;

is

extremely improb-

When

afflicted in 1874,

Madras and Bombay

suffered in

had propitious seasons

when Madras and Bombay

Chap.

vi.

SUFFICIENCY OF FOOD SUPPLY IN INDIA.

87

1877, Bengal was prosi:)ermg.

coast provinces of British

Under

all

circumstances, the

Burma and

the delta districts of the

Ganges, which regions export edible grains by hundreds of

thousands of tons, have unfailing seasons.

The area under

irri-

gation from canals, though as yet insufficient relatively to the

total area, is considerable

and

is

nearly, though not quite,

beyond

the reach of failure.

The internal grain-trade

trials

of the country

proved most active during the crucial

to

which
;

it

was

exposed in the middle of 1874, in 1877 and 1878

and there
but

was not any deficiency in the

total

supply within the empire.

The anxiety
to the

related, not to the quantities of grain available,

means

of transporting

it,

and these means were

for the

most part supplied by the railways.

There was indeed one

notable exception when, in the beginning of 1874, the Govern-

ment was obliged to despatch grain in vast quantities to north Behar. Even then, however, there was grain within the limits
of the

empire; the difficulty consisted in placing the food

within reach of the famishing people.

The experience gathered during

records

several generations,

and the

now

collated of

many

precedents of calamity, establish

beyond doubt the periodicity of famines, not indeed in any

fixed cycle or rotation, but of sure recurrence after intervals

longer or shorter.

Strenuous

efforts

have been put forth by the

Government, with chequered

quences of these visitations.

success, for mitigating the conse-

Doubtless,

the lives

of large
still

multitudes have been thereby saved, and the sufferings of

larger multitudes have been alleviated.

Notwithstanding these
In the face of

exertions, considerable mortality has occurred.

these facts, few administrators will affirm that mortality can be,
or will

promise that

it

shall

be,

prevented.

The

strictest

enquiry has been made regarding the practicability of such

material works being undertaken, or such other measures being

adopted by the Government, as

famines
;

may

stop

the

accession

of

but as yet no such possibility has been discovered.

or

The material improvements which have been,

may

yet be

88

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

vi.

introduced, can at the best only diminish the area, or mitigate

the consequences, of drought.

is

Even

in prosperity, then, famine

like an apparition warning people of doom, and as a skeleton

its finger to

pointing

apprise the nation of a danger which

off.

is

ever impending and cannot be warded

It is

often debated both

by Europeans and Natives, whether

is

the material prosperity of India

increasing

or

decreasing
it

under British
is

rule.

Many

educated Natives apprehend that

decreasing, and probably notions

to that effect find popular

acceptance.
his discourse

Certainly any Native agitator would choose for

some

assertions of this description, as likely to be

also

believed.

He would
it

add another assertion, namely

is

this,

that

the

national wealth

decreasing

partly

because the
is

English draw

away

to

England.

This argument indeed

urged by some of the Native newspapers against the English

Government and
nations,

nation.

Similar views, regarding the abstrac-

tion of wealth from India,

seem

to be held

by some continental

and have been propounded by some English authorities

attention.
profits

whose dicta command

Formerly
it

was believed that

and indirect tribute

Since the

were drawn from India by the East India Company.

has been turned to the annual payments

assumption of the government of India by the Crown, attention

made by the Government of India to that of England. To these payments the misnomer of tribute has been unfortunately applied. Coupled with these are the remittances to England of the savings made by officials from their salaries, and of the profits realized by
merchants, bankers and traders in their business.

The paygrown
to

ments by the Government have, indeed,

formidable dimensions and are
still

of late years

growing.

But they are

legitimate and natural, consisting of the price of articles im-

ported into

India

by means
India

of

Government, which really

pertain to the import trade, of the interest on capital which

is

fructifying

within

itself,

and

of

the

remunera-

tion of services

rendered to India.

In a country where the

Chap.

vi.

INDIA'S

WEALTH UNDER

BRITISH RULE.

89

Government, the administration and the trade are controlled

and in part carried on by

that

foreigners, it

portion of the income

must needs happen made by them in India will

if

be spent out of India.

Natives, the income
entirely spent there.

Wliereas,

their places

were

filled

by

made

in the

country would be almost

created, or

The pension system has been

under British
rule.

at least greatly developed,

Thus the Native

rule the

pensioners spend their pensions in India, while the European

pensioners spend theirs in England.
social splendour of the places

Under Native
officials

where the

congregated, and

where the courts and camps were formed,

lives in the pages of

many

histories,

and

is

exemplified in some degree at the capitals

of the Native States nowadays.

That splendour arose from ex-

penditure incurred mainly, though not entirely, in purchasing

indigenous

articles,

and in encouraging

local

manufactures.

The modern
splendid.

capitals of the Viceroy

and his lieutenants, of the

Governoi"s and administratoi's throughout the empire, are also

But the splendour

is

of a different kind, and does

not equally develop the Native industries.

Consequently some,

though not many, of the old Indian arts or manufactures,

especially those of the

more

delicate description,

have shrunk,

decayed or perished.

The labour of the persons, whose hands

therein, has

and minds were employed

channels.

been turned into other

to

The employment afforded in older days

soldiers, retainers, orderlies

enormous
is

numbers of

and dependants,

much

reduced in these times.

of the Natives,

The drawbacks
arise

to the material progress

facts,

which

from these limited

may be

admitted.

Under Native

rule, the State

expenditure was governed by

rule.

ideas different from those

which prevail under British

It

was incurred largely

refined

for personal grandeur, lavish display

utility.

and
It

luxmy

but seldom for purposes of general

to the production of articles

was usually devoted

which were
to the

consumed once
production
of

for all,

and

to things

which did not lead

capital.

wealth or to the accretion of

The

90

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

vi.

sovereign, his relations, his nobles bearing the proud title of

his pillars of state, lived chiefly to while

away time by every

amusement wliich the culture of the age could suggest, and to

enjoy
life

with every device which the resources of the country

could afford.

In their suite were

many

idlers,

born to do
esta-

nothing but consume

the fruits of the earth.

Numerous

blishments were entertained to support an ostentatious dignity,

and

to provide

employment

for those

who

did not care to

work

in productive industries.

Under

British rule, extravagance

is

curbed, and frugality, in

matters relating to the

pomp

or circumstance of State, is carried

so far as to constitute a political disadvantage in the eyes of

many.

Establishments are kept at the lowest scale consistent

service.

with the efficiency of the public

the contrary, every one
is

actively engaged in

Not a man is idle on some pursuit, and

;

the highest functionaries live a laborious

life.

Expenditure

is

applied

by the Government, not

to perishable articles of luxury,

but to things of real usefulness, and to works, which, being

remunerative, lead to further production.

This policy induces

people to save, and fosters the growth of capital, which widens

the field for lucrative labour.

Some Native
and in

States followed,

in certain respects, a policy similar to that which the British

Government adopts
they were

generally,

so far as they did this,

much

to be

commended.

But the opposite

notions,

which have generally regulated the Native and the British

systems respectively, must cause a difference to be perceptible

on the face of the country.

Such difference

is

not necessarily in

favour of the Native system, but will be thought by

in favour of the British Government.

many

to

be

Many

of the educated

Natives, however,

who

turn their attention to current politics,

give scant credit to British rule for diverting expenditure from

unproductive luxury to reproductive improvement.

They

will

charge the Government with undue profusion respecting the

very establishments

and

the

very works, which European

opinion usually indicates as conducive to national prosperity.

Chap.

vi.

OUTLAY OF ENGLISH CAPITAL IN

INDIA.

91

Such views will probably dissolve as the

advances.
Further,

light of civilization

under British

rule,

the Natives

sell

to

nations

beyond the sea vast quantities of raw produce, and some manufactures, for prices the

sum

of

which would have astonished the

for these exports, countless

mediaeval traders.
articles of

In part return

domestic use or consumption are imported, cheaper

in price

and better in quality than anything which could be

Fresh products are introduced and raised in
;

made

locally.

extensive areas

new manufactures

are established, employing

is

tens of thousands of families.

Machinery

imported, multi-

plying the mechanical forces of the country and the motive

power of the people.

countries, is

Capital, saved
to

and accumulated in foreign

of

employed

the

amount

hundreds of millions

sterling in India, affording to her

an incalculable benefit which

she could not possibly have obtained without the security

of British rule.
retainers,

The unproductive multitudes

of soldiers

and
of

once so overgrown, are reduced to the

minimum

establishments needed for defence and administration, whereby

untold

numbers

of

men

are

transferred

to

employments
material
pro-

producing national wealth.

disadvantages of
sperity,
loss
is

In these ways, the unavoidable

rule,

foreign

in

respect

of

are

compensated by

many

advantages.

Whether the

more than counterbalanced by the

gain, is a matter

for discrimination.

Thus

it

happens that the probability of the visible and

frequent discussion both

tangible wealth of the country having increased or decreased

imder British

rule, is a subject of

among

Europeans and Natives.

ing,

Such a discussion, however

interest-

cannot be decided with the certainty that would follow a

similar disquisition regarding

some European

countries, such as

Great Britain, France or Belgium, where the immeasurable

augmentation of wealth
deed never has been, and

is

manifest.

For India, in her own

ages.

fashion, has been wealthy during

is

many

Her wealth

in-

not yet, great relatively to her size

92 and
to the

INDIA IN
numbers

1880.

Chap.

vi.

of her people, but is

on the contrary small.

It has, however, been regarded as great absolutely, and thug has

struck the imagination of mankind.

One

reason for this

is

the

peculiar aptitude, which she used to possess, for gathering her

riches together at a
it

few centres of attraction and so displaying

most

effectively.

The

historical
political

accounts of the plunder,

catastrophes,

realised

after

military or

may seem

fabulous, but are nevertheless well founded, despite rhetorical

exaggeration.

There never has been a country where wealth

concentrated, or so little diffused, as the historic
traditional

was

so

much

India.

Hence the

ideas

of eastern

wealth have
these
central

indefinitely

exceeded

the

reality.

Besides

accumulations of goods and property, there must have been

much wealth
craft

collected in divers lesser places.

No

economist

can study the story of the Mahratta conquests, wherein state-

was

chiefly devoted to the organization of

skill

plunder with

unparalleled

and audacity, without wondering how the

is proof,

country could have endured visitations so long protracted and

so oft repeated.

Here

however, of the national habit

Descriptions

of collecting,

hoarding and secreting property.

of accumulated wealth

occur in the histories of the wars of

the present generation, for example, the verified accounts of

prize at

Hyderabad in Sindh in 1842,

other
places

at Delhi,

Lucknow,

Kirwi and

during

the war

of

the mutinies.

During
the

many

years

past,

even up to

this

very day, the

dacoities or gang-robberies wliich occasionally break out, tell

same

tale of

wealth collected in rural as well as urban

homes, to an amount which might not otherwise have been

suspected.

Large amounts of gold specie or bullion are trans-

mitted by the Natives through the Post-office. The circulation of

notes has risen to

many

millions sterling, within a few years

of a

after the introduction

by Government
is

paper currency.

The money-order system

of the savings-banks
is

extensively used, and the popularity

rising.

All these facts point to a like

conclusion regarding the national wealth.

At the modern

capitals.

Chap.

vi.

DIFFUSION OF

WEALTH

IN INDIA.

93

such as Calcutta and Bombay, the Native wealth, though

less dazzling

much

and ostentatious than in the

capitals of historic
It is

renown,
partly

is

much more
plant,

useful and substantial.

devoted

mechanism and machinery, instead of the brilliant trappings and luxurious articles of other days, and thus it may appear by comparison to be less than it really is. But if the wealth of India be less concentrated now than
to

formerly, and therefore not so easily measurable or computable,

it is

much more

diffused.

signal proof of such diffusion

is

found in the almost universal substitution of metal

for earthen-

ware in the domestic utensils of most of the humbler classes

within the last generation
of the
;

the replacement of thatched roofs the

cottages

by

tiling

use of foreign piece goods

;

to

some extent instead

of

the coarse country-made cloths

carriages

the

employment
the
agriculture

of wheeled

instead

of pack

animals

superior construction of the carts engaged for trade and

;

the improved breeds of draught cattle.

The be-

dizened equipages, caparisoned eleijhants and prancing steeds

of the rich

man

are rarely to be seen.

But the poor man,

to

with

Ms

cart

and pair of bullocks,

rides

market as he

seldom rode before.

All this evidence,

not flashing before

the vision like the manifestations of former ages, but being

obtained

only by penetrating

and far-reaching observation,

it

perhaps receives less of popular consideration than

but will nevertheless be appreciated by the
the economist.

deserves,

statistician

and

marized thus.
Natives
the
is

The outcome of these complex considerations may be sumThe growth of material prosperity among the
not so great as might at
of
first

sight appear from

statistics

trade

and production,

if

a comparison be
real

instituted with former times.

The national wealth, though

and expanding,

is less

discernible than formerly, being so

much

more

diffused.
is

Touching the wealth of the Natives, there

whether capital
is

the question
as

saved and accumulated, as

much

might

94

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

vi.

be expected under the peaceful circumstances of British rule.

Some

authorities

apprehend that the people have become too

poor to save anything of material amount, or to accumulate

much

that

would be worthy

of the

name

of capital.

It is

remarked that the Natives do

State loans which

not subscribe largely to

the

are raised nowadays,

nor hold any large

is

portion of the public securities.

Doubt
it

expressed whether
is

the proportion of the national debt held

as
it

by them
alleged,

as great
objects,

formerly was.

There

are,

is

few

patent to European observation, which could be indicated as

the points whereto Native capital
is

directed.

The peasantry
Such apprehen-

are said, in general terms, to have no capital.

sions, if substantiated,

would give birth

to misgivings in regard

to the future of the country.

It

the Natives
see, or

must be admitted that the accumulation of capital among is far from being what economists would desire to
what statesmen might expect,
after

two generations of
Never-

internal peace unbroken save on one great occasion, and after

the introduction of so
theless, there is

many

material improvements.

some saving and accretion in progress throughout the country, and there exists an accumulated store, which is absolutely great, though small relatively to the numbers
of the
people.

The Natives do not hold the stock

is

of the

Guaranteed Eailway Companies, which

in England.
of the

held by shareholders

Nor do they hold what is Government securities, which

it is

called the sterling paper

is

held by Europeans.
is

But

of the rupee paper, as

termed, which

held largely,

though not wholly in India, a considerable portion, about 18

millions sterling worth,
is

held in the names of Natives.

In

other words, out of the national debt of India, held partly in

India and partly in England, which

millions sterling in
all,

may

be set

down

at

138

abo\it 18 millions, or one-eighth, is held

is

by Natives.
the

Tliis

proportion

not very considerable;

still

amount

of eighteen millions is something absolutely.

for the
earlier times

In
of

the absence of detailed information

Chap.

vi.

CAPITxVL

ACCUMULATED BY THE NATIVES.

is

95
is

British rule, there

no knowledge whether the proportion

;

materially less

now than formerly

it

probably

is less,

however.

But inasmuch
thirty millions,
debt,
it is

as in those days the debt itself did not exceed

and as Europeans then held some part of the

have held essentially
Natives not holding
hold.

clear that the Natives could not

more than they now

more than they
of the

The reasons

for

do, are these, that the rates of interest

have

been gradually lowered, and that Europeans obtain possession

securities.

The loans have been

for

for

the most part

raised in

England

many

years, because the funds could be

obtained more cheaply and advantageously there than in India.

In other words, the Natives have been driven quite legitimately

out of a part of this field by the competition of European
capitalists.

tures, issued
is

Some considerable portion of the municipal debenby corporations on the security of town revenues, held by Natives. Some of the capital of the Presidency
have special relations with the

banks, which

Government,
can
find

belongs to

them.

The

fact

is

that

the

Natives

many
cent,
it

which yield more than the 4 or 4^ per obtainable from the public securities. In former times,
safe investments
to

was hard

find

any secure place wdierein

to

put their

money
are

save in the Government treasury, but in these times there

many such
to
it.

investments.
in

the

money market

The Government, again, finding London so conveniently resourceful,

resorted

Had

there been no such resources available,

then the Queen's Government on assuming the direct administration of India

would have obtained money by loan from the

Natives, in the
to
do,

same manner

as the East India at

Company used
of

but upon less favourable terms,

Still,

higher rates

interest.

with these abatements, money would have been

East India Company.

forthcoming in India year by year, and in greater sums than

in the

time of the

Even now,

this

very course has recently been prescribed in the raising of

loans for material improvement.
It has

been repeatedly ascercan be obtained

tained that two

to

three

millions

sterling

96
in this

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.
interest.

vi.

manner

at comparatively

cheap rates of

More
offered.

could doubtless be obtained

if higher

rates of interest

were

Up

to a very recent date the financial credit of India, as inditlie

cated by

rate of interest

on the national debt, has been one

of the best in the world, second only to that of

England

herself.

One

reason,

market furnished
resources
interest,

among many so much

others,

was

this,

that the

London

of the

resources.

Without these

Government must have paid a higher rate of and according to this standard its credit would have
the
capital

stood lower in the financial quotations of the world.

Meanwhile the
increase,

of

the

Natives

has

continued

to
is

and questions
In the

arise as to the objects to

which
in the

it

applied.

first place,

the external trade

is
is

partly in the

hands of Native

capitalists,

though a large part

hands

of Europeans, and the Native share of the trade requires a considerable

amount

of capital.

In the next place, the internal

trade of the country passes through the hands of Natives, and

here again

much

capital

is

employed.

In visible proof of

this,

there are the Native bankers of all grades, spread throughout

the empire, leaving no place whatever in

are the vast

it

unoccupied.

There

numbers of

carts

and draught-animals engaged not

capital thus

in agriculture but in transport, and the equally great numbers of

boats for inland navigation.

The

employed must be and gold coin in

held to have imposing proportions.

circulation,

The

silver

reckoned at

many millions
specie

sterling, chiefly belongs to

Natives.

The

large imports of gold

and silver have mostly passed

and
bullion, also reckoned

into their hands.

at

The hoarded

many millions

sterling, is in their possession.

Of the Governbe retained

in the

ment notes
or secreted,

in circulation, a portion is believed to

and that belongs

to Natives.
to

The deposits

State savings-banks
of

amount
to

nearly two millions sterling,

which much belongs

a
part
of

Native depositors.
capital

To the Natives
the
local

pertains
dustries

the

employed in

in-

of cotton
fashion.

and

jute,

which are conducted

after the

European

Lastly, since the recognition l)y the State

Chap.

vt.

CAPITAL ACCUMULATED BY NATIVES.

97

of a

marketable property in land, an enormous amount of

Native capital has been lent out on landed security to landliolders great

and small.
classes

The moneyed
servable
society.

among

the

Natives are readily obis

by Europeans, when a survey

made

of Indian

These classes exist everywhere, both in town and in

;

country

they are said to be even elbowing the Europeans

cities.

out of the trade at the Presidency

Their capital really

represents a part of the savings of the nation, and they receive

high rates of interest for their

rates used to

money

as they lay

it out.

These

be usuriously high under Native rule, 15, 20,

cent,

even 25 per

and were in some degree

or

justified

by the
since

want
was
the

of security,
offered.

by the weakness of such security as

have
British

They
of

become
rule,

lower

and

lower
to

introduction

owing partly

the

im-

provement of
talists,

securities,

and partly

to the competition of capi-

great

and small, among themselves.

They

are

even

now comparatively

high, varying greatly according to circum-

stances or to localities, and

ranging from 7 to 12 per cent.,

though they may sometimes be even lower, and not unfrequently

higher.
It is reported that

Native merchants

now

lend

money

to each other at 6 per cent.

The

fact of the rates of interest

being occasionally high

considered

among

the Natives,

may

perhaps be

by some

as

an unfavourable symptom, indicating

that the material welfare of the country has not been promoted,
as

much

as

might have been hoped, by the long peace under a

settled

Government.

On

the other hand, the circumstances that

the rates have of late years been so considerably reduced, and

have in some cases fallen

to 7

and even

6 per cent.,

may

be ac-

cepted as a proof not only that security of investment has improved, but also that the quantity of Native capital has increased.
It is

thought by some authorities in England that the poorer

classes in India are

becoming gradually depressed, but

on the
spot.

this

view

would hardly

strike employers of labour

Labour

for private enterprises or for public

works cannot always be

11

98
obtained
;

INDIA IN
it is

1880.

Chap.

vi.

comparatively abundant only in the hot season

or agricultural

when domestic
hi<7hly.

work

is

slack.

It is

becoming

more scarce than formerly, and has to be remunerated

more
obtain

Even

for service in the Native army, once the most

it is

favourite of all employments,

recruits
;

becoming

difficult to
is

and one main cause

of the difficulty

this,

that the

men

are better off at home,

and do not care so much as of yore

for the military wage.

It has

been thought by some that the cattle generally have

;

decreased and are decreasing

incidental dicta of eminent

have been cited

to the effect that it is

;

more

difficult

men now than

formerly to obtain good animals

statistics of the

settlement

department are quoted

to

prove the fact of decrease in the

Deccan

of western India.

These particular

statistics in

the

Deccan have not, however, been accepted by the principal

authorities
facts

on the

spot,

and

their result is

opposed to

known

which point

to a decided increase.

In the Deccan the

cultivation has spread greatly and the local trade has

expanded

consequently the cattle both for plougliing and for drawing carts

must have increased

tion
is

in an equal degree.

The same consideraTherefore

applicable to most other provinces of the empire, and

especially to

the Madras Presidency.

it

is

highly

probable, indeed practically certain, that the agricultural cattle

have

largely

increased

almost everywhere.

Similarly,

the

number

of draught cattle
districts,

must have

risen in

most
it

districts,

while in some
declined, their

near the railway lines,

may have

employment being superseded by the use of

statistics of cattle

the

rail.

Trustworthy

can hardly be se-

cured,

and there are not

sufficient data for

comparison between the present and former times.

making an exact Those who

are best able to take a comprehensive view of the matter, will

not believe that any decrease on the whole can possibly have
occurred, but on the contrary will expect to find an increase.

Of

late there

have been signal instances of draught

cattle being

easily obtained in large numbers.

Puring the famine

of

1874

Chap.

vi.

INCREASE OF CATTLE.

99

there were

202,000 draught bullocks in excellent condition

collected within six

weeks in

tlie

northern districts of Behai*

and Bengal,
the

About for the transport of grain by Government. same time 10,000 draught bullocks were purchased for
a fortnight in the North-western Provinces

Government within

for a similar service,

and large additional numbers could have

In 1879, there were 9000 bullocks

been immediately procured.

bought in Sind

for military service at the shortest notice,

and

the people offered to produce any additional

number

that might

be required.

Regret was

felt in

Khandesh, near the Deccan, that

of the purchases

distance from the seat of

of bullocks being

war prevented some

there.

made

Whenever animals

are

wanted

for transport in war, it is notorious that if

camels and ponies

shall

fail,

there

is

a practically unlimited reserve of bullocks.

increase,

Such expectation of
the
serviceable
cattle.

however, will relate only to

a

Among

Hindu

population, averse

to destroy these animals,

numberless unserviceable cattle are

left

preserved in ordinary times, and in seasons of drought are

to their fate.

Thus, during the recent famines,

many thousand
for their

head have perished, which were of no value except

horns, hides

and bones.
working

The
cattle,

loss of

such creatures, however,

does not affect the agricultural or locomotive power of the

country.
Tlie

being stall-fed, were preserved

through the drought, as was proved by the briskness of the grain

trade,

and the undiminished area of

cultivation, for all

which

things the labour of bullocks w^as essential, to a more than

ordinary extent.

Nevertheless, the condition of the cattle

is far

from being
there
is

all

that might be desired.

From July

to

December

plenty of herbage for grazing in the plains throughout

the country.

During the

rest of the year, the grazing is scanty

hills adjacent,

in those provinces to

which there are no

and

it is

from such provinces that instances are drawn of cattle suffering

in the hot season.

The peasants do not indeed

which

raise special

crops, as they might, for fodder, but the stalks of several of the

cereals supply a nutritious substance,

is

carefully stored

100
for

INDIA IN
feeding the
cattle

1880.

Chap.

vi.

during the dry season.

But

in

the

many

provinces where

Mils are near, pasturage, often of excel-

lent quality, is available,

and the herds are sent periodically

Still,
it

to

must be admitted that the increase of cattle is checked and the pastoral wealth, which naturally should belong to the country, is diminished by
the valleys for grazing.
destructive murrains

and epidemics.
is

Eelatively to her size and population, India emphatically

a poor, a very poor, country, in one, at least, of the ordinary

acceptations of the term poor.

The labour
exerted,

of the people is not strenuously nor successfully

to

and

man

man, an Indian does much

less

work in a
is

given time than a European.

Human employment

held

cheap, and has heretofore been abundant, so the wages are low
generally, though they have of late years risen in

many
In
and,

places,

and have doubled

localities,

at

some centres
still

of industry.

rural

however,

they are

very

small
less

where
in

received in kind,

may

even be relatively

than they were.

The average
quantity

of food

consumed per head

a
little

is

somewhat small
;

and comparatively innutritious in quality

is

under
diet.

these mild skies there

craving for nutritious

The ordinary wants

ficial

are simple

and easily

satisfied; the arti-

needs are few, and those which exist are inexpensive.

climate

The

does

not,

by augmenting

the

necessities

of

clothing, lodging

and

firing,

drive people to self-help, therefore

to exertion are
is

on the whole, the inducements

sequently the average income

but feeble.

Con-

very small, and the margin

of surplus, for anything beyond the wants of bare existence,

is

narrow.

In Europe and North America the working power

and motive force of the people are multiplied by mechanical

means and
as yet

scientific

resources.

But

such

appliances

are

wanting

for the

most part

to the

Indians,

who have
It

been well described as being essentially un-mechanical.

comes, then, to
of
this, that

some two hundred and

less,

fifty

millions

men

in

India work

make

less,

produce

less,

indeed

Chap.

vr.

MAINTENANCE OF THE
less,

POOR.

101

very

much

than an equally large population in Europe.

is

Let a certain result be assumed as a symbol of what

plished in a year

accom-

by the whole people

in Europe.

of India.

Certainly half,

possibly even one-third, of that

number
is

of Europeans

would

accomplish as

much

Whether, however, they would

another question, regarding
of the circum-

accomplish the same in India

which doubt may be

for a long

felt.

But a consideration

stances immediately shews that the Indians are, and

must be

time to come, comparatively poor.

is

In another sense of the term poor, however, the case

different.

Those who, having comparatively much, have yet not

be poor, and those who,

enough

for their wants, are said to

little,

having

have yet enough for their slight and modest In that view of the matter, the
first

needs, are held not to be poor.

Indians are not so poor as might at

sight be supposed.

Apart from famines which occur periodically, the poor in

India do not dread absolute hunger in ordinary times, nor

do they suffer from rigours of climate, though

are fed scantily.

many

of

them

There

is

no hard winter before their eyes,

call

no poor-law, no poor-rate, no
legally
tute,

for the

community being
is

compelled to

maintain the disabled and the destiThere

little

nor any considerable pauperism.

of the

slow-wasting penury, the cankering care, the sense of pinching insufficiency, which, irrespective of absolute
are
so

destitution,
civilized

often mentioned
;

in

the most advanced

for all.

and

countries
of

a mouthful

is

somehow found

Some

classes

indigent

beggars

by profession

exist,

quite

apart from

religious
class.

mendicants who form a large and anything but needy

Infirm persons are to be seen

among

the villages, in

numbers which range in a certain proportion

each village.

to the population of

These are supported by private charity, of which

the stream never runs dry in ordinary times, and which the
villagers afford

without the least

known

to

the relief officers of

fail

They are well the Government in times of

difiiculty.

famine, for they then

to receive support

from the villagers

102

INDIA IN
all tlieir little

1880.

Chap.

vi.

who need
the
first to

means

for themselves.

Thus, they are

come on the State

relief.

But

as soon as the famine

abates and some prospect appears of returning plenty, they are

immediately thrown back on their villages or parishes, and Here, then, receive the same voluntary sustenance as before.
is

a sort of self-acting voluntary system, a creditable sign of

the popular character, and a satisfactory

to the circumstances of the country.

symptom
is

in respect

iDroof of the

comparative poverty of India

afforded

by

the experience of the income-tax.

If such a tax of one per cent,

were levied in the same manner as the English income-tax, touching the same sort of incomes in India as those touched in
England, with as near an approximation as can be had relatively
to the different circumstances of the

two

countries, the yield

would

not

with careful administration

exceed

one

million

sterling.

This at the best represents the income of the nation,

to

assessable

income-tax,

at

one hundred millions

sterling.

But the corresponding income of the United Kingdom is several times as much, notwithstanding that its population is only But as Great Britain is one-fifth of the Indian population. abnormally rich, let a comparison be instituted on the same
assumed data with any European country, and the comparative
poverty of India will be apparent.

The

feeling for art

is

which characterizes even humble handiascribed

craftsmen in India

by Dr. Birdwood, one

of the best
Ind^cstrial

authorities on this subject, in his recent

work on the

Arts of India, to the

ing to him, they
living in comfort
to their

men being in easy circumstances. Accordknow nothing of the struggle for existence,

and serenity, and are thus enabled to attend work with contented minds, taking in it that pride and pleasure which are essential to artistic excellence. He ascribes
these

happy circumstances

to the

landed tenures.

And

though

evidently alive to any faults which

may

be found in the existing

order of things, he concludes his description with the following

picture, the truth of

which will be recognised by

all

who know

Chai>. VI.

PUBLIC OPINION ON MATEKIAL IMPROVEMENTS. 103

the Deccan, and whieli

may

serve as a
life as

foil to

the descriptions

which represent the peasant's

a round of grinding care.

He

writes thus,

stretch

cities of Poona and Sattara tliere Glad with the dawn, the men come forth to their work, and glad in their work thej' stand all throui;h the noonand when the tide, singing at the well, or shouting as they reap or plough stillness and the dew of evening fall upon the land like the blessing and the

" For leagues and leagues round the

the
cultivated
fields.
.
. .

peace of God, the merry-hearted

men
. .

gather with their cattle, in long

.

winding
year
is

lines to

their villages again.

Thus day

follows day aud the

crowned with gladness."

Critics

sometimes fasten upon the poorest

;

districts in the

country and generalise therefrom

authorities should be

and

it

is

well that the

reminded of the weakest parts in the beam

contemplate some of

of the State.

Still it is desirable also to

the iinest parts of the country, such as the tracts around Dacca
in eastern Bengal, the district of Calicut on the

Malabar

coast,

the delta of Tanjore, the cream of the Gujerat province near

Bombay, the
other places.

valleys near

Kangra

in the Panjab,

and many

Having regard

to the

admitted poverty of the nation, some

well-informed persons are beginning to express doubts whether

the material improvements and public works
are

not being

pressed on by the Government, at a cost which the people can-

not bear, and at a pace in advance of the needs of the country.

Certainly, monitions of this description are never misplaced, for

there

is

ever a fear of embarrassment arising in a subject country

race.

from over-zeal on the part of the ruling

It is necessary

that the Government should shorten its improving arm, in reference to its own financial means and to the immediate

needs of

its

people.

But within the memory of many

sur-

viving administrators, a cry arose of an opposite description.

The East India Company was charged with

being, in its soliciaffairs,

tude regarding military, political and administrative

some-

what neglectful of material improvement, which was accordingly

much urged on

its

attention by most organs of public opinion.

104
Ill

INDIA IN
truth the great

1880.

Chap.
for material

vi.

Company

did

its

utmost

im-

provement, as for every other good thing, according to

its lights,

means and

opportunities.

Since

its

time, material improve-

ment has advanced with a speed which, though creditable, is not at all great as compared with that of Western countries.
There
is

now perhaps
of

a tendency in public opinion to restrain

lest
If,

the action

Government,
forwardness.
to

new danger should

same cry

arise

from too

much

however, any signs of undue

as of

backwardness were

become
arise, to

perceptible, the

yore M'ould probably

the effect that justice was not

its

being done by the Government to

heritage.

vast estate and its noble

In India there are

force, of

still

some who complain, with

seeming

the insufficiency of existing improvements,

are, to

'advanced as they

meet the wants of the country.

the

Many

thoughtful men, reflecting on the extinction of some

already mentioned,
partial

Native industries as

substi-

tution of foreign for indigenous manufactures, the

augmented
for ex-

attention bestowed

upon the

raising of

raw produce

portation and, as a consequence, the increased dependence of

the population upon the land, have herefrom derived anxious

forebodings.

The extinguished

industries were chiefly, though

not entirely, of a refined and delicate description, employing a

number

of hands, which,

though

large,

was not important

reis

latively to the population.

On

the otlier hand,

employment

afforded to tens of thousands of persons

by the new industries

still

and manufactures, which have been, and

duceu?

are being, intro-

The

greatest of all industries

next after agriculture,

for the

namely the industry which provides clothing

people,
is

mass of the

as yet almost intact, or but slightly affected, not-

withstanding the importation of English piece-goods.

The

in-

digenous looms and spindles for the coarser fabrics ply as

as ever in every village,
fabrics, if

much

and in every town.

The
still

finer textile

not quite what they once were, are

considerable

and famous.

The use of metal implements and utensils has enormously increased. While much of the material is im-

Chap.

vi.

GENERAL CONDITION OF THE NATIVES.

are
largely,

105

ported from abroad, these articles

wholly, manufactured within India
agricultural

though not

itself.

Though the noncities

and industrial population in some of the old

in the interior of the country has decreased, yet three great

cities,

Calcutta,

Madras and Bombay, have been

populous as any

created,

having

an aggregate non-agricultural population of nearly two millions,

and being

as

cities

that were seen in the

brightest days of the

Mogul empire.

This brief account of the material condition of the Natives,

while stating unreservedly every ground of apprehension, shews

that there are yet

many
and

causes for congratulation.

is

Though the

average of sickness and death-rate

tion has increased
is

high, still the popula-

increasing.

Though the people have

still

grown

in

number and

are generally poor,

they are neither

pauperized nor unemployed.

Their area of cultivation has

itself,

expanded, their industry has develo]3ed

their trade, foreign

and domestic, has advanced

and their condition humble,
depended

at a steady pace,

and

their spirit of

enterprise has been encouraged.

still

Though

their needs are

few

their clothing, dwellings

and

domestic utensils have improved.

for

Though the poorer

classes

many weeks

consecutively upon State assistance

during famine, they shewed themselves, after the cessation of

the calamity, to be superior to the temptation to pauperism.

Though the manufacturing and labouring

some limited
larger in bulk.

industries have, to

extent, declined in refinement, they have

become

Though the national wealth

it is

is

not so visibly
the masses
in

concentrated as formerly,
of the

more

diffused

among
less

people.
is

Capital,

though accumulated
as ever,

a few

hands,

saved as

much

and

is

scattered

more among
is

whole classes of the population.

Though the

agriculture

backward on the whole,

good.

still

in several respects
it

it is

practically

As

the staple industry of the country,

not only feeds

the teeming millions, but also enables

them

to store reserve

stocks of food, and to export in these times vastly

more produce
are annually

than at any previous

era.

Though

large

sums

lOG
remitted to England,

INDIA IN
still

1880.

Chap.

vi.

India receives a price for what she

sends away, greater than that

which

is

paid for what she buys

from other nations; and she has long enjoyed the benefit of
foreign
capital

largely

expended within her

limits.

Though

there are dangers ahead, there are also springs of progress and

elements of security.
people
is

If taken all in

all,

the condition of the

found to be improving materially, in a manner which

indeed to
fulfil

may fail
but
is

the expectations of Western economists,

still

in accordance with the best examples afibrded in

The recent calamities of season have given a pale cast to the national thoughts and imparted a gloomy tinge to But, when the natural bounties of rain and public opinion.
the East.

moisture shall be again vouchsafed, then will the land burst

forth with fertility,

and the people will press onwards in the

path of improvement.

107

CHAPTEK

VII.

MENTAL AND MOKAL PllOGRESS OF THE NATIVES.

Effect of British rule

ou the character of the several

tribes

classes of the people

The temper of the Muhammadans The aboriginal Tlie ParsisThe Native nobility The landlord-class The traders The priesthood The educated classes Their mental improvement, moral aspirabelief Their loyalty And their conduct and tions Native munificence Culture of physical science Vernacular press and drama Advancement of Natives in the public service In of Natives visiting England State of the other professions Good
The peasantry
religious
political
effect

Native mind and disposition generally.

The mental and moral

connected with the

progress

of the

Natives

is

in

part

material

conditions, which
chapter.

have

been
also

summarized

in

the

preceding

But

it

must

depend on divers circumstances, some of which are within the The peace and security, control of the British Government.
introduced and maintained by the strong arm of power, afford,
as
it

were,

air,

light

and space

for

the

growth of some of

and suppress or eradicate many evil habits which in troublous times sprang up with rank exBut the operation of the same causes must close uberance.
the best

human

qualities,

many avenues
of enterprise
aspirations,

against restless ambition, shut off

many

careers

and adventure, wither the self-reliance, stifle the and deaden the energies of many. With such
foreign
it

persons,

Government

is

unavoidably

unpopular,
to
less

however much
unpopularity.
adays, but will

may

strive

by far-sighted policy
is

avoid

Their number, once great,

still

much

now-

remain considerable,

and must be reckoned

Nevertheless,
if it

among

the motive forces of the country.

must be feared that rapine, violence and disorder during the

108

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

vii.

declining years of Native rule had a brutalizing and debasing

effect

on the national character,

it

may

be hoped that peace,

order and

security under British rule have an elevating

effect.

and
still

humanizing
too

Heinous crime of
very

all categories,

though

prevalent,
it

has

much

decreased.

In

many

other

countries

has been remarked that while crimes of violence

decrease, crimes of fraud increase.

Happily

this is not the case

in India

for there

the crimes under both these heads have

virtues are fostered, the ruder

decreased.

But while the gentler

While

merits are stunted.

ability is systematically cultivated,

It

original talent is less developed.

must be remembered that

in-

a foreign

rule,

though conducted with the utmost liberality

and enlightenment, cannot but exercise some depressing

fluence
it

upon the character

produce

of the people.

On

the other hand,

may

many
is

vivifying and purifying influences, which

can be perceived only by a review of the various classes into

which the nation

will

divided, and such an examination, in brief,

now

be attempted.

It can hardly be said that the effect of British rule

upon

tlie

character and disposition of the humblest or labouring classes,

in the rural or remote districts, has as yet been
.

marked

or

decisive.

These poor people have

still

the reserve, shyness, and

undemonstrative habits characteristic of races long subjected to

exaction, servitude,

and the necessity of slavish obedience

to the

will of their superiors.

But they

are

now

free

from the old

exactions and from the custom of forced labour.

right to refuse their labour according to their

They have the

own

interest or

convenience, and to
carts

demand

for it its

worth in wages.

Their

and

cattle are not liable to

impressment, save for war.

They know

that there are tribunals, before

whom

all

British

subjects are equal, and

by

whom

oppression can be stopped.

These immunities must impart to them some sense of free

citizenship,

some

idea

of the
to

dignity
enter
the

of

humanity.

The
the

invitation for their children

the State schools, and

the

attention

bestowed

inside

schoolroom

upon

Chap.

vii.

BEITISTI RUI.E

AND THE LABOURING

fortunate, child,

CLASSES.
afford

109

poorest, as

upon the more

capital cities

must

some

encouragement.

Near the

and the centres of industry, the labourr

ing classes are no longer humble.

On

the contrary, they are

status, in-

becoming intelligently conscious of their improved

their engagements,

dependent in giving their labour, observant of the terms in

and tenacious of
in

their claims to

remunera-

tion

and these

qualities

them become more and more

from unskilled
in

strongly

marked according
year by year
is

as their labour rises

towards skilled grades.

strength

They

are growing in

numbers and
and

in every part of the country.

Such
is

growth

a thing almost

unknown

in former times,

directly attributable to British rule.

The

peasant

proprietary

and yeomanry of British

India

exist in all the divisions of the empire except the provinces

of Bengal

and Behar, and constitute a mainstay of the nation.

They have from time immemorial evinced, under every form of trial and trouble, many distinctively excellent qualities, such as
self-reliance, courage

in defence of

home and
the

family,

mutual
com-

dej^endence

among

brethren,

aptitude for village

or parish of

organization, fraternal cohesion

among
of

members

munities,

instinctive

perception

the

nature of

proj^erty,

tenacity in assertion of proprietary right, veneration for ancestral custom,

endurance of hardsliip and enterprising industry.

If

it

be held that the gold of these sterner and more robust

is

virtues

best tried in the

lest,

fire

of

war and

revolution, there

may

be fear

during a time of peace and security, the

character of this peasantry will not improve, and perhaps

may

even deteriorate.

Still,

many

of their

most useful

qualities are

preserved, imder British rule,

relations

by the equitable settlement

of the

between the State and the peasantry as payers of the

land-tax,

by the recognition of a heritable and transferable and by the record of

all

right in landed property

rights in

the land.

In the peasantry there are

to be included the cultivators

and

110
tenants,
times. status

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. vn.

who were all much oppressed and harassed in former Many among them have, under British rule, risen in
feel

and condition, and

a sense of security and compa-

rative independence, which

felt.

their forefathers never could

have

Some among them, however,

are still in an insecure

and
as

unsatisfactory condition;

and in particular provinces, such

all

Behar, the whole

It
is

class is in a depressed state.

from

the

peasantry that the armies of

Native

Governments, and of the British Government, have been drawn. The peasants used to be proud and glad to enrol themselves
for military service.

Their martial impulse, aptitude for war,

and readiness

to serve

under the standards, were once renowned.

qualities

Within the

last

two generations, these

have much
the good

declined, though the

soldiers of Asia.

men

are still counted

among

The predatory spirit, and the instinct for the fray, were once These tendencies have been much prevalent among them. repressed, but experience even up to recent dates has indicated
that they

would break out

to

again, if the bonds of civil order

were ever
It

become seriously loosened.

has

must be acknowledged that the improved security of

property

landed

encouraged

peasants

to

borrow

and

money-lenders to lend.

This indebtedness, which was always

so far as it
fosters the

common, has become more rife than ever. And in prevails, it saps away the manly sentiments, and
been prone.

extravagance to which, in their way, the peasants have ever

It is to the peasantry that the educational efforts of the State

are largely directed.

penditure of public

Some authorities advocate a liberal money on superior education among

;

ex-

the

middle and upper classes

others deprecate

it.

All authorities

are agreed that there should be no stint of expenditure on the

education of the peasant proprietors

and of the
that have

cultivators.

But despite
forth, the

all

the

benevolent

efforts

been put
is

progress of education

among

these people

as yet

Chap.

vii.

BEITISH KULE

AND THE PEASANTRY.

is

Ill
small,

slow, the proportion of

them wlio can read and write

is still

and the

gi'eat

majority of them

rude and unlettered.

As might be
British rule so

expected, so great a class comprises

many

of

those castes into which the

Hindu nation

is

divided.

Under

many

tribes,

formerly devoted to trade, military

employment

or mechanical industry, but not to agriculture, are

now
some

acquiring so

much

of interest or property in land, that in

districts statisticians find it

hard to specify what should

properly be termed the agricultural class.

The mass, however, of

still

the men, devoted entirely or almost entirely to agriculture,

belongs to the humblest of the four great groups into which

Hindu

castes are arranged.

Sivaji,

It

was

to this

group that the hardy

Mahrattas of
belonged.

and the staunch Sikhs of Eanjit Singh,

potent

The

Eajputs were once

and widespread

throughout

northern and central

India,
last

and extended even

down

to the south.

Within the

few centuries, they have

been sorely thinned in numbers, by reason of their patriotic

resistance to foreign invasion, during
self-sacrificing

which the

stories of their

heroism are not surpassed by the annals of any

nation.

Higher in the scale are those Brahmins who follow

apart from
their

secular pursuits,
orders.

brethren of
is

the

priestly

Their influence in landed concerns

comparatively

slight in northern India, but is considerable in eastern, western

and central India and almost dominant in many parts of the

country.

The peasantry
Bhils,

also includes

many

aboriginal tribes, Gonds,

Kols, Sontals and others, inhabiting the mountainous

tracts in the interior of the continent .and peninsula of India,

and not professing any formal

observances
of a

religion,

though following religious

These are excitable

primitive description.
to fight against

by

nature,

and ever ready

any wrong that may

be attempted or on behalf of any right that

may

be threatened.

When
They

thus excited, they

swarm

like bees after leaving the hives.

are gradually falling under the

sway

of Hindu, or rather

Brahminical, proselytism.

And

they seem likely to become ere

112

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. vn.

long Hindus, unless in the meantime they shall, as appears

possible,

be converted to Christianity by the

efforts

of the

missionaries.

Large numbers of them, indeed, have already

been thus converted.

Aboriginal races of a like character, Lushais, Nagas, Duflas
the forest-clad mountains on the north-

and

others, inhabit

eastern frontier which separates India from

Burma and

China.

They frequently bring themselves power, and it cannot be said that upon
in the

into collision with British

as yet

any

beneficial effect
tribes dwelling

their character has been produced.

The

Himalayan region

are,

with the exception of the sturdy

of

and

self-reliant

Gorkhas of Nepal, Hindus of a mild type

under British auspices.

character, flourishing

On

the great

western frontier from Karachi to Peshawur, inhabited throughout by

Muhammadans,

the amelioration of the character of the

tribes has

been decisively marked in the southern or Beliich

section, but is less perceptible in the northern or

Pathan

section,

though even
fights,

there, despite

the frays, forays

and internecine

much improvement

has been effected.

survey of the Indian peasantry would not be complete

without some reference to the

eastern sovereign has so

Muhammadan population. No many Muhammadan subjects as the

Of the Indian Muhammadans, the
jurisdiction
as

Queen-Empress of India.
greater

number
as the

live

under the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal,

his

who
Shah
all

alone

has

in

many
are

millions

of

Moslems

Sultan of Turkey and twice as

many

as the

of Persia.

The Indian Muhammadans

met with on

the coasts or in every port of India, and are emphatically

the sailors of the Indian seas.

In the interior of the country

they are urban rather than rural, employed in some branches of

commerce, in

retail dealing, in skilled

and refined

industries,

in the army, in public and private service; but seldom con-

nected with agriculture save in the capacity of landlords.

Sind, however, the agricultural population
is

In

Muhammadan,

both landlords and cultivators.

In eastern and northern Bengal,

Chap.

vii.

EFFECT OF BRITISH RULE ON MUHAMMADANS. 113

Brahmaputra
river

in the region comprising the basin of the

and

its affluents

and in the united delta of the Ganges and the

Brahmaputra, the tenants and cultivators are also

Muhammadan,

while the landlords are Hindu, with the exception of some

prominent and meritorious gentlemen of the

faith.

Muhammadan
Several

These

districts

are

among

the most productive in the

empire and export great quantities of raw produce.

articles,

much used

in the manufactures of Great Britain, are

raised

by the Muhammadan hands of Bengal.

is

By

the

same

hands

the water traffic conducted in the wonderful network

of Bengal rivers.

These people were Hindus of humble

witliin historic times to

castes,

and have been converted

danism.
in

Muhammaacquaint-

They have

their religious services performed generally

the

Bengali tongue,

and

have

prol)aljly

less

ance with the phrases of Arabic, the sacred language of their

faith,

than their fellow-religionists in any other country.

Their

social condition is so

low that the institution even of matri-

mony
by

is

lax

endeavours have, however, been recently made

special legislation to give validity to their marriage rites.

Elsewhere in India, the Muhammadans, being scattered, do

much
there

to leaven the

mass of Native opinion.

Besides

the

discontent
is

engendered
one
special

among them by
circumstance

liistoric

memories,
content-

affecting

their

ment.

Under Native

rule they enjoyed a large portion, per-

haps the

lion's share, of the State patronage,

and

at the outset

of British rule were found in the front everywhere,

whereby

they continued as before to be largely employed in the public

service especially in its higher grades.

beaten by Hindus in

But nowadays they are the open competition of mind with mind.

Their youths in the schools and colleges are surpassed by the

Hindu youths and are consequently placed at a disadvantage when entering a profession or contending for advancement in
public employ.
selves
It is to this that the

Muhammadans themand
to

attribute the fact that they are falling in wealth

status while the

Hindus

are rising.

Though not refusing

1

114
join schools of
to

INDIA IN Hindus and

of

1880.

Chap.

vii.

mixed

nationalities, they prefer

have institutions of their

own

exclusively,

where Arabic and

Persian literature constitute a prominent feature.

The Govern-

ment has
tions

of late co-operated with

this

them

in establishing institu-

on

principle.

instance the late

Calcutta,

Some Muhammadan gentlemen, for Nuwab Amir Ali, ISTuwab Abdul Latif of

Syed Alimed of Aligarh, Muhammad Ali Eoghe of Bombay, Synd Idrus of Surat, and others, have shewn an enlightened desire to imbue their countrymen with ideas of
civilized progress.

The temper and

form one of the

disposition, politically, of the

Muhammadans
Some
years
in Arabia,

many

sources of anxiety in India.

ago, the religious revival

commenced by

the

Wahabis

the breeze of fanaticism which ruffled the surface of the

Muham-

madan
Indian

world, and other causes difficult to define, excited the

Muhammadans

considerably.
;

Plots

were discovered

and

state trials instituted

some grave and melancholy events

"Within the most

occurred which need not here be recounted.

recent years, however, the Indian

Muhammadans have become

the

comparatively well affected.

symptoms

of disaffection

Be the reasons what they may, among them have of late abated.
special

The Parsis deserve some

mention

they maintain

intact the religion of Zoroaster,

and the

social

customs which

they brought with them from Persia, after heroically resisting

the

Arab

invasion.

They

preserve,

unmixed by marriage with

to the

any other

race, the qualities

life,

which carry them

van in the
enter.

march of

and

to the front in every arena

which they

As men
still

of business they are unsurpassed in India,

and in many
are

mechanical industries they are distinguished.

Though they

comparatively small in numbers, their importance must be

measured rather by their resources and their capacity for work. They are loyal and devoted to the British Sovereign and nation
there
is

no

class

more contented than they

are.
it

Their influence,

however, can not be regarded as national, as

would hardly be

acknowledged either by the Hindus or by the Muhammadans.

Chap.

vii.

EFFECT OF BRITISH RULE ON LANDLORDS.

of

115

The great landlords

the public

India

(known

by the names of

Zemindar, Talukdar, and other

titles)

are chiefly associated in

and Oudh.
the

mind with the provinces of Bengal, Behar, Orissa, They are to be found, however, in almost all parts

of the country, even in those parts where peasant proprietorship

is

prevailing tenure.
soil,

Some

of these

Native gentlemen

apply capital to the

tenantry and in
all

reclaim the waste, conciliate their

respects

show

forth
tliis

a bright example.
standard, exercise
if

Others again, though falling short of

their territorial influence beneficially.

In Bengal,

the land-

lord or zemindari tenure

was created by the British Government

in order that,

among

other things, capital on a large scale might

it

be applied to the land, then

result has been attained.

must be admitted that no such

having a great stake in the
is

The principal Zemindars or landlords

class,

form a lettered and refined

country,
sideration

possessing leisure wliich

of political
affairs,

much

given to the con-

and exerting on the whole a

There
is

salutary influence on Native opinion.

class

probably no

in

India more
is

loyal

than the Zemindars of Bengal,

rests so

certainly there

none whose position

much on

the

stability of British rule.

During the long minorities, which occur frequently in

of all sizes, the

estates

Government
his property

exercises its legal

power of edu-

cating the infant heir, of placing

him

in the Court of
age.

Wards

and of managing
of business,

till

he comes of

The amount

thus undertaken by the State on behalf of the

is

landlord

class,

quite enormous.

Many

fine properties are

off

saved from injury, debts and encumbrances are cleared

by
the

good management during the minority, and

advantages of nurture and instruction.

many young

landall

owners are inducted into their hereditary positions with

In

many

parts of the empire there

is

the scattered remnant

are unavoidably in

of a Native nobility, consisting of

men who

worse circumstances under British rule than under the preceding

Native
rule.

Some

of

them

are still able to maintain their

I

116
station, dignity

INDIA IN
and reputation.

1880.

Chap.

vii.

Many, however,

are drifting
till

into embarrassment, or sinking

under the weight of trouble

an Encumbered Estates Act affords some relief from the pressure. Many of them still enjoy, by the grace of the British Government, a part of the emoluments they received under the Native
rule in return for service, although they are
serving.

now

excused from

Such men,

living in uncongenial quiet, cannot

but

meditate on the wealth, power and honour, which their immediate ancestors possessed

two or three generations previously

restrictions

and this brooding meditation must produce discontent and

restlessness.
civilized

They must chafe under the

which a
reflec-

system necessarily imposes.

These disquieting

tions must spread to their relations, retainers and dependants.

The policy

of the
its

Government has been, by

to

all

the legitimate

means in
families,

power,

arrest

the decadence of these old

to

prevent the disruption of their estates and to

preserve their territorial influence.

With

this

view several
have been

enactments for the

passed
;

relief

of

encumbered

estates

but the process of decay can hardly be stopped.

classes

The mercantile, trading and banking show the

like

continue to

enterprise, acuteness, methodical habits

for

and businesslong famed.

aptitude,

which

they have been

so

Formerly they were much esteemed

ness

for rectitude, trustworthi-

and

fair

dealing with

all

men, their credit standing

of late years been occacollapses
is

proportionately high.
sionally

Their

name has
failures,

tarnished

by the

and
rife.

disasters

incidental to an age in wliich speculation

so

On

the

whole,

however, their

reputation

and

credit

are

still

good.
to the

They

are ever ready, perhaps too ready, to lend

money

landowners great and small, and but too often draw intentionally or unintentionally, both the gentry

and the peasantry

into the vortex of extravagance and the meshes of indebtedness.

Although, by thus affording

credit,

they provide a resource

most useful in the transactions of the nation, they are often regarded as grasping and extortionate. In some places, odium

Chap.

VII.

EFFECT OF BRITISH RULE ON THE PRIESTS.

117

has been incurred by them as being indirectly the cause of

civil troubles

and disturbances.

On

such occasions they have

;

been the objects of exaggerated condemnation

called
vitals

they have been

the

Shylocks of the age, the harpies preying on the

Their natural intelligence, transmitted
is

of the people.

through
tion,

many

generations,

still

further fostered

by educacomposed

and

their sons are conspicuous for proficiency in all the

educational institutions.
of

Their profession
the
caste

is

largely
is

Hindus belonging

to

wliich

by the Hindu
the Marwaris of
still

system devoted to

this calling,

among whom

Eajputana have always been eminent and are

wealth.

growing in

They

also comprise several sections of the

Muhamof the

madan community, many

They
are

of the Parsis and some of the Brahmins.

amenable

to

many

of the

best

influences

English administration, and bear a hearty allegiance to the

foreign
their

Government under which they

flourish.

Having

in

hands the capital and the financial sinews of the country,

rule.

they constitute one of the bulwarks of British

The

priestly classes are still

numerous throughout the empire.

The Hindu priesthood includes only those Brahmins who follow

religious callings,

and not those who are engaged in secular

is

pursuits,

though a certain sanctity

attached also to them.

as

The influence of the priesthood has among Hindus been

potent as in any nation of the world at any epoch.
the Mahrattas especially
it

With

is

in full vigour,

and

is

politically

an element of unrest.
Hindus, who
still flock

It

survives

with the mass of the

in countless multitudes to the hallowed

batliing-places, still approach the inner sanctuaries of idols

with
brave

heartfelt awe, still load the shrines with offerings,

still

the toils

and often the

fatal

hardships

of the

pilgrimages.

With

the worship and the observances in some places there are,

still

no doubt,

mingled many of those practices which have been

justly regarded

by Western observers

as immoral.

In some
In

parts of the country,

among

the establishments attached to the

lives.

temples there are hapless classes living degraded

118

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

vii.

certain exceptional cases, the

records of the courts of justice

have contained surprising revelations of customs shocking to

civilized

humanity.
the educated classes of Hindus, the priestly influence
its

With
is

sinking fast towards

final

decadence.

There remain

indeed some Hindus of culture and learning,

the ancient faith and
its

who stand by

observances.

But

as a rule, educated

Hindus pay little more than an outward respect to the forms and to the ministers of tliat national religion which is so intertwined
with the social institutions and the
Possibly, this effect
priests
is

civil

laws of the people.

not as yet perceived by

many

of the lesser

who

officiate

by some

of those

among the humbler orders of Hindus, nor priests who dwell in learned seclusion at the
But
it

many
Proud

holy places in the country.

must surely be

recognised by

many of

these keen-witted and clear-sighted men.

as they are of their race

and

lineage, strong in the faith

of their divine origin, persuaded of their of their

own

sanctity, conscious

own

intellectual superiority, they cannot but regard

with indescribable sentiments the new empire which crushes

prejudices, superstitions

and antiquated

ideas, as the Jaganatli

Still

car of their

own

traditions crushed its victims of yore.

the aspect and bearing, the lofty brow, set features, imperturbable countenance and erect stature indicate a pride not to be

lowered by outward defeat.

Although defeated, they will not

surrender to the victor their unconquerable will, for they look

upon themselves

as

endowed with a

nobility

which worldly

puissance cannot confer, nor modern civilization bestow.

The influences

of the age tend to

weaken the

barriers

which

the ancient system of caste sets

up between the

several classes

of the people, thereby restricting the

mutual sympathy which

of those

With many who have received a broad and liberal education, or travelled much by railways and steam-ships or visited foreign
countries, the distinctive feelings

ought to exist according to the dictates of nature.

which gather round the idea

of caste

have become deadened.

Even

they,

however,

are

Chap.

vii.

CONCERNING RELIGIOUS BELIEF.

119

usually obliged, on their return to India, to conform to the

ceremonial procedure necessary for restoration to the status

pertaining to caste.
things rebels
against

Some men, whose

the

sense of the fitness of

prefer
to

notion

of

caste,

remain
of the

outside the charmed circle.

But with the great majority

still

people, the sentiments relating to caste

hold full sway.

The Jain

religion,
is

though at

first

sight apparently cognate

It has saints of its

with Hinduism,

separate and distinct.

own, and promises an absolute repose approaching to annihilation, as the

is

consummation

of bliss.

Its
life,

most

salient feature

an excessive tenderness

for

animal

carried to a degree

of superstitious absurdity.

devout Jain will not harm even

the smallest reptile

he fears

lest

he should inhale the minutest

air.

insect that floats imperceptibly in the

This

faith,

however,

has

among

its

adherents

many

of the

most hard-headed and

;

actively business-like Natives in India

of the traders

that

is

to say

many

and bankers

of Eajputana, Gujerat
caste, scattered
;

and Cutch,
throughout
shrines are

and other members of the mercantile

the empire.
Its devotees are strict

and zealous

its

among
to

the richest in the country.

Its adherents,

though ready

defend their sacred places pugnaciously against encroach-

ment from the Hindus, are free for the most part from fanaticism and are to be reckoned among the loyal and contented
classes of the population.

The Lingayet

sect is widely spread in the lower portion of It originally professed to

to inculcate a

the Deccan, and in southern India.

constitute a reformation of

Hinduism and

pure

morality in consonance with that of olden times.

rents are
classes

Its adhe-

numerous among the commercial and agricultural

form
one
of

and

the respectable

sections

of

the

community.

The Sikh

faith

always w^as in close relation with Hinduism.

unless admitted by

A man

w^as

admitted into the sect by special ceremonies, one of

;

which was called the baptism of the sword

these means, he remained, as he was born, a Hindu.

This

faith,

120

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

vii.

originally promulgated with

doctrine,

much

simplicity

and purity of
of

was subsequently established by

It

force

arms in

northern India.

had sacred books, a separate language, a

learned priesthood, religious edifices, and somewhat fanatical

devotees of
its

own.

It

numbered among

its

adherents

many

warriors and statesmen,

and whole

tribes of resolute

and strong-

handed men.

It played a

considerable part in the

modern

history of India and, but for the intervention of the British

power, might have been dominant in other quarters of India

besides the northern.
tical force

While

it

was the representative

of poli-

and the symbol of military power, not only were the

After national

sons of the old adherents admitted to the ancestral faith, but also
fresh applicants for admission were numerous.

triumphs in war and policy, the new disciples flocked to the

temple gates for admission.
Since the annexation of the Panjab

to the British empire, these influences

have disappeared, and the

sect is probably not so large as it once was.

Though fewer

appli-

cants

may now

be seeking admission, and though some Sikhs

faith, still
is

may

not eare to have their sons baj^tized into the

the

majority are steadfast, and the constitution of the sect

tained.

mainone of

Sikhism, though quiet and loyal at present,

is

those inflammable things which a spark might kindle into a flame.

Its idiosyncrasy

and

susceptibilities are thoroughly understood

by the Panjab
well preserved.

authorities,

and

its

fidelity

to

the empire
trials

is

It

would stand proof against many

over luuch,
it

and

temptations, but

if tried

would

reassert itself,

and would assume the headship of a national

movement.
but out-

Meanwhile the

priests, as a class, are well disposed,

bursts of proselytizing zeal

may

occur from time to time, on the

part of persons claiming saintly or prophetic functions,

who

are

not really connected with the Sikh

sect.

The fanaticism which smoulders

the

in the hearts of

some anions
Nothing
things,

Muhammadan

priesthood, like embers ready to be fanned into

fhime, is one of the great political forces in the country.

that the

Government can do

will mitigate

it,

but

many

Chap.

vii.

NATIVE EDUCATED CLASSES.

do,

121

which the Government might inadvertently

it

would aggravate

seriously.

In recent years

it

has been an element of mischief;

it

at the present

moment, however,
class
is

seems to be quiescent.
several sections

The educated
society

drawn from the

of

which have been already mentioned.

The education of
There
indeed,

this class is for the

most part derived from the national instrucare,

tion introduced

by the British Government.

some educated men, whose instruction has been obtained purely

from indigenous sources, independently of aid from their foreign
rulers, has

been kept

strictly witliin the ancient grooves, has

cloisters,

been conducted in rustic

or

monastic
is
still

establishments
chiefly
to

the

shade

of

sacred

groves,

and

directed

religious objects.

These men, though

numerous, must be

decreasing gradually throughout the country.

are
still

Men

of business

to be seen,

who have been educated only

instruction.
rare,

in the old

style,

and whose practical talent and acuteness have not been

developed

by modern
same

They

are,

however,

be-

coming more and more

successors of the

and will soon pass away without

type, for their sons are all educated in

the

new

style.

Thus, the only educated class that need

consists

now be

observed

of

men

brought up under British supervision, for

is

whose mental and moral condition the British Government

responsible.

These

men

follow other professions besides the

public service, such as the bar and other legal pursuits, private
practice in medicine,

commerce and banking,

like.

civil engineering,

mechanical industries and the

the public service in
the liighest.
its

But many

of

them enter

various grades from the humblest to

of one

They thus become members

all

homogeneous

profession which equals, prol^ably in magnitude and certainly in

importance,
this

the other

professions

taken

together.

It

is

dominant and leading

profession

which most readily

admits of specific observation, and in which the results of the

national education can be best tested.

That the natural intelligence of the educated

men

is

sharpened

122

INDIA IN
their

1880.

Chap.

vii.

by rigid method, and that

by

mental stamina are strengthened

That their minds are

discipline, will be surely

assumed.

opened to the reception of new influences, expanded into a larger

growth, drawn towards wider spheres, raised into higher regions
of thought,

and

fixed in grooves of stricter accuracy,

may

be

reasonably expected.

That they are steadier

officers,

cleverer

men

of business, abler administrators, better w^orkers

and apter

learners,

from being thus educated,

is

easily conceivaljle.

The

harder questions relate to the effect of the education on the

conduct of these men, on their trustworthiness and integrity,

their loyalty to the British Sovereign, their gratitude to their

foreign

instructors,

their

attachment to western

civilization

and

their sentiments in regard to the existing order of things.

to

The answers
In the

such questions,

if

thoughtfully rendered, will

be found quite as satisfactory as could be fairly anticipated.

first

place, a

due and

jjroper standard of rectitude

among

the Native officials of the upper and middle grades has

been obtained.

Such men are now regarded

is

as

gentlemen in
Their

the best sense of the term, that

character
is

as

men
is

of honour.

not impugned, their rectitude

trusted

by public
In this

opinion, corruption
description,
as

on their part
all

is

not suspected.
there

in

general

descriptions,
is

must be

reservations and

exceptions, but such

the tone pervading

these bright parts of the picture.

Of the numerous changes which

change
is

have of

late years arisen in India, this particular

among
viving;,

the most noteworthy.

For many

authorities, still surofficials

can remember the time when such Native

were

when their uprightness and when their conduct was were constantly impugned, integrity frequently distrusted, when imputations of corruption were One cause of the moral improvement, now bruited abroad.
not regarded as
of honour, perceptible, springs from the better organization of the public
service.

men

The men

are,

placed in a position superior to temptation.

in regular departments,

by the concession of adequate salaries, They are embodied

which have grades ascending like the

Chap.

vii.

ADVANCEMENT OF THE NATIVES.

123

steps of a ladder, offer scope for ambition

and open out prospects

have everything to

of promotion

to be seen through

the vista of coming years.

Thus they are

gain by
fidelity,

so situated that they shall

and everything

to lose

by misconduct.
is

Another
to

and a higher cause of the improvement

influences of
l)y

traceable

the

Western education, the moral teaching imparted

culture,

European

the practical ideas of duty thereby in-

fused, the virtuous principles thus instilled, the

companionship

of English instructors

and the association with them in the

It is to these

daily

life at

school or college.

two main causes which

that the Natives themselves attribute the amelioration

is

happily seen.

In the lower grades of educated Natives, however, misconduct

is still

common and but

too frequent even in the middle grades.

Still it will

be found to exist almost exactly in proportion as

allowed to these grades

the advantages, moral and material,

fall

short of those beneficently granted to the upper grades.

Together with the public service, the profession of the law has

advanced pari passu.

a product of British

Tliis great profession is for

the most part

rule,

and

is

divided, as in England, into

solicitors.

two branches, like those of barristers and

to the

Admission

Native Bar

is

regulated by tests and examinations, wliich

ensure the possession of liigh qualifications by those

for
it.

who apply

An

almost equal improvement

is visible

in the Native

barristers as in the

Native judges, and a standard of professional

etiquette prevails, formed on the English model.

\vas

The standard
too often

much

lower in former days,

when advocates but

still

connived at or participated in malpractices and even in frauds.

Any

remnants of these

evils,

which may

linger in the proconstituted, the

;

fession, will ere

long be eliminated.

As now

Native Bar

is

fast

becoming a power in the country

its

inde-

pendence of demeanour, freedom of speech and sympathy with

the people, are raising
it

daily in public estimation.

belief, wliich is settling

Its con-

duct fosters the salutary

down

in the

minds of the Natives,

to the effect that the British

system of

124

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

vii.

civil justice constitutes a real

palladium of their liberties and

privileges.

Its

loyalty will be true towards the

Government

which

is its foster-father.

Improvements, similar in kind but

taking place in the profession of the
solicitors

much
legal

less in degree, are

Law, which branch includes attorneys,

practitioners.

and

all

other

These Native practitioners formerly had

a very evil repute for stimulating wrongful litigation, pro-

moting fraud and poisoning the moral atmosphere around the Of this mischief, much has been precincts of the Courts.

removed by the improvements in the Native Bench and Bar, and by the operation of public opinion but much, unfor;

tunately, remains.

As an

instance of the

mental and moral progress of the

Natives, the expansion of the Post-office

may

be mentioned.

The Government has adopted the

which have proved

principle of all the reforms

so successful in England.

By amalgamating
post-offices

under one administration the imperial and local

in the various provinces of the empire, postal facilities

have

been placed within reach of every large village throughout the

country.

The increase
remarkable.

of letter-writing

and of postal business

fifteen

has been

Within
from

the

last

years,

the

number
amount

of Post-offices has increased

from 2200 to 5500, the

58,000
miles.

length of postal lines

of receipts

48,000 to

The

in cash

from the public has risen from

official

401,000, to 660,000 per annum, exclusive of

postage
to

and the number of covers delivered from 59 millions

millions annually.
is

131

portion of the increase in correspondence

its

due

to the

Government and

servants, also to the nonit is

ofl&cial

Europeans; but the mass of

due

to the Natives,

under the influences of education.

The
stirred

foreign

Government

in

India must

be

prepared

to

realise the fact that the hearts of educated

Natives are deeply

by the Western education, and that an active process of

is

mental fermentation youth instructed

in

setting in.

These

men
the

are from their

rise,

matters

concerning

progress,

Chap.

vii.

POLITICAL EFFECTS OF
and
fall

WESTERN EDUCATION. 125

;

zenith,
sions,

decline

of

empires

the

relative

dimen-

population and resources of the several great powers of

;

the

world

the

constitution,

legislature

and

privileges
;

of
tlie

States

monarchical,

constitutional,

despotic,

republican

territorial

arrangements consequent on modern warfare; the

of

various

nationalities

which kingdoms are composed.

It

follows that they will observe current events whether peaceful

or warlike with

an appreciative insight, and will speculate on

the effect which such events

may

produce on the fortunes of

England.
their

competent knowledge of the recent history of

will

own country
fortunes
of

shew them how often the commerce and

the

India herself have been affected by events

occurring in distant regions, for example by the civil contest in

America, by the wars in the Crimea, China and Turkey.

extensive vernacular press
is

An
brief

growing up which

offers

summaries of the

political afflxirs

and occurrences of the world.

daily, full extracts of all

The English press in India presents

the best news and opinions of the press in England, together

with comments suited to the currents of public thought in

India,

and

is

read by the English-speaking Natives with as

much

attention as

by the English themselves.

Native trading

firms have their headquarters or their branches in the United

Kingdom
reasons,

or

on the continent of Europe, and will ere long

For these
world-

have them even on the other side of the Atlantic.

England must, whenever she engages in

affairs of

wide importance, be prepared to reckon with a mass of Native

opinion instructed to a degree heretofore unknown.

The

lights

are various in wliich Natives regard alternatives of peace or

war.

If in

any conjuncture

it

should appear that, on a

fair

consideration of her
fight

own

interest

and honour, England ought

to

and yet holds back from

fighting,

then the Natives would

If after

be quicker than ever to draw the gravest inferences.

anxious suspense, the English standard, ever to Eastern eyes

the symbol of victory in the end,
is

unfurled,

it

is

followed

by the hopes and prayers

of

the

majority of the Natives.

126

INDIA IN
of late,

1880.

Chap.

vii.

More than once

when

the inevitable

moment seemed
Still, as

near, utterances of loyalty and god-speed arose from the organs

of Native opinion in all parts of the country.

a rule

the Natives raise their voice decidedly for peace, not at any
price,

but at some

sacrifice, rather

than for incurring the risks

of war, with the certainty of special taxation in the present

and the probability of the public burdens being augmented in They certainly are adverse to an aggressive, and the future.
favourable to a pacific policy.

The educated Natives

are also

moved by

aspirations for selfinsti-

government, for political power, and even for representative

tutions, the concession of which does not at present
fall

within

the range of practical politics.

in former times, but

Such ideas have been mooted

have never been so fully defined, nor so

openly declared, as they are at present.

The

reports of Parlia-

mentary debates, concerning India and the East proximately or

remotely, are scanned

by the Natives with anxious

and
interests
fiscal

interest.

The utterances of English orators or statesmen vindicating the

character,

conduct,

status

and

financial,

of the people of India, are

welcomed by the Natives with a

fervently expressed.

gratitude as deeply felt as

of

it is

The name

any member of either House of Parliament, who by word or

Although benevolence
admitted by

deed espouses the cause of the Natives, soon becomes a household word among them.
is

them
been

to be a
for so

prominent feature of British

rule, still after

having

many

centuries the sport of despots, the prey of

in-

conquerors

and the victims of revolution, they have an

eradicable fear that the English nation

may

prove to be not

wholly an exception

to

the

rule of

selfishness

and harsh-

ness which has so often prevailed with foreign and absolute

rulers.

They seem always glad

to be reassured

by responsible

and

influential persons regarding the

kind and good intentions

of England,

and such assurances cannot be too often repeated.

specially on particular parties or sections

There has been of late a tendency with some Natives to rely for

sympathy and support

Chap.

vii.

SELF-GOVERNMENT AMONG THE NATIVES.

among
the politicians of England.

127

of parties
is

But

this

tendency

deprecated

by the best organs of Native opinion, on the

manifest grounds that Natives are the very last persons

who

should encourage the notion of India ever becoming a battlefield

for party strife in

England, and that

all political parties

ought to be urged to co-operate for the object of benefiting their

Indian fellow-subjects.

Thoughtful Englishmen

may remember

that self-government

among

the Natives

is

one of the goals to which

many

of the

administrative arrangements of India are tending.

Natives are

appointed members of the legislative council of the Governor-

General for

all

India,

and of the

local legislatures of

Madras,

Bombay and

Bengal.

They
;

are honorary magistrates in the

interior of the districts

they serve as jurymen, as assessors

to aid the judges in criminal trials, as

triljunals

members
civil

of arbitration
causes.

and of conciliation courts in

They
by the

take part in the administration of the funds raised

road cess and other local cesses, in the management of schools,

hospitals, dispensaries

and other

institutions.

They

furnisli the

great majority of the commissioners in the municipalities,

exist in the

which

capital cities,

and are scattered over the length

and breadth of the empire.

They thus become the responsible

trustees, administrators or controllers of the rates for levying the

local taxes.

In Calcutta and

Bombay

especially,

and in some

other central places, they enjoy as ratepayers the electoral franchise for the election of

members
so

of the municipal corporations.

The system whereby, in

many
is

parts of the country, village

communities are constituted, or village headmen are vested with

petty powers in police matters,
the very

embodiment of the
avowed purpose of

principle of self-government in the rural districts.

Native associations are formed

for the

representing their views, wishes or grievances to the authorities.

Several of these bodies, such as the British Indian Association

of Calcutta, the

Anjuman
their

of Lahore, the Sarva

Janik Sabha of

Bombay, can make

even as
far as

voice heard, not only in India, but

England.

Such

societies are regarded

by the

128

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

vii.

Government, as affording the means

for legitimately

and tem-

perately representing or vindicating the opinions of the Natives.

Their memorials and addresses, though sometimes transgressing

the limits
of propriety,
are,

as

a rale, fully reasoned and

moderately expressed.
Personal kindness and charity have always been

among

the

most loveable
have induced

characteristics of the Natives.

These sentiments

men

to support not

only their female relatives

and

their aged or helpless connexions,

which

is

well,
is

but also

their able-bodied

and
is

idle

male

relatives,

which

not well.
persons

^lany a rising

man

weighted in his career by

listless

who hang about him,

instead of shifting for themselves.

is

This

tendency, which has been heretofore excessive,

the influences of education.
sacrifices

diminished by

Virtuous and most commendable

Natives,

are

often

made by

who

stint

and pinch

themselves in order to afford a good education to their young

relations.

The youths thus educated

generally recompense
spirit of

their friends for these sacrifices,

self-help.

by evincing a resolute
beyond the

The sympathy of Natives,

also spreads

circle of

relations, friends or dependants.

It extends to the miserable

large,

wherever met with, to the living community at

needs of posterity yet unborn.
often misdirected, but
is

and
is,

to the

The charity of Natives

indeed,

generously profuse.

Every Native,
a part of
city
it

who makes
empire
is

a fortune, immediately gives

charity.

away

to

works of public usefulness or

Every

in

the

improved, endowed or beautified, by the benevolence

or munificence of individual citizens.

In prosperous years the

;

sums, thus nobly dispensed, are enormous

and even in the

In

worst years, the source of this bounty never runs dry.

the interior of the country, works of public utility, on the roadsides

and in many other

spots, attest the spirit of philanthropy

which prevails among wealthy Natives.

the Government wisely publishes a
utility constructed
l:)y

In

many

provinces

list

of the

works of public

individuals

these publications redound

to the credit of those concerned.

Chap.

vii.

CULTURE OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

delights to honour the Natives

12D

The Government always

countrymen.

who

thus devote a portion of their substance to the welfare of their

Patents of Native nobility are discriminately
Successive Viceroys of India

granted to meritorious persons.

have studied the unwritten rules which govern the constitution

of Native nobility, and have granted Native titles judiciously

and considerately
potency

to persons

recommended
;

for their

good deeds

by the several Local Governments

is

moral force of some

thus exercised.

British decorations of the Star of

;

India are bestowed upon Natives

knighthood not unfrequently

has been granted to them, and in rare instances a Baronetcy has

been conferred

the

new Order
The
effect

of the Indian

Empire has many upon Native

in respect of
spirit.

Native members.
sentiments
is to

of these measures

encourage loyalty and public

Sound

as the national education

may have been

and

history, literature, practical morality

political philosophy, it

has been and

still is

defective in respect of the physical

is

and

natural sciences.

Yet, scientific study, the value of which

now

recognised in all countries, has in India a special importance.

It qualifies the Native

youth

for professions in

which they have

hitherto
fessions,

had but

little

place.

It diverts

from the elder proservice,

namely the law and the public

some

of the
It

students

who would

otherwise overcrowd those professions.

displays before the Natives fresh ranges of thought and

new
and

modes

of thinking.

It tends to correct

some

of the faults

which

are admitted to exist in the Native mind, while educing

developing

many

of its best qualities

and

faculties.

In two of

the most immediately important

sions,

among

the scientific profes-

namely medicine and

for the

civil engineering, the

Government

has done
expected.

Natives everytliing that could reasonably be

of Native engineers, architects, physicians
tlie

Hundreds

and surgeons have been and are being sent forth into
world.
effected,

In respect of other sciences also something has been

but the greater part of what
is

needed

still

remains to

be accomplished.

The important step which the Universities

130

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

vit.

in India have recently taken,

by granting degrees in Science

and aims of the national

will essentially affect the standards

education.
Eeflection
to

upon

all these

things will lead thoughtful persons

inquire what are the religious tendencies of the Natives.

first

In the

place, the faith of

the

Muhammadans

does

not

seem to have received any shock from Western education and Nor has the Hindu faith been shaken with the civilization.

mass of the Hindus, who follow the ancestral idolatry mth the same simplicity as of yore. The faith is dubious with Hindus

who have some

tincture of education

and who probably regard

and half
belief,

their national religion with half doubt

much

as

the Greeks and Romans among highly educated Hindus the faith is dead or dying. With some it has been shattered well-nigh to the very base,

regarded the gods of their fathers.

But

while from the minds of others

fabric of a vision.

it

has already vanished like the

Many

educated

Natives

have

long

cast

away the

last

shreds of their belief in the mythology, the sacred story and the
future world of Hinduism.

But they do not become

soul,

irreligious

men, nor
mortality

atheists,

nor materialists.

They believe in the imthe existence of

abstract

of

the

human

in

principles of right

and ^vrong, in the omnipresence of a Supreme

Being,

who

is

the creator and preserver of all things,

who

is

absolutely just

and good,

to

whom

all

men

are accountable

after death for deeds

done in

this life.

They adopt a morality

and
sometimes
Occasionally

resembling that

inculcated

by

Christianity,

expressly derived from the Christian Scriptures.

they listen to sermons preached from texts in the

New

Testa-

ment.

By some

they would be called deists or

theists.

They

call themselves Brahmos or Adhi-Brahmos, members of the Brahmo-Samaj or of the Prarthana-Samaj, and quite recently

they have sometimes adopted the

spread of the Bralimo
provinces,
is

name

of Theosophists.

The

sect, first in

Bengal and then in other

one of the phenomena of the time in India.

Chap.

vii.

EARLY HINDU LITERATURE VENERATED.

of high
qualities

131
gifts, is

Keshab Chander Sen, a man

and

among
growth

the best

known

of its leaders.

Its

nomenclature

signifies

the believers in the one Creator of all

is

men and

things.

Its

understood to have been recently checked by some

is

internal dissensions, l3ut

Its marriage rites

probably destined to expand further.

legislation.

have formed a subject of special

is

The divine
is

origin of certain castes

discarded by

it,

and caste
social

regarded merely as a

human

institution,

like the

grades of civilized countries.

But, with all these changes,
it is

remarkable that educated

Hindus
religion,

are bestowing

more attention than has ever yet been

etliics

bestowed in modern times on the ideas,

and primeval
of their

which prevailed in the

preliistoric

period

ancestry.

They
time,

cast a reverential retrospect towards the

dawn
their

of

Hindu

when

the dayspring of genius visited

to

race, before mists arose

obscure the truth, or fables were

invented to mar the simplicity of natural religion, or errors

grew up

to mislead the conscience

and

to sully the intuitive

perceptions of right and wrong.

comprehended in the name of Vedic

has

The WTitings thus studied are literature, which name

significance that

now

to educated

Hindus the same sacred

more elaborate
while
the

Scripture

has to Christians.

Thus, as a result of Western

\\T.itings of

education, the later and

the

Hindu
of

priesthood

are
is

disregarded,

earliest

literature

Hinduism
There
is

studied with renewed veneration.

frequent discussion in India regarding the operation

and mental, upon the loyalty of the educated Natives towards the British Government and nation.
of these influences, moral

Fears have been expressed lest unsatisfied ambition, want of

suitable

employment and

habits

of criticizing

unreservedly

the existing order of tilings, should gradually undermine the

loyalty and gratitude which these
fears,

men

ought to

feel.

Such
been

though not fully

justified

by the

facts,

have been aroused

by

divers

symptoms

deserving

attention,

and

have

aggravated by the conduct of at least a XDortion of the Native

132
vernacular press,

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

vir.

consisting of newspapers

published in the

various languages of the country.

Of the Native newspapers published in the English language, as yet few in number, some are distinguished by loyalty and good sense as well as by cultivated ability, and are creditable
products of the
Patriot
'

new

education

as for instance the

'

Hindu
criti-

of Calcutta.

Others are notable for a latitude of

cism which, though extreme, does not transgress the limits

ordinarily claimed for journalism.

The vernacular newspapers, 203 in number, have a

tion
of

circula-

about 57,000

copies

and exercise and

some

influence.
wdiile

Of

these

many

are

signally

consistently

loyal,

preserving independence in their thought and freedom in their

criticism.

Others again have been disfigured occasionally by not actually seditious or treasonable,
political

[writings which, though

are

objectionable
effect

in their of

tendency and likely to

against
British
rule,

have the

causing ill-feeling
is

whether that

effect

intended or not.

Some few contained

to

treasonous passages calculated to excite hatred against British

rule.

It

was the occurrence of these passages from time

time which induced the Government of India to pass the

Vernacular Press Act, empowering the executive authorities to
This Act was generally,

check the publication of such matter.

though not universally, approved by English opinion in India,

was

for the

most part disapproved by educated Natives and was

It

much

discussed in England.

was not framed with any inten-

tion of repressing the free play of sentiment, fettering liberty of

thought or preventing legitimate criticism of

men and

measures.

Nor has

it

really been attended

by any such consequence.

the

The

good sense of the Native journalists has generally spared the

authorities the necessity of enforcing the Act,

procedure

of which has been

used only in one or two instances.

politically

The
has

appearance of passages

objectionable, indeed,

not entirely ceased, but has become rare and slight.

There remains, however, in too

many Native newspapers

CiiAP. VII.

VERNACULAR PRESS AND DRAMA.

and
to be pleased

133
with
j

disposition to find fault witli everything

nothing under British rule, to form inflated notions and to

ventilate impracticable suggestions.

\'

Such manifestation

of dis-

content, though affecting

the reputation of the Native press,

critics

though pointed at by
should not be taken to

its

and regretted by
it

its

friends,

mean more than

really does.

Allow-

ance must be

made

for

some vagaries of thought in a nation

which

is

being exercised in

new ways

of thinking.

The

state

of the country

and of the people often invites or demands

it is

criticism on the part of the Natives,

in every

way

desirable

that

their

sentiments and opinions should be unreservedly

to the ruling classes,

made known

and such outspoken frankness

should never be mistaken for disloyalty or disaffection.

the Native vernacular press
is

Though
its

'

in

some degree important, yet

it is

importance should not be exaggerated, for while

or less

read more

by most of those who have any education,

still its circu-

lation is very far

from reaching the mass of the people.

The

best and ablest Natives read chiefly the newspapers published

in English,

The Indian drama

place

is

an ancient institution and

;

still

has a

among

the

popular recreations

thoiigh

it

has never

obtained the same hold upon the minds of Hindus as upon the
ideas of

some Oriental

races, the

Burmese and

others.

There

are Native theatres at] the capital cities of the empire,

and the

plays are acted with some histrionic ability before large audiences.

The

pieces often relate to the classic times of

Hindu

history or legend.

In 1876 some pieces were produced of which

several portions were calculated to excite contempt for British

people and disaffection against the Government.

An

Act was
ceased

passed by the legislature empowering the executive authorities

to

stop the

evil.

The

theatrical managers, however,

immediately from misbehaviour, and spared the authorities the

necessity of putting the law into force.

There

is

danger

of

discontent

being

engendered in the

minds

of educated Natives if adequate

and suitable employ-

134

INDIA IN
offer itself to

1880.

Chap.

vii.

ment does not

all

them

in various directions.

As

the arts and sciences,

is,

wMch

have helped to make England

what she

are offered for, even pressed on, the acceptance of

it

must be expected that those who do accept these advantages, will be animated by hopes and stirred by emotions, They will evince an to wliich they were previously strangers. increasing jealousy of any monopoly of advantage in any
the Natives,

They are already raising a cry louder and louder, the purport of which is India for the Indians. They discern, or think they discern, undue
respect

being maintained in favour of Europeans.

liberality in some,

and unwise parsimony in other branches of

only in part within the power

the public expenditure, in reference to Native interests.

The fulfilment of these ideas

in the country at large.

is

of the Government, being dependent on the progress of affairs

In so

far

as its

means permit, the

is

Government

is

bound

to attend,

indeed has attended and

is

constantly attending, to this subject which

so essential to the

mental and moral progress of the Natives.

The most

effective

means

at the present It is

time consists of advancement in the public

if

service.
is

towards this that the ambition of educated Natives

too exclusively directed, too

and regarding

this that

complaints

are

frequently preferred.

No

well-wisher of the Natives

in doing nearly
Still,

considers that the

all that

Government has yet succeeded

needs to be done in this cardinal respect.

every

candid observer must admit that the story of the measures taken

by the Government
privileges, pensions

for gradually

improving the pay, promotion,

and

official

prospects of the Natives in all

grades of

its

service,

forms one of the brightest pages in the

annals of British India.

Natives have been raised to some of the

highest spheres in the country, such as the legislative councils

and the High Courts

improved, and the

of judicature.

The regulations have been

admission to that

facilities enlarged, for their

is

covenanted Civil Service, which

class of

mainly

filled

European

officials in

the country.
officials

by the highest The improvement of

gradual, and the

the emolimieuts of Native

must be

CiiAP. vii.

GOOD RESULTS FROM VISITING ENGLAND.

135
its real

fact of its being so gradual

may
due

diminish the sense of

to

magnitude.

Some
felt

of

it

is

the necessity which the

its

Government

of

remunerating

servants

more highly
re-

when

the

money value
all sorts of

of everything rose,

and when the

increased.

muneration of

private
is

employment
its

There

remains much, however, that

attributable to the well-mean-

ing desire of the Government to do

Natives.
all

duty by the educated

danger

The Government

is

not able to provide careers for

the Natives

who become

educated.

There

is

lest the

youths from schools and colleges should resort too exclusively to

overstocked professions such as the law and the public service.

Graduates of a University

may

be seen applying for lowly-paid

office to office or

appointments, wandering from

struggling for
far that

the practice of a petty practitioner.

It

were better

such

men

should

make

careers for themselves not only in trade,

business or private employ, but also in other professions which

spring from the applied sciences.

fast

Such professions are in India

civil engineering,

expanding in connexion with

mechanical

industries, medicine, practical chemistry, botany, arboriculture,

horticulture, scientific agriculture, geology, art principles applied

to manufactures,

and the

like.

But

for the successful pursuit

of careers,
facilities

in

some

of these

departments, more educational

exist.

are needed

than any which as yet

It is in

the gradual supplying of such needs that the Government can

best co-operate with the enterprise of individuals or with the
collective efforts of the Native

community.

All tendencies towards good are assisted by the private

societies,

such as the National Indian Association, wliich shew

for,

the Natives that they are cared volent people, ladies and

and thought

of,

by beneLasting

gentlemen, in England.

friendships are formed in English circles by Natives

who

visit

England, and these

men communicate

to their

countrymen

happy impressions regarding

life.

society in the centres of English

It is especially desirable that Natives should be encou-

raged to finish their education in England, and for such an

13G

..

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

vii.

education the ancient Universities afford the best and highest

opportunities.
It

was

for this

purpose that the Indian Institute

has been recently established at Oxford through the kindly

solicitude

and the unremitting exertions of Professor Monier

Williams.

Of

late, certain

symptoms

of disloyalty manifested

by some

limited sections of certain educated classes, have caused reflections to be

loyalty.

made

against the effects of education

disloyalty

But

that

was traceable

to

upon Native social and

traditional circumstances quite apart

from educational causes,

and was checked, not fostered or encouraged, by education.

There doubtless will be found disloyal individuals among the
educated classes, as there are among
subjected to foreign rule.
all

classes in a country

Nevertheless, a well-founded assur-

ance

may

be entertained that those Natives

who have

learned

to think through the

medium

of the language,

and are imbued

with the literature and the philosophy of England, will bear

towards the English nation that heartfelt allegiance which

men

may

feel

without at

all

relinquishing their
are

own

nationality.

The Natives
disloyalty
cordial

certainly

anxious

to

be considered loyal.

Nothing wounds and

;

them more than imputations of and nothing gratifies them more than a frank and
irritates

acknowledgment

of their loyalty.

This review of the mental and moral progress of the Natives

shews

many gleams

of sunshine, as it were, in the national

prospect.

The peasantry

retain

the

moral

robustness

for

which they were famed in troublous times, have new virtues

which
are

developed in an era of peace and security, and

the British Government.

are, at least passively, loyal to

Some

of the humblest classes are beginning to feel sentiments of

independence unknown before.

classes,

The

trading

and

banking

though not always free from the charge of grasping

usuriousness, are full of enterprising energy, and are actively

loyal to the political system under in

which they

thrive.

Though,

some provinces, the upper

classes are unavoidably depressed

Chap.

vii.

STATE OF NATIVE MIND AND DISPOSITION.

137

grieving over the decay of their territorial influence and fretting

under the restraints of a civilized administration, they yet form

in other provinces a wealthy are founded absolutely

and

lettered class,

whose

interests

on the

stability of British rule.

The

moral

effects of the national

education are clearly perceptible.

The educated
integrity,
field for their

classes are happily

advancing in rectitude and

Thougli the

and are striving

for self-improvement.

they
are

may have

employment has not yet been widened so much as expected, and though the existing professions
still

becoming over-crowded,

their

status

and prospects
divorced them-

have been greatly improved, and new professions are arising

in

many

directions.

Many

of these

men have

selves from the superstitions

by which

their race

had been so
from

long enthralled
that which
is to

and though
be desired,

their religious state is far

still

they have not inclined towards

are indeed

infidelity or materialism.

They

moved by

political

aspirations, but still feel thankful for the

many improvements

already effected in their condition, and hopeful of future benefits.

Though intelKgently

alive

to

the import of passing events

among

the great powers of the world, they yet trust in the

to preserve her empire.

might of England
occasionally

Though

there are

symptoms

of discontent

and disloyalty here and

there, still there is every assurance that the great majority of

the men, whose minds are formed by the language, literature

and science of England, will remain

Sovereign and nation.

faithful

to the

British


138

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

vm.

CHAPTER VIIL
NATIONAL EDUCATION.
Educational policy declared in 1854
relatively
to

the

population

Educational

Present

number

of scholars considered
financially,

resources

private and public

Government

policy regarding

superior

both and lower

education respectively
Fchools

Want

Primary schoolsVillage
intellectual,

of technical instruction

Normal schools Vernacular

Affiliated colleges
in

schoolmasters

Middle

Superior educationUniversities in India of Native graduates Instruction Characteristics, moral and engineering Degrees in medicine In science Agricultural Ethical teaching Female education instruction Schools of
literature
civil

art

Zenana missions

Education of European and East-Indian children.

National education, in the English acceptation of the term, was scarcely known to the Hindu polity. Much public education, indeed, there was,

but

it

related to the national religion

or

to

legendary history and philosophy as connected with

religion,

and was managed by the had

priests.

The antechambers
and the groves
Private

of the temples, the cloisters of the monasteries

of sacred trees,

all

their

classes

of students.

education, also, existed for the sons of the rich in the court-

yards of their fathers' mansions and for the young traders

in the verandahs of the ancestral counting-houses.

In some of

the towns and villages, unlettered schoolmasters kept private

schools.

Under Muhammadan

rule, similar

circumstances ex-

isted

and in the precincts of every mosque, the Moslem youths

faith.

were instructed in the formuliB of their

the fashion of Baghdad or Isfahan.

Muhammadan

kings erected, in the plains of India, collegiate structures after

The

earlier educational efforts of the

East India

Company
Hare

were wanting in

definite aim.

Among

the pioneers, David

should be honourably mentioned; his philanthropic devotion

Chap.

vm.

GOVERNMENT GRANT FOR EDUCATION.

name
to be a houseliold

139

has caused his

of Calcutta.

word among the Natives

lest the British officers

Formerly there was fear

should work upon the old lines of Native education.

dissipated

This was

by Macaulay's famous minute against the teaching

of false science, false history, false philosophy.

tive efforts to diffuse real education

The

first effec-

among

the peasantry were

made by Thomason,
western Provinces.

the Lieutenant-Governor of the

North-

It was, however, the despatch of Sir Cliarles

Wood (now
magna

Lord Halifax) in 1854, which formally prescribed

is

a system of public instruction, and which

regarded as the

charta of national education in British India.

Twenty-five years have since elapsed, during which time

some considerable progress has been

about two millions of scholars.
itself,

effected.

There are
if

now
It
is,

This number,

taken by

may seem

to represent a

grand educational

result.

however, found to be small,

those

if

compared with the number of

who must be

of a schoolgoing age, in a population of

190 millions of

souls.

With

the great majority of the present

scholars, too, the instruction is only rudimentary.

The grant made yearly by the Government in India

tion,

for

educa-

amounts

to

800,000, or about one-fortieth part of the net

This, however,

available revenues.

by no means represents the by the State and the people

total of expenditure incurred jointly

for education.

There are local cesses and rates levied for

educational purposes, contributions by municipal corporations

and other
degrees.

bodies,
also

subscriptions

and donations from private

scholars of
all

munificence,

the

fees

levied from the

is

A considerable
are
in

sum

exacted as the condition upon

State.

which the grants in aid are given by the

schools

The primary
col-

part

supported
;

by small
schools,

subscriptions

lected from the villagers

for each

tliis

private income

may

be small

school, yet
it

for

so

many

nearly 40,000 in

number,

must be

large in its aggregate.

all,

There are

many

schools, nearly 23,000 in

officers are

which though inspected by public

not aided pecuniarily by the State, and for these

140
there

INDIA IN
must be a
is

1880.

Chap.

viir.

large expenditure of

unknown amount.

Lastly,
received.

there

much

private tuition, of

which no returns are

Thus

if

the total expenditure, incurred by the State and the

it

people together on education, be computed,

aggregate must

be greatly in excess of the State contribution of 900,000 and

may

be nearly double that sum.

to

Still it

must, even

if it

should

mount up

two millions

sterling,

be regarded as small for so

great a country.

Encouragement may be

derived from

the

fact

that

the
satis-

numbers

of schools

and scholars has heretofore shewn a

factory and unfailing progress year

by

year.

The progress

has,

however, been arrested in

many

provinces by the recent famine

and

pestilence,

and

is

not likely to improve essentially for some

districts

time to come in those

distressed.

which have been

so grievously

Much

controversy has been raised respecting the relative

State,
it

claims upon the

of primary

and of high education.

to

Many

argue that

is

the duty of

Government

bestow

its

educational grants upon the humbler and more helpless classes,

leaving the middle and especially the upper classes to defray

their

own

charges for instruction.

These regard with jealousy

the sums spent on superior teaching, and would desire to see

a part of them transferred to the primary schools.

persons, including
urge,

Many

probably a majority of educated Natives,

for high edu-

on the other hand, that the grants allowed

ought not to be diminished.

cation

These expect that the

their fellow-country-

enlightened few will scatter light

among
first

men, as the rays of the rising sun

touch the mountain-top

and

rest there for a while before penetrating to the

dark valleys
to-

below.

The Government, however, does not lean unduly

other.

wards one side of the argument or the

It fosters all

kinds of education, whether superior, primary or intermediate,

according to the needs or circumstances of each.
It considers

that they are almost inter-dependent and that they should be

made

to co-operate

and concur in

action.

Primary education

CiiAP. VIII.

BRANCHES OF NATIONAL EDUCATION.

141.

supplies material for secondary education which leads

up

to

superior or high education, which again elevates the tone of

everything below

it,

and supplies the

fittest

instruments for

all
it

other sorts of instruction.

Indeed, without high education,

would be impossible

to find the

means

of teaching properly the

schools of the lower grades.

Doubt has been expressed

upon
its

in

many

quarters from time to

is

time whether the Government in India

not relying too

much
Cer-

own

direct efforts,

and too

little

on the grant-in-aid

system prescribed in Lord Halifax's despatch of 1854.

tainly the principle, of employing the State contribution as

much

as possible in the

development of grants-in-aid,

is

fully

understood by the authorities in India.

The observance

of

it,

in respect to the higher education especially, will be more and

more complete

as the Natives

become better

qualified for self-

help in these matters.

Meanwhile the

agitation,

which some-

times springs up respecting this subject, proves highly beneficial,

as

keeping the attention of the authorities fixed on the

fundamental maxim laid down in 1854.

Objections come from the same quarters regarding the expenditure

upon the upper grades

is,

of the educational establishments.

Such outlay
European

however, incurred chiefly for inspection by

officials,

an object absolutely essential in the present

condition of the national education.

Without such inspection

its

the schools would deteriorate and the teaching would lose

thoroughness.

The national education

II.

has

three

branches,

I.

primary,

secondary or middle, and III. superior.

As

the State has

its

accepted the responsi]:)ility of guiding the public instruction,

first

duty relates

to the determination of the standards for the

three branches.

By
may

the

method known

as

"payments

by

results,"

both

masters and pupils are induced to follow any standard which

be prescribed.

If the master be a salaried servant of the

less

State,

he receives greater or

remuneration according as

142
greater or smaller

INDIA IN
numbers

1880.

Chap.

viii.

of scholars pass according to the are obliged to attend to the scholars

;

standard.

Thus the masters

of moderate or indifferent ability

and the welfare of the weak

pupils

is

guarded as well as that of the strong.

Scholarships are offered for competition

among

the scholars,

which are stipends virtually affording

of a free education,

to the holders the benefit

and which are tenable in schools of a grade

superior to that of the schools in wliich they were won.

Thus by

a chance

is offered

to a poor

boy of genius

to raise himself
rule.

power of mind, which was never afforded under Native

gifted peasant-boy

may, while in a primary school, win a scholar-

ship tenable in a middle school,

may

there again

win another

scholarship tenable in a superior school, where he

may

acquire
course.
all parts

a stipend which will carry

him through the University

is

Primary schools have now been organized in almost

of the empire.

Generally there

a school of this kind for

every large village, and in localities where the villages are

small, for each little group of hamlets.

Thus

it

may

be said

that a school exists within reach of nearly all the peasants.

Nevertheless, a vast

number

of poor children
;

grow up in ignowhere one

rance, never entering a schoolroom

and in

localities

school

is

now

to be found there ought to be several.

Many

well-informed and benevolent persons think that the Govern-

ment should redouble

'

its efforts its

in this direction.

Primary education, in
to the rudest
its

humblest form, should be adapted

so as to gather into
it

minds among the peasantry,

grows,

fold as

many hundreds
and
in

of thousands as
to

can.

As

it

takes

root

some additions
sphere
of

the

instruction

are cautiously made,

enough

to enable the children to

life

improve

themselves

their

own

and

to

become

more

efficient

in

their

humble

calling,

as

they have but

fifth to their

a short time, during their tender age, from their

twelfth or thirteenth year.

Within that time must be learnt

day arrives
toil.

what they ever

are to learn from books, before the

when they go

forth to help their parents in the daily

CiiAP. VIII.

SECONDARY AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS.

143

But
there

to

impart even this small modicum of instruction, within

so short a space of time, to

young children of lowly capacity, must be schoolmasters much better than any who can
Therefore the State

be ordinarily found in the Indian villages.

undertakes the training of village schoolmasters, and insists on

their possessing
certificates

of competent

qualification.

The

rustic teacher in India represented a time-honoured institution,

but he was dull and uninstructed.

office is filled

Nowadays the ancient

by men
the

of a

new

stamp, and the production of

of the British system.
is

such

men

is

among

first fruits

The
it is

instruction in the primary schools

imparted solely in

the vernacular languages.

In the secondary or middle schools,

imparted partly in the vernacular languages, and partly

in the English language.

These secondary schools exist

for the

middle classes of the

learn

people, including the small landholder

who should

men-

suration in his fields and should master the village accounts,

the trader the clerk

who should be practised in who should qualify himself

arithmetical calculation,
for subordinate

employ-

ment

in a private or public office, the better sort of artisan

who
liis

should acquire the knowledge necessary for success in

craft.
;

These schools are in a tolerably satisfactory conalso

dition

and are regarded by the general public, probably

authorities, as the best

by the educational
Indian schools.

among

the British

Some

technical schools have been

commenced

at different

places in each division of the empire, where Natives

in their youth

may

learn

the

theory and practice of useful trades, as

young men
Still, it is

are taught these things in

Germany

or Switzerland.

greatly to be regretted that so little has been done as

yet in India for technical instruction.

There are European

manufactures, in which mechanical appliances are

much used
subordi-

and

for

which a knowledge of mechanics

;

is

needed in the

subordinate employes

there are railways where

filled

many

nate places might be

cally educated
;

by Natives

if

they were techni-

there are

many

scientific

departments where

144

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. vni.

Natives might be well employed

if

they were but qualified.

All this ought to convince both the Government, and the

Natives themselves, that
technical education they
if

young Natives were

find

to

receive

would

new employment, and

late years the

that

such employment would be developed from the very fact of Native talent becoming available.

Of

Government

has obtained a more practical grasp than formerly of this important subject, and progress in various parts of
It is
it is

being made.
is

acknowledged that when English instruction

offered

to thC' Natives, they should be

thoroughly grounded in their

own
still

of

language. While many learn English, the more the better, many can obtain their education only through the medium Hence a new vernacular literature their own vernacular.

has to be created; and such a literature will be

most enduring monuments of British

compose
original

rule.

among "the Some Natives make

poems
merit.

translations in the vernacular of the ancient Sanscrit

others

verses

of

considerable

On

various branches of useful knowledge books have been, and are

being, written in the vernacular languages,
abstracts while others
are translations in

some

of

which are

extenso of English

works.

Original works

are

brought out by Native authors,

it

who, having mastered a subject for themselves, expound

oriental

in

mode
is

of thought

and expression,

for the benefit of their

countrymen.
vernacular,
sciences,

Another

object, set before

Native authors in the

in the physical

the preparation of text books

and of science primers on the model of those which

are prepared in

England by some

of the best living writers.

The normal
institutions

schools, or training institutions for vernacular

schoolmasters, form a part of the secondary education.

These

become

colleges

for

cultivating

the

vernacular

languages.
India,

with

The resources of Sanskrit, the ancient language of its copiousness, precision and flexibility, are
the
-

adapted to
Natives.

diffusion

of

modern knowledge among the

are

The

dead

languages of elder times

used

to

preserve purity and expressive vigour in the living dialects.

The Natives

are taught that in order to speak

and write thei

CiiAP. VIII.

UNIVERSITIES IN INDIA.
well,

145

own language

they must have sonic acquaintance witli

the classic tongue of their ancestors.

Superior education, mainly in P^nglish,

three

is

controlled

by the
incor-

Universities

of

Calcutta,

Madras and Bombay,

porated by enactments of the Indian legislature.

exists in the

An

institution
like tliose

Panjab

also,

which exercises functions

of a University,

and

to

which the status of a University will

a body for examining candidates
It has the

probably be ere long accorded.

University in India

is

for degrees,

and

for conferring degrees.

power of
rules of

prescribing text books, standards of instruction and

procedure, but

is

not an institution for teaching.

Its

govern-

ance and management are vested in a body of fellows, some

of

whom

are ex-officio, being the chief

European functionaries

of the State.

The remainder

are appointed

by the Government,

being generally chosen as representative

men

in respect of

eminent learning,
status or personal

scientific attainment, official position, social

worth.

Thus the

fellows-,
all

being a mixed
is

body of Europeans and Natives, comprise

belongs,

that

best

and

wisest in that division of the empire to which the University

and

fairly represent

most of the phases of thought and

philosophic tendencies observable in the country.

The fellows
which

in their corporate capacity form the Senate, a meeting of

is

styled a convocation.

The

affairs

of the University are

conducted by the Syndicate, consisting of a limited number of

members
Syndicate
sisting

elected from
is

among

the fellows.

performed by a certain
elected

The business of the number of Faculties, conits

of

persons

from among

members.

The

Faculties ordinarily pertain to the subjects in which degrees

are conferred,
civil

namely
;

literse

humaniores, law, medicine and

engineering

a degree in natural and physical science has

recently been added.

There are degrees of Bachelor of Arts

and Master of Arts, and corresponding degrees in medicine and

civil engineering.

Although the University exercises the functions assigned

L

to

146
it

INDIA IN
still

1880.

Chap.

viii.

by law quite independently,

much

influence in its affairs

pertains to the Government.

The head

of the Government, its

members and
all

its

principal officers being ex-officio fellows

and

the remaining fellows being chosen

is

by the Government,
principles.

the governing body

of
is

necessarily in

harmony with the policy

its

the

State

and

in

consonance with
of

It

desired

that

shades

reasonable

opinion

should

be

duly represented in the body of fellows, and the relations

between the Government

excellent.

and the

several

Universities

are

Certain schools,

some belonging

to

Government

others to

private bodies, are designated as qualified to prepare scholars

for passing the

examination for entrance to the Universities,

schools.

and these are generally styled high

private societies, are authorized

Certain colleges, some maintained by Government others by

by the Universities

to prepare

candidates

for

the examination for degrees,

affiliated.

and are thence

declared to be

There are several of such colleges in

each division of the empire.

An

affiliated
is

college

may may

either

receive undergraduates only, that

those
;

who have passed

or
it

the entrance examination of the University

classes

receive
to

of

scholars

for

other

standards,

in

addition

the

undergraduates.

Thus some

colleges are
is,

schools with college

classes attached to them, that

for degrees
:

classes consisting of students

while some possess solely a collegiate character,

having none but undergraduates.

At

the several capitals of the

empire, the Government maintains collegiate institutions with

principals almost always European, and professors partly Euro-

pean and partly Native,

religious

all

highly qualified.
Catholic

The several
also

communities,

Eoman

and Protestant,
all,

maintain excellent collegiate institutions,

grants in aid from Government.

however, receiving

There

are, as yet,

no examples

of collegiate institutions maintained

assistance from the State.

by Natives without any

The

fact that the

Government

in India maintains colleges

Chap.

viii.

AFFILIATED COLLEGES.
at all,
is

147

of

its

own

the subject of complaint in

some

quarters.

It is urged that the efforts of the State in this direction should

be confined to making grants-in-aid to the colleges belonging to

private societies, that these private colleges are suffering from

the competition

of

the
at

Government
the
to

colleges
cities

and that the

of

Government
Madras and

colleges

Presidency
be

Calcutta,

Bombay ought
])e

closed.

Doubtless

the

Government would gladly

perform that duty
for

relieved of the task of affording

the higher kinds of education, as soon as

itself. is

the

country can
of such relief

The opportunity

may

arrive

some day, but

is

apparently yet distant.

Mean-

while, liberal assistance

given to the private colleges, mis-

sionary or other, which are both numerous

It is not probable that the

and

flourishing.

present to close

Government would be willing at some of which in the interior of the country occupy ground which would otherwise be vacant.
its

colleges,

to

The authorities at the Presidency colleges do not attempt undermine the missionary colleges by charging lower fees,
on the contrary they charge somewhat higher
of
fees

than those

any private

institutions.

The missionary

bodies, together

with other sections of the general community, are duly represented in the senates
of the several Universities.

Nothing

can be more

desirable than a liberal

encouragement on the

part of the State to all private institutions, including missionary

colleges.

The complaints made

or the recommendations urged,

in reference thereto, will prove beneficial, as causing the eyes of

the authorities to be turned towards the changes which

may

be

gradually introduced.

The number of the Natives who enter the Universities, after passing an examination, is satisfactorily large but the
;

number
small.

of the Natives
It
is

who

take degrees

is

unsatisfactorily

considered by

Natives that a man,

who has
has often

entered the University, is fully a

member

of

it,

and that such

membership

is

sufficient.

The Government
notion,

itself

failed to discourage this

and has even sometimes enL 2

148
courao-ed
it

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

vrii.

passed the entrance examination only.

by according a certain status to those who have Of those who enter,

in order to

not more than one-fifth prosecute their studies

obtain degrees.

An

intermediate

examination between
called the

the

entering and the taking of degrees,

"First Arts

examination," was instituted by the

of testing

authorities with the

after

view

the

progress

of the undergraduates

passing
tliem-

the

entrance.

Thereupon

many

Natives

contented

selves with passing that examination only, in the belief that

by

so

doing they had taken a sort of degree.

yearly

Still,

many
a

Natives

do

take

the

degree

of

Bachelor,

while

few obtain that of Master.

of undergraduates.

It is detrimental to the position

of the Universities that their alumni should consist

mainly
the

The

authorities ought

to

insist that

ultimate object of these great institutions,

of degrees, shall be attained.

namely the taking

to a great extent in

If the fulfilment of this object

shall continue to be delayed, the

remedy

is

the hands of Government.

Greater precautions than hereto-

fore should be taken to prevent

an educational status being

accorded to undergraduates, and to reserve for graduates only

(with certain specified exceptions) the admission to
grades of the public service.
to
tlie

higher

policy of this description has

if it

some extent been adopted, and

be persevered

in,

a
of

marked
The

increase will ere long be observable in the

number

candidates for degrees.

intellectual

and moral characteristics of the alumni of

these Universities,
society, are

who now form

a numerous class in Native

It is allowed

worthy of observation.

on

all sides

that these
01

young men possess

ideas.

refined faculties, retentiveness

memory, power

of intense application, aptitude for receiving

and expressing

Above

all this,

they follow an improved

standard of rectitude and integrity, as already explained in the

foregoing chapter

on mental and moral progress.

l)y

But

it

is

perceived hj their critics and acknowledged

their friends

that they have several salient faults, such as immaturity of

Chap.

viii.

INSTRUCTION IN MEDICINE.

149

thought, fondness for rhetorical exaggeration, substitution of

borrowed ideas

for original reflection, subjection of the reasoning

power
These
all

to the imagination, inaccuracy of observation,

faults,

and the

like.

which are common more or

for a

less to the

youths of

nations in the world, have in India grown and expanded

from special causes operating

be speedily cured.

very long time, and will not

persons apprehend that

Consequently
is

many
it

much
This

of the higher education

superficial

where

it

ought to

be fundamental, and airy where

ought to be substantial.

apprehension probably causes employers of intellectual

be less anxious,
to

labour to
to

than

they might

otherwise
to

be,

have recourse

the young Natives

authorities

who belong

the

Universities.

The

would do well

to impress

on

the alumni of the Universities the conviction that a general

education,
if it

be really

efficient,

should enable a

man

to

apply

himself to the acquisition of any sort of knowledge, however

novel or alien

it

may
will

be,

and
to

to assimilate into his

mental
If

system the ideas peculiar

the young

any profession he may

to

enter.

men

act

up

these
to

maxims they
turn
their

will

be
to

more competent than

profitable
that, after

heretofore
if

abilities

account.

But

they continue prone to imagine

having learnt so

much

at college they

have

little

or nothing

more

to learn in life, they

must

fail

to reap the

fruits of their laborious education.

One

of the in

means
the

for correcting these faults is

an increased

attention
sciences.

Universities

to

pure

science

and applied

It is a

happy circumstance that two

of the sciences, medicine

all

and

civil engineering,

have been successfully cultivated in

the Universities.

The three medical

colleges of India,

namely those

of Calcutta,

Madras and Bombay, are truly noble

regarded wdth national pride.

institutions, justly to be

In the wards of the hospitals

is

attached to the colleges, the clinical instruction

that can be desired, and the anatomical instruction

nearly all
thorough.

is

150

INDIA IN
chemical
instruction,

1880.

Chap.
to

viii.

The

though

not enough
is

lead

the

student into the higher walks of the science,

far as it goes.

practical so

The botanical instruction

surgery and
in

is

efficient in

a like

degree,

and

is

given partly in botanic gardens.

The
is

instruc-

tion

in

ophthalmic

midwifery

given in

wards specially constructed

physiology

for these

branches of the profession.

Besides the theoretical physiology taught in the lecture-rooms,

practical
is
is

explained

by trained demonstrators.
is

Theoretical pathology

well taught, practical pathology

in

some
these

of the colleges taught

by trained demonstrators, but not

fully as yet in other colleges.

colleges

The Natives who pass through

degrees,

and receive
medical

university
in

being

styled
of

licentiates,

are

men

the

professional

sense

the term.

Besides these fully qualified Native medical

men from

the

medical colleges, there are Natives from the several medical

schools

who

are

certificated as

hospital assistants.

Several

such medical schools exist in each division of the empire and they are very largely attended.

The alumni are not indeed

so far

educated completely, but they are competently instructed up

to

a certain point and their professional training

is

efficient.

They
as

are

grounded in surgery, medicine, and materia

clinical instruction.

medica

and they have received

assistants to medical

They

are

wanted

men

everywhere, being espe-

cially useful in the interior of the country

where medical men

cannot be expected to reside, and where the sickness and the

medical needs, in so great a population, exceed the powers of

any medical
do much

staff that

could possibly be provided.

They can
are

to dispense

medicines for ordinary ailments among

the rural poor, and can apply the

known remedies which

out.

needed when epidemics prevail or pestilence breaks

'J'he

Natives,

both the medical

men and

the

certificated

hospital assistants, educated in the medical colleges and schools,

have already acquired the confidence, and are

in the estimation, of their

still

further rising

countrymen.

They

are extensively

CiiAP. VIII.

INSTRUCTION IN CIVIL ENGINEERINa.

also

151

employed not only by the Government, but

corporations

by municipal

and

local

committees

separate

from the State

They

are fast obtaining a private practice, of a large

and lucra-

tive character, superseding the ancient profession of medicine

according to the Oriental method.

regulation

There

is

not as yet any

prohibiting

men from

practising

medicine unless

they possess diplomas from British authorities, and the practitioners under the Oriental system are still free to practise their
art.

These indigenous practitioners, though generally unskilled

in surgery

and ignorant of anatomy, are often

skilful in the

discrimination of disease, and are always well acquainted with

the uses of medicinal herbs.

In

civil

engineering

also,

the State education has

of public

met with
civil

considerable success.

The extension
for

works throughfor

out the Empire has created a large

engineers,

demand

Native

and

also

engineering assistants and overseers.

for
civil
is

There are colleges and schools

division of the empire.
at

engineering in every

Among

these

included the college

Eurki on the Ganges, named,

after its founder

and promoter,
college of

the

Thomason College
instruction
in

of Civil Engineering.
all

The

Poena, besides teaching

affords

that relates to civil engineering,

scientific

other
of

branches,

and

is

fast

becoming

college

science

for

Western

India.

These

colleges afford excellent instruction for both the superior

and

the subordinate grades of the profession.

are

Extensive workshops

attached to

them, in order that the instruction

practical.

For the same reason, the pupils

exercise in the field.

may be undergo much

to be
;

professional

The Natives prove

in

competent surveyors and very good draughtsmen

the higher branches
of the

some of
have
assist-

survey

department,

they

acquired distinction.
ants
to

That they will be most useful as

engineers
civil
is

European

already

manifest.

Some

of

them have become

term.

engineers in the best sense of the

failed

Others, again, have

when

tried

by the hard
of public

and

critical

labours

incidental to the construction

152
works.
It

INDIA IN
would be premature

1880.

Chap. vhi.

to state the extent to

which

Natives will in the future be employed for the severer duties

relating to these operations.

They

will certainly

fill

a place

which,

if

not the highest or the most

difficult, will

be replete

with opportunities of usefulness.

It has often

been recommended that the Universities should

confer degrees in other scientific branches, and should re-arrange the educational courses with this object.

This view has at

length found favour with the Universities, in which the literary

and philosophic element has heretofore been stronger than the

scientific.

It

was argued that a Native cannot do better than

as

obtain at college a thoroughly good general education

groundwork, that with this he

may

go forth into the world

with his mind braced and disciplined, and

may

then prosecute

with advantage any profession, scientific or other.

thereto
it

In answer

was urged that

this

system

may

doubtless be effica-

cious for

some important

professions, such as the public service,

the law, and

many

sorts of private

employment, but
to follow

is

not
pro-

equally suitable for those

who

are

scientific

fessions, as botanists, chemists,

tific

mechanical engineers or scien-

agriculturists.

This would be proved by the analogy of

if

the plan pursued with medicine and civil engineering; and

the future profession of the student is to be science in other branches, he

purpose.
sities,

must make use

of his time in college for this

The

collegiate course, as prescribed

;

by the Univerto superior

comprises five years

under any circumstances these are

the only years in a man's

education, and
to

life

which can be devoted

This time

much

of

them must be given

is

to science if

he

is

become

really scientific.

the spring season of

his mind,

when the faculties are most elastic and the memory most receptive, which should be partly employed in science and
should be enjoyed while
return.
it

lasts,

for

to

him

it

will never

In respect to

the discipline of the mind, scientific

pursuits afford an excellent general education, as training the

faculties
to

habits

of

order,

observation,

method and

classi-

Chap.

viii.

AGIUCULTUHAL INSTRUCTION.
Tlie

153
to the eftect

ficatioii.

dictum of Faraday

may

])c

(jiiotcd

tliat

"tlie study of natural

science

is

a glorious school for

the mind." Instruction in scientific agriculture remains to he added to

the system of State education.

The Government of Madras

has set an example in this respect, by employing a gentleman

trained in the Agricultural Institution at Cirencester, Mr. Robertson, to

found and establish an agricultural school for southern

This school
is

India.

furnished with apparatus and appliances,

to
it

sufficient

land

is

attached

for

experiments, and

many
it.

students from the agricultural

community

are attracted to

Some

of the best students,

who

pass the examinations in this

school, are appointed to be teachers in agricultural class

in other parts of the country.

rooms The Bombay Government has

in

followed this example, by attaching to the scientific college at

Poona a

class

for

superior

instruction

agriculture

with

suitable examinations,

and by establishing

classes for the

same

instruction
India.

in

lower degree at several places in western

of agriculture has for

A department

some years worked

well in the North-western Pi'ovinces, but does not seem to have

attended particularly to agricultural education.

Whatever steps
There

have been taken in southern and western India, are but the small
beginnings of what ought to be a widely diffused system.
is

no branch of study likely

to

be so useful or so popi^lar with

the Natives.

Interesting experiments in agriculture are

made
under-

from time

to time

and prove

futile

model farming

is

taken, and after a brief existence sometimes fails in a

manner

which

discredits science

and

repels, instead of attracting, the

attention of the people.

are

These misfortunes arise because there

conduct the experiments, or the

not enough persons to

farms, to a successful result.

Even

if

success were attained,

the neighbouring peasantry w^ould not be intelligent enough to

appreciate
selves are
it

or to imitate its processes.

to a sense of the

The Natives themcountry,

awakening
the

importance of improving

agriculture,

staple

industry of the

and would

154
willingly
direction.

INDIA IN
follow

1880.

Chap.

viii.

the guidance

of the

Government

in

this

Schools of Art for the Natives have been established in the

several divisions of the empire,

and have been superintended

England.
This

by competent
Sir Bartle Frere

artists

obtained from

branch

of education received a great impulse

from the exertions of

when Governor

of

Bombay,

Many young men

all

thus receive artistic instruction and some a?sthetic culture,

which proves most helpful in several professions followed by

them as portrait-painters, photographers, lithographers, engravers, wood and ivory carvers, ornamental designers and draughtsmen,
and more especially
well
filled.

as architects.

Thus, the art class rooms are

principles applicable

The instruction embodies the

to art in all climes

and the practice most approved in European

It encourages the

art; but does not disdain the Native art.

students to
art,

fix

their gaze

on the antique remains of Indian

which flourished
its

at times

when
finer

the national imagination

faculties

was in

prime

and

its

soared

highest

when Asoka graved on the rocks the edicts of duty and the Buddhists hewed sacred chambers out of the strata on the mountain sides when the Brahminists covered their fanes with carvings which make bygone races of men live again before the spectator when the Muhammadans reared the tall minarets for prayer and the domes in memory of the dead. It aims at
; ;

explaining the causes of the surpassing beauty of these old

works, so that the same principles

present generation.
art has

may

govern the

efforts of the

It recognises the fact that inferior

European

sometimes been incongruously introduced into India, the

which, though meant to be elevating, must really be

effect of

debasing and injurious to the opening faculties of the Native

mind.

Above and beyond

yet been indicated,
is

all

the sorts of instruction, which have

the instruction in ethics, or the science of

are taught

human

duty.

While the Native youths

human duty

comprising the relations of

man

to

man, they are necessarily

CiiAP. VIII.

ETHICAL TEACUING.

155
God, although the

taught something of their duty towards

teachers
are

precluded from adverting to religion.

the eftects of good teaching in history or literature

inculcate, always incidentally

One must be

of
to

and often

directly,
is

much

of the

general duty of man.

Thus, happily

much

effected in this

most important
prescribed for
as

direction.
it

The instruction might, however, be

better systematized than

it

now

is

sometimes text books are

;

and sometimes not

in

some

institutions

it

is

an obligatory subject, in others

it is

optional.

These variations
;

in practice are

found only in the Government institutions

It

the

subject

is

obligatory in the missionary institutions.

fit

were

well

if

the several Universities should see

to take

up the

matter in an uniform manner.

Their action determines the

teaching in the colleges and high schools, the example of these

superior institutions
class institutions,
is

sure to be followed

by the middleschools, until

and ultimately by the primary

is

a system of national instruction in ethics

established.

The

Natives will certainly be the willing subjects of such teaching.

Many of them,
done in
effort
is

while thankfully acknowledging

direction, do yet

all that

has been

this

lament that a more systematic

not

made

to unfold before the

minds of the young

those eternal principles of right

and wrong, which serve as

beacons for the due conduct of

to

life,

and which ought specially

system that unavoidably

be included in an educational

excludes religious teaching.

Female education among the Natives

a delicate one,

is
;

receiving

much
is

encouragement from the British Government

the

matter

and any undue haste or even the semblance

of pressure might,

by rousing opposition, cause retrogression

seclusion

instead of progress.

Under the
what
their

system of

which has always been

it

enforced in respect of Native ladies,

intellectual

is difficult

to ascertain

condition

is

in the present, as

com-

pared with the past.

By

all
:

accounts, they were

generally
there

uneducated

in

former

times

some

educated

ladies

156
doubtless
were,

INDIA IN
but
such

1880.

Chap.

viii.

instances

must have been

rare.

Nevertheless, in historic times,

signalized themselves
statecraft.

queens and princesses have

by

patriotism,

by heroism, and even by

liy

The empress Nur Jehan, immortalized

character.

the

poem
an

of Lala

Eukh, was not a creation of fancy, but an important

historical

The

Eoshanara

Begum,

sister
affairs.

of

emperor, long exercised great influence over State

The

noble conduct of the princess Chand Bibi of Ahmednagar has

been the subject of a historical romance.

When

the Eajputs

died fighting for their country, the conduct of the

as brave as that of the

men.

Among
of

the

women was Mahrattas, the women

political affairs.

of rank

were generally conspicuous in

For

instance, the

widowed mother
for

Sivaji

incited
faith.

her son to

deeds of daring for the sake of the

Hindu

In later days

some

of

them were famed

princess

charity and good works, for

example, the

Ahalya Bai in Malwa, a devout and

benevolent lady.

Eecently in Bengal, the person foremost in

good works, in the dispensation of the noblest charity, in liberal

consideration towards tenantry, retainers

and dependants, in
but also

times of difficulty,

was a woman, the Maharani Surnomaye,

titles

who

has been honoured not only with Native

decoration.

with a British

The Muhammadan princess of

ruler.

Bhopal has in time of danger proved a loyal adherent of the

British cause British
officer

and in time of peace a capable

is

Every

the Natives,

who knows

accredited

to

princely houses

among

that in the palace there are Native ladies

all negotiations,

who, though unseen, exert a real influence upon

and who are the

rest

faithful upholders of
to

the dignity and inte-

of the

families

which they belong.

In

short, it is

manifest

tliat

declared to

women, though by the Hindu social code be dependent, and by the Muhammadans hardly
the

acknowledged, are yet almost as influential in India as in

other countries, even though they be uneducated.

And

this

reason, besides all other reasons, points to the desirability of

their being educated.

The

fact of so

many Hindu widows

Chap.

viii.

FEMALE EDUCATION.
up
to

157

(Satis)

having,

comparatively recent times, immolated

tliemselves on the funeral pyres of their liusbands, a practice

wliich

would

still

be followed by many, were

force

it

not

prolii))ite(l

by British laws, proves a

results if guided aright

of will,

and a power of

self-

devotion to a principle, which

may

be productive of happy

by education.

As

yet, the influence of

the w^onien has been but too often adverse to enlightenment,

and favourable

to

retrogression.

In most households, the

female apartments are reputed to be the very

superstition.

home
is,

of ignorant

The circumstance

of a

young

ISTative

having been

brought up too

much

in

the " Zenana," that

is

under the

tuition of his female relations,

proverbially regarded as a sign

that he will prove illiberal and bigoted.

It is probable that a great

improvement has taken

is

place, in

these respects, throughout Native society, and

moving onward

with increased speed year by year.

Instances are, probaljly,

common
lettered,

of educated Hindus,

whose mothers were quite unwrite, but

and whose wives can barely read and

the mothers
of the last generation

whose

daughters are being fully educated.

classes,

In the upper and middle

were mostly un-

educated, those of the rising generation are educated partly, and

those of the next generation will be educated altogether.
all

At

the capital cities in the empire, there are female schools of a

superior description, at which girls of the

setting

Brahmin

caste attend,
castes.

an example likely to be followed by other

of

The name

Drinkwater Betliune

is

honourably associated with

Native
to
girls.

an institution at Calcutta,

for the education of

The Muhammadans
daughters to school.

as yet

are

less

disposed

send their

The

Parsis, however, are zealous in this

respect, indeed hardly less solicitous than Europeans.

Among
With
all

the Parsis, Mr. Manockji Cursetji has been most zealous in

establishing

the

Alexandra Institute

at

Bombay.

these institutions there are committees of Natives, gentlemen

of various nationalities,

whose

social

position carries Aveight

with the community and whose presence proves that the move-

158

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

viii.

ment does not

at

solely originate with Europeans.

There

is

much

private tuition, and in

home

to the girls
it

many houses instruction is being given who by social customs are prevented from
any educational

receiving

in class rooms, or from joining

It

institution.

was

to aid in this

work that the Zenana missions

of

are established, in are engaged.

which many highly qualified European ladies

It is only

by such agency that the quality

this domestic education

can be improved or be prevented from

state.

degenerating into a formal and torpid

The highest im-

portance is attached to the enlightened efforts

made by European

Associations in this direction, without which

girls in influential stations

many

well-born

would remain without

real education

being extended to that age

when

the

mind

is

most receptive of
interior of

knowledge.
the country
of this
;

Female schools are springing up in the

there are, probably, few towns without a school

description.

These schools are attended in the

is

first

instance by girls of liigh caste, whereby popularity

if

ensured
castes,

they had been attended only by

girls

of

humbler

they would never have gained influence.

tion
is

Here again co-opera-

obtained

from Native
their

gentlemen,

who prove
to school.

their

sincerity

by sending

own daughters

In the

primary schools of the humblest description, classes are opened

for peasant girls of a tender age
;

and although such instruction

may

not amount to much,

it

produces some effect upon the

peasantry.

For the diffusion of female education, the

first

care of its

supporters, with the countenance or assistance of the State,

has been to found normal schools for the training of Native

schoolmistresses.

Some

of these institutions are,

with the help

forth

of private societies, proving very successful,

and sending

many

mistresses yearly, whose services are immediately engaged

salaries
for schools

on good

at other

places.

The

social or

religious prohibition of the re-marriage of

is

Hindu widows, which

not yet removed or has been but slightly relaxed, consigns

to

an aimless and objectless existence many women, who are

Chap.

viii.

EUROPEAN AND EAST INDIAN CHILDREN.

to

150

now beginning
profession.

find

suitable

career in the educational

On

the whole, female

statistics

education, tliough not as yet repre-

sented by large

and numbering only some tens of

start,

thousands of pupils, has made a real

progress yearly.

and will shew

individually

The happiest national

ladies

effect

has been produced

by the example of those Xative

who have

evinced talent in general literature, and in poetic composition.

An
ladies
tlie

equally potent influence

is

exercised

by the European
Indian
sisters

who

in their well-spent lives

shew

to their

visible blessings of enlightenment,

and the elevation

to

^\hich

the female

mind can

rise

when enjoying

educational

Prominent among these was Mary Carpenter, upon whose monument it has been written that " Taking to heart the
advantages.

grievous lot of Oriental

women,

in the last decade of her

life,

she four times went to India, and awakened an active interest

in their education and training for serious purposes."

A re^-iew

of national education in IncUa

would not be complete

is

without some notice of the instruction which

being afforded to

European and East Indian children.

ways and

of various industries,

The introduction of railin which many Europeans are

to the ill-

employed, has caused the numljer of these children to increase

greatly of late years.

The parents often succumb

nesses incidental to tropical climates, as they are

unable to

detain the changes of scene and air which prove so restorative

to

their

more fortunate countrymen.

Thus, there are

many
it

children, either orphans or bereft of one parent.

fatherless

or

motherless European
sent to

cliild
is,

in poor circumstances, if in
India,

cannot be
dangers.

England,

exposed to grave
closer

The disadvantages which surround

and

closer
till

the position of the East Indian section of the community,

it is

quite beset with difficulty, have been already mentioned.

Thus, there are several classes of Europeans or East Indians,

who

are domiciled in India,

and must make

it

the

home

of their

children, or

who

are unable to send

them

to

England

for educa-

160
tion, or

INDIA IN
who,
for

1880.

Chap.

viii.

some

special reason, prefer to

keep them in

India.

Among
who

the children thus situated, there are

if

many helpto

less ones,

not cared for by the State or by the public,

If such cases

would grow up

in ignorance.

were

become

numerous, some discredit would be reflected upon the ruling

race in the eyes of an alien population.

Humane considerations

have always prompted the Government and the British com-

munity

to

make

provision for the education of those who, from

their birth or extraction, have peculiar claims

upon European
therefore, both

sympathy.

The several Christian communities,

Protestant and

Eoman

Catholic, have established schools for

girls.

the children of their members, whether boys or

these
institutions

Originally

were placed at the capital

cities

and

at

the principal stations in the interior of the country, and most

of them are
still

maintained there.

At

the instance of Bishop

Cotton, schools were established at the European settlements in

the Himalayas, such as Massuri, ISTaini-Tal, Darjiling and else-

where, so that the children might benefit by the cool climate

and escape from the heat

of the plains.

A similar principle

has

been followed in the Presidencies of Madras and Bombay.

The

Guaranteed Railway Companies have

in the good work.

also

performed their share

All the institutions receive grants-in-aid

from the Government.

At

the colleges maintained at Calcutta,

societies,

Madras and Bombay, by private

Europeans obtain an
though

excellent education and study for the University examinations.

They
some

are also admitted to the

Government

colleges,

these colleges are maintained for the sake of the Natives.

At

places also, technical sch-ools have been established where

Europeans learn useful trades and handicrafts.

Thus, there are

all

many
so

flourishing institutions, supervised

by the clergy of
efforts

denominations, repro<;lucing in a strange land the happy scenes

frequent in England.

The untiring
gratitude.

and powerful

advocacy devoted by Archdeacon Bail4y to this humane cause

will long be

remembered with

Nevertheless, the future of the rising generation of the white

Chav.

VIII.

EAST INDIAN

ClllLDllEN.

161

people in India and of the East Indian has

moved the sympatliy

Statistical

and excited the and

others,

anxiety of

many

excellent persons, cleriiy

whose opinions

are entitled to respect.

enquiries have been

cities,

made by

the Government at the capital

and

it

has been found that although few children of pure

school, still a

European birth are absent from

parents belonging to very

number

of East

Indian children are in a degraded and neglected condition, the

humble

classes.

The Government
to

has taken the case of these children into special consideration

and has urged the several communities of Europeans

the need, promising

supply

them

grants-in-aid.

It

would be

difficult

for the State to directly

undertake the gratuitous education of

such children, as the social circumstances do not admit of rates

being imposed and school-boards established after the English
model.

But the existing

institutions

belonging to

private

societies are,
if

with the State assistance, able to provide education

it.

the parents will but exert themselves to obtain

Thus, the natural education

is

exercising an almost universal

is

influence over the upper classes of the Natives,

producing a

considerable effect on the

middle section of the community,

and

is

slowly though surely spreading

Still,

among

the mass of the

people.

the extension of primary education

among

the

peasantry continues to be one of those needs which cry out

for sustained efforts

on the part of the

is

State.

The instruction
in its in-

in

some branches of applied science

is

successful but in pure

is

science
fancy.

inadequate

while technical education

is

The English language

being spoken more and more

by educated Natives with purity

fluency.

of pronunciation
is

and colloquial

The general education

During the
various

yielding fruit in respect of

rectitude in conduct, zeal in performance of duty, and faitliful-

ness in loyalty.

visit of the

Prince of Wales, the

Natives rendered the worthiest homage to the royal presence

l:)y

founding,

in

parts

of

the

country,

educational

institutions in

memory

of that gracious occasion.


162

INDIA IN

1880.

Chai>. ix.

CHAPTER

IX.

RELICxIOUS ESTABLISHMENTS

AND

MISSIONS.

The

State Church in India

Maintenance

of religion

by Native rulers

Their religious endowments in part maintained by the British GovernAttitude of the Keligious establishments of the Portuguese ment

Christian missions in Native Government respecting religion StatesThe Koman Catholic Church in India Protestant missions Unabated efforts of religious societies Approximate statistics of results High authorities in favour of missions Character of Native Christians Special missions from Oxford and Cambridge Prospects of Native Church
British

Moral
For duly

effect of

missions generally.

appreciating the religious establishments

it is

desirable

to consider the position of Christianity in India, in

comparison
is

with that of other religions.

Attention in England

some-

times drawn to the State Church in India, as being an institution maintained, for the benefit of Europeans,

from the public

revenues.

It

seems to be thought by some that the mainte-

nance of the Church from these funds involves an injustice to

the Natives.

The Native
its

rulers,

however, always accepted the

;

duty of giving substantial support to religion

maintained

each dynasty

own

faith, besides
it

allowing maintenance to the

other forms of faith

found existmg in the country.

its

For the due discharge of

practical duties,

the British
of its

Government

is

bound

to care for

the spiritual needs

servants as w^ell as for their bodily safety.

Medical establishalways deemed to be

ments are maintained, and that measure

right

is

and needful.

The
they

ecclesiastical estaljlishment stands

on
are

the same footing.

peculiarly situated

The servants
;

of the Indian

Government

are, for

the most part, isolated, and

are unavoidably migratory, being

moved about from

station to
It

station according to the exigencies of the public service.

; ;

CitAi'.

IX.

NATIVP: llELTGIOUS
impossil)le for
if

ENDOWMENTS.

163

would bo
ment, and
be
left

them

to sustain a religious establish-

that were not provided by the State, tbcy \\-ould

without any religious ministration.

Apart IVom the

lowest and most

clergy
officers,

who

minister to the European troops and the military

tlie

the clerical establishments are on

scale,

economical

compatil)le with supplying the wants of the

European community even in the matter of marriages and

baptisms.
It

would have been a scandal

provide
facilities

if

the

Government
to all

had omitted
circumstances

to

for the rites

common
The

civilized societies,

which
India,

facilities

cannot, under the special

provided.
cost

of

be

otherwise
for the

amounts

to only
it is

150,000 a year

whole country.

Perhaps

not sufficiently remembered that several religions

to

have from time under British

time immemorial, received endowments from

the Native dynasties, which

rule.

endowments

are in part maintained

In ancient times the Buddhist monasteries of India, some of

the most widely extended monastic institutions that ever existed
in

any age or among any nation, absorbed a large portion of

the public revenues.

When

the Buddhist system was finally

subdued, and superseded by the Brahminical system throughout

the country, the religious property and the conventual wealth

lapsed

to

the

Brahmins,

priestly

class

with unbounded

in secular affairs. The Hindus, having al)jured Buddhism and embraced Brahminism, continued the practice of bountifully endowing the Hindu religion. Temi^les were raised in every quarter, with numerous establishments. These were supported in part by voluntary offerings of devotees, but in part also by public revenues assigned to them by
influence

the sovereign

and derived from land.

to

Ecclesiastical

charity
castes

was dispensed
of feeding

the destitute and miserable

of all

but especially to the needy of the priestly

caste.

The duty
of

Brahmins was incumbent on every pious Hindu

of the kingly duties

but
a

it

was among the most sacred

prince.

Hindu

For

this

purpose also public revenues were

164
assigned.

INDIA IN
Ultimately in

1880.

Chap.
or
village

ix.

every rich parish

the

revenues of

some

fertile fields, levial)le l)y

the State, were trans-

ferred to the priests.

Thus

it

came

to pass that a considerahle

amount

of land revenue, the mainstay of the State income,

was

alienated in favour of the priests and the temples, avowedly as

an endowment of

religion.

The Muhammadans, on
for the

their conquest of India,

respected
religion.

most part the State endowments of the

Hindu

Despite the Moslem hatred of Hindu idolatry, they dreaded the

fanaticism and unpopularity which would he aroused
the
idolaters

among

by any attempt

at

interference.

They some-

times did, however, commit deeds of violence against idolatry.

In so
their

far as

they acted thus, they struck deep at the root of

own power. Then they proceeded to endow their own Moslem religion in tlie same manner; the mosques arose in
quarters with land revenue assigned for their support,
of

all

by

way

endowment.

Then sprung up the adoration

of royal

of saints

and the canonization

saintly shrines

and distinguished dead.

;

Thus
also

and domed mausolea arose

and these

were endowed with assignments of land revenue.

When upon

the decline and decadence of the

its

Mogul power
on

the Mahratta empire arose,

founder Sivaji incited his followers

by recounting such
the

religious grievances as could be alleged

the part of Hindus, and promised

them that the endowments of Hindu temples should be augmented and that the State
liberal

maintenance of Brahmins should be more

than ever.

The British Government, on

its

accession to power, found in

its

existence a multitude of endowments, granted by

decessors for the services of religion,

Native pre-

and consisting mainly of

maintained these endowas

assignments of the land revenue.

It

ments, to some extent, regarding them

religious institutions.

the property of

It investigated the origin, the title-deeds,

the method of

management and

application of the funds, in all

these cases, so as to guard the State against fraud or imposition.

This investigation was elaborate and embraced tens of thousands

CiiAP. IX.

rORTUGUESE RELIGIOUS ESTABLISHMENTS.

Its result, as

165

of cases.

might be expected, was that some of the

for

assignments were disallowed

want of

sufficient authority,

and

others were contracted or reduced, as

original authorization.
test,
Still,

being in excess of the

many

of the assignments stood the

and they now

officers

exist under ]>ritish guarantee.

For some

time British
of certain

continued to supervise the management

among

these institutions, following the practice of

their Native predecessors.

to obvious objections,
it

But

as such supervision

was open
of

has been discontinued.

in these matters

The conduct

the British

Government

was actuated not only

by sound policy but also by a true spirit of Christian charity and toleration. Nor have its motives in this respect ever been
misconstrued by the Natives, though
doubtless

many

of

them would
to

be pleased

if

the

Government were

do

more

than

it

actually has done in this direction.

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the Portuguese

had in India flourishing settlements, where much wealth was

accumulated
in

churches and in conventual establishments

which comprised great numbers of persons, European, Native

and

Some of endowed, and much of their

half-castes.

these institutions

were formally

possessions partook of the nature

that
if

of

endowments.
of a

It

is

probal:)le

European governbeen permanently

if it

ment,

proselytizing disposition, had

established throughout western and southern India,

had

invited the Natives to profess Christianity as the State religion,

had endowed the Christian priesthood, churches and convents, and if missionaries had arisen of extraordinary zeal
if
it

and energy like Saint Francis Xavier, a large portion of the

Native ]3opulation would have become Christian and would

have remained steadfast in the

faith.
is

This brief retrospect shews that there

nothing unusual in

an

ecclesiastical establishment being

maintained by the British

Government
paratively

in India.

The

cost of this establishment is

as

small

annually,

already

seen.

comThe Governits

ment would have only been following

the precedents of

166
Native predecessors
substantial

INDIA IN
if it

1880.

Chap.

ix.

had gone further and founded some

endowments

in favour of Christianity.

While previous rulers of India have promoted their forms of religion by endowment, the British Government has contented itself with providing for the spiritual necessities of
servants.
It
its

has

scrupulously abstained

from

directly

or

indirectly inviting its Native sulijects to profess Christianity,

from offering inducements to any one in view of such profession,

from conceding any peculiar advantages to professing Christians

and from acknowledging any secular or temporal difference

between Christians and
that Christianity
sincere
others.

It

pursues this course not

its

only from motives of worldly policy, but from

is

assurance

of no avail unless embraced from pure

It

and
and

conviction.

protects

Christian

missionaries

ministers

when

exercising their sacred vocation, in the

same

manner

as that in

which the ministers of

all

other religions are

protected.

It assists Christian

Missions with grants-in-aid for

educational purposes, under the same regulations as those by

which similar assistance

whether secular or
This example, too,

is

given to

all

educational agencies

religious.
is

followed in the Native States, where

Christian Missions receive the same protection as in the British

territories.

Indeed, some of the most interesting

missions are conducted under the very shadow of

among these Hindu and

have

Muhammadan
Under

rulers.

these

circumstances the

Christian

Missions

become numerous and

diverse, constituting in their aggregate,

a noteworthy feature in the empire.

The Roman Catholic Church has real vitality in India and counts among its sons, not only Europeans and people of mixed
blood, East Indians

and Eurasians, but

also Natives

many
work

of
is

the Europeans

being of Portuguese extraction.

Its

extensive in the three Presidency cities of Calcutta, Madras and

Bombay,

at all the principal stations civil

and military, in the

has a hierarchy of

empire, and in

many

rural

districts.

It

CiiAi>.

IX.

ROMAN CATHOLICISM

IN INDIA.

167

Archbishops,

Bishops and Vicars apostolic and a numerous

priesthood of various nationalities, French,

German, Belgian,
Irish.

Dutch, Swiss, Italian, Portuguese, more than English or

It possesses establishments of It has

Lady

Superiors,

nuns and

sisters.

cathedrals, churches, chapels, convents, colleges, schools

at the principal places in the country.
It

and orphanages,
its

opens
of all

collegiate doors

and

its class

rooms

to the

members
it

religions without distinction,

and while preserving

for its

own

members

its services,

ordinances and ministrations,

does not

appear to press these upon others.

largely to Protestant Christians, boys

Its education is afforded

and

girls,

and

its

attitude

towards the Natives

is

very considerate.

Its

two Colleges dedithey receive

cated to Saint Xavier, one at Calcutta, the other at Bombay, are

among

the best private institutions

alike.

in

India

Europeans and Natives

Its principal orders are repre-

sented in India, especially that of the Jesuits.

attached to

It has priests

many of

the European regiments, and these ministers

of the Ptoman Catholic soldiery receive salaries from the Govern-

ment.

The Koman Catholic

priests

bear

a high repute in

India, whether as ministers in their

as pastors

own

religious

community,

among
among

the ignorant, as teachers of the young, as

instructors of the educated, as visitors of the sick, as dispensers

of charity

the miserable.

The best parts

of the

Eoman

Catholic system shine to special advantage in a country like

India.

Nor has Protestantism, with

is

its

multiform development, been a

race.

whit behind in running the good

represented by two

The Church

of

England
for the

of its principal religious associations,

namely the Church Missionary Society and the Society

propagation of the Gospel, both of which, though operating in

many

countries,

have laid in India the scene of their largest

Presljyterian

operations.

missions of

community has contributed the the Established Church of Scotland, of the Free
The
American Presbyterians.
In effective

Church
zeal

of Scotland, of the
ability

and

and in devotion

to the cause of missions,

no

reli-

168
gioiis

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

ix.

community

of Scothand.

in Christendom has surpassed tlic Free Church The Independent community has furnished the
;

London mission

there are also the missions of the

Wesleyans

and the Methodists.

ablest pioneers of missionary enterprise

tions.

The Baptist community was among the and continues its exerac-

The

religious

communities of Germany have sent forth

several missions.

Every one of these communities has

cording to
to

the

means and resources contrihuted munificently work, and has produced a roll of distinguished
its

missionaries.

In the early part of the nineteenth century and even before

that time, high hopes prevailed in the Christian world regarding

the conversion of the heathen in India.

Glowing visions

floated
It

before the imaginations of pious and enthusiastic men.

w^ith all the fresh

was

bloom of such enthusiasm that many great

on a
of labour in a

missionaries,

whose biographies now form part of the history

life

of their age, entered

strange land.

Such men were Schwartz, Ziebenbalg, Carey, Marshman, Ward,

Martyn, Judson, whose names are embalmed in the affection
of all Christian

men, and whose memory

is

enshrined even

in the minds of the heathen.

It is

now

seen that the conversion of the heathen, though

will

steadily

continuous,

be comparatively slow,

and

that

Christian

teaching

must,

with education

as

its

handmaid,
only the

wend
thick

onwards a

persevering way,

through

not

masses of heathenism, but also the new

and many-

sided beliefs which advancing knowledge and civilization

may
felt

be expected to produce.

Some disappointment has been

have
suffered.

by many,

at

the check which the progress of Christianity

may seem
to

at first sight to
to

Many

persons looking

what they suppose

be the poverty of

visil)le result,

may
Some

have doubted whether the energies of the religious

depression

societies are

not being wasted and their resources expended in vain.

may have

occasionally weighed

down

the spirits of

the missionaries themselves.

Adverse opinions and unfavour-

CiiAi'.

IX.

PROTESTANT MISSIONS.

169

aide

aiiticipatiuDS

have been declared by persons who had

^\hich

resided
feeble

long in
the
force

India,
of

declarations

may

teiid to

en-

sentiment in England respecting Indian

missions.

The

friends of missions have, however, rallied from time to

time, both in are held

at

England and in the

East.

Missionary conferences

home and abroad

the funds and subscriptions,

though perhaps not increasing commensurately with the growth

of the national wealth, are yet large
as

and

afford such

an income

may

prove a powerful engine for good.

comparison of the

statistics of

missions in the past and in the present, and a sober

estimate of possibilities, convince the missionary societies that

a blessing does
rest

upon

their

labours.

Men

in

sufficient

abundance

for the

work have come forward, and among them

INIaster's cause, talents

many have

employed, in their

and

gifts

equal to those displayed by their illustrious predecessors.

It is hardly possible to state precisely the total expenditure

incurred
of the

l)y all

the missions in India, but, computed from data

it

known

expenditure of some of the principal societies,

less
if

can hardly be

than 300,000 per annum.

It

may even
by the
results,

exceed that sum,

the educational grants-in-aid, earned

missions under existing regulations,

be added.

The

measured by available

statistics,

are not incommensurate, ac-

cording to the standard

of comparison

adopted in
of the

secular

administration, though they

may

fall

short

hopes of

earnest men.
alities,

If the total

number

of labourers, of all nation-

school-teachers, catechists, lay preachers.

Native mis-

sionaries

and

others,

with the reverend clergy, European and

reckoned up,
it

American,

at their head, be

will not be less than

five thousand.

The number of Native Christians is not less than 400,000 souls, of wdiom a fair proportion consists of communicants. To these may be added, as coming under the
influence of the missionaries, all the school-children who, though

not

professing

Christianity,
is

attend mission

schools

where

Christian instruction

obligatory.

This addition will raise the

170
total to

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.
souls.
still

ix.

between 500,000, and 600,000

risen suddenly,

Nor has the

number
onwards.

and then stood

;

with tendency to

fluctuation or retrogression

it

has steadily and gradually

moved
by
like

similar result in secular affairs obtained

resources

would not be regarded

as otherwise than satisfactory.

That the standard of personal worth, merit and capacity

among

the missionaries has been adequately maintained, will be

manifest on recalling the names of those

who have laboured

names

in

India within the present generation

the

of French,

Sargent, Caldwell, Speedily, all four of

to the office of Bishop
;

whom

have been raised

of

William Smith, Leupolt, Thomas

(of Tinnevelly),

Bailey and Baker (of Travancore), Pfander,

Welland, Hughes, Clarke,

Sherring,

James Long, Vaughan, Mullens, Wenger, Alexander Duff", John Wilson, Hislop,
Murray-Mitchell,
Smith,

Nesbitt,
these,

Anderson,

and

others.

Some

of

like

William

have become

household words

throughout large districts as teachers and evangelists.

like

Some,

Pfander, have been distinguished

scholars.

Some, like

Alexander Duff and John Wilson, as authors, as speakers, as

authorities

upon

all

Indian questions, have been among the

foremost
left

men of their day at Calcutta and Bombay and have much posthumous fame. Some, like Hislop, have been

cut short in the midst of a career bright with the prospect of

usefulness.

No

doubt,

some Englishmen

in

India of long experience

and much information, dispute the usefulness of Christian

missions,

and deprecate the devotion of so many energies

to

and resources
It does

labours which will bear

little or

no

fruit.

not,

however, follow that local English opinion in

India

is

adverse to missions.

For the English in India sub-

scribe considerably to the missions; appeals to their religious

liberality

always

meet with response; and in proportion

as

to

their

means they contribute

It is true also that

much

as their

countrymen anyfelt

where.

some high functionaries have

themselves unaljle to believe in the utility of missions, and

CiiAP. IX.

EELATIONS OF MlSSIONAltlES
to

WI'l'II

NATIVES.

171
tli(jso

their

view ought

be

taken into consideration by

bearings
of the case.
tlie

M'ho desire to master all the

On

the

other hand, nothing can be

more emphatic than

testimony

repeatedly given in favour of the missions by some of the very

first

among Anglo-Indian

authorities,

by such men

as

Jolm

Lawrence, James Thomason, Bartle Frere, Eobert Montgomery,

Donald Macleod and William Muir.

Sometimes blame has been
fering in secular matters
cast

on the missionaries

for inter-

beyond
;

their proper sphere

and

for

taking part in popular agitation

and high authorities have occasionally considered that such blame has been in some

measure deserved.

On

the other hand, a missionary

is

so situa-

means than any one else can have of knowing the real sorrows and anxieties of the people and such knowledge conduces to lively sympathy. Thus a mutual confidence exists between him and his Native neighbours, wdio will open their hearts and lay bare the realities of their lives before
ted that he has better
;

him, with a frankness which they would not adopt in conversing

with an

official

person.

In representing these matters

to the

proper authorities he
the points raised

may

possibly be accepting too unreservedly

will probably be urging con-

by the people, but

no wise administrator would disregard, and affording information which the ablest officers would be thankful
siderations wdiich
to receive

from so trustworthy a source.

Many a timely warning

been seasonably

has thus been given, and

many an

evil has thus

brought to
covered

light,

till it

which might otherwise have remained undisbroke out in some worse form. If any oppressor

or evil-doer
he,

among the Natives shall have been thus unmasked, and others like him, will condemn the interposition of the
by

missionaries, which, however, will be regarded with gratitude

the majority of the humbler classes.

On

the

one hand the

rc'i-ardino-

missionaries should be watchful to inform themselves

the inner

life

of the people

among whom they conduct

fearless
evil.

their

ministrations,

and should be

and instant in apprising

the authorities of impending

On

the other hand, they

172
slionld be

INDIA IN
on their guard against

1880.

Chap.

ix.

falling into error

its

from hearing
;

only one part of a story without

counterpart

and should

be cautious in not lending themselves to the aggravation of

popular excitement.

The character of Natives converted to Christianity is geneThough they do not possess all the Christian graces rally good.
that might be desired,
still

their

new

religion does exercise a

decisive influence on their life

and conversation.

Though they must

an

may

not display all the firmer virtues of Christianity they

virtues, for they

have some of such

effort

must have

cast out with

many

superstitions deeply

imbedded

in their

mental con-

stitution,

they must have dedicated their thoughts to truth

alone, they

must have broken some

of the ties

which are dearest

to humanity, they must have borne the reproaches of those from whom reprobation is hardest to bear. Despite many temptations, the instances of apostasy

have been very

rare.

On

the

other hand during times of rebellion and danger there have been
instances of courageous adherence to the faith notwithstanding
.

the severest threats.

Such

difficulties,

however, no longer exist for those Native

in

Christians

who have been born

the faith

and nurtured

by parents themselves sprung from Christians. Of these the numljer is considerable and constantly increasing, especially in
southern India.

With them

the faith has become hereditary,

and

is

held with some of that pride and tenacity with which

Natives cling to everything ancestral.

They
and

are beginning to

evince a laudable willingness to render their Church self-supporting, to sustain a Native ministry,
to bear

some

of the

burdens incidental to ecclesiastical organization, according to

their

humble means.

It

was the growing need of episcopal

authority and supervision for the admission of a large

number

of Native candidates to the ministry in its several grades, that

caused the governing authorities to nominate three Missionary

Bishops in southern India.

There

is

much

in the bright

and

happy condition

of Native Christian villages in southern India,

(31IAP.

IX.

PROSPECTS OF THE NATIVP:

of Tinnovelly

(JllUPiCII.

173

wliicli

makes the names

tlie

and Travancorc sound

animates the
l)reasts
is

pleasantly in
of all

ear of Cliristendom,

wlii(;li

well-wishers with hope and thankfulness and which

frauL^lit

with auspicious augury for the future of the Native

in India.

Church
and

Many
for

missionaries have done

much

for

Oriental lit(;raturo

the enlightenment

of public

opinion regarding the

nature and essence of Oriental religions, thus labouring in the

closet

and in
in

the chamber,
thoroughfare.

as

well as in the
of

schoolroom

and

the
in

Most

them

are

nowadays
the
ever-

engrossed

the

administrative
of

business

which

widening

operations

the
to

missions

produce.

They have
of a

by elementary

instruction

prepare the minds

large

numl)er of simple people for the reception of truth, and to

maintain the moral discipline of the pastorate among large

flocks.

Thus

their leisure
less

and

their opportunity for abstruse

study are becoming

and

less.

Nor

is

the study of the

subtle parts of the Oriental religions always necessary, as such

matters are beyond the comprehension of the humble classes

which form the mass

needed

of Native Christians.

The

qualities

most

for ordinary missionaries are

an adequate knowledge of

those religious points which can best be argued before Natives

of plain

minds and

of average intelligence, a

power

of bringing

truths

home

to the hearts of men, and an aptitude for establish-

ing a moral control over multitudes, together with a trained

faculty of insight into the

mental standpoints of a strange

consciousness of possessing such

and

alien people.

It is the

qualities that probably induces

young men
and
it is

in
in

England
regard

to offer to

themselves for mission work,

such

capacities that they are chosen by the missionary

societies.

The missionaries do by
thus qualified at
qualifications.
least,

their proceedings prove themselves to be

while

many

of

them evince additional

combinaof

The missions have by

their religious preaching, in

tion with the State secular education,

and with the progress

174

INDIA IN

1S80.

Chap.

ix.

general civilization, contributed to the overthrow of the

religion

Hindu
chief
their
fly

among

the majority of educated

Hindus

at the

centres of Hinduism.

Such Hindus, when abandoning

own

religion,

do not generally embrace Christianity, but

kinds of philosophic
large
belief.

off to various

Their conduct no
fellow-religionists,

doubt

influences
faith

numbers of

their

whose

has been shaken, and

who might

otherwise be

looking to the Christian Bible for religious guidance.

there has arisen a leading and enlightened class of
are

Thus

men who
who not

Hindus
fail

in nationality only

and not in

religion,

only

to guide

their less enlightened

countrymen towards
it

Christianity, but actually

draw them away from

believe that

and towards

other paths

of belief.

They

original truth

was

revealed to

men on

the banks of the sacred

Ganges.
;

They

remember that there the religion of Brahma arose that thence sprang the religion of Buddha and spread till it overshadowed
India, Ceylon, Siam, Thibet, China

and Japan, and that

there,

two

cognate religions

have had more adherents than

all

the

other religions in the world taken together and have been obeyed

by seven hundred millions

of souls.
it

They apprehend that the

has been encumbered with

Hindu
tion

religion is declining because

mythology, overlaid with superstitions and defaced by corrup;

and that

if

the Buddhist religion shall fall

it

will

owe

its

decadence to the same causes.

They gather from

their historical

studies that Christianity has been endangered

by similar lapses

and

errors;

and that

it

has been sometimes so disfigured as

hardly to be recognised as the religion delivered to mankind

l)y its

Founder.

Therefore they strive mentally to retrace their

erring steps towards the undefiled sources of prima3val truth,

and aim

at restoring the religion of

Brahma and

of

Buddha

in

its pristine purity.

Such

is

probably the main line of their

thoughts, though there

may

be other lines parallel or divergent

and and

it

is

hard for foreigners to probe accurately the delicate

sensitive

minds of men like

these.

Thus, in this increasing

class,

the missionaries find

new

opponents, more subtle and

Chai'. t\.

OXFORD AND CAMBlllDGE

tliiiu

MISSIONS.
also

175
tlio

more

for]ni(la])le

luiy

yot

encountered, wlioni

missions themselves have helped to raise up.

is

If the encounter

to

take place with any chance of success on the Christian

it

side,

must be conducted by missionaries work and the administrative

specially skilled

and learned who shall be relieved from the public teaching,

the
school
business,

ordinarily

undertaken by their missionary brethren.

Such missionaries are those who have been despatched by

the Cambridge mission to Delhi, and are being despatched the Oxford mission to Calcutta.

by

They

will

meet with Natives

highly educated in the Western manner, into the recesses of

whose thoughts some entrance must be won by a careful and

gradual approach.
first

They may

set forth the

broad facts of the

races,

spreading of Christianity, not only

among wild

but

also

among

nations possessing some of the finest

forms of

philosophy that ever emanated from the

human

brain.

They

may shew how

Christianity has shed its improving influences

it

abroad, until the nations professing

civilized yet seen

have become the most

indicate

on

earth.

They may

how manifold

corruptions, of

which the existence must be acknowledged, have

been removed in parts of Christendom, so that the real beauty

of Christianity
that,

may

be unveiled for worship.

highest

They may prove

sanction to the

besides giving the

conceivable

abstract principles of right

relations

and wrong, Christianity establishes

between

ability of every

man and his Maker, and the personal accounthuman individual to an omniscient Judge for
life

the issues of this

and of

eternity.

They

will

have to

vindicate these all-important positions in the face of acute and

polished criticism.

The argumentative

difficulties

will be even

more severe

if

Muhammadans as a body shall l^egin to cease own religion. There are no present signs,
conjuncture arising
;

believing in their

however, of that

though there are some eminent

Christianity.

Muhamdo

madan

converts to

Some Moslem
with

priests

endeavour to

answer

the

missionaries

argumentative

170
skill.

INDIA IN The Muhammadan

effect to

1880.

Chap.

ix.

generally, if pressed,

would point
example

with much

some portions

of his religion, for

the definition of the attributes of God, as being of indisputable

excellence.

"Whether that religion was better than the religions

of

of

Brahma and

Buddha, when originally promulgated,

;

may
it

be a matter for discussion

has been

perhaps
;

it

was

better.

Certainly

much

less corrupted

and being more

definite in its
is

dogmas and more

specific in its

commands,

it

more

likely

to retain the allegiance of robust

and vigorous nations.

of

The

fact that the

need of these special missions has been

so practically recognised

by the two ancient Universities

England,
in India.

is

of

some importance

in the history of Christianity

Tliere is often discussion as to

whether the
if it

effect of religious

missions in India
It

is

good, and

be,

then in what respects.

may
all

be
of

pronounced really excellent, with only such a

minipaum
to

drawbacks or abatements as must be incidental

arrangements.

human

The Natives

will

regard

the

missions as proving that despite the allurements of temporal

success, the temptations of imperial ambition,

and the which

distrac-

tions of national
its

life,

the ruling race

is still

devoutly loyal to
is

own

religion.

They

will expect that a race,

loyal

in this cardinal respect, will be just, faithful and honourable in all other respects.

They

feel

no jealousy of the attitude thus

assumed by the ruling

from private
societies

race, seeing that the

power exerted

is

and not from the

is

State,

and that a change

as worthless

of religion from secular motives

Tlius

contemned
is

the reputation of the British nation

raised in their

eyes

a fact of moral value and of political

moment.

The
;

Natives must inevitably perceive some alloy in British virtue

there
is

much which

they think

blameworthy in

British

conduct.
])oliold

It is well that in the religious missions they sliould

is

something of which the merit

unalloyed, and witli

whicli no fault can reasonably be found.

The missionaries themselves display an example

tlie

l)right-

Oii.vp. IX.

CONDUCT OP THE MISSION ARIES.

is

177

UGSS of whicli

rellectcd

on the nation

to

which they belong.

They are
large

to be lieard

preaching in every
the

city,

and almost in every

are

town, througliout

empire.

They

considerately
are

attentive to every enquirer and listener.

They

held to

be

among
at a

the best teachers and sclioolmasters in the country,

even

time when the educational

staff of the

Government

affords a

model of organization.

They

receive heathen children

in the mission schools, not witliholding Christian instruction,

and yet they retain the unabated confidence of the heathen

parents.

They
and

are

trusted

as

benevolent advisers

l^y

their

Native neighbours.
trouble,

They

are

known

as friends in need

and

as being ready to advocate temperately the redress

of wrongs or the removal of oppression.

In seasons of pesti-

lence and of famine, they have been vigilant in forecasting evil

consequences and instant in dispensing

aid.

They have been

relief.

among

the foremost in the voluntary bands of

They
in-

have often afforded to the Government and to

its officers

formation which could not have been so well obtained otherwise.

They have done much

feelings

to

elucidate before

their

countrymen

and before the world, the customs, the

of

the

Natives.

institutions and the They have contributed greatly to

the culture of the vernacular languages.

scholars, historians,
sociologists

Many

of

them

as

or

lexicographers,

have held
Ijooks

a high

place in Oriental literature

and have written

of lasting of
their

fame and
wives

utility.

They have, with the co-operation

towards

and daughters, accomplished much

the Natives the sphere of

estaljlishing

and promoting female education, and have exusefulness

that

emplified

before

may

be occupied by educated women.

They have enabled

and
diffuse

the Natives to note the beauty of British homes, which shed

abroad the light of

genial

charitable

nunistration

the

warmth

of practical philanthropy.


178

INDIA IN

1880.

CiiAK

x.

CHAPTER
LAW AND
Constitution of Indian
character of

X.

LEGISLATION.

Government by Parlifinicntary enactments Sacred Hindu and Muhammadan law Administration of justice

under British rule

for legislation

English law

in in

Law Commission IndiaTheir popularity Public

cature

India Councils in India constituted of London courts in

Civil
interior

confidence in the

High Courts of Judiof

Special

legislation

regarding indebtedness

the

peasantry
to charges

Arbitration

of over-legislation

Patriarchal Non-regulation systemAnswer Need of continuity administration.

rule
in

COMPLETE

stability

belongs

to

the

fundamental institu-

tions

of British India.

They have a

legal status

which was

conferred not

by any authority

in India, but

by Parliament in

a long series of statutes.

The Supreme Governments, the Local Governments, the several Executive and Legislative Councils,
and the Covenanted Civil Service derive
from Acts of Parliament.
a parligtmentary charter.
a chain, as
it

their

constitution

The

origin of the judicial system has

These statutes have been enacted by

were, of legislation, each link connected with the

other; and they were passed on the recommendation of com-

mittees of both Houses

made

after taking the evidence of the

most experienced

experts.

With

the people of India, whether

Hindu

or

Muhammadan,

the national laws had for the most part a sacred origin derived
either from the code of

Manu and

other scriptures or from the

Koran.
secular

Obedience to them was not only enforced by the

arm but

also

was constrained by the

fear of divine

authority.
for

No

ancient writing indeed has the absolute sanction

Hindus

as being the

word

of God,
is

which the Koran has

a

for

Muhammadans.

Nevertheless there

body of Hindu writings

which, on the whole, are considered to have a religious sanction.

Chap.

x.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM.

179

Under Native rule there were Hindu law officers and Muhammadan law officers to whom reference was made for deliverances on difficult points of their respective systems of law. Tliese
deliverances

were regarded with

much popular

veneration,

but the degree of respect, accorded practically to them by

the executive power in a Native State, depended on the condition
of the

State

itself.

The

restraint of

law was faintly

felt

acknowledged by the sovereign and but slightly

by those

who conducted
worst
it

the administration even at the best, while at the

altogether.

was ignored

Therefore the Natives admired the spectacle of the British

Government binding not only

positive enactments,

its

subjects,

but also

itself,

by

establishing

courts of justice

in

wdiich

persons,

considering themselves
their

aggrieved, might bring suits

against

fellow-subjects
acts

and

against

the

Government,
of

and where the

of

the

very highest

functionaries

State might be reviewed by judicial ofScers of comparatively

humble

grades.

The admiration may have abated from subse-

quent familiarity with the system.

British justice thus engendered
still

But the confidence

in

remains with the mass of

the people, and lies close to the foundation of that regard and
respect which cause acquiescence
rule.
in,

and acceptance of a foreign

Originally the

main

objects

of the regulations of the East

India

Company were

to lay

down an

exact system of civil pro-

cedure for the guidance of the courts, to provide for the judges

having recourse to the Native law

officers in

matters touching

the social institutes of the country, and to leave matters not

embraced by these

institutes, to
l)y

be determined either by the

equity and good conscience.

analogy of English law or

The Supreme

Courts, separately established in the three Presi-

dency towns, Calcutta, Madras and Bombay, administered the English law, which law came thus to have an important influence on civil justice, as so

many

important causes arose in

Still

these three towns where the trade of the country centred.

180
at each Presidency town,

INDIA IN
and

1880.

Chap. x.

also in the North-western Provinces

there were superior Courts, styled Sadar, in which the Indian

regulations were observed, and which supervised all the civil

courts in
tlie

interior of the country.

In

this system, several defects

were found

to exist after the

experience of two or three generations.

The regulations, though

prepared with the utmost care and with anxious thought for
sul3stantial justice,

were drawn up by administrative and ex-

ecutive officers, and not by

men who had

tlie

in

England made the

of

law their profession, nor with

draughtsmen.

assistance

any regular

The

civil

procedure proved to be tedious or

over-elaborate and failed to keep pace with the progress of legal

science.

There were in each division of

the highest authority, the

the

empire two
or

tril)unals of

Supreme

English

Court, and

the " Sadar "

still

or

Company's Indian Court.

all

The

Hindu

law, which

governed

matters relating to the

to be often conflicting,

social institutes of the people,

was found

indeed consisting of several different schools of legal doctrine.

That great division of law which relates

to dealings

to mercantile affairs

and

by the

man and man, was Hindu and the Muhammadan

between

imperfectly comprised
law, and

was yet
It

in-

creasing constantly in size and importance, consequent on the

growth of the country in wealth and

civilization.

was

deemed hardly
institutes, the

practicable,

and certainly inexpedient,

to apply

to India, in all cases except certain categories relating to

Native

system of English law absolutely, a system whicli

even
for the

has

its difficulties

English people, and which would

be too difficult for such a people as that of India.

These faults have nearly

either

all

been remedied of late years

or
l)y

by

tlie

Government
in

of India,
Britisli

the

controlling

authorities in England, or

by the

Parliament.
in

The Government
besides

England

determined

1833

that,

the judicial

system already established, a

civil,

body of
to the

substantive law, criminal and

should be framed in a

manner

suitable to the people of India

and conformable

Chap. x.

LAW

COMMISSION IN LONDON.

181

best

notions

of jurisprudence.
sit in

high commission for this

purpose was appointed to

India and a law

added
this

to tlie

Council of the Governor-General.

member was At the head of

legislative

department was placed Mr., afterwai'ds Lord,

Macaulay.
colleagues

first fruit of the laljours of himself and his was the preparation of the Penal Code, which after many years of consideration was passed into law. In 1853, a

The

Legislative Council

was formally constituted

in India consisting
this,

entirely of servants of Government.

In place of

there

were in 18G1 constituted one supreme legislature

for all India,

and several legislatures

tlie

of secondary

rank

for certain divisions of

empire.

These consist partly of Government servants and

partly of non-official gentlemen, European and Native, nominated

by the Government.
the

The supreme
large,

legislature is the Council

of the Governor-General, legislating for all matters which affect

Indian empire at
the

and

for all provinces save

those

under

Local

Governments
Councils

of

Madras,

Bombay and
The secondary

Bengal, which have legislatures of their own.

legislatures

are

the

of the

Local Governments of

Madras,
affairs

Bombay and

Bengal, which legislate for all provincial

territories.

within their respective

In 1861 a Commission was appointed in England to prepare

drafts of

law

for the assistance of the legislature in India.

It

consisted of

men

high in position and authority. Lord Justice

James, Justice Eomilly, Justice Willes, and Mr. Eobert Lowe

(now Lord Sherbrooke), and

sat

from 1861

to 1870.

It pre-

pared drafts of several important and comprehensive Acts, such

as the Civil Procedure, the Criminal Procedure, the Succession

Act,

the

Contract

Act,

the

Evidence Act, the Negotiable

Piecently a

Securities Bill, the Transfer of Property Bill.

com-

mission has been appointed in India to consider further the Bills

regarding negotial^le securities and transfer of property
report
;

also to

which have been framed regarding alluvion (land thrown up from rivers), master and servant, easements
Bills
trusts.

upon

and

complete law of torts

is

by common consent

182
considered

INDIA IN
necessary

1880.

Chap. x.

and

will
lias

doubtless

be

framed.

An
these

excellent law

of limitation

been

passed.

With

measures, and some few others which

may

be devised, there will

be ultimately a code of substantive law for British India,

scientifically constructed

with

all

the light of the age, and so

comprehensive in

its

scope as to be a boon to the empire and a

standard of national ethics.

In addition, there has been

much

legislation for the

many
The

matters which arise in so extensive and diverse an empire.

old regulations have for the most part been superseded
scientifically

by Acts

drafted.

Eespecting several important subjects,

the

many

scattered laws have been

combined into single con-

solidated laws resembling codes.

This process of consolidation

or codification will probably be continued for

some

time.

The

legislation, thus produced,

may

claim a high degree of

prevailing

excellence

according to the standards

It is the joint

among

the

most advanced nations.

work

of English lawyers,

Anglo-Indian administrators, non-official Europeans residing in

India and Natives chosen for character

and

intelligence.

It

embodies the best principles of English jurisprudence wdth

adaptations suitable to the peculiarities of India.
to the general

It is adjusted

wants

of the empire

and

to the particular

needs

of provinces.

It is conducted

with long deliberation and with

due regard

to public opinion,

European and Native.

Some

of the

enactments passed by the Government of India are, as pieces

of legislative workmanship, equal to the best achievements of

the kind in any country.

A legislative
part of the

department has been established as an integral

of India.
It collates information

Government

from

every part of the country regarding law and legislation.

professional reports to be

It causes

made

of the leading cases decided

It has

in the chief courts of justice.

been presided over by

English lawyers and jurists of eminent position.

Henry Sumner Maine,

of

The names of James Eitzjames Stephen, of Arthur

Hubliouse, constitute the highest guarantee to the public for the

Chap. x.

HINDU AND MUHAMMADAN LAW.

command

183

excellence of the legislation, and

of the

the entire confidence

community

in

India.

Wliitley Stokes

has rendered

service to the country

by drafting the laws

so clearly as to be

understood by the Natives, and yet so accurately as to stand

the test of practical use.

The Hindu and Muhammadan codes

tition

of

law are

still

observed

in all matters relating to marriage, inlieritance, adoption, parof property,

testamentary disposition, management of

religious institutions

and the

like.

It is impossible to over-

come the

difficulty

arising from

the various

and sometimes
of

conflicting precedents

and rulings of the several schools

attention
is,

Hindu

law.

Much more

however, devoted

now than
legal

formerly by the English and Native judges to these abstruse

matters
dicta of
;

exclusive reliance

is

no longer placed on the

officers.

Hindu and Muhammadan law

of

The functions
Native law

some

of the ancient executive officers of the

officers,

such as the Kazis, around

is

whom
of

so

much

of

popular reverence and of ancient tradition

fully maintained

gathered, are care-

respecting

the

solemnization

marriage,

obsequies and other social

rites.

For the administration of the laws, thus enacted, the judicial

system has been improved and rendered uniform in principle
for the

whole empire, though there are some differences in detail

as

between the several provinces.

To ensure unity in the supervision of the

civil

justice,

whether at the Presidency towns or in the interior of the

country, the old Supreme and Sadar Courts have been amalgamated and formed into the existing High Courts, in which the

Chief Justices and some of the judges are English barristers,

while the other judges are members of the European judicial

services
ability.

of India,

or

are

Natives selected for character and

In the interior of the country, the object has been

first,

to

place courts at all the principal points, so as to be within a few

miles of the homes of the great majority of the people, next to

184
render
the proceedings

INDIA IN

1880.

CiiAP. x.

inexpensive to the suitors and the

of justice can be secured

decisions speedy.

The administration

only by laws being judiciously framed, and by

judges being appointed.
doing,
its

competent
is

The Government has done and

utmost in both these respects.

The Natives shew

;

acumen, discrimination and carefulness as judges

considered
to

they are

shew more natural aptitude

Their high

for

the judicial

department than for any other.

repute, in

the

present time for uprightness and integrity has been

already

described in a previous chapter on mental and moral progress.

There have been discussions whether

administered, can projDerly be

civil justice, as

now
It
Still,

deemed cheap and speedy.

it

has

sometimes

been reprobated as costly and slow.

on

due allowances being

made,

may

be considered

as

not unduly expensive, nor for the most part tardy.

expensiveness
does
its
is

The

partly under the control of the State, which

best on behalf of

economy by simplifying the procedure

It is partly

and keeping the stamp duties moderate.

the control of the State, and
in so far as
it

beyond

is

in the

hands of the public,

consists in

the remuneration of lawyers and

advocates.

The

profession of the law which formerly had an unfavour-

able repute, has

grown and

is

growing, both in moral worth

and in mental capacity.

in the

The Government cannot control or But the Government can

This proare sub-

influence the emoluments of this profession, which has its value

market of intellectual labour.

if

provide that

the people do pay highly for legal advice, the

advisers shall be persons of trained qualifications.

vision
is

effectually

made by

the tests to which

men
also

jected before admission to either branch of the legal profession.

The character and

status of the Native

Bar has

been men-

tioned in the previous chapter on mental and moral progress.

It is difficult to ascertain

whether

suits are

on the average of

long or short duration, because in most provinces some few

causes from special circumstances, sometimes preventable and

Chap.

x.

CIVIL COURTS

UNDER

BRITISH RULE.
for

185

at other times unavoidable,

remain pending

an extraordinary

length of time

a few such causes

make

the average swell so

it

much

that

any conclusions which may be drawn from

become

invalidated.

If such cases be excei'pted, then the average dura-

tion of ordinary suits will in

most provinces, be found moderate

and

in

some provinces

satisfactorily short.

One
is

reason of expense and delay in the final disposal of cases

privilege of appeal

the

which

has been formerly

much
im-

abused, which has in some respects been judiciously modified,

but to which the Natives

portance of an appeal
is

still

cling pertinaciously.

Tlie

not always to be measured by the

value of the property in dispute, because a question of small

pecuniary amount

may

involve a principle of consequence.

After allowance has been

still

made

for this

consideration,

it

will

be found that

many trivial

appeals, preferred fi-om litigious-

ness, are

occupying the time of highly paid and dignified

tribunals.

considerable

remedy has been applied by the

establishment of Courts of small causes throughout the empire.

These tribunals, despite their name, hear causes of certain

kinds for large amounts, and with them the right of appeal
strictly
is

limited.

Additional limitations of appeal, in other

kinds of cases, have been under the consideration of the legislature.

And

if

appealing
it

is

yet regarded as an evil by some

European
people,

authorities,

arises

from the

disposition

of the

and not from the policy of the Government.

it

Any

attempt to suppress
stricter

or

to

imj^ose limitations, essentially

than those which

now

exist,

would be very unpopular.

The popularity

or unpopularity of the Courts in the interior

of the country has been the

theme of frequent controversy.

That the Courts were formerly unpopular with

the people

many

classes of

may

be admitted.

They

are still disliked

classes, landlords

and

others,

who

after

by some making undue use of

their

landed security to run into debt, find themselves conbefore the judge.
authorities

fronted with their creditors

They

are yet

condemned by many executive

who

find themselves

186

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. x.

checked by judicial action, and even by some non-official Europeans.

all

There are some eminent persons who, notwithstanding

recent improvements, believe that those

who thought
also

to

establish

system of civilized jurisprudence in India, have

actually planted an
this

Upas

tree.

Some Natives
less

may

share

opinion,

and the Courts may be

esteemed in some

provinces than in others.

of Native opinion as a

Nevertheless, those

who

are cognizant

whole throughout the empire, doubtless

are,

perceive

that

the

Courts

despite

their

shortcomings,

amongst the most popular and most trusted institutions in

the country.

In some provinces they are more esteemed than

any other department or authority whatever, and are regarded as the embodiment of what is best in British rule.

The Europeans
centres,

at the Presidency cities

also,

and

at other great

and the Natives

regard the several

High Courts
is

with sincere respect and implicit confidence.

nothing in the empire to which
all

Indeed there

classes,

Europeans and

Natives, are more attached than these august tribunals, though

even in them practical defects are known to

exist.
;

The

Natives of India are, as a people, litigious

to find in litigation

many

of

them seem

under a settled rule that excite-

ment

for

which under an unsettled rule they would seek in

In reference
to the probable

contests of other kinds.

wealth

and resources

of the country, the

number

of suits

is

large

and

their aggregate value considerable.

In the procedure, the most marked defects during recent

years have been the difficulty in obtaining a proper execution of
decrees.

Often the interposition of delay and obstruction has

been harassing and vexatious.

sold inconsiderately
its

Sometimes property has been

without proper precautions for realising

of decrees for comparatively small
if

value, in

satisfaction

amounts.

These defects will be fully remedied

the provisions

of the recently

amended

civil

procedure are duly carried out.

In

the
in

dispensing

manner

one fault has been the which bonds which, though duly executed, were
of
justice

Chap. x.

ARBITRATION REGISTRATION.

187

manifestly given by ignorant debtors the victims of usurious

creditors,

were admitted by the Courts as conclusive without

of the original merits of the claim

sufficient cognizance

and

of

its

subsequent augmentation.

well-meant and carefully

considered attempt has

been made by special legislation to

province where
it

remedy

this fault

in the
It

most prevailed,

namely the Deccan.

remains to be seen whether this legis;

lation has been sufficiently thorough to prove successful

and

it

were vain to suppose that the same defect does not continue to
prevail in several other parts of the empire.

The ancient

" Panchayet,"

which means an arbitration court

emerge to
revisit the

consisting of five members, has for the most part vanished into

the past, from which

land.

it

will but rarely

Nothing would have pleased the Government better

if

than to maintain, develop and dignify this institution,

people would but acquiesce, but they will not.

the

In the Panjab

persistent efforts were put forth to naturalize this institution

under the British arrangements and to induce the suitors to

resort to arbitration, but the people

would not have

it.

Their

preference for standing tribunals, with judges appointed by the

State, is remarkable.

The law provides

to
it

for suitors resorting to

arbitration,

and they do resort

occasionally, but not often.

In some

places,

such as Poena in the Deccan, an arbitration

Else-

court sits regularly, and affords satisfaction to the public.

where such an arrangement, whenever practicable, receives encouragement from the Government.
arbitration for regular judicial trials

But the substitution of

would in most parts of

the empire be unpopular, and could not be attempted in the

present temper of the people.

For the prevention of forgery, fraud or fraudulent alteration

of papers,
it is

essential to establish a system of public transfers

by means
registered

of registration.

The

practice of tampering with untransfers

documents of private

has been a

blot

on the

social life of
it

the Natives, and though probably

much
to

diminished,

still

exists.

The

authorities

have

still

be

188
on
tlieir

INDIA IN
guard against
it.

1880.

Chap. x.

They have

therefore long looked

towards the excellent models of public transfer afforded in some

of the countries of continental Europe.

In respect of real

property the land revenue administration supplies, as will be

seen in a future chapter, almost as perfect a registration as could

be devised for landed tenures, and for mutations of ownership

and occupancy, by succession and by

of the empire.

transfer, for

most provinces
Since

Beyond

this,

no adequate measures for notarial

for

registration generally

were

some time undertaken.

1867, however, a department of registration has been legally

constituted and completely organized throughout the empire.

Eegistry

offices

have been established in every town, and are

facilities

gradually being extended to the villages, so that the

for

registering

may

be

augmented.

Muniment rooms
is

are

provided in every office for the safe keeping of

Besides the registering clerks, there
in
is

documents.
staff,

an inspecting

and

every division
at

of of

the the

empire a responsible functionary

department,
so

the

head

that

the

Native

public

may

feel confidence in its

management.

Fees are levied

on the

registration,

enough

to defray the cost of the establish-

ments and of the management. The scale of fees is arranged in order that the department may be self-supporting, but not with
a view of
its

yielding any fiscal profit to the State.

The law

renders the registration compulsory for certain sorts of docu-

ments, such as those relating to immovable property beyond

a certain value.
wills

For other documents, notably those relating to

and

to personalty, it leaves the registration optional.

is

The
docu-

tendency of legislation

to enlarge the category of the

is

ments in which the registration

the country
is

compulsory.
offices
;

Meanwhile
and numbers

studded with notarial

of documents to be reckoned
registered year after year.

by hundreds of thousands are

result

The

must be

to clear

and

purify the moral atmosphere in

" Patriarchal administration "

many
and
;

social quarters.

" personal rule "

were once

phrases of

much currency

in India

they embodied ideas which

(JiiAP. X.

PATRIARCHAL RULE.
effect at

189

had practical
disappeared.

one time, but which have now, however,

Men

of

eminence and ability

may

be met with

who
as

deplore the gradual, and

now

complete, substitution of the

Still

reign of law for the reign of individuals.

it

every nation,

advances

in

wealth and civilization, demands to be

ruled, not

by the

will of persons,

who however

able and well-

meaning

will be sure to differ one

from the other in a manner

sometimes seemingly capricious, but by a fixed system to which

all

men

can steadily look, and on which they can reckon

when

forming their plans.

tendency, which
are apt
is

India constitutes no exception to this

irresistible.

indeed

Although the Natives

somewhat inconsistently

to

speak of over-legislation,

they yet desire that there shall be laws for almost every matter,
to

conflict

which they can appeal either as against the executive or in with their neighbours. They have a dread of the un-

restrained eccentricities of authority.

On

the other hand, the

scope actually afforded nowadays to executive authorities, though

different perhaps

from what

it

used to

be, is yet

very great.
still

The executive heads of

enormous powers
Sometimes
it

districts

and of provinces

wield

for

good or

for evil.

has been imagined that in the Native States

is

substantial justice
British territories.

more successfully dispensed than

in the

This view will be entertained only by those

who
their

are better acquainted with the flaws

and shortcomings of

own system than with

It will not be held
affairs in

those of the system in foreign

territories.

by those who have acquaintance

haunts the

with

the interior of the Native States.

still

The name
every respect.

of the " non-regulation system "

memories of many whose experience and knowledge deserve

It originally

meant

this, that into

some newly

annexed or freshly conquered provinces, the regulations pertaining to the older provinces of the empire were not introduced,

while instead of them executive orders were issued by the

authorities

on the

spot.

These executive orders differed indeed

from the regulations, were somewhat more simple and followed

190

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap,

x,

better the light of recent experience.

Bnt they were

just as

well considered, as precisely drawn up and as strictly prescribed

for observance, as the regulations of the older provinces.
result,

The

then,

was merely the substitution of one

set of rules,
set.

perhaps an improved and simplified code, for another

The

provinces thus governed, of which the Panjab was the chief' were styled " non-regulation," in contradistinction to the old,
or " regulation " provinces.

As

laws, with scientific legislation,

came

to be passed for the " regulation " provinces, they

were one

after another ordered

by executive authority

to

be observed

partly or wholly in the " non-regulation " provinces.

Some
all

important laws were passed by the legislature for

provinces of the empire without exception.
acts

the

Then

were passed

for

each of the principal " non-regulation

legislative "

provinces, specifying

what particular laws

or parts of laws,

and

what executive
force within
it.

orders, w^ere to be legally regarded as

having

In each province a chief tribunal was ap-

pointed, of which the judgments

would be independent of the

executive government, as in other countries, and which would

supervise, according to law, the proceedings of all the subordinate
courts.

Unless specially enacted otherwise, or ordered otherwise

l^y

under authority of law, the Acts now passed

are operative in
all

the legislature
of

provinces alike.

Thus the reign

law has

irrevocably spread to the " non-regulation " provinces, nor would

the mass of the population in those provinces desire to revert to

any former system. Still, the Government has power by

tract

statute to
this

remove any
is

from the operation of the laws, and

power

occasion-

ally exercised in the case of wild

It is feared

and uncivilized

territories.

by many that a strong current of opinion has

and systematic
legislation for India.

set in against scientific

Nevertheless, the more thoughtful persons, European and Native,

are convinced that there must be such legislation.

The ancient
The
establisli-

laws and prescriptive rules leave unsolved countless matters

which

arise

nowadays between man and man.

Chap. x.

SCIENTIFIC LEGISLATION NECESSARY.

101

nient of a foreign rule, the diffusion of trade and the infiltration

of

new

ideas

by means

of education,

must cause the

oldest things

of the former civilization

to

and the newest things of the modern,

For most of the cases arising
indigenous system cannot possil)ly

be placed in juxtaposition.
tlie

out of such conjuncture

provide, and

wronged

arises

new phases of contention appear, A sense of being among the Natives, who are quick to feel injury
redress.

and urgent in obtaining

which they
live,

If the jurisdiction,

under

proves so defective as to leave them smarting

injustice,

and brooding under a consciousness of

shed the blood and burn the houses of
oppressors.

they will even

their fellow-subjects the

If the judges are to follow justice

and equity they

will find

it

hard to determine what

is

just

and equitable in

complex

cases.

In the absence of legislation there will be

gathered together a mass of judge-made law.

The judges

will

themselves deprecate the virtual formation of law by such a

process.

They know

that with

it

the establishment of principles

must be

casual, that

under

it

a comprehensive view of social

it

expediency can hardly be taken, and that by

declared with

doctrines

become

much

delay and great cost to the suitors, which

State.

ought

to

have been declared beforehand by the

for this is legislation.

The only

remedy

Then, the legislation must be

scientific,

representing the best moral thoughts and social ideas

of the nation

which

is

being developed under British rule.

The

language, while indisputably clear and easily intelligible, ought

to be

formal.

Otherwise there will be an ambiguity about

is

fundamental terms which

specially embarrassing,
it

and the

law will be more

intricate

and bulky than

need have been.

Complaints are loud in India regarding the evils of quibbling,

chicanery and misplaced ingenuity.

These evils are caused or

aggravated by an indefinite condition of the law, and the only

remedy
said, "

for

them

is

definite legislation.

To

try to avert these evils

As Sir James Stephen by leaving the law undefined

and by entrusting judges with a wide discretion is to try to put Leave a judge with only one out a fire by pouring oil upon it.

192

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. x.

of those leaden rules which

may

be twisted in any direction

the advocate.

and every
is

sort of topic is left to

Homoiopathy

the

only system by wliich the malady of litigation and

quibbling can be treated.

is

The

real antagonist of the pettifogger

the legislative department."

exist,

The Natives well know that the profession of the law must unless the Government is to be conducted by sheer They have been instant
law
it

physical force, and according to the arbitrary will of the ruler

of the day.
in remonstrance

whenever

by any

project of

has been proposed to transfer a matter

from the judgment of tribunals to the discretion of the executive They object to those Acts which contain only authorities.
general provisions and
for practice,

empower

the

Government
by law.

to

make

rules

on

this

ground that such Acts delegate

to be prescribed

to executive

discretion

what ought
if

Again,

recourse w^ere not constantly had

to

legislation

English law would gradually creep over the country, like ivy over a wall, entwining itself with all social affairs and relations.

In doubt as

to

what they should

do, or

how they should

decide,

the judges would follow the precedents or analogies of that law, the English, to which they could most readily refer and

in which the chiefest

among them had been

trained.

Thus a

nucleus of judge-imported

law would be formed, around which

This very

a mass of decisions would gradually be gathered.

consummation was
legislation

at

one time likely to be brought about, as

a consequence of British rule, and was averted only by the

which has been undertaken.

in India declaring the liability of debtors for their
Its abolition has

The law

debts has often been reprobated.

even been

re-

commended
legislation

as a panacea for

much

suffering.

The idea

of such

is

apparently supposed to have been borrowed from

It is as old, however,
is

English law.

among
it

the

Hindus

as their

ancient lawgivers, and

country.
civilized

a part of the prescriptive law of the

is

Among Muhammadans
nation.
Its

as definite as in

any

importance has been augmented under

Chap.

x.

ANSWER TO (JHARGE OF OVER-LEGISLATION.

193

British rule by the growth of transactions, coininercial in

and other,

number and magnitude.

It is

sometimes urged that a centralized system of legisLation

wide an empire will cause undue interference with the customs and unwritten laws of the Natives, will injuriously
for so
affect the constitution of

Kativc property and will subject

tlie

inhaljitants of one part of the country to laws unsuitable to

them, though suitable to the inhabitants of other parts.

already shewn,
it is

As
have

amply provided that the Natives

shall

the benefit of their

to

own law

in all the departments of social life

desire its application.

which they will naturally

have investigated

So
tlie

far

from

overlooking the constitution of Native property,

officers
it

English

with infinite pains and evince a

it.

jealous care to vindicate and conserve

They have formed

a voluminous literature on the proprietary tenures

among

the

many

nationalities of India.

Now

that

men

are entering

more

and more

into transactions ramifying through several divisions

it

of the empire,

is

necessary that the subordinate contracts

should be governed everywhere by the same law and procedure.

In

many

branches of substantive law, therefore, the legislation

centralized.

must be uniform and

For those matters where

peculiarities exist, extending to certain provinces or localities,

provincial legislation has been provided, as already seen,

by the

establishment of local legislatures.

In

short, the objects of the legislation

have been elucidation

and

simplification.

No law

has been passed without necessity,

or before it

was necessary, therefore there has not been anything

over-legislation.
all rules for

which could be justly described as

The principle that

the governance and adminis-

tration of the country shall be fixed

by

legislation, is vitally

important to the good government of the Indian empire at the

present time.
best

By

these

means the vagaries

liable,

to

which even the

and there
is

and ablest men are

are stopped,

no

possibility of radical changes being

made without due

delibera-

tion

and without adequate demonstration of

their expediency.

194
After the experience

INDIA IN
of

1880.

Chap. x.

three-quarters

century,

crowded

with discussions, experiments and revisions, an administrative

system has been formed,

necessities
liarities,

sufficiently

uniform

for

imperial

and yet

sufficiently variable

for provincial pecu-

securing the confidence of the people

who

desire to live

and labour under a

settled system, preventing the abuse of

power

by those whose well-meaning zeal outstrips their discretion, and yet affording room for the exercise of all the talents which even
the
ablest

men

can display.
to

The improvements, suggested

have been established

from time to time, ought

legislation, for

be sanctioned and defined by the

legislatures

which several

on the

spot.

Under any circumstances

reacli,
if

there are matters which

legislation cannot
control.

but which executive authority can

administrators were

But

individual

allowed to

modify fundamental or widely important principles according

to
their

personal

judgment, then

confusion,

perhaps even
energetic,

disaster,

would

arise.

Such men wdll generally be

one

and will have independent and resolute minds.

necessarily differ in opinion
;

Then they

will

of the national clock rapidly

man would move the hands forward, the next man would put
classic proverb,

them back

again.

In paraphrase of the

they

would pull down and build up, they would change square
things to round.
is

Continuity of principle, practice and conduct

essential in the position at

which the empire has now arrived

strong enough to preserve the
of State

a continuity not too rigid to be slightly diverted or deflected,

according to expediency, but
general line of
its direction.
still

The ship

may

tack about,

indeed, according to the winds of circumstance, but her general

course should be determined, and she should steer upon

it

as

much

as possible.

195

CHAPTER
CRIME, POLICE
General character of crime in India
horrid characteristics,
its

XI.

AND PWSONS.
its

repression

burning,

Regulation of marriage Female Gypsy Occaoccurrence of Penal code and criminal procedure reorganization Condition of former Kegular General regulations regarding arms Prisons under British Recent improvements thereinJuvenile reformatories Convict settlements.
its

Good conduct of the people Thagi, Self-sacrifice of Hindu widows by

infanticide
tribes

suppression

expenses
sional

Political
police

import of dacoities in Deccan

serious riots
faults Its

Its

village or rural ^wlice

rule

There

are

some peculiarly dark deeds which have

disfigured

the Indian annals, otherwise the crimes of India do not essentially differ from those of other climes.

Possibly the people

reservations, a

of India, having, with

sober,

some exceptions and

orderly

and law-abiding character,

may

be compared

favourably in respect of crime with the people in more advanced

countries.

The

rise

and spread of Thagi has

left

stain

upon the
consisted

history of the eighteenth

and nineteenth centuries in India.

perpetration
simple,
travellers
it

The

crime

was
the

in

its

of the

waylaying
for

and
sake

strangling
of

of

on

lonely

roadsides
carried

the

money and
characteristic
its

valuables

they
secret

about them.

Its

dire

was the
the

formation of gangs banded together for

purposes, operating

by combination

in

widely separated parts of

country,

maintaining complete inter-communication, obeying leaders of

various degrees, having formulae for the

admission and the

life

swearing in of members, enrolling them as the devotees for

of

murderous profession, and possessing a vocabulary of

It attracted to itself a superstition

watchwords.

amounting
o 2

to

196

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

xi.

a horrid and unnatural religion.

It arose

from the disregard of

human

life,

caused by scenes of incessant bloodshed during

effects of the

wars and revolutions, and from the demoralizing

ruthless system of spoliation established by the Mahrattas

and continued by the Pindarics.

suspected, yet
its

Though
and
its

its

existence was

real

proportions
Its

shocking extent

remained
repressive

long

unknown.

discovery

was followed
after

by

measures, which

ended successfully

com-

paratively brief time, through the unaccountable readiness with

which

so

many

of the

Thags became approvers and informers.

The information given by them would have been incredible but for the sulisequent verification of particulars, whereby certainty
was obtained regarding the
distressful

numbers of the victims,

and the extraordinary accumulation of murders committed by The fulness of their disclosures would individual murderers.
almost indicate that they were conscience-stricken, were
for the callousness
it

not

of their

demeanour when recounting the

of these

damnatory

narratives.

The psychology
it

criminals

is

worthy of study, because

shews that there are some baneful

tendencies inherent in the Native mind, which will not be

eradicated in one or two generations, and would surely manifest

themselves again,

if

repressive action were to be relaxed.

Sometimes instances of the systematic poisoning of wayfarers

have given warning to the magistracy that Thagi under

is

another form

ever ready to

spring into

life

again.

The

cases of other dark murders

inference.

now and then

point to the same

The
alive

old crime of Sati,

whereby Hindu widows were burned

on the funeral pyres of their husbands, has ceased long

territories.

ago throughout the British

it

The

ideas from wliich

sprang have no longer any hold upon the minds of the

Possibly the practice would revive
if

highly educated classes.

among
wliere

the less educated classes

the British prohibition were

spots,

withdrawn.
tlie

The monuments always erected on the

dread
rite

has

been observed, are regarded with

Chap.

xi.

FEMALE INFANTICIDE
The same
is

GANG-ROBBERY.
exists
;

197

popular reverence.

proliibition

generally in

the Native States and

in these days,
it

fully

obeyed

if

any instance occurs

must be very

rare.

Female infanticide has been largely practised among certain

tribes of Eajputs,

who

are

imbued with an austere pride

in their

lineage,

who find

it

most

difficult to

provide for their marriageable

daughters in any manner consistent with the rules of their

caste,

and who regard an unmarried daughter

as a slur

upon

their family.

The Government has

for

many

years set itself to

suppress this most

legislative
least,

inhuman

practice

by various measures
at
failure.

and executive, with some considerable success

though probably not without some

Perseverance
it is

will doubtless conquer this crime ultimately, but

difficult

extremely

to reach either of the

two roots of the

scale of

evil,

namely,

the

pride of caste

and the excessive

marriage ex-

penses.

It is probable, however, that the

undue expenditure on
for

marriages has been somewhat reduced.

Some Native
regulation
of

reformers

have formed associations

solemnities,

the

expenditure on marriage
is

an ex-

penditure which
infanticide.

the fruitful parent of

many
respect

evils besides

In

public

opinion

way some effect among the Natives,

this

has
in

been produced on
to

matters

where interposition on the part of foreign rulers might do

more harm than good.

Dacoity or gang-robbery has always been reckoned among
the plagues of India.
It has thriven

by reason

of the fierce-

ness and audacity which distinguishes some classes and timidity and submissiveness which characterize so
classes.

the

many

other

It has

been always one of the

to cope.

first evils

with which the

British
it

Government had

In Bengal proper, especially,

was a crime with an extensive organization, having pro-

fessional ringleaders followed

by gangs of enrolled men.

still

This

organization was encountered by a

stronger administrative

machinery under British

authorities,

and so became broken up

to break out

and

dispersed.

The crime continues, however,

from

198
time to time
persons are
in a

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

xi.

still

milder form in several provinces, and many at large whose chief occupation is the planning

of overt robbery, with

resistance

more or

less of violence according to the

which may be
of

offered.

It

is

one of the earliest

excitement or any

symptoms

impending

scarcity, political

social trouble.

Gang-robbery assumed an ominous shape and troublesome dimensions in the Deccan near Bombay during 1879, by
reason of the ferment in the public

mind during

a time of war,

following a long protracted series of hard times.

of

The

services

two

regiments of Native infantry

its

and one regiment

of Native

cavalry had to be employed in

difficult

ground in the midst of

place.

by reason of the the Western Ghat mountains

suppression,
for three
it

where the events took

despite the efforts

The trouble lasted

months,

of the authorities to terminate

speedily.

Considerable amounts of property were robbed, with

violence,

much
of

in

villages

lying within

short

distance

the

mountains.

The robbers used to betake themselves with their

difficult of access,

booty to mountainous positions

resolute courage
police.

and shewed

when attacked by

the Native soldiers and the

The plague would have spread indefinitely, if the Government had not taken numerous precautions and availed The Brahmin leader and itself of many means of repression.
his

immediate adherents were avowedly fornjing a conspiracy against the Government, though his followers were actuated by
the ordinary desire for plunder.

Some

of his

colleagues
of

in

mischief probably

entertained political views

some

sort.

The numljer

of

men engaged

in these plundering gangs

was

quite small, but a nucleus

was formed by them, around which

Their proceedings

badly-disposed persons might gather largely.

were watched with a strange interest by some sections of the Native community and with an equally strange apathy by
others, while

among some
fire

classes a lively

alarm was excited.

at

An incendiary

in the old palace of the

Peshwas

Poona was

lighted about the same time under suspicious circumstances.

Chap.

xi.

OCCURRENCE OF SERIOUS
evil,

RIOTS.

199

In the prompt suppression of this

police force, signalized himself

Major Daniell, of the

the attempts thus

and vigour. Though made by evil-minded persons proved futile

his skill

by

and
such

abortive,
silly

and though any exaggeration of the importance of and clumsy designs ought to be avoided, still these

occurrences
Piloting

demand

the thoughtful attention of politicians.

and disturbance are uncommon in India, but occur now and then, as if to warn the Government of the many
dangers which lurk in so vast and varied a country.

In 1872

an attempt was made by fanatical means

the Cis Satlej territories of the Panjab.
conflict occurred

to stir

up

rebellion in

In 1873, a serious

between the Parsis and

Muhammadans
In

in the

city

of

Bombay.
occurred
in

In 1873, some agrarian disturbance, not

severe,

North Eastern Bengal.

broken
out
in
rebellion,

1875

the

Sontals,

who
riots,

had

caused

some
out in

trouble in the heart of the Bengal territories.

serious

In 1878 some

not destitute of political import, broke

the

city of

Surat on account of the licence-tax.

In 1879
in the in a

there were

some troubles

in the hill region of

this nature

Eampa

Madras Presidency.
attitude

Events of

shew that even

time of general peace, the authorities must preserve a vigilant

and be prepared

to enforce order

on the instant that

necessity arises.

There are in most parts of the country certain persons who

live without

any ostensible means

for a time,

of livelihood,

who

abide

sometimes in one village

and sometimes move about

from village bourhood

to

to village,

and who are well known in the neigh-

be thieves by profession.
is

The

villagers,

with that

feebleness of public spirit which

frain

unfortunately common, re-

from disturbing these people, so long as the depredations

are carried on elsewhere.

The palpable existence

of this evil has

induced the legislature to arm the magistracy with a stringent

power

for

calling

upon such suspected persons, when duly

good

brought up by the police, to shew that they have some means of

livelihood, and, in default of that, to give security for

200
beliaviour,
o-iven.

INDIA IN
detaiuiug

1880.

Chap. xi.
is

them

in

custody until the security

exercised, lest

The power needs to be sparingly and cautiously an undue power should be indirectly placed in
police. It is exercised,

the hands of the

however, in

many
who,

cases greatly to the benefit of rural society.

In several provinces there are nomadic gypsy

tribes

having a quiet demeanour externally, are yet skilful and daring They wander about, and settle down like a small thieves.
flight of locusts,

on any piece of waste ground that

may

be

available

and the neighbours soon

find their property slipping

away from them bit by bit. Here again the legislature has wisely empowered the executive to take effective steps for restraining these criminal tribes, for reclaiming them from
predatory habits
better, for settling

wdiich

they follow because

tliey

know no

them down

in fixed dwellings on cultivated

lands and for practically teaching them the lessons of honest

industry.

These measures have already been blessed with

some
with

results,

and may with considerate persistency be crowned

purchasing
or

full success ultimately.

The

kidnapping,

otherwise

obtaining

of

children of both sexes for vicious and wicked purposes, being

discovered to prevail in some places, the

legislatvire

Government and the

measures
for

were constrained

to

adopt special

eradicating or at least for checking this hateful evil.

Forgery was once a

Natives
as

common
as

crime, and
It

was regarded by
exists,

comparatively

venial.

still

though

doubtless diminished,

improvements in the judicial and

its

executive administration restrict the opportunities for

mission.

com-

Of

late years extensive forgeries of the

Government

currency notes have been perpetrated with extraordinary skill

and boldness.
Adultery among
is
tlie

liumbler classes

is

not uncommon, and

rule,

punished by the criminal law under British

rule.

but not

with the same severity as under Native

Natives

Probably the
severer

blame the Government

for

not

inflicting

Chap.

xi.

PENAL CODE
forgetting

rOLICE.
severity
is

201

punisliments,

that

excessive

seldom

efficacious in offences of this description.

The revengeful anger

aroused by conjugal infidelity, brings a1)0ut

many

murders, more

perhaps than any other cause.

In places where the herds graze

extensive tracts
expected, and
is

loose

and wander over

might be
Necessity

of waste,

cattle-stealing is rife, as

one of the plagues of rural society.

of detection produces a race of professional trackers, who, with

acuteness almost equal to an instinct, will hunt the tracks of

stolen cattle for

many

miles, judging from

marks not

distin-

guishable by the ordinary eye.

Perjury was formerly a flagrant evil in the courts civil and

criminal.
as
It is still very frequent but will gradually decrease

the

social

standard,

and the administration

of oath

of

justice,

improve.

The curious ordeals and forms

which used

to

be practised have been stopped.

The penal
the

or criminal code is in full operation througliout

It is declared

empire.

by one

of the

highest

of living-

authorities. Sir

James Stephen,
it

to be the best

system of criminal

law in the world, and

of Macaulay.

adds renown to the illustrious

name
is

It is supported

by an equally excellent criminal

procedure, which has been revised from time to time, and

worthy of the great repute of Sir Barnes Peacock and others

who laboured
The
into
l)y

for its design

and completion.

police of India has from time

;

immemorial been divided

appointed and paid
civil

two parts

first,

the

regular

police,

the State and in

all respects
;

forming a part of the

establishments of the country

police,

secondly, the rural or village

holding

office

by a quasi-hereditary tenure, not appointed

by the

State, but recognised

by authority, and

paid, not

from
the

the public
villages,

treasury,

but

by emoluments

drawn

from

and constituting a

local institution of great antiquity

throughout the empire.

The

police has been maintained in this

double form under British

rule.

The character

of the Indian regular police for inefficiency

and

202
corruptness was, for

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

xi.

many

years, the subject of constant regret

and anxiety

to

conscientious

Englishmen concerned in the

outside official circles,

administration of the country and interested in the welfare of

the Natives.

With Englishmen,
against the
evil,

it

was

a theme of reproach

Government.

The Natives

lamented the

which was a matter of common notoriety, but

were more sparing in their reproaches.

They had never known

evil,

any higher standard

for comparison,

and were better acquainted

wdth one of the principal causes of the

unresisting disposition of their

namely the timid

own
its

people ever ready to offer

encouragement to corruption and temptation to inefficiency.

Despite the improvement in
years, the police is still very far

organization

during recent
it

from being what

ought to

be.

On
its

the introduction
police

of British rule the

Government formed
rule,

on the model of that existing under Native

it

which would,

was hoped, prove suitable

In
fact,

to the peculiarities

of the country.

however, police administration was one

of the weakest parts of Native rule,

and the instrument, formed

the hands of the British

on

its

pattern, broke to

pieces

in

magistrates.

Service in the police has always been unpopular

with Natives of superior stamp, and

entering
it.

men

of character avoided
it,

Men

of ability rarely entered

except with the

short time,
to personal

intention of

making an unlawful fortune within a

would lead

risking the chance of such detection as

punishment, but quite prepared for dismissal.

The chances

were that when a

man had

reaped gains during a brief sunshine

of impunity there would be enough of detection to warrant his

discharge from the service on moral conviction of dishonesty,

but not sufficient proof for bringing him to judicial punishment.

When

the heads were thus evilly inclined, the body of

the police was corrupt throughout, each

his kind.

man

being bad after

They committed

divers acts of oppression,

and they

sometimes extorted confessions by torture.

The

scale of

pay

was low, being much the same as that which had prevailed under Native rule. It was not sufficiently remembered that if

Chap.

xi.

FORMER FAULTS OF THE

POLICE.

203
paid, they

men

of inferior status possess

power and are lowly

illicit gains.

are sure to eke out their

income by

There were but very few European

officials in

the country,

and

it

was impossible
of the

to detach

any of tliem

for the sui)ervision

of the police alone.

Elaborate rules w^ere framed for regulating

police in the repression
of rules

the conduct
crime.
of

and detection
to

of

But such codes

were like skeletons, destitute

;

any capacity

for vital efficacy

it

was impossible

make

these dry bones live.

w^ere

In a large and populous

district there

one or two European magistrates who had a general

supervision over the police administration

things
;

among many
little

other

they did their best, but that was

indeed under

the circumstances.

The people were apathetic in demanding

and
in bearing testimony.
losses

redress for injuries, in reporting crime

They would condone even grievous wrongs, disavow the

of property

which they had

suffered,

and withhold

all assistance

from their neighbours in similar

plights, rather

than undergo

the trouble of attending at police offices and criminal courts.

similar disposition

was evinced by the landowners, wdio were

of assisting the regular
difficult to enlist

specially charged
police

by law with the duty

it

and without whose support

was

the

hearty co-operation of the village police.

During the troubles

to British

through which the country had passed antecedently

rule, the

landowners would

first

resist

robbery and plunder.

it

mischief, to take

into their

band themselves together to Next they learnt to regulate the own hands and to become abettors,
checked on the intro-

protecting themselves, but conniving at the spoliation of the

general

pu))lic.

These habits, even

still

if

duction of a settled rule,

survived for

many

years.

The

British officers found that criminals

had friends not only among

landow^ners.

the

police

but also among the

Some crimes
fail to

were so overt, like murder in broad daylight, or the descent

of

armed
and

ruffians

upon a

village, that

they could not

be reported.
light,

In various ways

much crime was brought

to

of that a certain

proportion was proved and duly

204
punished.
fill,

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

xi.

Many

criminals were brought to justice, enough to

jails.

even to crowd, the

At

the best, however,

at large,

was undetected, many criminals were

much crime and many bad

characters with no honest livelihood, and no profession except

that of crime, lurked about all parts of the country.

Many an

earnest English
felt like

officer,

struggling in vain to rectify these evils,

its

a buffalo

ramming

horns against a wall, or a bird

beating

its

wings against a cage.

at reform in organization

The

first efforts

were made in the

cities of

Calcutta and Bombay.

European
the
sole

officers of status

and

capacity were

appointed to

duty of

supervision

superior grades of Native officers were instituted,

plete constabulary

and a comcity
affairs are

was organized.
is

The area under the

densely peopled
;

police

is

limited in extent, but

conducted very

much under

the public eye, and are exposed to

the gaze of enlightened criticism.

police
is

Hence, the conduct of the

toleral)ly good,

and

its

administration comparatively

satisfactory.

reform on a large

scale,

however, was made by the Madras

for the

Government, who organized the police

territories

whole of their

after the best

English model, appointed a Native

constabulary with superior grades, and placed European officers

to

command them
Sir

in every district.

In these proceedings Mr,

part.

(now

William) Eobinson took a distinguished

Sub-

sequently in

Oudh

similar steps were taken under the active

supervision of the late Colonel Herbert Bruce.

Then a com-

mission was appointed to

officers

sit

in Calcutta, consisting of selected

representing every division of the empire, to prepare a

for the reorganization of the police

scheme

everywhere.

There

were discussions whether the new force should not be independent of the magistrate of the
control and at the
district,

but the police was

still

ordered to be a department, separate indeed,

under the

command

of the magistrate.

This system has

been

for

some years in
is

force

throughout the empire.

The

regular police

a constabulary with

much

the

same designa-

CiiAP. XI.

POLICE REORGANIZATION.
It is a

205
department with
are stationed in

tions as those current in England.

many European
every
district.

officers,

one or two of

whom
at his

The magistrate has thus

whose attention
is

elbow a qualified
affairs,

European
that

officer,

devoted to police

and

who can proceed

instantly to the scene of every grave occurrence

It is the presence of the officer

may

be reported.

on the

spot immediately after the events, which ensures detection and

prevents malpractices.
officials

The superior grades

consist of Native

well trained, fairly educated, and comparatively highly

paid,

who

look to

promotion, have character and repute to

maintain, and dread losing their places.

of Natives,

Below them

are grades
for

among whom
to

the best

men have some motive

serving well and faithfully, namely the hope of being chosen

for

advancement
officials

the upper grades.

When

the

superior

Native

are

comparatively free from corruption,

the

subordinates become so of necessity.

The general character The men

of the police force is not at all military,

to maintain its civil status.

and the authorities have been anxious

are subjected to

some

sort of drill

and wear uniform

but do not usually carry arms, some of them, however, are

regularly armed, and guard jails and treasuries.

At some

points

on the

frontiers there are special bodies of police

with a military

organization.

In the country generally the police cannot be

to fight,

depended upon

when any

serious disturbance threatens,

action.

and on such occasions some troops must be called into

organization,

Although much improvement has resulted from the new

it

were vain

to

imagine that the old evils and

olijections, already described,

fact, been only mitigated.

have disappeared

they have, in

The pay

of the constables, though

not

liberal, is

yet as

much

as can be afforded in reference to the

pay of the Native soldiery. The salaries of the superior Native police officers, though much better than formerly, are not
sufficient to procure

Natives of the best type for the work.

is

The
police

service in the police

fiscal

not so

much esteemed
The

as that in the

and

administrative

departments.

Native

206
officers,

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

xi.

though much raised above the former standard, are not

yet equal in character and status to the corresponding grades in Although some meritorious Natives have other civil branches.
received

considerable promotion

in

the police,
of

the

superior

appointments demanding the

energy,

exercise

promptitude

and

must

for the present, as a rule, be

filled

The

village police or

watch was not

for

by Europeans. the most part so

innately vicious as the old regular police.

villages

Being

men

of the

and holding

office

usually by an hereditary tenure, the

watchmen had some understanding with, and some fellow-feelBut they sometimes became the actual ing for the villagers. agents in crime when the landholders being badly disposed
began
to collude

with criminals.

In such cases the village

evil to a

police were nothing but

an additional

much vexed

neighbourhood.
their little

Their

dues were imperfectly regulated and

income was precarious, so that they were obliged to

eke

it

out by other work, to the detriment of their proper

duties.

Often their subsistence depended on a piece of land,

allotted to

them

in virtue of their office,

it.

and much of their time

police

would be spent in cultivating

rendered by them was often

Thus the

service

little

more than nominal.

was
for

On
years

the whole, this rural police, though of ancient origin and containing the
inefficient.

germ

of a valuable institution,

many

During recent

years, however, measures

have been

taken to remedy these defects in the village police in every

province of the empire, and to place
basis
it

by law on a permanent
fixed

and in a

state of efficiency.

Its
it

emoluments are

and

secured, its
officials of

duties

are defined;

is

kept separate from the

to fulfil their behests,

the regular police, but

is

bound

and

to co-operate

with them in every possible way.

It

is

required to

make

reports of every crime or unusual occurrence

with due punctuality.

efficiency
Its

Though very
desired,
it

far
is

from the degree of

which might be
is

still

much improved.
well-being and

conduct

of

much importance

to

the

comfort of the rural population.

Chap.

xi.

REGULATIONS REGARDING ARMS.

Government
in India has always found
it

207
neces-

The

British

sary to regulate the possession, manufacture and importation

of arms, in its

own

territories, for

obvious reasons relating to

the public safety.

On

the conquest or annexation of provinces,

to the

one of the

first

measures usually adopted was a requisition

wliicli tliey did

people to give up their arms,

without demur.

The disarming,
secreted

as

it

was termed, has been

effected with tolerable

are, liowever,

completeness throughout the empire.

still
;

Many arms

they are occasionally forthcoming, thougli rusty

from disuse, whenever trouble threatens, and would be largely

produced
if

any general disorder came

to pass.

are imposed in the Native States, save such as

No restrictions may have l)een

;

arranged by diplomatic negotiation.

British
subjects, are licensed
to

Many

Natives of rank,

carry arms

many

also

of

humble
where.
the

station are allowed

arms

for destroying wild beasts.

Europeans, sportsmen and others, have arms in India as else-

Under

all

these circumstances,
to

it

became necessary

for

Government

carefully revise

the law respecting the

importation, the transport and the bearing of arms.

The importation

of

European arms into India by

sucli

sea, for

Native States, involved several serious considerations. Native States, which require

Those

armament, have

to

make
tliose

special arrangements with the British

Government.

All

who need
without
to

firearms, for legitimate

purposes, can obtain

them
time

difficulty.

The revised The

legislation
at

seemed

at the

excite

some

dissatisfaction, but

present no particular
desires
to

complaint

arises.

Government
necessary,

take

only

such precautions as are

those

anu
that

to

carry out even

with

all

the

considerateness

can

reasonably be

expected.

Eeference having thus

been made,

first

to

the prevailing

crimes, next to the police agency for the repression

tion of crime,
it

and detec-

remains only to follow the convicted criminals

to their prisons.

The

institution of prisons in the

modern sense

of the term

208

INDIA IN
little

1880.

Chap.
rule.

xi.

was but

known

practically

under Native

Many

nowadays have prisons in imitation of British But few States, if left to themselves, would have any rule. prison worthy of the name, though they might have dungeons or bastilles. Indeed, resort was had as little as possible to longNative States

termed imprisonment as a form of punishment for ordinary Short confinement with flogging, fines of various sorts, crime.
compensation to relatives of murdered men, and mutilation in
cases of grave robbery, were the descriptions of

punishment

usually in vogue.

Capital punishment, though not

unknown,

was seldom

inflicted.

On

tlie

introduction of British rule, a prison was established

in every magisterial district, and

was constructed according

in
ventilation.

to

the lights of that time,

structures

much on

the model of Native houses and

which always are

wanting

The
fully

prisoners were received into

what seemed

better

accommodation

than free

men

of their class possessed,

and

their diet

was

equal to that of the ordinary poor.

Fetters and shackles were

used to prevent them from overpowering the scanty guards.

They were brought daily beyond the prison precincts in gangs, to work in road-making, and for many years the local roads near the principal towns and stations were maintained by prison labour. In the arrangements for cooking and for messing a reasonable consideration was shewn to caste prejudices.

There was

no special sanitation, yet there was neither misery nor squalor. The magistrate of the district was solely responsible for the
prison, but

no professional and

scientific supervision

was under-

taken.

Little

was

attempted in the direction of the

numerous
indis-

humane

refinements and reforms, which are

now deemed

pensable in the management of prisons.

There was nothing to

cause scandal, and there was no distressful hardship beyond that

Avhich
is

incidental to crowded and

Life

ill- ventilated

wards in a hot

climate.
straits of

prisoners

were transported across sea to the

Malacca and other settlements beyond the confines of

across " the black-water," as the ocean is

India.

The voyage

Chap.

xi.

IMPROVEMENT OF THE
for

PRISONS.

209

called,

had

many

years an ominous thougli salutary sound

to the ear of the evil-disposed.

Gradually public opinion, in India as elsewhere, awoke to the belief that for prisoners something more than mere incarceration
is

morally obligatory.

And

within the present generation,

tlie

reforms have been introduced into

prisons of India, which,

though

still

lagging behind, are advancing towards the same

end as that

to

look forward.
struction,

which prison reformers in England and elsewhere The district prisons have been improved in conas

especially

regards

ventilation.

Many

central

prisons have been erected on the best-known models, and to

them have been

drafted from the district gaols all prisoners

;

save those sentenced to short terms

may be

fairly designated as fine structures.

some of these prisons The outdoor labour

and discipline
to the

on the roads was considered injurious

of the men, liable to petty abuses,

to the health

and wasteful in respect

labour of the guards with the scattered gangs, therefore, indoor labour within the prison precincts was substituted. The

men were

concentrated upon organized industries and upon manufactures

by hand

or

by machinery according

to opportunities.
is

the prisons the entire clothing of the inmates

At most of now made many

;

useful articles, not ordinarily produced in the neighbourhood,

are manufactured for local consumption,
tion.

and even

for exporta-

The prison-made

carpets, for instance, l^oth of the rougher

sorts,

and of the more ornate

market.

have some reputation in the

is
;

In some of the larger central prisons, machinery

extensively worked for manufactures in cotton and other fibres

printing, lithography

and other practical

arts

are carried on.

The

sale proceeds of prison-made articles defray a considerable

portion of the expenses of the prisons.

Next, the scale and com-

position of the diet were further improved,

and a

liberal allowance

of warm clothing, to obviate the effect of the chills

and the changes

of temperature incidental to hot climates,

rules for ironing

was ordered.

The
spirit.

and fettering were revised in a considerate

careful distinction

was observed between those sentenced

p

210
to hard labour at

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

xi.

and those not so sentenced, and a partial attempt classification of the prisoners was made, in order that persons
offences

imprisoned for light

might not be made worse by

Eules were made whereby the

contact ^vith hardened criminals.

prisoners might,

the terms of their

self-reformation.

by good conduct, obtain a slight reduction in imprisonment and so have some motive for
Arrangements were made to afford elementary prisoners who could in any way be made to
j)risoners

education to
learn.

all

complete system of sanitation was enforced and

medical

officers

were placed in executive charge of the

under the supervision of the magistrates.

ensure uniformity of practice.

In every province of

the empire an Inspector-General of prisons was appointed to

The
for

prisoners, sentenced to transportation for long terms or

life,

in the
first,

are now concentrated at the settlement of Port Blair Andaman islands in the Bay of Bengal, From the

arrangements were made in that convict settlement to

afford the

men some

opportunities for colonizing in the island.

It became apparent, however, that the conditions of coloni-

zation were being rendered too easy, and were liable to abuse,
as

impairing the deterrent effect of transportation.

Special
that

measures
the

have
shall

subsequently

been

taken

to

ensure

men

undergo a course of complete discipline as

prisoners, before being admitted to

any

privileges.

Eeformatories are established at central places for the moral

reformation of juvenile offenders

who have been sentenced

to

terms of imprisonment.

But the further and equally important

power of taking

principle that the magistracy should have the

up and sending " street arabs," who

to reformatories, children of the class

known

as

are without parents or relatives or ostensible

is

guardians and are manifestly growing up in vice and crime,

not practically carried out, though in theory its justice

and

expediency are recognised.

are, however, many faults, still perceptible, which must before the prisons in India can be approved by removed be

There

Chap.

xi.

TRISON REFORM STILL NEEDED.

In
;

211
occasionally

reformers.

many

of the prisons the mortality

is

lamentable

in few

of sickness indicate
rate

would the sanitary returns and the statistics permanent salubrity and the general death;

among
The

the "prisoners in the aggregate

high.

ventilation, despite all the attention

it,

must be regarded as which has been

bestowed upon

is

still

defective
fvill

in

many

prisons

the

sleeping wards are generally too quite overcrowded.

at night

and sometimes are

The

classification of the prisoners, according

to the character of their crimes or offences, is carried into effect

during the night in the wards, but not during the day when
the people are at their labour, or at the best
fectly during the
is

observed imperis

working hours.

Solitary confinement

but
;

rarely enforced as a necessary part of the course to be undergone

though

it is

sometimes ordered as an additional punishment

It lias not as yet

for

breaches of prison discipline.

been found

possible to provide that the prisoners shall sleep in separation,

that

is

each

man

in a separate compartment.

This reform
visits to

was earnestly advocated by Mary Carpenter during her

India.

Though many
still

prisoners, while in prison, learn

much
their

that

may

be useful to them in leading an honest

life after their

release,

the arrangements for their education

and

moral discipline are defective.

condition will not appear good,
prevailing in advanced countries.

At
if

the

best

their

physical

judged by the standards

in weight and strength during their incarceration,

While many prisoners gain many on the

of constraint

other

hand languish and sicken under the sense

and

confinement, so distressing to their nature.

p 2


212

INUIA IN

1880.

Chap.

xii.

CHAPTER

XII.

LAND-TAX AND LANDED TENURES.

Kature of laud-tax
rights

of survey and Immense work Government Property land created recognised by Europeans belonging such property Fee-simple Value Bengal and elsewhere Importance Permanent settlement Madras and Bombay northern India Tenures communities some Indebtedness of peasant Antiquity of occupancy tenants Tenants at Tenant-right
gross value cf the produce
in

The

tax

is

a portion of the rent, of field

and

a pci-centage

on

record

or

British

of

estates

to

in

of village

in

in

of village officers

proprietors in

districts

Piivileges

will

Protection accorded to cultivators.

moral or economic, which

This main branch of the Indian revenue embraces questions of

interest, social,

may

be discussed quite

apart from fiscal details.

Controversy

still

hovers round the definition of the land-tax.

is

After protracted discussion whether this tax

of the nature of

rent or of revenue, and after disputation affecting the

clature

nomenis

more than the essence

of the case, the best opinion

that the tax really consists of a certain portion taken

by the

State from the rent.

The accepted

definition of rent is the

profit of the cultivation after the cost of

husbandry has been

cultivator

defrayed,

and

after the subsistence of the

and his

family has been provided.

portion taken

Tims out

of the rent there is a

by the

State, usually

much

the smaller, while

the remaining portion, usually

much

the larger, remains with

the people, and the portion taken by the State

as revenue.

may

be regarded

The same principle doubtless obtained in theory under Native rule and in well-ordered Native States received observance. But in many of such States, as foreign or intestine
troubles caused depletion of the treasury, the ministers

would

absorb more and more of the profit or rent,

till

nothing but

Chap.

xii.

NATURE OF LAND-TAX.

213

bare subsistence was left to the landowner.

Whatever may,
Government,
it

or

may
set

not, be the shortcomings of the British

has

up on unshakeable foundations the

principle tliat the land-

tax shall absorb only a moderate percentage of the rent or profit

of the cultivation.

In the vast majority of instances

;

this

principle has been followed

there
is

may

yet be some instances

;

where too much of the rent

instances

taken for the State

but such

when

discovered are gradually rectified.

Calculations have been

made which tend

to

shew that

too

narrow a margin of
involve so

profit

remains to the peasant proprietor.

It is difficult to frame detailed calculations of this nature,

which

many

small particulars of peasant

life.

But revised
really exist.

calculations indicate that the proper margin

must

The value of the produce of the different sorts of land is known and a reference to this and to other broad considera;

tions

shews that the land-tax represents but a small per-

centage of the proceeds.

The following
S.

table,

taken from a

recent publication by Mr. H.

Cunningham, embodies the best

information recently collected.

Provinces.

Percentage of land revenue on estimated gross valu':; of crops.

Panjab North-western Provinces and Oudh

Bengal
Central Provinces

5"6
. .

7-8 3-9

3"8 4-6

Berar

Bombay
Madras

T'G

6-3

In

all

the provinces of Britisli India excepting Bengal and

Behar, the Government has undertaken to

make

a detailed

settlement, consisting of an assessment of the land-tax either

upon every
purpose a
boundaries

field

separately, or

upon each
all

village or parish
it.

after a detailed

examination of

the fields in

For

this

scientific

survey has been executed of the outer

all

of

every village or parish and of

it.

physical

features within

Further, a survey

has

been executed of

211:

INDIA IN
field,

1880.

Chap.

xii.

every
curate,

in

some provinces

roi;gh but

approximately acnear
scientific

in

other

provinces with
field,

something

accuracy.

Regarding every

there are entered in a register

the
or

names

of the owner, the occupant, the subowner, the lessee,

interest in
if
it,

any one who has an

superior or inferior, also

the rent,

and the revenue

separately assessed.
is

Eegarding

every village or parish there

tenures, the rights, the

summary

or abstract of the

customs, the rent-roll, the land-tax.

operation
is

This
"

minute

and

comprehensive
;"

termed

the

Eecord of Eights

it

shews varieties according to diversity

its

of

circumstance in the several provinces, but in

it is

main

features

uniform

for
;

them
its

all.

It is thus the

Domesdayprobably

book of British India

proportions

and

details

exceed those of any similar work undertaken by any Govern-

ment
lation

in

any age or country, so vast

which
affects.
it relates,

is

the culti\4ated and

is

cultivable area to

so

numerous
the

the popu-

which

it

It

constitutes

most laborious
India,

of all

the tasks essayed by the British in

and

this

enormous work has been accomplished within forty years,

that
is

between 1835 and 1875, or in a space of time hardly

exceeding one generation of men.

of the best
civil

To

it

has been devoted some

talent

at

the disposal of the Government,

and

its

successful accomplishment sheds lustre on the

memory

of several eminent

men

departed, on the

names

of Mertins Bird,

Thomason, Lawrence, Wingate, Goldsmid, Priestley.

Not only has the

vast,
it

initial

work

of the field survey been so

but the keeping up of such a survey, and the revising of

according
the
to

yearly

the

personal

changes of ownership
or
to

or occupancy, to

reclamation

of the waste

other

changes in the cultivable area,

boundaries of
fields,

even to modification in the

represent a never-ceasing round of work.

is

Tlius the constituted village accountant

transfers temporary or

the notary for all

of

permanent and

for all devolutions

property in land.
filed in several

The

village accounts revised annually

and

public offices constitute a notarial register for

Chap.

xii.

FIELD

SURVEY RECORD OF

RIGHTS.

215

every village.
territories of
is

From

this system, however, are

excepted the

Bengal proper and Behar where landed property

very valuable, and where transfers offering temptations to

fraud are often effected.

It is

upon a consideration

of all the circumstances, elucidated

by

this field survey, that the land-tax has

been assessed.

The

assessing officer duly considers the varieties of soil so

numerous
produce

and yet
rotation

so well

known

to the

peasantry, the crops raised in

tlie

upon every

plot of ground, the value of

according to the average of yield and of prices, the presence or

absence of

artificial irrigation,

the distance or the proximity of

markets, the advantages or disadvantages in respect of roads

and communications, the

fiscal

history of the neighbour] lood,

the habits of the people, the bearing of the calculations thus

educed upon the previous assessment, with the view of deter-

mining whether the landowners can, or cannot, bear enhance-

ment and whether they

There

are, or are not, entitled to reduction.

may

be discussions whether the technical designations

exist

of the various forms of property wdiich

in

the empire

have been rightly rendered under given circumstances, wdiether

the British Government
is

correctly or incorrectly styled the

universal landlord, in all the provinces with some exceptions,

whether

it

has inherited from preceding dynasties a manorial

it

and
tion.

seignorial position or whether

has receded from such posi-

There

is

no doubt, however, that the Government has either which

is

conferred de novo on the people or else recognised authoritatively as belonging to them, something

equivalent to

property in land.

There

may

be dispute whether under Native

if

rule such a property did exist, or whether

existing

it

was

formally recognised.

Certainly

it

was but too often beaten

the best opinion
that

down, battered and defaced in troublous times, like standing

crops by hail or thunderstorm.
Still
is
it

struggled on wdth an unbroken though a precarious existence.

At all events under

or confirmed

British rule

it

has been either created afresh,

by a recognition which has resuscitated a more than

216
pristine vitality.

INDIA IN

1880.
is

Chap. xn.

Throughout the empire the land

inherit,
lease,

possessed

by men who can

dispose of
it,

transfer,

sell

or otherwise of

subject only to one condition,

namely that
and

paying the land-tax.

bilities, tlien

The property, with

its privileges

lia-

devolves on the transferees, without any question

State.

on the part of the

So long as the people pay the

tax,

which

is payable in cash, they are absolutely free

from any

interference on

the part of the State respecting the raising,

of

reaping or storing

the grain, and they

make

their

own

They have the benefit of any arrangements improvements they may effect or of any capital they may they present the money due from them and no lay out
uncontrolled.
;

enquiries are

made

regarding their

affairs.

Certainly, their land is liable to be sold

order to meet arrears of unpaid land-tax or

by the State in other cesses upon

for in

the land.

But, after

all,

this is

no uncommon proviso,

the case of other taxes, the property taxed is liable to seizure

in event of default.

Sale of the land

is,

however, enforced

only in the last resort; personal property, excepting always

the implements
of

agriculture,

is

first

attached,

temporary

leasing to another i)arty is tried, so that the property

may have

a chance of recovering
ordered.

itself,
is

in practice sale is very rarely

it is

When the

process

adopted,

fenced round with

in order to

numerous

provisions, prescribed

by law, and framed

his legal

ensure that the owner shall receive due notice, and shall be
otherwise protected
;

and he has

remedy

if

any one of

these provisions shall be neglected.

Notwithstanding the creation or recognition of such property,

the arrangement

may

be vitiated

if

the land-tax be fixed so

its

high as to render the property valueless, or even to impair

value.

But the land-tax

If

is

not so fixed

on the contrary

it is

assessed at such rates as leave a margin of real profit to the

owner.

by any chance

it

is

found to have been fixed too

steps

high according to this

its

princii)le,

are always taken for

reduction.

Chap.

xii.

THE PERMANENT SETTLEMENT,

217
above

Althoiigli the generic features of landed property, as

set forth, are

much

the same throughout the empire, there are

yet several specific varieties.

The most
to

perfect form is that

which has been accorded by the State

tlie

European owners in
and coffeeredeemed " by
called locally

Himalayas and in the

Nilgiris, tea-planters,
is

planters.

In these cases the land-tax

is,

either "

the owner, that

compounded
is is

for,

on the payment of a certain

sum down,

or else

fixed in perpetuity at

what

is

a "quit-rent," that

an almost nominal
is

rate.

The owner
locally

then considers himself to have what

"fee-simple."

called

the

These designations are here given as

tliey are

actually used, without reference to their correctness, or otherwise, according to the

English law whence they are drawn.

in
this

There

may be

other varieties

tenure

but on the
tliey

whole the European owners will probably admit that

a complete and satisfactory
title.
is

have

The next tenure

is

that where the land-tax

fixed for ever,

is

without any possibility of enhancement, by what

locally, " the perpetual limitation of the

termed

demand."

This pre-

vails throughout the provinces of Bengal,

With

it

also

may

Behar and Benares. be classed the separate " Zemindaris," or

estates existing in several parts of the empire.

The owners,
United

who hold under

Kingdom.
is

this tenure, resemble landlords in the

is

Their land-tax

generally light and their property

made the subject of large pecuniary transactions, in the same way as in the most advanced countries. It is by means of such transactions that European indigoplanters have become possessed, either by ownership or by long leases, of so many extensive estates. As the families of
valuable, being

the Native landlords have increased, and as subdivision the prevailing rule of

is

still

Hindu

inheritance, primogeniture being

the exception, the allotment of shares

among

the

members has
is

often proved difficult and troublesome.

locally

The process

known
of

by the name of
legislation.

" partition,"

and has formed the

sul:)ject

elaborate

Where, as in parts of eastern Bengal

218

INDIA IN

1880.

CuAP.

xii.

and northern Behar, the

extremely light when

tax, originally moderate, has

become

spread over the cultivation which has in-

creased within the limits of the estates, these tenures are but " fee-simple " tenures just described. The little inferior to the

landlords have under

them tenants with many

varieties of

tenancy.

Resembling them in most respects, save one, are the landlords of Orissa, of Oudh, of Sind, of the Central Provinces, and of
other " Zemindari " estates in several parts of the empire.

The

point of difference

is

this, that

the land-tax

is

fixed not in

The perpetuity but for a long term of twenty or thirty years. petty part landlords of the Central Provinces are for the most
in degree, though
still
is

above the rank of peasant proprietors.

the Panjab, whose

The next tenure

land-tax
is

that of the peasant i^roprietors of the greater

part of the North-western Provinces and

also fixed for long
is

terms of twenty or thirty years.

In their case there

a peculiarity in that they are, for the

purposes of land revenue, grouped

parishes.

together in villages

or

As

the
a

men

are usually descended

from a common

stock and form

" village

cousinhood, they are legally held to be a

"

community," or a

coparcenary " consisting of " co-

partners," or, as they call themselves, a " brotherhood."

The

manner

in which this form of society arises in India and in

is

other countries

described in Sir
village

Henry Maine's work on village

it

communities.

The

was originally the proprietary unit

tliroughout India; though in

some parts
it

has subsequently

disappeared.

The compact front The State

;

presented to martial invasion

and

to

armed

spoliation has been the

theme of much eloquent

description.

assesses the land-tax

upon the

village

in the aggregate

the

members

of the brotherhood then assess

upon themselves

their quotas of the assessed

amount, each

man

according to his share or holding, with the sanction

assessing authorities.
If

of the

any member

shall thereafter fail to

for
it,

pay

his quota, the other

proviso

that

members are liable they may take up the holding

with the

of the defaulter.

Chap.

xii.

IMPORTANCE OF VILLAGE COMMUNITIES.

thus a solidarity between
;

219

There

is

all

those wiio

bclon^^ to tlic

fraternity

and

this

is

the arrangement so well knoNvn

in

northern India by the

name

of "joint responsibility."

It is

condemned by some,
cations.

as leading to hardship

and

otlier

compli-

By
is

other authorities the hardship has

to the brotherhood

been denied
;

and the advantages

practice

have been urged

tlie

defended in respect of

tliese considerations

and in
other

deference to established usage.

It has the effect,

among

consequences, of keeping the lands of each village in the hands

of a certain clan,
difficult.

and renders the ingress of strangers very

places the communities will not allow
to

In many

any

of

their

transfers

members to transfer holdings to members of the village clan or

strangers,

while

of kindred clans are

common.
mortgages

Nevertheless, holdings have often been transferred to

strangers, especially Native bankers

;

who acquire possession under

and sometimes such

is

transfers give birth to feuds.

On

the whole, the property

effectively valuable, in proof of

which,

among

otlier signs,

may be adduced

the fact that moneys,

large in the aggregate, are advanced, year after year,

by Native

bankers to these landowners on the security of their proprietary

tenure.

The men

are peasant proprietors cultivating a part at

least of their holdings, leasing the

remainder to cultivators as

tenants.

Each

of these village communities has a quantity of waste

its area,

land included in
brotherhood.
in this

which waste

is

the property of the"

interest

Every member of the brotherhood has an

common waste

according to his share or his holding.

In the densely peopled parts of the country, as the territory between the Ganges and the Jamna or the upper part of the
Panjab, the waste entirely belongs to the village communities.

In other

territories, as

the central Panjab, where the waste

is

extensive, the communities have a liberal allowance of sucli

waste made to them

the State.

and the remaining waste

is

reserved to

Resembling these northern proprietors in many

respects, are

220
tlio

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xn.

men who

hold under the ryotwari, or ryot's, tenure in the Pre-

sidencies of

Madras and Bombay

in

which category

also

may

be included the landholders of

many
is

parts of British
is

Burmah

and of Assam.

The

" ryot " of the State, as he

technically

termed in Madras and Bombay,

of the land he holds.

virtually a peasant proprietor

He

cannot be interfered with in his

tenure while he pays his land revenue, and he has a heritable and
transferable right therein.
allotted to

He may
facilities

have some waste land also

him; he has

for giving

up

to the State

any

field

he does not care to keep and

;

for obtaining fresh plots

from the State

State.

otherwise the unallotted waste belongs to the

Lands

are,

however, assigned by the State to the ryots,

as

grouped into village communities, for pasturage and for

woodcutting.
gross,

The land-tax

is

assessed not on the village in the

but upon every

field or

upon every holding in

detail.

Each

" ryot " pays separately his land-tax to the State,

affairs of

without

any concern in the

village with him.

those

who own

lands in the same

That the tenure amounts to property in land

security, is in the

and comprises a valuable

attested

by the

fact

of large

sums

of

Bombay Presidency money being lent by

Native money-lenders and bankers to the " ryots " on this

security,

which practice has grown greatly during the present

of the

generation since the introduction

current settlements
to

made

for thirty years,

and has in part conduced

the in-

debtedness of the peasant proprietary of the Deccan.

In northern, western and southern India, alike in those provinces where " joint responsibility " prevails and where it
does not, the ancient organization of the " village "
is

preserved.

There

is

the village headman,

who

is

the

medium

for collecting

the quotas due from eacli landowner in the village,

districts is vested

who

in

some
is

with petty police powers, whose

is

office

usually hereditary, whose position

officially recognised,

and

who

has legally defined responsibilities for the reporting of

for

crime and
accountant,

assisting
l^etter

the

police.

There

is

the village

much

trained and educated at present than

Chap. xn.

INDEBTEDNESS OF PEASANT PROPRIETORS.

221

he ever was under Native rule or during the earlier times of

British rule.

There

is

the village watch inn

i

foniiiiig ])art of a

rural constabulary of

which the status and emoluments have

There are also village servants,
harness-maker,
the
tlie

l)een

much
smith,

ameliorated.

blackthe

the the

shoemaker and
potter,

weaver,

barber,

who

are

members

of

hereditary

trades,

and are very interesting

of India.

to all

who study

the industrial arts

The indebtedness

of the peasant proprietors in

still

some parts of
Nothing can
their best to
it

the empire has caused and

causes anxiety.

be more disappointing

to those

who have done

assess the land-tax moderately,

and have so assessed

accord-

ing to

all

available data, in order,

the peasant proprietors

may

live in

among other things, that manly independence, un-

trammelled with debts, than

less
it

to find that these

men

are neverthe-

but too often burdened with these obligations.

At

first

sight

will be inferred that the land-tax

fails to

must be
is

too high, but en-

quiry generally
that

shew that such

the case.

The

fact is

many

of these

men have

a thriftless and improvident dis-

position.

On
is

occasions of marriages and social festivities they

habitually incur expenses beyond their means, and the village-

banker

at

hand

to

offer

temptation.

The

commonest
in-

experience in the world shews that any one

may become
that these

volved in debt

if

once he begins to incur charges which he

It is in this

cannot immediately defray.

way

men

become indebted, once they yield

money-lender.

to

the seductions

of the

In seasons of drought, they

may

reasonably

obtain assistance and then the money-lender exercises a useful

function

and

at

most times they may reasonably obtain some

is

accommodation, the amount of which

speedily cleared

off.

But once they go beyond

there,

this point, they are snared in the toils

of the money-lender's books,

and

as he prefers to

keep them

he takes care that they shall not easily escape.

He

charges interest simple and

compound

till

the victim becomes

confused, and signs a fresh bond for the renewal of the debt.

222

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

xii.

principal and interest together, with but little insight into the

method by which the account

is

made

up.
first

In the Deccan, the peasant proprietors having been

rendered somewhat extravagant by
prosperity and then reduced
largely into debt from

some seasons

of inflated
years, ran

by some unpropitious
difficult.

which extrication was

In their

embarrassment they turned violently upon the money-lenders

as the authors of their misfortune,

and some disturbance ensued.

Enquiry, by a special commission, shewed that the evil had not

proceeded to any irremedialjle length and that not more than
one-third of the peasantry had become seriously involved, twothirds being still comparatively free.

Legislation

was under-

taken

for

removing the

evil which, after all abatements,

was

proved to be considerable.

Additional
;

facilities are afforded

for the settlement of the debts

conciliation courts

and

arbitra-

tion tribunals have been established.

Authority

is

given to the

judges to examine, more closely and equitably than before, the

particulars of

which the debts were composed, which

is to

to separate the
fair

principal from the interest,

be reduced to a

and

moderate amount.
volved,

Those peasants

who became

seriously in-

have suffered much misery which has

evoked the

kindly sympathy of philanthropists and reformers in England,

and has been eloquently described by Florence Nightingale.

The

regret
if

felt

respecting

the

indebtedness

would

be

mitigated

the debts had been incurred for agricultural im-

provements, such as the construction of wells for irrigation

but they are generally not incurred for such purposes.

The

Government, however, has always made advances in cash to

peasant proprietors for the construction
of wells,

and other

small works of irrigation.

for these

The people do not

largely apply

advances in ordinary times, but whenever they do

receive such

accommodation they are punctual and honest in

In times of drought, however, they are forward
for advances,

repayment.

and eager in applying

which are readily granted

of wells, in various parts

by the

authorities.

Some thousands

Chap.

xii.

PERIODICAL REVISION OF SETl'LEMENT.

223

of

tlie

empire, have by these

means been constructed during

the recent famines.

Eecently there has been legislation for

the purposes of facilitating the grant of advances by the State

for agricultural

and other material improvements, upon a large

In some cases landowners have
advantages,
of

as well as

small scale.

availed

themselves

these

but generally the

landholding community has been

in this respect.

backward and hesitating

after the expiry

The

liability to

enhancement of the land-tax,

of even a long term of years, does detract

somewhat from the

is

value of the property.

Lands of which the tax

settled for

thirty years, though valuable, are not nearly so valuable as lands

wliere

it

is

settled for ever.

Still,

the landowner, seeing the

carefulness and moderation with which the assessment has been

made, and understanding the data on wliich

it is

founded, feels

confidence that the same principles will be observed at the

next assessment.
least the

He

knows, indeed, that

after enjoying for at

all

term of settlement the entire benefit of

to surrender

improveof
it

ments he makes, he may have

assessment,
left to

some portion

to the State at the next settlement in the shape of

still

enhanced

he

is

assured that the

greater

part will be

him.

Nevertheless, there are undoubted evils in the

;

system of periodical revision

as the

end of a current

settle-

ment draws ment

is is

near, the people are anxious

and doubtful, and

of improve-

their energies are

somewhat impaired. The progress

retarded for a time, as the outlay of agricultural capital

till

postponed

the

new assessment

shall

have been completed.

These and other considerations have moved the Government

to debate

whether the principle of the permanent settlement of

a measure of this character seemed very
;

Bengal should not be extended to some parts of northern

India.

At one time

near to

promulgation

the

arguments on the other side were urged

Government paused, however and the prospect of

;

any such extension seems

now

to be remote.

It is felt that in

some

parts of Bengal

and Behar the permanently

settled land

224
revenue has become

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

xii.

extremely light

and

almost

nominal,

having been assessed for ever on lands then imperfectly cultivated, but subsequently

brought under complete cultivation.

at the

rate of incidence,
is

which may have been reasonable

light
;

time,

now unreasonably
for

thus

it

is

felt

that

there

has been an unwarrantable

is

sacrifice of the State

income.

This

no reason
is

infringing

upon the permanent settlement,

it

Mdiich

inviolable wherever

has been made.

But

it

is

reason for hesitating to introduce such a settlement into any

tracts,

save those which are cultivated to the utmost, so far

as can be reasonably foreseen.

The question then

arises as to

whether any,
present.

and

if

so,

what, lands are thus cultivated at

There

may

indeed be few or none such, regard being

had

to

the effect

of railways

and other works

of material

improvement.

Hence the Government may doubt whether,

having respect to the imperative interests of the public revenue,

it

can afford to extend the permanent settlement,

much

as that

extension might on other grounds be desired.

Endeavours,

however, have been made, perhaps are

still

being made, to

educe some principles whereby the future revisions of assess-

ment

shall be regulated, so that the

landowners

may know

as

nearly as possible Ijeforehand what to expect on these occasions.

Tenant-right,
cultivator,

by wliich is meant the status of the occupant or below the grade of peasant proprietor, has formed a
Bengal
is

vexed question in several parts of India,

settlement in

held

The permanent by some authorities to have

made

either no provision, or very inadequate provision, for the

status of tenants, occupants or cultivators subordinate to the

landlord.

Under the circumstances

of

Bengal

there

lon^^

existed a body of opinion adverse to tenant-right, though this

has probably abated of late years. In the Northwestern Provinces and in the Panjab there has always existed a sentiment in favour of tenant-right. In Oudh the question has
feeling

been keenly contested and, after some controversy,

much

has

been dune

for

the tenantry.

In the Central Provinces, their

Chap.

xii.

PROTECTION OF TENANT-RIGHT.

225
In Bind
improveis

position lias been gradually improved step by step.

their status is still

under consideration with a view

of

to

ment.
in

In the southern and western parts of the empire, that

Presidencies
of this

the

Madras and Bombay, no very large

their sub-

questions

nature have arisen, except in the Concan,

where the disputes between the Khote landlords and

hoklers have been recently determined

by

legislation.

In Bengal twenty years have elapsed since a legislative

enactment was passed, with which the name of Edward Currie

will ever be honourably associated.

Thereby the principle was

uninterruptedly in

established that a tenant,

who had been

occupancy

for

twelve years, shall not, in the absence of specific

agreement, be liable to have his rent arbitrarily or summarily

enhanced, and that

if

the landlord shall

demand an enhanceenhancement
justice.

ment

to

which the tenant does not

agree, such

shall not be enforced without

an order of a court of

In

other words, a landlord cannot ordinarily enhance the rent of

such a tenant without bringing a suit

operates as a check
tenant.
this

and

this

necessarily
to the

upon the landlord and a protection

It is theoretically possible for the landlords to to

evade

enactment by not allowing any new tenant

remain as

long as twelve years, or by removing tenants as their respective

terms of years approach termination,

has

])ut practically this, if it

happened

occasionally,

happens

rarely.

Generally the

landlords allow their good tenants to run on undisturbed, and

thus to

rise,

one after another, from the status of a tenant at

will without rights to that of an occupancy tenant with rights as

above described. Already the number of such occupancy tenants

in Bengal
is

considerable,

and will increase from time

;

to time.

In Behar, the same law prevails

themselves of
it

the people, however, avail

but little.

From various local causes, the tenantry

;

though physically active and industrious, are morally depressed

they probably have not the
assert their rights.
spirit,

certainly not the power, to

Among

these causes are the density of the

population, and the multiplicity of the people

demanding
Q

to

226
cultivate

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

xii.

upon any terms, however meagre, which they can obtain. Thus the peasantry in Behar are for the most part tenants at will, without any rights their condition is not worthy
;

of the fertile

and thriving

territory

which

is

cultivated

by

their

industry, and has called forth indignant remarks from

officers

some
has

of

much

local

experience.
;

The

circumstance

caused anxiety to the autliorities

improvement was retarded

however manifest, are

by the famine, but some measures

be found
jDracticable,

of amelioration will doubtless

evils,

though the

difficult of

speedy remedy.

Beneficial changes, however, in their

condition have of late been brought about.

In the North-western Provinces and in the Panjab, when the

settlement of the land revenue was

made

for
all

terms of twenty
the proprietors

and thirty years and when the rights of

the tenantry,

were recorded, special consideration was given to the status of

who form
is

a considerable class,
so largely held

notwithstanding
proprietors.

that the country there

by peasant

The tenants were broadly divided into two main classes, first those who had rights on the presumption of their having had
possession for a long time, or from father to son,

whence they

were

locally called " hereditary

status,

" secondly, those

who had not

such a

who were

tenants at will, being locally called

The "hereditary" tenants were held to possess much the same rights as the occupancy tenants above described, and they comprised a large proportion of the entire
"non-hereditary."
tenantry.

Subsequently, questions having arisen regarding the

operation and the validity of these settlements in the Panjab,

an enactment was passed by the legislature which virtually

confirmed
these

arrangements.

Laws

of

a similar

nature

regarding the relations of the agricultural classes towards each

other have been enacted for the North-western Provinces and

Oudh.
done

But

in

Oudh

it

seems

to be held

by some

authorities

that there yet remains

is

more

to be effected before full justice

to the peasantry.

Thus, the position of a considerable portion of the tenantry

Chap. xn.

PrvIVILEGES OF

OCCUPANCY TENANTS.

227
safeguards.

in

northern India has been hedged with

is

many

The occupancy tenant

effectually

protected against

undue

exaction and from interference or eviction, so long as he pays

the customary or the stipulated rent.
that he
sell,

It is generally

admitted
improve,

may

inherit the lands, but not that he

may

transfer or sublet

them without the consent

of his land-

lord.

Custom, however, varies in

be found where he can do

many
all

localities,

and instances

may
he

these things, and where

differs

but

little

from a sub-proprietor.

Probably, as time
;

advances, these several points will be cleared up in his favour

and the

logical sequence will be to

promote him gradually

sees
fit

to the position of a sub-proprietor

who may do what he

all

with the land, having the benefit of he pays the stipulated

improvements, so long as

rent, the landlord retaining a voice in all

improvements or
injured.

alterations, lest the land should he in

case, it

any way

In any

appears to be necessary that the

superior proprietor should have at least this

much

of concurrent

authority over his

own

land.

There remains, however, for the "occupancy" tenants

difficult

question which seems to be

still

far

from solution,
?

namely this, can the landlord enhance

then what principle
places,
for
is

their rents

and
?

if

he can,

to guide the

enhancement

In some
once
af-

instance

eastern Bengal, these tenants

firmed that their rents shall not be raised.

They even

stirred

up agrarian disturbances and agitation, in support of claims which really were to that effect. The landlords claimed, and
will probably continue to claim,

some share

in the proceeds of

the increased value and yield of the produce of their estates,

which

is

locally

termed

" the

vmearned increment."
;

Such
but the

disputes

may

be carried before the courts of justice

judges can decide only by the custom of the neighbourhood,

often
to

a moot point,

or

by other dubious
of all concerned,

data.

It

is

much

be desired that some principle should be evolved, com-

manding the acquiescence

in a
legislative

and be embodied
in Bengal has

enactment.

The Government

Q 2

228
for

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.
for

xii.

some years been engaged in paving the way

in favour

such

legislation.

Whether the measures

of occupancy tenants be

considered sufficient or not, there remains a class of tenants,

numerous in many provinces, and numerically preponderating

in

some provinces, who are tenants

In some places such
;

at will,

in the technical

sense.

men

are of long standing on the

who do other and to move work besides cultivation, and who change. Even their position, however, has been guarded by
estate

in

many

places they are migratory persons

are free "to

many

just provisions

their rent

may

be enhanced indeed, but

not during the currency of the agricultural year, nor without

adequate notice.

If

they are to move, timely notice

;

and

warning must be given them

to

they

may

be evicted for failure

pay

rent,

but the eviction must be regulated by a procedure

If process of

framed for their protection against oppression.

distraint or attaclunent be issued, their
cattle are

implements and plough-

exempted.
rule the rent
itself

Under Native

was very often paid in kind,

so paid
;

because the revenue

was

where the revenue was

paid in cash, rents came to be paid in the same way.

Under British rule rents are still sometimes paid in kind, but more often in cash, and the tendency towards this mode of payment
becomes strengthened from time
Opinions will
has been, or
is

to time.

differ

regarding the merits or demerits of what

tenant-right.

being, done regarding

At

the

greatest centre in the empire, Calcutta, the landlord influence,

both European and Native,

landlords have evinced

is

strong.

Many

of the Native
spirit

considerate

and conciliatory

towards the tenantry.

lord's view, will

Those who incline towards the land-

probably deem that the law has done enough

Irrespective of them, however, the majority
will

in this direction. of the Native

community

probably be in favour of the

legislation

tenantry, and would perhaps

in the diivclidii

welcome any further

Olhcial opinion

of tenant-right.

may

not be

Chap.

xii.

TENANTS AT WILL.
subject, but

229

unanimous on the

would probably support the

of ability

same view.

Some European
all

officers,

and of special
regarded as

knowledge, consider that

the cultivators,

now

tenants at will, should have their rents determined for a long

term of years and should not be liable to eviction so long

as they duly

pay such

rent.

In Mr. Irvin's interesting book

upon
'

rural

affairs

in Oudh, recently published, and entitled

The Garden

of India,'

opinions of this tendency are fully

It is possible that opinions of this

explained and vindicated.

nature

may

find

acceptance

more and more, and that the

tendency of future changes and of coming legislation will be in

this direction.

The Indian Famine Commission

report clearly indicate an

in their recently published

legislation is

opinion that further

required for the better protection of both occupancy and non-

occupancy tenants.

On

the whole, the

management
Whatever

of the land-tax is the

most

satisfactory, as it is the

most important, part

faults
;

of the administraexist in
it,

tion of British India.

slight as
still

may

they are

compared with the merits

whatever shortcomings

may

be perceived, they are small relatively to the vast and un-

doubted achievements.

Property in land has been recognised

throughout the empire with a practical efficacy unknown before.

It has been

rendered valuable by equity and moderation in

devolution has been secured by
all

taxation

its

the forms and

processes exemplified in the most advanced nations.

right has been established for the better classes of

Tenant-

husbandmen,

and has been

so dealt with that its

growth and diffusion among

Thus, the landed
stability,

the humbler peasants

may

be promoted.

system becomes a mainstay of the national

foundation of popular contentment.

and a


230

INDIA IN

1880.

Ciur.

xiii.

CHAPTER

XIII.

REVENUES.
Land revenue

Average

rates of its incidence

from Native States Excise Assessed taxes Customs Abolition of import duties on English piece goods The salt tax English salt imStamp revenue ported Opium revenue Objections to it discussed

Government receipts as contradistinguished from local and municipal purposes Projects for revenue proper Taxation
Total of o-eneral revenues
for

Tributes and contributions

new

taxes deprecated.

The nature

of the

land revenue has been explained in the

Its

preceding chapter.

average yield
;

may

be set down at

21 millions sterling per

recovery of arrears,
its

annum

though in some years, owing to

receipts

have exceeded

this

sum.

Its

incidence per acre varies considerably, as might be expected, in

different provinces, but averages in

most parts of the empire,

8s.

1| rupee or

2s. 6d.

per acre unirrigated, and 4 rupees or

best calculations

per

acre irrigated.

The

shew that

it falls

at the

rate of four shillings per

annum

per head of the landowning

population.

Some
proof of

authorities

have apprehended that

it

it

is

a heavier

burden in the present, than

this,

was in the

past, generation,

and in

the fact

is

adduced that

its total

amount has nearly

doubled during this time.

Had

such an increase occurred with

the same population and the same cultivated area,

indeed be remarkable.

with 36 millions of

it would But during the time, fresh provinces, people and 242,000 square miles of territory,

have been added

to the empire, to

which circumstance alone 6

millions sterling of land revenue are attributable.

cultivation generally
is

The area of
by more

ascertained to have increased

than 50 per

cent.,

while in some provinces under the Madras

;

fgovernment it

has amounted to 100 per cent.

and the prices of

(JiiAi>.

xui.

LAND REVENUE.

231

agricultural produce have risen.

To these causes some legitimate

no instance
is

increase

may

be ascribed,

Ijut in

any increase due

State in the

to an augmentation of the share claimed

l)y tlie

rent or profit of the cultivation.

On

the contrary, the share

thus claimed has everywhere diminished, and in some provinces,

especially the North-western, the diminution has been remarkable.

In the Panjab the lightness of the British land-tax, as

is

compared with that of the Sikh Native Government,

notorious

and has brought about a great increase in the value of land. Calculations have been made which seem to shew that when
the Permanent Settlement was
of the Zemindars

made

in Bengal, the total rental

amounted
it

to only a

few hundred thousand

to several millions

pounds annually and that

sterling.

now amounts

In the Bombay Presidency the area of cultivation

has so greatly expanded that, notwithstanding a reduction in

the rate of assessment per acre, there has been a considerable

augmentation of the land revenue.

goes to prove that the land-tax
is

Thus the best information

becoming relatively
its officers

lighter.

Certainly the Government and all

earnestly desire

that this tax should be really moderate, believing that such

moderation affords the surest basis of popular contentment under

British rule.

Except in seasons of drought, the demand

is

punctually paid and easily collected.

It has

been sometimes suggested that the British system of

is

collecting this tax

too rigid

and unbending and that a greater

is

degree of elasticity and flexibility of method

to circumstances of drought

needed, according

and other calamity.

than Native rule

Now,
;

British

rule

is

more

rigid in this respect

there

must

necessarily be

more

of such rigidity on the part of the British,

between

whom

made, than on the part of Native

and the people a settlement or compact has been rulers, between whom and their

people no such arrangement had been effected. a settlement

is

The essence of

that the people should, in the main, take the

poor years with the good.

authorities invarialjly

In bad years, however, the British

shew consideration, notwithstanding the

232
settlement, giving the

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

xiii.

men time

to pay,

suspending the demand

portion of till the seasons improve, and sometimes remitting a a large to adopted are measures These lenient it altogether.

extent in all provinces.

Some

authorities

have thought that in certain places, or

under certain circumstances, the Government might advantageously revert to the old Native system of collecting the land
revenue in kind, instead of the existing system of collecting But the prevailing opinion would be wholly adverse it in cash.
to such a

measure which would be regarded as retrograde.

is

Such
which

a method of collecting
rule.

contrary to the genius

of British

It

would give

rise to the inquisitorial interference

British policy has been so careful to or destroy that sense of

avoid, and

it

would impair
spirit of self-

manly independence and

help which the British administration has striven to foster in

the people.
It

would

resuscitate a host of abuses

which the

British system has extinguished,

and

it

would, in

all probability,

prove unpopular in practice.

Tlie tributes

and contributions from Native States amount,

sterling.

on the average, to nearly three-quarters of a million

They represent an item

political disturbance,

of

income which, in times

free

from

may
if

be regarded as fixed and certain.

The

excise amounts, on the average, to

sterling
;

upwards of two millions

and a half
empire,
spirits
it

perfectly well

amounts

to three millions sterling.

managed throughout the It is levied on

made

locally from various sources, the wild fruits of

trees

and the like; and on drugs, prepared from the opium

It is not liable to
consists, except

poppy, from some sorts of hemp, and so on.

evasion on any of the items of which
it

opium.

As a
it

tax upon

is

quite distinct from the revenue derived from the

opium grown and consumed in the country, opium

It is subject to evasion because, in

exported to China.

the

province of Behar and in Central India, great quantities of

opium

are produced for exportation.

its full

But while the exportable

opium pays

duty without any unlawful abatement, the

Chap,

xiii,

EXCISE.
tlic

233
drug contrive to

persons concerned in the production of

secrete a certain proportion, small doul)tless as

compared with
also

the total quantity produced, but enougli for the private con-

sumption of themselves or their neighbours,

to
affect

sufficient

the

yield of the local

excise.

In the province of

Gujerat, in the peninsula of Kathiawar

coast, adjoining the

and on the western

of Central India,

opium-growing

districts

there

is

a large consumption locally which for the most part

taxation.

evades

Some
;

progress

has,

however,
is

been made

towards prevention
subject.

and constant attention

directed to the

There have been doubts

felt

regarding the moral effect of the

this

system of excise on

spirits.

Farming

branch of the excise,

does indeed prevent evasion, for the farmer and his servants

become

ex-officio preventive agents

with vigilance stimulated

it

by

self-interest.

On
all

the other hand

sustains a class of in-

fluential

publicans

drinking

among

those

who have every incentive to encourage who are inclined to this indulgence.

At one time
tribes,

the farming system was found to be coincident

with aggravation of drunkenness among some of the mountainous

and a modification of that system was followed by moral

In several provinces the system
it

amelioration in this respect.

has been re-arranged so as to free

from any possible reproach

There
is

on the score of encouraging drunkenness.

the great capital
cities,

indeed in

at the large central stations,

and in

many
which

other frequented situations, an excess of drinking, which

might not perhaps excite surprise in northern climes, but

is

more than would be expected

in

warmer

latitudes.

The
that

sight of this

may

give to some observers the impression

under British rule drinking prevails more than under

rule.
if

Native

Wider observation
main

will,

however, prove that the

Indians,

judged by the standard of advanced nations, are

;

sober and temperate in the

and that despite any defects

which may

still

lurk in the excise system, the British taxes

do operate as some check upon insobriety.

234

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

xiii.

The assessed taxes

at present consist of a licence tax

on trades

imposed since the famine of 1877, with a view of ensuring a surplus of income over .expenditure, and so enabling the State to
execute works of material improvement for the prevention of
famine.
It is held that the mercantile classes are
fiscal

but

little

taxed otherwise, and bear less

of the

burdens than other classes

is

community.

This licence tax

not assessed upon a contax.

sideration of the

income of each taxpayer, like an income

The taxpayers are grouped into classes, according to incomes above and below certain amounts, and for each class one rate is The tax may therefore be fixed for all who are placed therein. described as a rough income tax upon traders, without the inquiry into the affairs of individuals which is apt to be unpopular in India. If not so productive as an income tax,
it

is

considered to be less objectionable.

it

It

cannot be said

to

have escaped unpopularity, but

little

has been collected with-

out difficulty and with as

discontent as could be expected.

it

There have been proposals to extend

to

professions,

and
;

so to bring it still nearer to the principle of an

income tax

these

met with some disfavour at Calcutta but with some favour at Bombay and Madras, they have not, however, been
carried into effect.
If financial requirements necessitate the

imposition of direct taxation, then a

licence tax

on trades

with an
classes, is

approximate and easy assessment upon graduated

much

the best, or the least objectionable, form of tax.

to

Such a measure does tend

in the fiscal system,
for

remedy the acknowledged flaw

fact that the mercantile classes
;

namely the

the

most part escape taxation by the State

In England

they pay

municipal taxes, indeed, but no appreciable taxes to the Government.

it

were easy

to
;

show how the merchant

but
it

contributes to the public revenues

to prove

would be

difficult

anything of the sort in India, in the absence of any

If the measure, however, goes
it

assessed taxes.

beyond a rough
or

licence tax on trades,

must gradually grow

merge into

an income

tax.

Chap,

xiii,

INCOME TAX

CUSTOMS.

235

There would be grave objection to the re-imposition of an

income tax at the present time,

if

that could possibly be avoided.

few years only have elapsed since the Government of India,

long and careful
discussion, decided
to

after
tax.

abandon

this

There was

much

to

be said both for and against the tax,

officially.

all wliich

was urged publicly and

having

Tlie decision for

relinquishment,

been

formally taken,

ought

to

be

respected and not disturbed except under overwhelming necessity.

The arguments
as,

for the tax

were much the same as they

are in England, save that in one respect they were stronger, inas-

much
little

in India, the measure embraces taxable classes otherwise

included in taxation, while in respect of productiveness, they

were weaker.

The objections against

it

were much the same

as in England, save that they

facilities for evasion,

were stronger in respect to the

to

and much stronger in respect

unpopu-

larity.

It

was the comparative unproductiveness on the one

hand, and the inevitable discontent on the other hand, that

weighed so much with the Government of India, when, on

striking

the

balance between conflicting considerations,

of the measure

the

abandonment
a half, even yielding less

was determined.
in recent years

The Customs have yielded

two millions and

sterling
;

two millions and three-quarters

now, and are likely
still

but are

further to be diminished.
tariff,

One

principal heading in the import

is

namely the duty on

English piece goods,

altogether.

seriously attacked, and

may

be abolished

One

large item in the export

tariff,

namely the duty

any
only

on grain,

is

held by some to be not sound in principle, incapable

of standing against the objections which might arise from

change in the

rice

markets of the world, and likely to

last

so long as the Indian rice maintains its present position in the

European
short
:

trade.

The
list

list of

dutiable exports has been rendered

but the

of dutiable imports, though reduced

and

modified from time to time with the view of saving trouble to

the trade and to the people,
is still

long;

all its items,

however,

are levied without causing difficulty or discontent.

The question

of abolishing or retaining the import duties

on

23G

INDIA IN

1880.
still

Chap.
excites

xm.

English piece goods has excited and

in India.

much

discussion

The duties on the particular

articles in this category,

which were most immediately exposed

to competition

from Indian

manufactures, have been abolished, while the remaining, or

most of the remaining, duties are indicated for abolition as

soon as the financial circumstances of the country

may

permit.

For the abolition

it is

argued that there

is

a growing competition

between English and Indian manufactures respecting

many

of

the articles which constitute the clothing of the population of

and that the margin is becoming more and more narrow which determines whether the British manufacturer or the Indian manufacturer shall obtain the custom and patronage wdiich such
India,

a population can bestow.

The import duty may be

is

light, still it

becomes important where the trader's profit

be appreciable only

so slender as to

when

the

trade

is

large,

and where so

slight a difference in price

may

turn the scale for or against the

circulation of the English goods in the interior of the country.

This competition

is

intensified
is still

by the

fact that while the

mass of

indigenous fabrics
of steam

made by hand without

the advantages

and of machinery, some of these

the spot, at

fabrics are

now being

made on

Bombay and

elsewhere, with all these very

advantages and often with English capital and under European

supervision.
It is natural that the British

manufacturers should

look upon the import duties with jealous eyes, and should ap-

prehend that they are protective of indigenous, to the exclusion

of

English,

manufactures.

The very

fact

that

those

who

produce manufactures on the spot with machinery, are opposed

to the abolition,

shews that they believe the duties to have a

protective tendency.

The circumstance that the importation of

those piece goods on wliich the duties have been remitted, has
proportionately increased since the remission, affords proof that

the duties did operate protectively.

These and other similar views find some echo in India, but
are there frequently controverted.
loss

Stress

is

laid

on the
;

fiscal

which

at present the finances cannot properly bear

while

the loss caused to the English producer

by the retention of the

Chap.

xiir.

THE SALT TAX.

to tlie

237

duties,

and the gain

Indian consumer by their abolition, are

held to be less than has been often supposed, and too slight to be
really appreciable.
their

The cause of English piece goods not making

is

way

into the interior of the country,

not the existence of

the duties, but the fact that they cannot be laid

as

down

in India

good in quality

for the

same

price as the indigenous goods.

it is said,

The repute
sizing facturers

of the English goods,

has been injured by

and other questionable

processes.

The English manu-

would do

better, it is argued, if

they attended to main-

taining a good quality at a cheap price, rather than to agitation

against the duties.

The welfare

of India
is

is

so

much bound up

with the State finance, that whatever

financially injurious

operates directly on the condition of the people.

The

salt

tax yields on the average nearly seven millions

is

sterling,

and

one of the few taxes, perhaps

it is

the only tax,

affecting all classes.

Though imperceptible
some degree
felt

to the

upper and
classes,

middle

classes, it is in
it

by the poorest

but then

is

the only tax they pay, and represents the only

contribution which they

make towards
annum.
It

the expenses of the State

which protects them.

is

Its incidence per head of the population

computed

at

7^. per

used to be designated a
;

monopoly
still is

of the East India

Company
of,

and the general rule

that salt shall not be manufactured in India except

the agency, or under the supervision

the Government.

by The

whole seaboar(J of the empire, including the Malabar and Coro-

mandel

coasts, the deltas of the

Ganges and Indus, the shallow

and nearly dried arm of the sea named the Eann of Cach, the
Salt range of the

Panjab, and the salt lakes and saliferous

basins and tracts of Eajputana and Central India, produce salt

enough
tracts

for

the

vast

population
to

of the

empire.

All these

are

still

made

yield

salt,

except the delta of the

of Bengal.

Ganges and the upper coasts

excepted
tracts,

of the

Bay
salt,

In these

the manufacture of

once so extensive, has

been suppressed in order that an import duty might be levied on the

salt

imported from England, and the expenses of local

238
manufacture be saved
;

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

xiii.

thus the salts of Droitwich and Chester

alone are seen in the markets of Calcutta and of Bengal.

The people

of Bengal proper have long borne, without

murshew

muring, a high rate of salt tax, higher than that of

consumption.

any other

part of India, nor have any striking facts been elicited to

that the tax

appreciably affects

the rates in the Presidencies of

At one time Madras and Bombay were much

though they are
still

lower

of late they

have been

raised,

lower

than that of Bengal, which, on the other hand, has been slightly
reduced.

In the North-western Provinces, and elsewhere

also,

there have been

signs indicating that the tax, if raised too high,

would
deter

affect the

consumption of

salt

by the people and would

them from giving it in sufficient quantity to their cattle. and central India a remarkable change of system northern In
Formerly, the
salt,

has been recently introduced.

made

in the

jurisdiction of the Native States of Rajputana, used to be de-

spatched by a long land transit to the markets of the North-

western Provinces and of the Central Provinces, and was taxed

on crossing the
a preventive
the

British borders.

For the purpose of

tliis

taxing,
all

manned with Native sentinels at intervals way, under the command of European officials, stretched
line,

for

about two thousand miles, beginning from near the Satlej in the
north,
in
tlie

and passing through Central India down

south.

to the

Godavery

This line was indeed necessary so long as no

of protecting the salt revenue.
;

other

means could be found

Still it

represented a waste of power

also

it

inevitably operated
to trade.

as a trouble to the people

and an impediment

But,

with the loyal and praiseworthy co-operation of the Rajput

States, the

management
entrusted to

of the salt-works in their jurisdiction

has been
passes

British
its

supervision,
to

and the railway

by the works on
salt

way

the British territories, so

conveying the

to the marts.

Thus, the salt being con-

trolled at the very source of supply, the preventive line can be

spared.

in cost

was accordingly abolished at a great saving of establishment and to the satisfaction of all concerned.
Tlie line

CiiAP. xiii.

MODE OP LEVYING THE OPIUM REVENUE.

on

239
this
re-

Tosjethcr with the salt tax, duties used to be levied

same preventive
linquished

line,

on sugar

chiclly indigenous,

and were

when

the line was abolished.

fluctuates considerably according to the
It

The opium revenue

ranges of prices in the Chinese markets.

yields

on the

average upwards of nine millions sterling gross and upwards of

six millions sterling net, after defrayal of all expenses.
It is

levied in

two ways

one,

on the eastern or Bengal

side,

by

opium, made in State factories from poppy cultivated under

State supervision, and sold

by auction
it

at Calcutta

on the State

account to merchants

who
side,

export

to

China

the other, on the

by an export duty levied on opium made by private manufacture from poppy grown in Native
western or

Bombay

States.

Objection has been raised to the method adopted on the

Bengal

side, as directly

connecting the Government with the

manufacture
deleterious.

of

drug

which
are,

is

regarded

by

many
It

as

These operations
as a

however, undertaken by the

Government only

means

of securing the revenue.

would

be possible to substitute for them the system which prevails on

the western side, and which would be free from this particular

form of objection.
established and
is

But

as the

Bengal system has been long

thoroughly understood by the numerous persons

the authorities have hesitated to

concerned in

it,

make any
opium

change, lest some loss should thereby accrue to the revenue.

Nor

is

the argument really affected

by the

fact that the

department makes advances in cash to the cultivators who raise

the poppy.

For the cultivation would exist equally whether

it

the Government supervised

or not

its profits

would im-

mediately attract the capitalists

who abound

in that part of the

country, and in the absence of the

Government many others

Whichever method be adopted, the would make eastern or the western, the opium will be exported to China.
the advances.

The
blame

real

and important argument

is

that

which attaches
is

to the

Government

of India, because

opium

exported

240
from India
for the

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xin.

consumption of the Chinese. Now, in effect opium the same the Government of India adopts towards and in other attitude which the Government in England
countries preserves towards spirits, that
heavily.
If
is,

it

taxes the drug

opium

flourishes in India,

when thus

weighted,
relief

it

would
fiscal

flourish as

much

or

more

if

lightened by the

from

burden.

tion, as it
if it

There cannot, then, be any objection to the taxawhich, falls upon an article which is a luxury and
is

be useful in extreme moderation,

most deleterious

if

used in excess.
the treasury,
the
drug,

To abandon the taxation would be to injure leaving no check upon the consumption of
rather

but

giving

some

encouragement

thereto.

Wliether those,
cro

so far as

who object to the existing opium system, would to recommend the absolute suppression of poppy
be doubted.

cultivation

may

Inasmuch
and

as the culture is very as the exportation is

profitable to thousands of cultivators,

still

and

more

profitable to traders

capitalists,

any attempt on the

part of the State at suppression would be futile, and would Nor do the British territories only lead to dangerous abuses. comprise the only area fit for poppy culture, for as already seen

much

of the best soils for the

is

question, too,

poppy are in Native States. The not confined to the opium exportable to China

the Indians consume

opium

to

some

extent, though
is

much

less

than

tlie Cliinese.

At

present the drug

taxed for the Indians

as for all others, a check being thus

imposed on the local con-

sumption.

In this respect, then, the Government plays, as

its

levying a tax, the same part in respect to

the
Chinese.

own

subjects as

There remains, then, only the moral question

Chinese, which
is

as affecting the

very

difficult

of adequate

discussion in a

work

relating to India.

In China there are

;

apparently two parties to be considered

one the people or

consumers, the other the State.

In respect to the people of

China, there are certain broad considerations which must be as

applicable to

them

as to all other nations.

They

are evidently
it if

fond of the Indian opium, are determined to procure

they

Chap.
can,

xtii.

DISCUSSION AS TO THE OriUM REVENUE.

to

241

and are willing

pay a very high price

for

it.

desire at all lessened l)y the circnmstance tliat their

Nor is their own GovernThey

is

ment
tion,

is

understood to be opposed to the use of the drug.

at

grow great quantities of opium

notwithstanding the
understood to
culture.

home

for their

own consumpGovernment

efforts

which

their

make

occasionally for

the suppression of the

to be con-

Nevertheless, the Indian

opium continues

sumed
liked

in

China as much as
classes, is

ever, because it is of a quality

much

by some

not equalled by the indigenous drug,

a high price.
It is not found, then,

and therefore

still

commands

on examination that the Indian revenvie from opium does any

harm

either to the Indians or the Chinese.

On

the contrary,
indirectly in

the levying of this revenue

must

effect

some good

checking the consumption of the drug.

It seems, however, to be

held by some authorities that the Chinese Government, objecting

on moral grounds

to the

consumption of opium, desires

to prohibit

the importation of Indian

opium
This

into China, but

is

prevented

from so doing by the existing commercial

arrangements with England.
is

treaties

and other

a point hardly to be dis-

cussed in a work relating to India,

if

It is manifest, however, that

the Chinese

Government

shall ever attempt to prevent the

importation of an article of luxury

it

much

desired

by the people,

will be essaying a task which has rarely been undertaken by any Government with success anywhere, and which the Govern-

ment

in most civilized countries does not attempt.

There

may

be other important points relating to China which can be best

explained by the authorities

who

are cognizant of its affairs,

and whose views wdll doubtless be received with due deference. The only object of the foregoing remarks is to explain the
conduct and the position of the Government in India.

The stamp revenue now

growth has
is

yields three millions sterling,

and

its

a fiscal

many years been steady and heading new to India since the
for
is

satisfactory.

It

introduction

of

British rule, and its profitable character

often a marvel to the

Natives,

who

regard

it

as

an instance of Western ingenuity.

It

242

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap,

xiii-

Although objections are raised against some parts of it, still on The stamps are the whole it is far from being unpopular.
grouped under two categories, namely those which are levied on The judicial documents and those on commercial documents.
judicial

stamps are free from evasion, and are realised

easily.
;

They

are

by some condemned
is

as being taxes

on justice
it is

this

objection

not indeed destitute of weight, though

counter-

balanced by the fact that litigation flourishes, and that the petty
classes of suits are specially
to

numerous with a
are

slight

tendency

increase.

The commercial stamps

;

rarely

made the

subjects of complaint

but they are probably evaded to a great

extent, notwithstanding all the precautions

rities

which the autho-

can take

but, persevering vigilance will gradually prevent

this evasion,

with a corresponding advantage to the revenue.

The

several heads of revenue thus described

make up on an

average a total of 43^ millions sterling thus.

Chat.

xirr.

GOVERNMENT RECEIPTS REVENUE PROPER.

tlie

243

that an empire, of which

Inillions sterling,

annual accounts shew receipts of 05

must

1)0

able to afford a liberal expenditure.

There

is

a difference between receipts and revenue, as tech-

nically understood.

Wliile the Government possesses a large

it

revenue proper, as already described,

ceipts

has also large re-

which must, under a sound system of national accountkeeping, be entered in the same statement and on the same
with the revenues. There would be danger in having two accounts, or in allowing the financial authorities to decide
side

on their discretion what items should be included or excluded, and whether headings of revenue should be exhibited gross
or net.
all

The
fide

rule followed
receipts
all

is

this,

that on the

receipt

side

bona

from whatever source shall be fully

exhibited,

and

items of revenue gross,

and not
all

net,

no
fide

abatement being

made

for

expenses

that

bona

charges for wdiatever purpose, whether for defence or administration, for concerns

managed by the

State, or for the raising

of the revenue
side.

itself,

should be exhibited on the expenditure

Thus the

fact that

while the revenue proper stands at 43^

millions only, the revenue and receipts

amount
comes

to 65 millions,

represents no discrepancy and involves no error whatever.

On

the principle above explained,

is

it

to pass that the

is

land revenue

shewn
it,

gross

a large

expenditure

indeed
is

exhibited against

2^ millions
also

sterling,

much

of

which

really devoted to the administration of the affairs of the land.

The opium revenue

6^ millions.

is

shewn

at 9 millions gross, although in

it is

the total of 43^ millions given above,

shewn net

at only

There are some departments instituted for special

such as the receipts of the forest department
;

purposes of administration, which yield receipts indeed, but have

a large expenditure
;

which

is

established for the preservation of the forests

of the

post-ofiice

and the

electric telegraph,

which are established

There

for the sake of postal

and telegraphic communication.

and

are recoveries in

some

of the greatest of the spending departstores,

ments,

as

receipts

from sale of

various

dues,

K 2

244

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

xm.

in the departments of the army, the marine, the public works,

the State education.

national concerns,
outlay,
or
for

Lastly,

there

are

large

receipts

from

in

which the
it

State has incurred a great

which

has

advanced considerable

sums

of money, or on account of which it has heavy liabilities Such receipts are the interest on loans and to discharge. advances, the income from canals, the earnings from State

railways, the net traffic receipts from the guaranteed railways.

There are other items of receipt, which

to
specify,

it

would be tedious
total

and which contribute

It is

to

swell the grand

of receipts.

further to

be

noted that while from one

period or one decade to another, the total of receipts including

revenue shews a continuous and considerable augmentation, this

result is largely

due

to

the growth of the receipts as distin-

guished from the revenue proper.

There has been augmentation

also of the revenue, but that is partly

due to the increase of

taxation.

There have been a natural growth and a spontaneous expansion of the revenue itself also
;

all

the branches of revenue

Still there
is,

may

so far be described as prospering.

at the best,

but too

much ground

for the apprehension, so often expressed

by some
and

authorities, that

the revenue
it

is

not elastic in the

English sense of the term, for

it

seldom grows with any rapidity

never springs forward.

to be

It is

remembered that besides the taxation

amounting
to

for

the

purposes of the State, there are rates levied on the land for
local purposes,

2^ millions sterling annually.

Octroi or
palities

town duties

are also levied in

most of the municiplaces these duties

throughout the county.

In

many

were found to operate as transit dues to the injury of trade,

and the requisite remedy has been applied. Of the total of the revenue proper as above shewn, 43J millions, only 36;^ millions are really paid by the people of
British India;
of
tlie

remainder, Gi millions are paid by the

Chinese and | million by the Native States.

The sum of

OnAi>. xiit.

NEW TAXES
sterling

DEPKECATED.
over the
3s.

245

3C)\

millions

distributed

190 millions in
9d. per

British India

would give an average of

to

head per

annum, which
is,

will doubtless appear very small.

The average
The
real

however, too general

be very suggestive.

incidence of taxation on the several classes of British subjects

has been well described thus by a recent writer, Mr. H.

S.

Cunningham
" The landowner pays
cent,
for

land revenue, an amount ranging from 3 to 7 per

on the gross produce of his lands, and a further fraction by way of provincial rates. If he goes to law he may contribute something to stamps
if

he drinks, to excise

and

if

he prefers English to native cloth,

to
is

customs
~d. (per

but when he has paid his laud revenue, his only imperative tax

annum)
aire,

for salt.

The owner

of

personal properLy, though a million-

may

under like conditions of abstinence from the luxuries of drink,

litigation

and English

cloth, contribute
.
.

nothing but the Id. for

salt, to

the

expenses of the State.

The

artisan's position is the same.

if his

when he has

paid his Id. on salt and,

gains are

The trader over 50 per annum,

tax on

his licence tax,

may

go

free of further taxation.

is

The only imperative

the agricultural labourer

the annual 7d. for salt."

It

would be

difiicult to

shew how the people

of British India

are to be taxed at rates

more moderate and

light than these, if

they are to be taxed at

all.

There have been schemes devised at various times for raising

additional items of revenue, such as those relating to a tax on
tobacco, to fees on the solemnization of marriages, to a rate

on houses.

But the prevailing opinion has been, and

it

is,

adverse

to fresh taxation, if

can possibly be avoided.

The popular

contentment, resulting from lightness of taxation and ease in

the collection of the revenue, has long been regarded as one
of the

many

pillars supporting the fabric of British rule.

The

Government
the Native
duties

in its capacity of States

to

paramount power has induced

imposts,
first

forego

vexatious

and transit
set

hampering commerce; having

this respect.

itself

a good

example in
marred,
fiscal
if

The grace

of this policy

would be
had pre-

the Government were to strike out a fresh line of

it

development, in the very direction which

viously deprecated.


24(i

INDIA IN

1880.

Ciup. xiv.

CHAPTER

XIV.

CANALS AND IRRIGATION.

Canals for navigation and for irrigation
to India

Canals in Asiatic countries adjacent in India Irrigation from wells British system of canals In Hindostan In Native works of the Panjab In Behar In Orissa In the deltas of the Godavery and the From the Indus in Sind Kistna In Tanjore From the Tumbadi-a the Madras Presidency In the Bombay Presidency Lakes from which canals have been drawnEivers from Principal
Irrigated and unirrigated
irrigation
tracts

river

for irrigation in

rivers

which canals remain to be taken

Different plans of constructing canals

Proportion of irrigated or protected lands to the whole cultivated area

Canal water-rent Financial returns from the canals

Navigation of the canals

Indirect benefits Immense value of canal irrigation to the country.

The term

canal signifies to the ear of an Englishman a means of

navigable communication and to the ear of an Indian a means

of irrigation.

In the thoughts of Indians and Anglo-Indians

authorities have indeed

canals are associated partly with navigation, but mainly with

irrigation. for

Some

recommended that, even

communication, reliance should be placed mainly on canals

but such views, however, have
Still,

to the supercession of railways,

not prevailed nor are likely to prevail.

irrigation is regarded as the
it is

in India, although

primary work of a canal system,

supply

recognised that a good canal ought not only to

the fertilizing element for production but also to bear on its

bosom the

freights of produce for distant markets.

Many

of the

largest irrigating canals are designedly adapted for navigation

and in some of the best irrigated

communication as well as

districts

they render service to

to production.

Some Asiatic countries adjacent to India, such as Persia, have from time immemorial depended on irrigation conducted from springs by ingenious contrivances (called karizes). The
ancient canal system of the Tigris and Euphrates has shrunk to

Chap. xiv.

CANALS FOR IRRIGATION.

its

247
self.

a scarcely recognisable likeness of

original

The

irriga-

tion in Central Asia survives, impaired, indeed, but

after so

still effective,

many

political revolutions.

Some

of the territories to

which the eyes of statesmen turn, such as Bokhara, or Khiva,

are really oases of canal irrigation in the heart of desert steppes,
like jewels set in the midst of sand.

There the

fierce

and rude
their

races have no rains in due season

irrigation is their staff of
life,

whereon

to

depend;

without which they could not hold

single

their native country for a

twelvemonth
sources

if

an enemy
heads,

obtained

possession

of

the

canal

and

the

inhabitants

must surrender

at discretion.

In India, however,

irrigation,

though very important, does not

possess such overwhelming importance.

Whole

regions, such as

the Gangetic delta, the littoral region of the western coast or

the inland valley of the Nerl^adda, have an abundant average
rainfall

on which mainly their agriculture depends.

The

in-

habitants of the fluvial districts of Bengal, like the people in

England, sometimes dread immoderate rain rather than drought,

and their anxiety

is

not so

much

for irrigation as for drainage.

The

great rice harvest,

the jute fibre and the safflower of

are

Bengal,

most of the cotton and millets of Hindostan,

artificial irrigation.

produced without

In most parts of the

country, too, where irrigation

more

or less prevails, there are

extensive crops, raised from the rainfall alone, and called the
" dry " crops, in contradistinction to tlie "

wet

" crops

raised

from

irrigation.

In the oft-recurring times of drought, these

first to

" dry " crops are the

wither,

still,

they seldom

fail,

save

in extraordinary seasons.
are copious

And

in every cycle of years there

" dry-

and seasonable showers which render the

excessively
productive,

crop "

lands

bringing

the

cheaply

cultivated soils into temporary competition with soils cultivated

at considerable expense,
to be glutted

and sometimes even causing the markets

probably conis

with grain.
is

In ordinary language, the term irrigation

nected with canals and watercourses only.

In Europe, a well

248

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xiv.

meiitioned only in reference to purposes of drinking.

India, irrigation is conducted

But

in

In the villages there are

some wells

from wells as well as from canals. for drinking only, but

the vast majority of the tens of thousands of wells in India,

though they serve for drinking, are sunk mainly for the purpose
of irrigating.
It is to this well-sinking that the peasants in
capital,

most parts of India devote some of their little generally to seek assistance from the State in
in times of famine.

not caring

this respect, save

The

well-irrigation is considered

to

be

supplementary to the rainfall

and

is

needed, in the case of

many

products, to render the yield abundant and profitable.

For instance, the wheat of Northern India, the poppy of Behar, the sugarcane and the vegetables in most parts of India, are

grown with the

essential aid of irrigation

from wells.

Some

of

the very best, though the most expensive, cultivation in India,

such as in several of the northern districts of the Panjab,

is

from wells.

The works of irrigation represent so ancient an institution in India, and the Natives have often shewn so much cleverness in
constructing such works, .that a reproach has sometimes been

unjustly cast against the British

to its

Government

as being inferior

Native predecessors in this matter.

In truth, however,
lists

the English have entered, and are entering, the

in this

noble contest, renovating or enlarging the best of the old

works,

compassing

new works, and overcoming

difficulties

which

no preceding Government could have

attempted

to

encounter.

The Muhammadans constructed many water-works of beauty

and
celebrity,

but these were undertaken for conducting the

water to parks, pleasure grounds and palaces.

They did not

usually in India bend their constructive genius towards agricultural irrigation, as they so often did in other lands with such

masterly

effect.

The Hindus have

by reason

fairly established a

claim to historic fame

of their exertions in this beneficent line.

Commencing

Chap. xiv.

NATIVE WORKS OF IRRIGATION.

249

in the lower Himalayas, the earliest Indian domicile of tlieir

nation, they

stemmed and

deflected the

mountain streamlets and

under contribution for
into the mid-

babbling brooks, so as to lay them

the wealth in water.

all

As they spread southwards

tlie

continent of Central India, where mountainous ranges ramify in

all directions,
hills,

they searched out

rainfall

valleys

embosomed

in

tlie

where the

of the

wet season can be gathered

outlets of the drainage,

together by closing

up the natural

and

so stored in reservoirs, which, though partly natural, are

artificial.

mainly

Thus, by erecting dams of massive masonry, firmly

skill,

welded together with structural

wliich,

they formed reservoirs,

though bearing the modest name of tanks, are really lakes,

their picturesque beauty, their historic interest,

and which by
and
of
their

economic value, have challenged the

generations of men.
to

admiration
life

many

Each

of these

works gives

and wealth

many

townships, sometimes to scores of villages.

arising from extensive geological formaseries.

Such favourable
sequently,

sites,

tions, are discovered

if

not singly but in groups and

is

Con-

one lake
the

successfully completed, others will be

constructed in

neighbourhood,

and thus the

district or
is

province, which has been adorned

called a lake region.

by these works,

correctly

Migrating further southwards to the southern peninsula, they

still

constructed lakes and tanks in the same fashion.

They

also essayed bolder efforts in construction,

and grappled with

some

of the large rivers which, rising in the

Western Ghat
These rivers
begin to divide
built

ranges, run due eastwards to the

Bay

of Bengal.
first

they stemmed

at points

where the waters

and the name

themselves into deltaic ramifications.

The dams thus

" anicat " has

were named
classic

" anicats "

become

with British engineers.

Above

the " anicat " the river

waters are stopped so that canals

may

be taken therefrom,
like veins

and conducted over the surface of the country

arteries charged
districts.

and

with the very life-blood of prosperity to whole

250

INDIA IN
first

1880.

Chap. xiv.

At

the British

Government was

too

much

busied in the

consolidation of its conquests to take

as the origination of a canal system.
its abolition,

up so difficult a matter But for many years before

its

the East India

Company gave
scale,

best attention to
success.

works of irrigation on a great

Since that time, that
ficent operations
is

and with some

for nearly

one generation, these beneis

have been prosecuted, and the result

that

the

canals of India are

now amongst

her most remarkable

characteristics.

degree adopted from

The canal system which the British Government in some its predecessors, but in the main originated
for itself,

and worked out

may

be described in this wise.

is

In northern India, one great canal

at

drawn from the Ganges

its

Hardwar, the point where the river debouches from the

Thereby
the
available water supply of

Himalayas, and another from the same river lower dow^n

course.

part

of

this great river will

be carried off for irrigation during the

summer and autumn, and nearly the whole supply during the winter when the crops greatly need water. From the river Jamna the old canal constructed by the Muhammadans
on the right bank
at
for

the

sake of

the

imperial

demesne
the

Delhi,

has been improved and enlarged for the sake of

irrigation;

and another
bank.

canal

has

been

drawn from

river

on

its left

From below

Delhi, a

new

canal from

the same river has been constructed, running towards Agra.

By
in

these means, the available supply of

the

Jamna
for

water,

the

cultivating

season,
of

will

be
the

diverted

irrigation.

Thus the middle

Hindostan,

very heart
is

of

India,

always regarded as the empress province,

sively irrigated tract.

now an

exten-

In Eohilkhand some lesser canals have been projected or

constructed, from the rivers
to join the Ganges.

which issue from the Himalayas

Panjab, from the point where

In the Sirhind
tlie

district of the

river Satlej debouches

from the Himalayas, a great canal

CiiAi',

XIV.

BlUTISll

SYSTEM OF CANALS.

251

is

taken, drawing off nearly all the winter supply of water from

that river for irrigation.

From
has

the river Ravi north of Lahore,

the winter

another

great

canal

been taken, utilizing

supply of the water, for irrigation in the country around

Amritsar, the
the
territory

home

of

the

Sikh nation.
Satlej

Further south, in
lesser

between the

and the Eavi, many

canals are drawn, watering comparatively rainless tracts

to the vicinity of

down

Multan

also in the Derajat territory, trans-

Indus.

These are called locally " inundation " canals, because

they receive their supply of water

the

when

the rivers rise during

summer and

the rainy season.

is

In the province of Behar, a great canal

taken from the

Sone

river, for irrigation in the territory near Patna.

In the

district of

Midnapur south

of Calcutta, a lesser canal has been

constructed which,

though drawn from a small river with a

is

comparatively scanty supply,

yet very useful.

after leaving the Eastern

In Orissa, the river Mahanadi,

mountains,
Cattak,
is

Ghat

dammed up

at a suitable point near the city of

is

whence the stream

diverted, supplying considerable

canals on both banks of the river.

Near

here, the

Muhanadi

has branches forming

it

its

delta

other rivers flow parallel with

to the sea:

from the Eastern Ghat mountains

from which

canals

may

be taken in a series connecting Orissa with the

districts

around Calcutta.
coast,

Southwards on the east

at a point

where the river

Godavery debouches from the Eastern Ghat mountains, the

river is

dammed by

mighty dyke

or " anicat,"

whence

is

drawn a
river

series of canals covering

with a network of irrigation

Further south, the
is

the rich deltaic district to the seashore.

Kistna or Krishna

issuing

from the same range,

like

stemmed
is

in a similar manner,

whence a

system of canals

derived, for irrigating the delta of Masulipatam.

Below Madras,

in the southern peninsula there are

drawn

from the rivers Cavery and Colerun near Trichinopoly, large

canals which, running
eastwards,,

have

many

branches near

252

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xiv.

Taujore, and intersect that district with

numerous channels,

causing

it

to

be regarded as the most richly watered region

in the empire.

From

the Tunga-badra, or

Tumbadra, river which divides

the Nizam's dominions from the Madras Presidency, a large

canal has

been commenced and conducted for some distance

but not completed.

The province
souls, depends,

of Sind, with a population of

for its

two millions of

cultivation,

upon the Indus,

is

depends upon the Nile.

The

irrigation

as Egypt drawn from nu-

merous
rulers,

canals,

which were constructed by the

Muhammadan

but have been improved and enlarged by the British

Government.
In the Madras Presidency,
irrigation

many

large

artificial

lakes for

have been constructed by the British Government, of

which the enumeration would be tedious.

Several similar lakes have been constructed in the Deccan
districts of the
is

Bombay

Presidency, from which

of

much

irrigation
is

derived.

The masonry dam

Deccan

Lake

Fife,

near Poona,
canals

one

of the finest in the world.

constructed, in the
rivers Tapti

Some minor

have been

also,

from the upper courses of the

is

and Kistna or Krishna, and a canal

being

constructed from the river Nira.

Canals have been proposed or projected in general terms or

designed more or less in detail, but not yet undertaken, to be
derived from the following rivers,
the Chenab in the Panjab, the Sarda in Oudh,
the

Gandak

in Behar,

the lower part of the Pennar on the east coast north of Madras, the Periar stream which issues from the Travancore
tains near

moun-

Madura

in the southern peninsula,

the lower part of the Tapti, on

the west coast north of

Bombay,
the lower
i)art of

the Nerbadda in the same quarter,

Chap. xiv.

RIVERS USED FOR IRRIGATION.

the

253
tlie

the Wardha,

Wynganga and

lesser

streams in

province of Nagpur,
the upper course of the Mahanadi in the eastern extremity
of the Central Provinces,

the

Chambal

in Central India,

the Betwa and the Kene in Bundelkhand, and

the

Jamna

to carry off surplus water of the rainy

Satlej.

season

towards the arid tracts east of the

Artificial lakes

and several

canals, greater or smaller,

have been
There

projected in the

Deccan

districts of the

Bombay

Presidency,

which works have, however, not yet been undertaken.

are probably other projects or proposals in different parts of

India, for thoughtful officers are constantly busying themselves

with plans, whereby the drought so

parts of the empire

much

dreaded in most

may

be averted.

From
rivers

this review it will be apparent that the following great

have by the British Government been placed under

less, for

contribution more or
districts in India,

the fertilization of provinces or

the Ganges,

the Jamna, the Sone in Behar,

the Satlej, the Ravi in the Panjab,

the Indus, the lower part of the
Orissa,

Mahanadi and some

lesser streams in

the lower part of the Godavery on the east coast, the lower part of
tlie

Kistna or Krishna,

the Cavery and Colerun in the southern peninsula,

the Tunga-badra or

Tumbadra

in the Deccan,

the upper courses of the Kistna and the Tapti,

and many other

artificial lakes,

lesser rivers
it

and streams,

for the formation of

which

would be tedious

to enumerate.

254

INDIA IN
are

1880.

CiiAP. xiv.

The following rivers

for irrigation,

known

to

be capable of affording water

but remain yet to be dealt with for this purpose,

in Behar.

the

Gandak

the Sarda in Oudh,

the Chenab in the Panjab,

the lesser rivers in Orissa,

the lower part of the Pennar near Madras,

the Periar river near Madura, the lower part of the Tapti on the west coast near the lower part of the Nerbadda on the

Bombay,

same

coast,

the several rivers in the

the the

Nagpur province,
in Bundelkhand,

Chambal

in Central India,

Betwa and the Kene

and many other

Presidency.

lesser rivers

and streams

for the formation of

reservoirs for irrigation in the

Deccan

districts of the

Bombay
Jhelum

The only remaining

rivers

rivers of note are the

in the Panjab, from which a canal might perhaps be taken

some smaller
of

which flow through Native States and

which the

capabilities are not

known
it

the rivers in the

is

humid
its

regions of lower Bengal where

irrigation
;

drainage that

is

wanted rather than

aflluents, the

and the Brahmaputra river and

Megna and

others,

which are not likely ever

to supply canals for irrigation.

In the construction of these works two main principles are

adopted, which differ from each other according to the variety
of

physical

circumstance,

and which

have

at

times

been

subjected to

much

professional controversy.

In the north, the rivers are fed from sources arising in the
perpetual snows of the Himalayas, and have in the winter
season, generally called the cold weather, a

volume of water

which, though

much shrunken
It is this

in comparison with the

summer
is

supply swollen with the rains and the melted snow,

considerable.

yet

volume

of water

which the engineers

desire to carry off almost in its entirety for fertilization, using

Chap. xiv.

HEAD-WORKS OF THE GREAT CANALS.

summer supply

255

only a portion of the

according to convenience.

At

the points where the river issues from the mountains and

enters

upon the
hilly

plains,

the ground

is

undulating, or even

somewhat

and often has a rapid

slope.

Unfortunately
at their

for the engineers, the

Himalayas have not great lakes

side,

base, like the

Alps on their Italian

which serve

as natural

reservoirs of water

whence canals can be drawn.

Therefore the

engineers excavate the channel in the steep banks and sides of

the rivers, carrying

it

across the rugged beds of tributary torrents.

" the

These operations relate to what are called

river is thus led into its

head-works."

The

new

channel, which, passing through

the rough ground for some miles, enters at last the more level
portions of the plains.

Then branch channels begin

head-works present
very

to

be

constructed in order to distribute the water for irrigation.

As

may

be imagined, these

striking

features.

The channel

is

conducted by tunnels and by viaducts,

sometimes above, sometimes below, the torrent beds, sometimes

piercing,

sometimes rounding, the spurs of the

hills.

All this occurs in localities where the surrounding scenery

adds the beauties of nature to the wonders of science.
"

The

heads " of the Ganges canal at Hardwar, of the Satlej canal

at Eupar, of the Eavi, or Bari

Doab, canal at Madhupur, are

almost as interesting to the artist

the engineer.

and the

tourist as they are to

In the foreground are the massive stone works,

the noble arches

crystal, in the

and

piers,

and the canal flowing

hills

clear as

middle distance are the lower

looking purple

in

the eastern atmosphere while the horizon

is

bounded by
the

the everlasting snow.

For the

first

few miles of

its course,

Ganges canal consists of a

of skill

series of

works which are triumphs

localities in the

and

science.

There are few

whole

empire whence more pleasure and instruction can be derived

than from the course of the Ganges canal, between Hardwar,
the
celebrated

place

of

pilgrimage,

and Eurki, where the

engineering college and workshops are established.

Experience shewed, however, that the Ganges canal had l^een

256

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xiv.
its

constructed at too steep an incline in the lower part of

course and was beginning
to tear

up

its

bed and banks

this

defect has been remedied, though at great cost.

Insalubrious

swamps were formed from the obstruction of the surface drainage by the canal works, and the public health was
consequently affected in several places
;

endeavours are being

made
in

to

remedy

this defect also.

The

subsoil percolation, near

the course of the high-level canals, causes a saline efflorescence

some

^Dlaces,

which

is

detrimental to cultivation

for this,

too,

remedial measures are under consideration.

all

In the south, and with

of the rainy season.

the rivers except the Himalayan,

the waters are not snow-fed, but are sustained

There

is

by the moisture an overwhelming volume of

of

water in the summer, but in the winter scanty streamlets

meander

over broad
is

expanses

sand and debris.

Some

suitable locality

chosen at the head of the delta, often near

the base of a mountainous range, where, by the construction

of

dams
on

or

dykes,

of great

dimensions,

the waters

of the

rivers can

be stopped, and diverted so as to supply large both

sides,

canals

with

subsidiary

channels

ramifying

over the deltaic region,

themselves.

much

like the branches of the rivers

There

is

also the j)ractice

is

already mentioned, whereby the

collected during the

volume

of streams

dammed up and

season of floods, so as to form artificial lakes to be used as

reservoirs

whence canals can be drawn.

That which nature has

at the southern

done

for the Italian engineers

by the lakes

base of the Alps, science effects for the English engineers in

southern India.

Every Englishman who

travels

in

India

must be struck as he beholds the lakes near Poona, near Arcot, and at many other places, filled to the brim with, summer
where engineering science has followed nature's truest model. Nor is the visitor astonished by only a few artificial
floods,

lakes of unrivalled proportions

for

almost the whole of the

Madras Presidency

is

studded and dotted over with lakes large

Chap. xiv.

IRRIGATED AREAS.
wliicli

257
the Madras

and small, attesting the ability and resources

Government have applied

to the people.

to this sul)ject, so vitally

important

With
will be

the northern practice the

name

of

Sir

Proby Cautley

handed down

to the grateful

rememln-ance of posterity,

and with the southern

the

practice, that of Sir

Arthur Cotton.

Of

many

benefactors of India in recent times, there are few

who have done more

material good

than Sir Arthur Cotton,

Sir

during this generation.

Both he and

Proby Cautley have

raised, or contributed to raise, a school of hydraulic engineers,

whose deeds have shed

lustre

on the public service in the

Presidencies of Bengal and of Madras.

The name

of Fife is

similarly associated with the irrigation works of the

Bombay

Presidency.

Notwithstanding the magnitude of this system of irrigation

from canals, the greatest of

its

kind in the world, the proportion

of the whole cultivated area in the country, thus protected from

the effects of drought,

sight expected.

is

not so considerable as might be at

first

Some

deltaic districts such as those of Tanjore,

w^ell

Kistna and Godavery, are for the most part

in

protected even

seasons of drought,

some outlying

tracts

only remaining

improtected.
too,

In most of the districts in the Madras Presidency,

is

a consideral )le part of the cultivated area

irrigated in
lesser

ordinary seasons.
lakes,

But in seasons of great drought the

Thus, while the

and even some of the larger

lakes, fail altogether, or lose

liest

a part of their supply.

of the irrigation

works can be depended upon in time of famine, many of the

second-rate works cannot, though they render assistance
less
;

more

or

and

at the same time

many

of the lesser works

must be

expected to

fail partially at least.

is

In the

Bombay

Presidency

the area thus protected

are subject to the

relatively very small,

and the works

same conditions
tlie

as those of Madras.
is

An

exception

is

formed by

province of Sind, which

arise not

almost

entirely irrigated,

and where the anxieties

from drouglit

but from

floods.

In the north, the great canals can be depended

258

INDIA IN
in time of famine
;

1880.

Chap. xiv.

upon

but the tracts protected by them form

Still this

only a small percentage of the total cultivated area.

percentage comprises
territory,

the

very cream,

so

to

speak,

of

the

and those lands which are

the

most productive,

yielding

much more than any

other land.

Consequently where

ten per cent, or even five per cent., of the land, can be thus
protected, that protection is a very

much

larger factor in the

national welfare than would appear from a mere consideration

of the percentage.

The

State,

having constructed

the

canals,

receives water-

rent from those

who

benefit by the irrigation.

The mode
for

of

assessing the water-rent varies

in different provinces, but is

everywhere regulated with scrupulous

venience of the people, so that they
ascertaining

regard

the con-

may have

every facility for

what

will

be due from them.

Sometimes the
owner, and

amount

is

fixed for long periods, together with the settlement

of the land revenue.

Where one person

is

is

the
is

another person the cultivator, the water-rent

levied, partly

from the owner by what

"Where the same person

termed the owner's

is

rate,

and partly
rate.

from the cultivator, by what

is

termed the cultivator's

both owner and cultivator, he pays a

rate.

combined, or consolidated,
It

may seem

strange that in some parts of the country the

people should at the outset hesitate to

make

use of the water

from the canals

for irrigation.

In the south, where irrigation has

is

been practised for centuries, and where the British system

an expansion
the people
it,

or

development of pre-existing Native systems,

full

make

use of the water, being willing to pay for

it

and anxious
the

to obtain

at the price fixed.

But in the
to

north,

husbandmen previously unaccustomed

canals,

often regard the canal water only as a last resource in time of

drought to save the crops, and not as a permanent means of

preserving and also of improving the cultivation in
years.
ci)si;

ordinary

When

drought threatens, they will defer incurring the

all,

of taking the water, in the hope that, after

the rain will

CiiAP. XTV.

DEFRAYAL OF CHARGES FOR IRRIGATION.

tlie

259

descend in time to save

is

harvest
the

and such postponement

is

often

so

protracted

that

opportunity

lost.

After

hesitating for weeks, they are sometimes seized with panic and press in multitudes
at

the gates

of the canals, like terror-

stricken creditors

making a run upon the banks.

happened
to

In Orissa,
copious

where

the

rainfall

be unusually

and

seasonable for several years after the opening of the canal, this

unwillingness has been especially manifest, but vdll gradually

be overcome.
the

It

has appeared also in northern India and in

Bombay
is

Presidency.

Whenever drought

occurs, there

is

sudden expansion of canal irrigation which shrinks again when

the danger
overpast, but of

which a part remains and forms a

area.

permanent augmentation of the irrigated

stances tend to prove that there

These circum.dilatoriness

was unnecessary

on the part of the people in availing themselves of the water.

Thus

it

comes

to pass that their lives

and property are pro-

tected against destructive drought,

structed

by the

State, at a cost

by means of works conwhich falls not upon those who

In

are specially protected but

upon the whole community.

other words, these people are furnished with an important and

costly insurance at the expense, not of themselves, but of their
fellow-suljjects.

It

may

be argued that

if

canals are vitally

important,
it

if

the State cannot afford to construct

them unless
defray the

recovers

from the

people

enough receipts
if

to

interest charges

on the outlay, and

the finance of the canal

system

is to

be placed on a sound basis, then those people,

fail

who

might take the water and yet

default,
to defray the cost

to

do so from their own

ought nevertheless to pay some special rate or cess

of the

insurance

by which they

benefit.

These considerations have induced the legislature in India

more than once

to enact that

such a rate or cess shall be

to be well within

imposed on those lands which are proved

reach of the canals.

But such measures have always been

opposed, as constituting a dangerous precedent.

authorities, notwithstanding the cogent

Some
its

official

arguments in

favour,

s 2

260
feel

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xiv.
for canal

repugnance to a compulsory rate upon people

of which

irrigation
selves.

they have

not seen
to

fit

to

avail

them-

The Natives
alleging

especially object

any plan
projects,

of this
to

description,

that

it

encourages the

Government
in

embark

on

comparatively unremunerative
Ije

the

assurance that in any event there will

special rate or cess.

receipts

from the

In the end, the opposition has prevailed

has
l3een

and the

legislation

disallowed by the controlling

power in England.
There has been unavoidably some room for difference of
opinion as to what
are, or are not,

the bona fide receipts of the

State from the canal irrigation, irrespective of the land revenue.

The

difficulty of

discriminating between the water-rent and

the land revenue has been enhanced by the arrangements,

to save the people

made

from inconvenience, whereby the payments

else virtually

on both accounts have been settled together, or

consolidated.

In some provinces the barest return of water-

rent has been taken, without allowance for the improvement in

the land revenue by reason of the irrigation, and the financial

return from the outlay on canals seems unduly low.

In other

provinces, besides the water-rent, the greater part of the land

revenue has been taken into account, and the return seems
perhaps excessively high.
After making
all

due abatements

for these several considerations, it

may

probably be said that

return for the outlay

in the south the canals yield a large

incurred on them, exceeding the interest chargeable on their

capital,

and that they will ultimately pay

off the capital itself.

In the north, they are slowly and gradually beginning to yield

returns equal to the current interest on their capital account,

while they have

account of the years

much retrospective interest to when they yielded but little.

Sone
valley,

defray on

In some

places, as Orissa, in the

and parts of the Deccan,

the whole, the financial

they have liardly begun to defray even the current interest,

though they do yield something.

returns, recently revised,

On

shew that the net income from the

Chap. xiv.

NAVIGATION OP

TPIE CANALS.

261

canals
outlay,

more than covers the cnrrent interest on the capital and that in tlie aggregate the canal system of British
paying six per
cent.

India

is

The canals
times but

in India are

mainly

for irrigation,

and although
they are

after satisfying
little

the needs of such irrigation they have some-

water to spare for navigation,

still

generally constructed so as to be navigable.

are navigated to

In the north they

some appreciable

extent,

and in some of the

canals between Calcutta and Orissa the navigation constitutes

a large item in the business.

largely navigated
;

In the south the canals are

the same channels which cause the produce

to be raised, serve to carry

most cheaply and

easily that

same
canal

produce to market, the double duty thus enhancing the beneficence of the work.

really admirable

project

for

navigation in the upper part of the river Godavery, which

would have connected the Central Provinces with the Bay of

Bengal, was undertaken by the Government and prosecuted to a
considerable length, but was afterwards relinquished, as some

think unadvisedly and unfortunately.

serving the advantages of inland water

Some
traffic

authorities ob-

have

urcjed the

Government
railways.
to involve

to construct canals for

communication, instead of
authorities

But such proposals

extremely
difficult

are

deemed by other

questions of hydraulic engineering,

and have not generally found favour.

For the main lines of

important

communication in India, railways are

canal projects into India

still preferred.

At one time endeavours were made

ducted by companies.

to introduce

by means The Madras

exists,

of private enterprise conIrrigation

thus formed for the execution of canals on the

Company was Tumbadra and

Pennar

rivers

and
it

still

though, after performing

much

excellent work,
difficulties.

has had to contend with

in Orissa were
its

many

financial

The canals

pany which afterwards transferred

by

rights to the

commenced by a comGovernment

whom
At

the operations have been continued.

the head-works of the canals, and at other suitable places.

262
the engineers

INDIA IN
have
established
is

1880.

Chap. xiv.

extensive

workshops where

technical instniction

afforded to Natives,

and sometimes to

Europeans and East Indians.

Although many of the existing

projects

canals,

and some of the

financial
to

yet to

be undertaken,

may
new

yield a good

return, the hard question with

projects is

how

frame
is

them
to

so that they shall yield at least a sufficient income, that

to cover the interest

enough
be

payable by the State on the money

outlay.

borrowed

for

the

Few

pursuits

are

more

fascinating to the

mind than
lakes

to visit localities where, in the

bosom

of the

hills,

can be formed by arresting the

torrents in their headlong course,

and then

to

imagine

how

these stores of water shall confer fertility on arid lands, dif-

fusing

life

and

civilization

around.

But
"

to

these

glowing

reflections there
to

always succeeds the chilling calculation as

whether these stores of water can

command," that

is,

be
the

made
felt

to reach, sufficient areas of productive soil to

make

storing worth the cost in

money.
tlie

Disappointment
projected works,
for the interest

is

frequently
executed,

on the discovery that

if

would not reimburse the State

on the outlay.

The question then

the
cost.

arises

whether the State can afford to incur

ought to be borne
in

This

question

mind by
volumes
storage,

those who, with

humane
the

intentions, looking on vast

of water annually wasted,

and on unused
to

sites

for

thereupon

urge

Government

continue

undertaking

works, without,
incidents.

perhaps,

sufficiently

weighing the financial

summary

of the length, in miles

and round numbers,

magnitude of the
is

of the canals will present

some idea

of the

canal system of British India.

This subject

set forth in

Buckley's recently published work on the finance of each one

of these irrigation

works in

detail.

Tlie total length

of the

main canals and branches (exclusive

Presidencies of Bengal, Madras and
miles.

of distributories) in the
to

Bombay amounts

4900

In this the canals of the Cavery or Tanjore system

CiiAi'.

XIV.

IMMENSE VALUE OF CANALS.

;

263
700

are not given

miles.
I'anjab,

their length, however, cannot be less than

to be

To these are

added the inundation canals of the

1550 miles, and the canals of Sind, 5600 miles.

Tims
total

there are 12,750 miles of canals greater and lesser.

The
;

length of the distributing channels

is

not

known

but in

northern India alone,

irrigated

it

amounts

to

8300 miles.

amounts

to 1,900,000 acres in

The area now Madras and Bombay,

360,000 acres in Behar and Orissa, 1,450,000 acres in the

North-western Provinces, 1,350,000 acres in the Panjab and

1,250,000 in Sind
;

in all 6,310,000 acres

or nearly six

pnd a
is

half millions of acres.

The area

irrigable

by the canals
;

yet

considerably greater than even this large total

existing system
is

so that the

still

capable of development.

The

caj)ital

outlay by the State on this canal system

at

may

be set

down

at

20^ millions

sterling,

on which the net returns

facts

yield an

interest of 6 per cent.

to

These
its

shew why the system claims

All
this,

be the finest of

kind in the world.

of petty irrigation

too,

is

exclusive of a great

number

works in many

parts of the country, from Pvohilkhand in the north to Tinne-

velly in the south, of

which the which

statistics

would be
in

tedious.

Apart from the direct receipts from the canals, there are

many

indirect

benefits

accrue

all

cases.

Tliese

benefits are represented

by the security afforded

to agriculture,

the insurance provided for the people against the extremities

of drought

and famine, the protection of the land revenue, the

instruction of the

husbandmen by the example

of the superior

husbandry established, and the introduction of superior products.

The value
inestimable
were,

of the canals during the recent famines has been

;

without the irrigation, these calamities, great as they

indefinitely greater.

would have been

The value of the

produce which the canals saved in order to feed a famishing

people, equalled the capital outlay on their construction.


264

INDIA IN

1880.

('iiAr.

xv.

CHAPTEE XV.
RAILWAYS AND ELECTRIC TELEGRAPHS.
Lord Dalhoiisie's design
for

railway

system Line from

Calcutta to North-

In Central India In Berar and Nagpur In Southern India From Goa to southern Deccan In Burma Railways of two kinds, Guaranteed and Goods State Advantages of the Guarantee system Passenger Rolling stock State railways Capital furnished by Native States railways Broad and narrow gauges Railways in time of war and of Guaranteed telegraph Lines belonging famine Introduction of the Government Telegraphic communication railway Companies And between India and England Also between India and other countries.
traffic traffic

west frontier From Calcutta to Bombay From Bombay to Madras From Lahore to Karachi Projected extension to Candahar Line from Bombay to Agra In Rohilkhand and Ondh In Behar In Bengal

for

electric
to

to

The

railways of India have advanced, are advancing, and will

;

ere long comprise a total length of nine thousand miles

pos-

sibly this length

in the course of a

may

be exceeded by some hundreds of miles

few years.

Such a

total mileage is consider-

able in

itself,

no doubt, and will be regarded as remarkable in

reference to the distance of India from England,

whence

all

the

resources for the construction of railways have to be drawn.

It is to

be remembered that in Europe and America, the works

at home in the midst of resources, close to the very centres of industry, in the native air of the engineers and artificers, in the land of their professional practice, and with

were constructed

every possible advantage of circumstance, climate and labour.

Whereas,

tlie

from

home

works in India were completed at a vast distance and from the sources of supply, under many

disadvantages of climate, with a scanty labour market and untrained labourers. Again, in India the engineers were landed
in a country with circumstances novel to all their professional

Chap. xv.

LORD DALHOUSIE'S RAILWAY SCHEME.

])ef(an

265

and practical experience, and

frequently

their

work

often in a

malarions climate and occasionally in localities dangerously

insalubrious,
suffering
rails,

in

health

and sometimes
to

losing

life.

For India, the

girders

and engines had

be sent round the Cape in sailing ships, or by the Suez Canal

and the Ked Sea in steamers.

Thirty years have elapsed since the East India

Company
out a

undertook the construction of railways in their vast territories.

Lord Dalhousie was the Governor-General who

first laid

comprehensive scheme whereby the length and breadth of the

land might be permeated by railway communication
national design will constitute one of his
;

and

this

many

titles to post-

humous

fame.

The main
its

idea,

then formed, has been subse-

quently enlarged, but

principal features have been preserved.

to connect Calcutta

The scheme was, and

is,

with the Northits

west frontier by a trunk line 1500 miles in^ length, having

terminus at that port and capital, and proceeding to upper

India through Allahabad, with a short branch to Delhi, then
passing through Lahore towards the north-west extremity of
the
frontier,

and ultimately crossing the Indus

at

Attok and

entering Peshawur.
across the eastern
fields,

This railway was to have a chord line

end of the Vindhya range near the coal

line along the

and a loop

bank

of the Ganges.
;

It

was

to

run up the whole valley of the Ganges

crossing the Sone

to cross all the It

river once

and the Jamna

the Panjab

thrice

then

it

was

five rivers of

and

lastly

the Indus.

was

to

most part a champaign country, consisting of the plains of upper India, or Hindostan, and of the Panjab, till
traverse for the
it

approached the Jhelum

river,

when
to the

it

would enter very

rugged ground continuing nearly

terminus at Peshawur.

Although there were no

of mountains, the viaducts

difficulties in respect to the crossing

must be

of the very largest character.

to the salt mines.

There

is

a short branch from

this

Jhelum

Prom

main

line at Allahabad, anotlier line of about

700

miles was to be taken, surmounting the low hills of Bundelkhand

26G and
tlience

INDIA IN
ninning down
tlic

1880.

Chap. xv.
JabnliDur,

Nerbadda valley from

passing through a gap in the Satpiira range into the valley of

the Tapti, and descending the precipitous side of the Western

Ghat mountains to Bombay, with large viaducts over the Nerbadda and the Tapti, and with a mountainous incline of great Thus the two capitals Calcutta and Bombay were to difficulty.
be connected by
rail.

Then from Bombay, there was to be a line of about 800 miles, ascending the Western Ghat mountains near Poona, crossing the great plateau of the Deccan, entering the Madras Presidency, and so approaching the Eastern Ghat mountains wdiich it would
descend on
joining in
to

way Khandesh
its

to

Madras.

It

would have a chord

;

line

the trunk line to Calcutta

also a

branch
There

Hyderabad, the Nizam's capital in the Deccan.

would
size
;

be viaducts difficult in character thougli not of great

but the crossing of the mountains would demand works of

to

magnitude and difficulty. Thus railway communication was

established between the two Presidencies of Madras and

be

Bombay.
;

These are the primary lines of railway communication

besides these, there are several lines of

but

much

importance.

From
crossing

the trunk railway at Lahore, the capital of the Panjab,

there runs a line

down

the valley of the river Eavi, past Multan,

the valley
of

the Satlej

and entering

the

Indus,

crossing the Indus at Sakar, and passing along the right

of tliat river,

bank
which
Laki
is

surmounting the low range of Laki

liills

impinge upon the river bed, and then proceeding to the seaport
of Karachi.
pass, is flat
;

The coimtry, with the exception

Thus railway communication

of the

but the bridging of the Satlej and of the Indus

is

very formidable.

maintained

between the sea and the Panjab, and between the mouths of the

Ganges and

of the Indus; the route also

is

between England and

the north-west frontier of India

considerably shortened.

From
line

Sakar, where the line crosses the Indus, a temporary

Sibi near

has been carried to

the Bolan Pass, and an

extension towards Candahar has been projected.

CiiAP. XV.

IMPORTANT LINES OF
tlie

IIAILAVAY.
line
is

267
aloii;^

From

liarhoiir of

Bombay, a

carried

tlic

west coast in the province of Gujerat, having brandies into

the peninsula of Kathiawar, crossing with large viaducts the
rivers Tapti

and ISTerbadda near

their

mouths

then entering
difficult

the hilly

country of Eajputana, but avoiding any

till it

passage over mountains,

it

reaches the Jamna, which river

crosses near

Agra and

so joins the trunk line of

upper India;
for exIjy rail

this

railway carries the cotton of Gujerat to

Bombay

portation.

Thus, northern India, already connected

with the seaport of Calcutta, will be similarly connected with

the seaport of

Bombay.
fertile plains

There are cross lines running through the

of

Itohilkhand and Oudh, between the river Ganges and the Himalayan mountains, connecting these territories M'ith the main trunk line of northern India. These lines have viaducts
over the Ganges at Cawnpore and at Aligarh
;

there will also

be a viaduct over the same river at Benares.

Similarly, there will be cross lines through the rich territories

of north

Behar

at the foot of the

Nepal mountains.

From Calcutta,

a line runs through eastern Bengal, and thence

through northern Bengal to the foot of the Himalayas at

Darjiling, over a level country, but having

many

bridges,

and
is

requiring a viaduct over the broad and shifting river which

continuation of the Ganges,

ticable.

if

such a work shall be found prac-

There

is

to be a short raihvay in

Assam from

the

Brahmaputra

to the coal

mines of Makum.

At a point on the trunk line from Allahabad to Bombay, in Nimar north of the Satpura range, a line is conducted up the
lofty sides

and spurs of the Vindhya range, with works of some

magnitude, to the plateau of

Bombay
there
is is

to Agra.

Malwa to join From near Mmar, also,

the railway from

there
is

to

be a

branch to the capital of the Bhopal State.

Again, from Agra

a branch to Sindliia's city of Gwalior.

Thus Central
the

India

connected with the seaport of

Bombay and with

inland region of Hindostan.

268

INDIA IN
auotlier point,

1880.

Chap. xv.

on the same trunk line but south of the and Satpura range, a line has been taken eastwards to Nagpur, Calcutta. towards the east on further is now being extended

At

of the This line carries to Bombay, for exportation, the cotton exDrovinces of Berar and Nagpur, and will, if ultimately

r^

tended,

"ive

straight

route

from

Calcutta

to

Bombay,
is

instead of the existing route above described which

circuitous.

slightly

In the southern peninsula there is a connected series of railways. One trunk line stretches from sea to sea, from Madras on
crossing the Coromandel coast to Beypore on the Malabar coast, this line on point one From a gap in the Nilgiri mountains.

there runs a branch to Bangalore in

Mysore

and from another

point there begins a line to

coast.

Negapatam on the Coromandel

Again from Madras, a line starts southwards, nearing

Pondicheri (to which place there is a branch), passing to Tanjore and then from Trichinopoly southwards through Madura and
Tinnovelly in
lines

the

neighbourhood of Cape Comorin.

a generally
level country

These
the

run through

(except in

neighbourhood of the Nilgiris and Mysore) without any extraordinary difficulty.

From Goa, on

the west coast south of

Bombay, a railway

is

projected under the joint auspices of the British and Portuguese

Governments, which ascending the Western Ghat mountains,

to pass

is

through Hubli near Dharwar, the mercantile capital of

the

southern Deccan, and afterwards to join the trunk line

between Bombay and Madras.

There will ultimately be a

branch from Hubli to Sholapur in the Deccan.

line has been

projected to

commence from

the railway

already mentioned in Gujerat, to skirt the Sindh desert, to enter

the valley of the Indus near Hyderabad and to join the railway

already described as running

From
line to

the seaport of

down Rangun as

the valley of the Indus.

a terminus, there
is

taken a

Prume, in the mid-valley of the Irawaddy, thus connecting

the littoral province of l*egu with the regions of

Ava and upper

Chap. xv.

GUARANTEED RAILWAY COMPANIES.

2(19

Burma.
There

lino has also been projected

from liaiigun to Tonglui

in eastern Burma.
are, or will be,

branches in lower Bengal, in sonthern

Behar, in the middle of Hindostan, in parts of the Central

Provinces, in the Presidencies of

Bombay and Madras, and

in

some

of the Native States of Central India.

The above sketch comprises the existing system of Indian

railways
;

most of them have either been constructed or are

under construction.
traffic,

The

total length

of the
is

lines,

open

for

amounts

to

8611 miles.
;

This total

being gradually

increased year
total length of

by year

additional lines are proposed, with a

1850 miles.
are conf5tructed

The railways in India

two
the other that of the
the railways up to

and managed under

expended on

different systems, one that of the

State.

Guaranteed Companies,
all

The

capital

April 1880

was 123,124,514

Of

this

sum, 97,327,851 had been

24,403,797 on State
States.
lines,

expended on Guaranteed

lines,

and 1,392,866 on

lines in Native

Of the

total mileage,

8611 miles, shewn above, 6073

miles Ijelong to Guaranteed Companies, 2363 to the Govern-

ment, and 175 to Native States.

A Guaranteed railway Company

of interest on the capital outlay

is

one to which a certain rate

is

guaranteed by the Governprofits after

ment; with the proviso that

if

the

defrayal

of

working expenses shall exceed the rate guaranteed, which has

generally been five per cent., such surplus profits shall be divided

between the Government and the Company.

in the
first

The Government
raised

instance
chiefly

pays the interest on the capital to the

English
as

shareholders,

the

funds were

in

England, and the earnings of the railways in India are paid

into the State Treasury.

Under

this system, the

Government

has considerable powers of control over the amount of capital

raised,

the selection of the line, the designs of the works, the

of the

strength

establishment,

the

rates

and the

fares.

It

appoints a Government Director, with the power of vote at the

270

INDIA IN

1880.

CnAP. xv.
officers in

Board of Directors in Enrfland, and enf^dnecr

to

India
the

guard

its

interests.

It grants the

land for the

line,

stations

and appurtenances,

free of charge.

In other respects
;

a guaranteed

Company

is

like

an ordinary Company
it

with the

concurrence of the Government Director

persons employed on the
the chief
stock,
officials
;

appoints all the

its

line,

it

selects

on

own judgment
The railway
the

and they are

all its servants.

thus created, has always stood high in

English

market, somewhat higher than the securities of the Government

itself,

by reason
of

of tlie prospect of surplus

profits accruing.

After the opening of the lines, the net earnings defrayed only

part

the

interest

on the outlay, the remainder thus For

becoming a charge upon the Government.

many

years, the

guaranteed interest formed a large heading in the State expenditure.

The

total of the

sums thus paid by the Government

sterling.

amounts

to nearly

27 millions

This

is

regarded by

many

as a reasonable jirice for the advantages obtained

from the railways.

one
has
of late

by the country Of the several Companies, the principal

defraying the
charges
for

been generally

interest
;

and has occasionally divided a surplus profit with the State other Companies have sometimes been able to accomplish
a similar result
;

The Companies are designated thus: the East India, the Eastern Bengal, the Oudh and Eohilkhand, the Sind, Panjab and Delhi, for northern India the Great India Peninsula, the
tills,

though

it

is

some Companies have not been able to hoped that they will do so in time.

effect

several

Bombay, Baroda and Central

parts of the country
;

India, for the central

and western

the Madras railway, and the South Indian, the empire.

for tlie soutliern portion of

Xot\\ithstanding the results attained by this system, some

authorities have believed that at
least

equally great results

miglit have been secured

agency

directly,

and

at

by the State operating through its own a less cost. They see disadvantages in

such important public interests being entrusted to private Companies, which, by reason of their dividends being guaranteed up

CiiAP. XV.

ADVANTAGES OF GUARANTEED SYSTEM.

rate,

271

to a profitaljlc

have not the same incentives to exertion

witli

which ordinarily arc present

Government, they

railway companies.

The

say, despite its

lart^e

powers of control, has

not the real check upon extravagance and the actual means
of enforcing

economy which ought

to pertain to the authority

Tlie State, it

upon which the ultimate

is

responsibility devolves.
at

alleged, could

have borrowed the capital

a cheaper rate

than that of the guarantee, and could have managed the lines

more

efficiently

and economically.

On

the other hand, the system of guaranteed railways has

been followed in India by

and importance.
basis in

It secured

many consequences of signal value many years ago a separate financial

That basis was independent

England
and was

for the railways.

of the difficulties which beset novel undertakings in distant

regions,
free

from the uncertainties attending a large

outlay by Government in such a country as India.

structive

The conand

operations

proceeded steadily and uninterruptedly,

calls,

without cessation in consequence of other pressing

without any want of funds.

During the same

period,

State

works of material improvement were occasionally stopped by

reason of military or political contingencies, and were frequently
retarded from financial deficits.

In the troublous years, when

the greater part of the country was convulsed by the war of the
mutinies, the railway works were carried on, while almost all

public works

belonging to the Government,

except military

buildings, were unavoidably suspended.

The guarantee system

appealed to other investors besides those

in

who

ordinarily invest

Government

securities.

It thereby developed fresh resources

for material

from which funds could be obtained

the English capitalists, and the

improvement,
It

thus relieving the strain upon the credit of the State.

induced

moneyed classes
to

generally, to take

an interest in the advancement of India and

port to
its

lend a moral supinto the pro-

administration.

It infused

new blood

fession of civil engineering in India, introducing

men

of high

capacity,

and of experience won in the best schools

in Europe.

272
It

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xv.

gave to India the services of ready-made administrators for

the working of the railways.

The names may

Ije

recalled of
distin-

many men, engineers or administrators, who have l)ecome

guished under this system, Stephenson, Turnbull, James Berkley,

W.

P.

Andrew, French, Mathew, Prestage.

Thus new strength The

of Govern-

and experience were added

experience, too,

to the administration of India.

was of a kind which the resources

ment, abundant as they were in talent, could not at that time

have supplied.

The work
E.E.,

of the

Companies has been most ably

in

seconded by the late Sir James Cosmo Melvill, by General Sir

William Baker,
the service of

and by Mr. Juland Dauvers, gentlemen

Government, and by the consulting engineers in

England, Sir John Hawkshaw, the two Piendels and Mr. George
Berkley.

The

abilities

and resources

of

several

well-known

English contractors have been called forth in the service of

India
;

such

men

as Brassey,

Wythes, Henfrey, Glover,

otherwise

Faviell.

In

short,

the

guarantee

system afforded several

essential

advantages which could not

have

lieen

procured.

Without

it,

the country would not have obtained the national

benefit of railway

communication within a reasonable time.

ungrudging acknowledgment of
all

It deserves, therefore, the

who have
The

at heart the welfare of the country.

existing arrangements, however, between the

and the Companies are

for a limited period only,

Government and can be

Companies
unexpired.

terminated on certain conditions.

there
is

With most
tliis

of the
still

a considerable portion of

period

In the case of one Company, however, the East India, the

Government has exercised

of the line,
tlie

its

power of acquiring the property

of tlie railway, but has leased to the

Company

the

management

which arrangement

is

a recognition of the merits of

guarantee system.

The Guaranteed Companies, represented by boards of Directors in London and by Agents in India, have generally maintained
excellent relations with the Government, and in times of emer-

gency

ha\'e

devoted themselves to fuliilling the behests of the

Chap. xv.

EUROPEAN AND NATIVE EMPLOYES. On

273

State with the same degree of zeal as that displayed by public

departments.

several great opportunities of famine or war,

they and their servants have M'on the emphatic

the Government.

thanks of

On some

State occasions, such as the tour

of the Prince of Wales, and the Imperial assemblage at Delhi,

the railway

officials

have vied with the

officers of

the State in

loyalty and activity.

The Companies, though

to

some extent employing Natives,

endeavouring to train them as guards, as locomotive mechanics,

even as engine-drivers, and engaging them largely as station

masters,

do yet employ

Europeans

for

a great part of the

work

that requires technical training and steadiness of nerve.

Consequently the nundjer of European employes, thus intro-

duced into the country,

advantage
socially
is

is

consideralde.

For them every possible

Companies,

provided by the

namely
and

churches, clergy, ministers, hospitals, medical attendance, schools

for

boys

and

girls,

reading-rooms,

recreation

grounds

gardens.

They

are

encouraged to

organize

themselves

by

forming clubs, and associations for various excellent purposes,

especially for volunteering.

Indeed, the volunteer

movement

has been very successful

among

the servants of the Companies,

and produces a

force equal to three battalions of infantry.

At

many

points of the lines, such as central workshops, changing

stations

and the
exist,

like,

well-ordered
little

settlements
colonies.

of

European

employes

resembling

The men being

volunteers, can defend themselves and their stations in event

of need.

The passenger
develops
itself

traffic

is

that branch of the business which

more
any

speedily,

and overcomes competition more

were supposed to be

entirely than

other.
;

Tlie Natives

indifferent regarding time

but they do not manifest any such

indifference

in

this

case.

On

the

contrary,

they instantly

appreciate the ease and speed of this

mode

of travelling,

which

they liken to reclining on a couch borne on the wind with the

speed of lightning.

They

flock in multitudes to the stations,

274
waiting for the trains
;

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xv.
to wallcing for

though habituated

long

journeys, they never walk now,

when they can

afford to travel

by
so

rail.

The

fares,

being at the rate of about ^d. a mile, are

moderate that the poor can afford to travel thus.

The

great bulk of the passengers are booked for the third class

the carriages

of the

first

and second
to

classes

are but little

used by the Natives.

has been
of

Although the virtue of a pilgrimage

held
consist

heretofore

partly

in

the labours
in

the

footsore

pilgrims,

nevertheless

pilgrims

tens

of
tliat

thousands crowd the railway stations, to such an extent

pilgrim trains have to be specially arranged.

The necessity
same

for

men

of all sorts
is

and conditions

to ride in the

third-class

carriage

believed by some to be softening the hard distinctions

hitherto maintained Ijetween caste and caste.

As

the trains

running daily are not numerous,

the

it

has often happened that

crowds of Native passengers have been

officials

more than the

railway

could arrange

comfortably at the moment.

Such instances, however, are rare nowadays, and the multitudes

of Native passengers find their

way

into

and out of the

trains,

with as

much

ease and order as could reasonably be expected.

Special facilities are afforded for the conveyance of Native ladies

of all classes
;

and of Native princes travelling with

Tlie

retinues.

On

the

whole, the railways

of the Natives.
to

are popular with the travelling

classes

number

of passengers in

a year

amounts

43 millions at the present time.

traffic,

The goods

though successful and popular, has, as comtraffic,

pared with the passenger

present position.
be, tlie
if

risen with slower degrees to its

the

However embarrassing the multitudes may passengers must be sent on and conveyed somehow but goods come in overwhelming quantities, they will be
;

detained more or
as
in
it

less.

If such detention
it affects

becomes lengthened,
even tempts

sometimes has become,

the repute of the railways

It

the estimation of the Native merchants.

some

of tliem to intrigue with the subordinate employes of the

railway for obtaining unfair priority in despatch, and thus leads

Chap. xv.

GOODS TRAFFIC

ROLLING

STOCK.

275

to divers abuses.

Notwithstandiug these occasional drawbacks,

vast quantities of merchandise, amounting to 8 millions of tons

in a year, are sent by

rail, for

wliich advantage the people are

glad to pay 7^ millions sterling annually.

The saving

to the

country of time and

set-off against

cost, M'liich really represents value, is

l)y

any charges incurred

the public treasury on

account of the railways.

There liave been sometimes doubts

;

whether the rates are sufficiently low

naturally desire remunerative rates
;

the

traffic

managers
it

on the other hand,

is

urged that the best

way

of rendering the railways useful to

tlie

country

is

to

have the

minimum

of charge

upon the maxireductions,

mum

of

traffic.

The Companies have made

is

and

are quite alive

to the necessity of rendering the

fares very

moderate.

Such a disposition

strengthened by the serious

facts of the competition

from the river boats, plying in tens

of thousands on the lower

Ganges and the

;

rivers of Bengal,

and in thousands on the Indus

craft

and from the seagoing Native

railways have been
or

which

sail

past the western coast of Gujerat.

However valuable
pressure,
officials

the services of the

of

in every emergency, whether

war, famine

commercial
railway

and however strenuous are the

on these grave occasions,
still

efforts of the

anxiety arises in con-

sequence of the rolling stock being insufficient, and especially

of the engines being inadequate in number.

This defect has

been partly remedied of

late,

but as rule a considerable reserve

of engines ought to be maintained in India, ready for emergency.

There

is this

reason,

among

others, that

owing

to the difference

between the Indian and the English gauges, engines cannot be

obtained ready-made in
the

yards of the great builders in

;

England, but have to be made specially on requisition

the making of them in any considerable

and

number may occupy

is

several months, while the most pressing need

India.

being

felt in

The

several

guaranteed Companies and

at

the

State

possess

extensive

locomotive workshops

the

principal

termini of

T 2

276
their
lines.

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xv.

Though engines cannot be made in India they England can be repaired very well and when sent out from
;

in pieces they can be

" erected," or

put together.

The

State

railways are making considerable progress, but

as yet play a part

much

smaller than that of the Guaranteed

field later,

railways.

Entering the

they have been

al)le

to

profit by the experience which the guaranteed lines afforded. It was hoped that they would shew cheapness in construc-

tion

and improvement in management.

the

Though they have

some parts
of the

avoided

extravagance perceptible in

guaranteed

lines, it is
lias

doubtful whether, on the whole, their

been essentially cheaper, upon a full comparison construction being made of all the circumstances and of the topography of the
country traversed.
doul)tful

Though they
except,

are well managed,

is

it

is

also

whether their administration

lines,

better than that of the

for

guaranteed
traffic

perhaps, that their fares

to moderation.

goods

have a greater tendency

the fact of there being two patterns of railway

in the <coiintry, one

by the Companies, the

At all events, management other by the State,

at large

must cause a salutary emulation whereby the public

is

benefited.
It
is

noteworthy that Native sovereigns are beginning to

in railways constructed in their dominions with

invest

money

the aid of the British Government.

In this matter the Nizam,

Sindhia and Holkar have set an excellent example, and the

Begum

of Bliopal

is

adopting a similar policy.

There has been in India, as in some other countries, a battle

of the gauges.

The guaranteed
of

lines

were constructed with an

intermediate gauge

ft.

in.,

which

is

less

than

the

English old Ijroad gauge and more than that of the English
standard gauge.

This intermediate gauge

is

now termed

the

Indian brotid gauge.

a jjroposal was

When

the State railways were commenced,

made

that they should be constructed on a gauge

considerably narrower than the English standard gauge, namely

that of
tlie

metre, 3

ft.

in.,

which

is

now termed

the Indian

Chap. xv.

BROAD AND NARROW GAUGES.

The guaranteed
railways' authorities and

277
tlie

narrow gauge.

majority probalily of the niereantile community, some also of

the highest
official authorities, are

opposed

to this

narrow gauge.

It is likely, in their view, to

impede

traffic

by causing breaks
lines,

of gauge.
carriages,

It diminishes the interchange of rolling stock, engines,

wagons, in the working of through

for

and

it

is

insufficient

the growing

traffic

in

goods especially.
appreciable

It

produces

inconvenience,

without

an

saving

of

expense either in constructing or working the

lines.

These

views are often supported by the military authorities, with the

additional argument that the break of gauge in time of
will be injurious to rapidity in the
^var

On

the other side,

it is

movement urged that economy

of troops.
is

important with

railways, as with everything else in India.

narrow-gauge

railway, being a smaller thing than a broad-gauge railway,

cost less to build

must
size,

and

less to

work.

Even though
In

the expense

be not quite so low as might be expected in proportion to

still it

must be

less considerably.
is

many parts
traffic.

of the country

the narrow gauge

large enough for the

is

The

Ijreak of

gauge, though disadvantageous,

as to prevent the lines
trade.

not so seriously inconvenient

from conferring great benefit upon the

In time of war the
line,

Notwithstanding such break, troops and material of

difficulty

war can be conveyed promptly.

and the delay are not on the railway

passed.
It

but on the lines of

military transport after the terminus of the railway has l^een

was contemplated
and

in 1871

and 1872,
in

that, for the

is

most

part, the lines in the Panjab,

and in Sind, that

in the

valleys of the Indus

its tributaries,

Eajputana and Central

India, should be constructed on the narrow gauge.

The

project

provided a considerable length of railway uniforndy on this

gauge, connected and interdependent, thus allowing interchange
of engines, carriages

and wagons.

That part of the project

which related

to

the Panjab and the Indus valley was soon

afterwards abandoned, the railways in that quarter having been

all

constructed on the broad gauge.

But that portion

of the

278
project

INDIA IN
which related
to Eajpiitana

1880.

Chap. xv.

and Centml India has been, and in

this quarter there

or

is

being, carried into execution,

will be a considerable length

tlie

of narrow-gange railM^ays.

In

southern peninsula,

also,

there

is

a continuous series of

narrow-gauge lines near Tanjore and Trichinopoly, extending

to the neighbourhood of

Cape Comorin.

Some

other separate

State lines,

and most of the branch

lines yet to

be undertaken,

have been, or are to be, constructed on the narrow gauge. In reference to the importance of keeping down the capital account
of the railways,

which

is

really a part of the national debt,

economizing the current expenses so that the net earnings sliall represent a profitable rate of interest, and husbanding the
limited

means
still

of the

country
is

for

the completion of

much

extension

needed, it

earnestly hoped that the narrow-

gauge railways will be so managed that they shall answer the

economical expectations with which they were introduced.

The potent accession, which the railways have brought to the military power of the Government, has been proved on many The proof has been signal during the occasions of late years.
recent

campaigns

in

Afghanistan, and will

be

still

more

emphatic as emergencies in the future

elforts.

may demand supreme

any

financial sacrifices

The military advantage alone might be held to justify which may have been incurred for the
rail

sake of establishing communication by

of the Indian empire.

over the wide area

Even more remarkable

with famine, a
If
fell foe

is

the advantage acquired in copinrf

whose attacks are of periodical recurrence. public opinion in England demands that when millions of
no saving remedy untried which the science of the
without the possession of railways throughout the
of the electric telegraph into India

Indian ueople are threatened with starvation, the Government

shall leave

nineteenth century can devise, then this task cannot possibly

be

fulfilled

length and Ijreadth of the land.

The introduction
approjjriately

may

be

mentioned in connection with railways.

All the

Chap. xv.

INTRODUCTION OF ELl'XTRIC TELEGEAPH.

tlie

279

railway lines, wlietlicr belonging to

or to

guaranteed Companies

the State, have their electric telegraphs, whicli besides

performing the
for the public.

railway

business,

despatcli

many messages

Separate from

tliese is

the Government telegraph, which was

introduced into India in 1853, at the recommendation of Lord

Dalhousie and carried out mainly through

Sir

the exertions of

William O'Shaughnessy.
all parts of

It

has since that time been

extended to

the empire and has been carried across

valleys, along mountain-sides or over rivers of great breadth, in

manner

reflecting the highest credit

on the

skill of the officers

concerned.

The

cost of the lines

amounted

in all to

3^ millions

sterling, their total length is represented

by 19,100

miles,

and If

million of messages, public and private, are despatched annually.

In times of famine, the telegraph has been rapidly extended into

the heart of the distressed tracts, and has been of the utmost
assistance to those engaged in the
it

work

of relief.

In time of war,

follows the armies in the field with

much

regularity
sort of

and conit

stitutes a real military resource,

and in every

emergency

has added

much

to the

power of the Government.

It is largely

used by the
despatch of
so great.

officers of
affiiirs

the Government, and greatly facilitates the

in an empire

where the postal distances are

The European
first,

non-official

greatly from the

especially those engaged in trade.

Natives were somewhat slower in

tages,

community have used it The making full use of its advanavail themselves of
it

but the Native merchants

as the European.

now

as

much
to the

Its use has not,

however, yet spread

middle and humbler classes corresponding to those classes

resort to
it

which

in England, probably

by reason

of the miniIf a

mum

charge of one rupee (two shillings) for a message.

reduction in the charge shall be found practicable, there will be

an increase of messages.
satisfactory accuracy
;

The messages

are transmitted with

is

in a

manner which

creditable to the

management
the public.

of the department

and commands the confidence of

For some time the receipts did not cover the

280
expenses
;

INDIA IN

1880.

CuAP. xv.

they are now, however, beginning to exceed the

expenses and to yield a moderate net income.

There are two lines of telegraphic communication between

India and England.
across the Indian

Of

these,

one runs by a submarine cable

Ocean

to

Aden, and thence by the Eed Sea to

Egypt
passes

it

belongs to a private Company.

The other runs along

to Bushire,

the coast of Beluchistan to the

mouth

of the Persian Gulf, then

up the Gulf by a submarine cable

thence by

land across Persia to Tehran, where

it

joins

the European

system

it

belongs to the British Government.

With

these two

lines, the

telegrapliic

communication

is

safe

from interruption.

The value
and the

of such

communication
merchants
is

for State purposes is manifest,

utility to

equally great, most of their im-

portant business being transacted by these means.

of transmitting messages

The expense

over a line of such length deters

largely
;

individuals from using

it

it

but to those who do employ

concern,
its

for

some important personal

description.
it is

usefulness

is

beyond
news,

To the general community,

;

in respect of

most convenient

the arrangements for telegraphing

public information

of importance

and

interest, are

complete.

Whatever happens
is

Europe or America, whatever said by statesmen or written by publicists, is known a few

in England,

hours afterwards throughout India.

The correctness with which

the messages are transmitted over several thousands of miles

of land and sea,
is

honourable to the

the departments concerned.

officers and employes of The accuracy wdth which cypher

messages are transmitted, by this long line through so many countries, is remarkable. The Indian Empire is now in telegraphic communication with China, Australia and South Africa.

281

CHAPTER

XVI.

ROADS AND EMBANKMENTS.

Ivoiul

making under Native

rule

British roads

Their

Under

British

rale

value and character

Bridging and metalling

Pack-bullocks

Their

Principal

lines

of

noteworthy features

in part superseded

Carts

with

draught-bullocks substituted

In the valley of the Indus.

EoADMAKiNG was from

Embankments in Bengal, Behar and Orissa

the earliest ages neglected in India to a

degree whicli would hardly be conceivable by any Englishman

who had not who hewed

later

travelled in the East.

The Buddhists and Hindus

rock-formations,

spacious

chambers out of
rivers

the

Hindus who dammed up

irrigation,

with dykes

to

form
in

reservoirs for

the

Indian

Muhammadans who

structural design

excelled
their

by any modern race

and architectural conception have not been of men, seem never to have bent
and communications.
bands or

minds

to the subject of roads

In

some few provinces, highways

caravans, were

for warlike

for peaceful

marked out but not constructed.

route

It

was often
at fixed
for

deemed

sufficient to indicate the

by minarets

intervals of distance,
farers at every stage.

and by commodious caravanserais

way-

Here and

there, bridges

were constructed,

solidly massive, indeed,

practical,

and well founded, but clumsy and un-

and affording by their ruins and remains a strange

contrast to the other surviving structures of that period.

Not

only in the rainy or close season were ordinarily-sized rivers

impassable (as might be expected), but also their passage even
in the fair, or open season,

was equal

to a day's march.

In the

champaign

districts, strings of carts could,

though with

difficulty,

drag their length along.

But

in the hilly districts,

which comtraffic

prise so large a part of the area of the country,

wheeled

282
was impossible.
of

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xvi.

There the laden-pack animals and other beasts

burden climbed or struggled, as best they might, up or

the steep and rugged tracks.

down

The shortcomings

in respect

to roadmaking,

however, arose not only from ignorance

and

apathy, but partly also from design.

Every Native sovereign

and regarded

and chief dreaded incursions from

his neighbours,

the impassability of the country, from wants of roads, as a sort

of natural defence.

None

will be so obtuse respecting the ad-

vantages of roadmaking as those who, in their shortsightedness,

wish not to make roads.

Ofttimes

British officer,

when

urging on a Native chief the expediency of constructing such

and such a

line of road, has been told, in diplomatic terms, that

roads for guns and for material of

war were being advocated

and
for

under the guise of roads

for peaceful traffic

commerce.

"Wlienever a Native empire like that of the Moguls, or that of

the Mahrattas, arose,

its

energies were too

much

absorbed in

military and political combinations, for attention to be paid to

roads and communications.

Similar preoccupations befell the British empire also, after

first

its

consolidation

English

officers

were too much engrossed

in the pacification of their districts to take

up what would then

have been regarded as so secondary a matter as roadmaking.

The East India Company,

less alive to the
it

so keenly sensitive to all that conits

it

cerned the Avelfare of the people under

charge,

was

at first
;

need of roadmaking than

afterwards became
its

was only

abreast,

and not in advance of

of its

time.

Within

the last thirty years

existence, however, it turned to

roadmaking that far-seeing discernment and that comprehensive grasp, wliicli liad procured for it victorious success in so

many

fields

of action.

Lines of road, partially bridged and

luacadamized throughout, were undertaken, from Calcutta to

Delhi a thousand miles, and prolonged hundreds of miles further

as
tlie

frontier

advanced

from Bombay

to Agra, a distance of

nine hundred miles; from

eight hundred miles.

Madras

to

Bombay, a distance

of

These represent only some of the prin-

Chap. xvi.
cipal

PRINCIPAL LINES OF BRITISH ROADS.

the trunk lines which were begun in

283
province

among

after province

and in season

after season.

The

lines of road

not only traversed the open steppe-like tracts of the country,

but also

marched right

at

the mountain ranges,

passes.

or

made

straight for

some

of the

most arduous

There was no

want

of ingenuity in avoiding difficulties, but the contour of

the country presented obstacles which had unavoidably to be

encountered.

These lines rendered to the country the services which the

railways are

now

rendering far more completely.

For many

years before the introduction of the railways, the line from

Bombay

to the north

and from Bombay

to

Madras served

for

the purposes of military communication and of trade.

During a
Provinces

whole generation, the trunk road of the

w'as the

ISTorth- western

main

artery of communication between Calcutta

and and

the north-west frontier.

In these several trunk lines the most

the
section through

noteworthy points

are,

the rugged

raviny tracts between the rivers Jhelum and Indus, where the

roadway sometimes
and embankments
;

consists of a continuous

series of cuttings

the roadway along the spurs of the

;

Vindhya
Ghafc
coast,

mountains near Indore

the

passage of the Western

mountains by the Thai pass between Khandesh and the

which
the

is

perhaps the best instance of roadmaking to be found

;

in the empire

the similar passage of the same mountains

;

by

Bhore pass between Bombay and the Deccan

the line

through the Eastern Ghat mountains between the Balaghat

districts

and the Madras

coast.

Besides the trunk lines there are

many

other roads, of remark;

able construction, in all parts of the empire

for instance in the

Himalayas, the roads from the plains of Eawal Pindi throuoh

the hill district of Hazara, from the military cantonment of

Am^bala to the sanitarium of Simla

from Simla towards Chini

to the station of Darjilin"'

from the region of northern Bengal

and the tea

from Mirzapur on the Ganges to Jabulpur in Central India and thence across the Satpura
district

of

Sikhim

284
iiiountains to

INDIA IX

1880.

Chap. xvi.
tlie

Nagpur
is

the several passes whereliy

Western

Ghat
near

range

pierced,

such as

that

near

Mahableshwar,

near Kolliapur, near Karwar, near Kompta, near Cannanore,

Calicat

and
;

Beypur

the

line

from

Poona

to

the

southern Deccan

the ascent of the Nilgiri mountains

from
;

the plains of Coimbatur to the sanitarium at

Utacamand

the

passage of the Eastern Ghat mountains between the coast and

the districts of Caddapa and Karnul.

Many

portions of the

mountainous ranges of the empire, such as the Western and

Eastern Ghats, the Vindhyas and the Satpuras, the Aravalis,
yet remain to be penetrated by the roadmakcrs.

In the passes the roads are usually made complete, with

bridges, zigzags, parapets

and revetments.
fine bridges

In the plains they

are partly bridged in different

and many

have been erected

often,
all.
;

parts of the

empire.

They

are

however,

very imperfectly bridged, or not bridged at

lines

The trunk

are

usually

metalled or macadamized

the materials

for metalling are abundant in northern, southern and western India,

but deficient in

eastern India, especially in

Bengal,

where they have

to be supplied
still

by brickmaking.

In several

provinces there are

many branch
by these

roads quite unmetalled,

for traffic.

and these prove very heavy and troublesome

The

difference, caused

roads, in the
is

modes

of

com-

munication and in the habits of the people,

marked.
gypsies in some respects, but

always strongly

The pack-bullocks driven by strange tribes, resembling endowed with uncommon hardihood
carts

and perseverance, are superseded, and

are substituted.

with draught-bullocks

The

carts

are not of the inefficient

and

anti-

quated build previously in vogue, but are of an improved structure

and greatly enlarged capacity

the bullocks are of

taller,

stouter
it is
;

and stronger breeds.

custom
to

In some, perhaps in most seasons,

the

perform the stage between sunset and sunrise

and

along the mountain passes the creaking of the cartwheels and

the shouts of the cartmen
long.

may

be heard resounding

all

night

The

pack-bullocks, having their gypsy-like

drivers,

Chap. xvi.
will

LOCAL RESrONSIBILITY FOR ROADMAKING.

to

285

continue

graze in
finil

vast nnmln'rs

on

the mountain

plateaux, and will not

their occupation gone, until that yet

distant time shall arrive wlien the road system of the enii)irc

approaches completion.
Thus, not only has the professional skill of engineers, but also

some
to

of the best talent of civil administrators, been directed

roadmaking, which has in the course of a quarter of a century

gigantic strides.

made

Nevertheless, although the empire can

to be roadless, as it

no longer be considered

was once described,

are

and although the complaints regarding a want of roads

less

much

heard nowadays than they used to be,

circles that

it is

douljtless held in

commercial

very much, in regard to roadmaking, yet

remains to be done.
still

If thousands of miles

have been

finished,

thousands of miles have to be undertaken, before the

empire can be placed on a par in this respect with any advanced

country in Europe.

Some

of the trunk roads are used less

now than

formerly,

by reason of the introduction of railways.

" feeders "

But the opening

into existence as
called,

of railway stations often brings fresh roads

tributaries, or

as

they are

now

to

the railway.

Here, again,
consider
that

the authorities of the

railways will doubtless

to be done.

much more

yet needs

The finance

of

roadmaking generally, in the empire, has been

of late years entrusted entirely to the several Local

Governments

under the system known by the name of Provincial Services.

The

central

Government

of India undertakes to provide funds

only for a few lines mainly or solely required for military

The several Local Governments receive annually, from the Government of India, certain aggregate grants for provincial services, among which services roadmaking is
purposes.

included.

They may apply to roadmaking such portion of these grants as they deem fit, and to these funds they may add the receipts of local rates imposed by law for roads. With the
resources at their disposal, they

may

construct such roads as are

practicable, they being answerable to the public for the result.

286

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xvi.
of India for

and not being

entitled to apply to the

Government

any

additional funds.

American

Tramways have been introduced into the city of Bombay by enterprise, and are managed with that skill which Americans everywhere bring to bear on this subject. They are
very successful and carry

many

thousands of passengers daily,

European and East Indian

as well as Natives.

There

is

a good

tramway in Calcutta along the Strand, belonging to the Port

Commissioners, but the attempts made to introduce tramways
into other parts of the city have not yet succeeded.
It is difficult to give the total length of the roads

which are

metalled or macadamized throughout and partially bridged, but

it is

not less than 20,000 miles for the whole empire.

stress has

In previous chapters so much

been laid upon the

it

need of irrigation and protection from drought, that

perhaps be supposed that the opposite
of drainage
difficulty,

might

namely that
In some

and protection from

floods,

hardly exists.

provinces, however, protective measures against inundation have

long ensaffed the solicitous care of the Government and the

people.

In Bengal, Behar and Orissa these operations,> on

its tributaries,

the banks of the Ganges and

have repeatedly
laws on this

become subjects of
subject there
is

legislation.

To one

of the

attached an interesting schedule setting forth

a statement of embankments under State control, some old,

others new, of which the total length

amounts

to

1170 miles.

The

river

Gandak

in

Behar presents a remarkable instance of

sides for a

embankments, broad and high, constructed on both

depends the safety of
than two millions.
districts

length of 130 miles, on the efficient maintenance of which

with a population of not less

In Orissa there are extensive embankments

In northern Bengal there are swamps of

of ancient date on the sides of the Mahanadi, the Brahmini

and other

rivers.

many

square miles in extent, which at some seasons of the

year resemble lagoons.

In

1875,

the

Bengal

Government

estimated

the

area

under

swamps, needing drainage and

Chap. xvi.

EMBANKMENTS NEAR GREAT

RIVERS.

287

reclamation, at full half a million of acres.

In the valley of the

Indus near Bahawulpur, in the southern portion of the Panjab,

there are extensive
river.

embankments on

tlie

bank

of tlie great
for

Near Sakar in Sindh the embankments extend

150 miles on one bank and 50 miles on the opposite bank,

protecting the whole of

Upper Sind from the devastation which

Indeed, the

the floods of the Indus would otherwise cause.

canal system in that region, the land revenue, the towns, and
the line of military communication with soutliern Afghanistan,
partly depend for their safety on the stability of these

embankflood.

ments.

There

is,

however,

much

difficulty in rendering these

works secure against the violence of the Indus when in

Improvements in construction are being constantly made, and,

when

fully completed, the

Indus embankments will form one of

the finest systems of the kind in

any country.

288

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap

xvii.

CHAPTER

XVII.

PRODUCTS, NATURAL, AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL.

Compamon

of Indian products with those of other countries

Tobacco Cinchona Cotton Indigenous staple Local manufactures Production and of cotton by steam machinery Factory legislation manufactures of jute The forests Destruction in past times Present

Tea Coffee

Climatic importancePreservation of pasturage Comdepartment Conduct of the Forest laws The munal Mineral resources Coal Iron Gold people in relation to flourishing on the whole Precious stonesIndustrial products Merits of and industry Effect on Native Exhibitions of

conservancy

forests

forest

forests

Still

art

taste

Native

art.

India

will,

on a comparison of her raw products with those of

other nations, be found to exhibit only a second-rate quality in

many

of those articles, for the production of

which she has long

of sugarcane is

been famed.

For instance, her raw

silks are not equal in excel-

lence to those of China or Italy.

inferior in richness to that

Her produce

of Jamaica; her spices

have

less

pungency than those of Ceylon, the West

of the Eastern Archipelago.

Indies, or the islands

is

Her

cotton

far surpassed

by

that of the United States, and her tobacco

by that

of

South

America.
quantities,

Though some kinds

are

of her

rice,

grown
still

in limited

of

unsurpassed
is

fineness,

the

quality

of her abundant sorts

excelled

by that

of the Carolina rice.

;

Her maize

is

below the standard of

southern Europe

her

wheat, though beginning to be esteemed and exported, cannot

rival in quality the
States.

wheat of Great Britain or of the United

fruits
;

Her indigenous vegetables and

cannot be com-

pared with those of European countries

those of Mesopotamia
;

nor her dates with

nor her betel-nut with that of Ceylon

nor her

figs

with those of Asia Minor.

Her

vines are inferior,

Chap. xvii.

MERIT OP INDIAN PRODUCTS.

289

not only to those of France and Germany, but even to those of

Afghanistan and Persia.

culture of
tlie

Notwithstanding great

efforts in the

febrifuge, her Cincliona cannot be

that of Peru. or of Thibet.

made to match Her wool cannot compete with that of Australia Her horses, even on her own ground, cannot vie
Arabia or Persia
;

with

tliose of Australia,

her bovine breeds

;

are outstripped
1>y

hj those of European countries

and her camels

those of Central Asia.

Her mineral

wealth, though consist-

ing of coal, iron, copper, borax, manganese, gypsum, and

other things,

many
all

must be placed

in a comparatively huml^le rank.

The merit

of India consists in this, that she produces

these things cheaply, abundantly and passably good.

It is remarkable, too, that the parts

of India,

which

raise

some

articles in

a small quantity, produce them better than

those parts which raise

them

in

abundance.

For instance,

Bengal and Burma produce

little,

rice

very much, the Panjab very

superior.

but that

little is

by many degrees

Many

other

provinces have sugarcane besides the Panjab, but the Panjal)

sugarcane

is

the best,
is

though limited in quantity.

Again,

Indian corn or maize

grown largely

in the plains of India,

and

only sparsely in the

Himalayas, but

the

Himalayan

varieties are the finest.

Still,
is

there are

some

articles in the

production of which India

at

the

head of

all countries,

or is not surpassed

by any

country.

Her
to

tea has of late years been so rapidly rising in

repute that the people of China will some day be obliged

to

look

their

hitherto

unquestioned
is

supremacy in
still

this

respect.

In quantity the Chinese tea

it is

surpassingly

great; ]3ut as to quality,

tea
is

to

be noted that the Indian

for

used in
tea,

the

English

markets chiefly

flavouring

Chinese

and

this

may

be regarded as a sign of supe-

riority in favour of India.

The

quality,

and the astonishing

increase in the quantity, of Indian coffee are fast causing the

Arabian

coffee, so

famous of

old, to

be superseded.

The indigo
though

of Bengal

and Behar has been unapproachable

as yet,

290
its

INDIA IN

1880.
is

Chap. xvii.

position in the markets of the world

threatened by

new

dyes chemically extracted from other substances. Still, no plant yet discovered in any clime can rival the dark blue dye
of the Indian plant in

permanence or in
lac.

colour,

and no dye

surpasses the scarlet of the Indian

The opium-producing

poppy
is

of the mid-Gangetic basin,

and of the Malwa uplands,

in quality unequalled.

the prohibition by their

own Government

The Chinese have, apparently despite of the culture, grown

still

the poppy over an extensive area,

their

variety

is

no-

where near that of India in quality.

is

Though the cocoa-nut

most highly esteemed product in many eastern countries, yet nothing beats the cocoa-nut of the Malabar coast of India.
a

This tree

is

truly said to furnish all a poor

man

wants, his

food, drink, clothing, utensils

and the materials

for his house.

From one end

potato

of India to the other, the introduction of the

fair

has been most successful, and the root bids

article

to
is

become an

of large consumption.
;

The mango-tree
its

among
to
tlie

the most useful of the Indian trees

wood

is

turned

many

purposes

its

fruit

is

an

article

of sustenance for
varieties,

poorer classes,

and with the highly cultured

ranks high among the fruits of the world.

The teak wood of

it is

Burma and

of

Malabar has such a high merit that

largely

used by the British Admiralty.

The cedar
forest,

is

regarded everyis it

where as one of the queens of the

layan mountains.

but nowhere

found

richer in quantity, or finer in quality, than

among

the

Hima-

The ebony

of Africa

and the india-rubber of

South America have long been celebrated; but they may be rivalled by those of Eastern Bengal and other parts of India.

The Eacahjptm

glohidosa, introduced

from Australia, has been

naturalized successfully in the Nilgiri mountains.

Horns and
object,

hides are things in which quantity

this respect India

is

the

main

and in

Her
fibre

oil-seeds,

with her countless cattle has a vast resource. flax and hemp occupy a high place her jute
;

which enters into

so

many

manufactures, has, as yet, no

competitor anywhere.

Her

oranges, naturalized

by the Portu-

(Jhap. xvir.

PRODUCTION OF INDIGO.
soil,
ri\'al

291
;

guese on her

those of southern Europe

hut her

plantains are not equal to those of equatorial regions.

of her flowering trees, such as the

Some
tree,

Champa, the Magnolia, the

Asoka, the Lagerstrremia, the Bauhiuia, the silk-cotton

the Kachnar, the Poinsiana, display great beauty.

The rhododenflowers
Nilgiri

drons of the eastern Himalayas are superb, and as tree-shrubs

among the glories of the mountains. The European when cultivated in some parts of India, such as the
are

mountains, under European supervision will soon enter into

rivalry with those of
is

Europe

itself

the superiority or inferiority

only a question of capital and

skill.

From amongst
brief notice here.

the

many

products, a few

may

be selected for

The production
twenty years ago

of indigo, once so large in Bengal, has

become
con-

contracted of late years.

to be

The

cultivation of the plant ceased

remunerative to the peasants,

it.

who

sequently refused to continue

The European planters held

the peasantry to the contracts which had been

made

for pro-

ducing the plant.

The

validity of these contracts

was disputed
Con-

and some agrarian

troubles,

even disturljances, ensued.

cessions were offered, but the terms,

which the planters could

Ultifor the

afford to give, the cultivators could not afford to take.

mately the planting concerns succumbed

most

part,

and

indigo ceased to be an industry of any consequence in Bengal.

Similar circumstances have arisen, or threatened to

in Behar,

arise,

where the plant

to

is

largely produced, but the planters

have from time

time been able to

for

make

concessions which

the cultivators have accepted

the present.

Thus the

into

dustry has
flourish
;

been
to the

saved

from extinction, and continues

up

most recent dates additional concessions

There
is

are

being

made by
it

the planters.

hope that the planters

can be made

may

yet preserve to the country this useful product, remem-

bering that

must decline and

fall,

unless

it

remunerative to the peasant

who

is

the original producer.

The

tea

is

mainly a product of the southern slopes of the

u 2

292

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xvn.

Himalayas, of Assam or the upper valley of the Brahmaputra, and of the western slopes of the mountains which bound Bengal

on the

east.

Its increase is
it

among

the economic events of the

time; in thirty years

four millions
sterling.

has risen from nothing up to thirtyannually, valued

at

of pounds

three

millions

Many

of the earlier

European planters struggled

towards the goal of this great success through a maze of

difficultieSj errors,

and disappointments.

They thus

lost

much

capital,

which has been replaced by capital generally yielding

Their more fortunate successors form a regular

good returns.

profession of specially trained and qualified men.

The
leaf,

tea-

gardens are

now

scientifically

managed, improved processes are

adopted in the factories for the preparation of the

and

steam machinery

is

beginning to be used.

The

coffee-planting has an earlier origin,

hills

and

is

carried on

amidst the beautiful valleys and

of Curg, the Nilgiris,

Wynaad and Travancore. As a business, it has sometimes suffered

from the want of professional knowledge, and
specific diseases.
it is

somewhat

subject to vicissitudes of season, to the ravages of insects and to

Its

production within this generation has

greatly increased, and amounts on the average to 350,000 cwts. annually, valued at 1^ million sterling. The coffee-planters
also liave

become

a highly instructed profession

their plantatrees

tions are finely situated

and present a gay sight when the

are in blossom.

Tobacco is largely cultivated for local consumption, but is not exported in any appreciable quantity. Many people are sanguine that with scientific treatment it may be placed in competition ^^'ith American tobacco. With this view some
important experiments have been made in northern India, with assistance from the State and apparently with success.

The
Sikhim.

Cinchona-tree

cultivated by the

has Ijeen for some years assiduously Government both in the Nilgiri hills and in
are

The plantations

extensive

include several species of the

tree.

and thriving, and Chemical experiments have

Chap. xvii.

SILK

AND COTTON

S'J'AIM.ES.

293

boon made in order to extract from the bark a febrifuge which

shall be suflicicnt

and yet

so cheap as to be purchaseable

by

tlie

poorest people

considerable quantities of this useful medicine

are being produced.

Silk was once

among

the most prosperous of Indian products,

especially in Bengal proper.

trees trained as bushes for the

The mulberry-gardens, with the worms to feed upon, afford an

the Indian silk in

interesting sight.

The
Italy,

price

commanded by

foreign markets, and the exportation, depend

in

much on

the yield

China and in

and are therefore somewhat precarious.

The production
account of
it

is,

however, maintained in Bengal and in

many

other parts of the empire, and excites

will be found in
is felt

much

attention.

full

Mr. Geoghegan's elaborate

report.

Great interest

by many people in the production of the by worms which

feed,

" Tusser " or wild silk, produced

not on the

cultivated mulberry, but on the trees of the forests.

The substance

thus produced

is
;

thought to be well suited to

many

kinds of

European

fabrics

machines
its

for it are being devised

and hopes
Eeference

are entertained of

becoming a valuable export.

to

may

be

made with advantage

on the subject.

Mr. Wardle's very useful

from the Government

treatises

Cotton received

much

attention, both

and from the public,

war.

for several years after the

American

civil

Much

salutary influence in this direction

was exerted by
Special
efforts

the Cotton Supply Association formed in England.

officers

were appointed by the Government to guide the

Dr. Forbes in

of the people in improving the staple.

and Mr. H. Rivett Carnac in Upper India rendered

in this way.

Bombay much service

Strenuous exertions were put

forth,

by improving
fibre

the indigenous species, and by na.turalizing foreign varieties, to

produce a

fibre

which should be
but

as suitable as the

American

to the English machinery.

These proceedings have been attended

concerned, whether the State,

with partial success

all parties

the trader, or the cultivator, are oppressed with the conviction

that India cannot in this respect compete with America,

now

29-1

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xvii.
as large as ever, despite

that the crop of the Southern States

is

The interest the social changes consequent on the civil war. become cool, inevitably has warm, improving the staple, once so

among
India,

the Natives at least.

For some years

after

the war,

though ceasing to export the abnormal quantities which used to be despatched to England during the blockade of the American ports, continued exporting annually quantities much
larger than those she

had exported before those events. The exportation has of late been decreasing, though it will doubtMeanwhile the cultivation of the less remain considerable. indigenous species is flourishing, and is stimulated by the estal)lishment at
goods.
special

Bombay of factories for the manufacture of cotton The demand for raw cotton is brisk in all the marts regulations are made by law to stop the frauds and
whereby foreign substances were mixed with the

adulterations
tibre,

and the repute of the Indian staple lowered. The local manufactures of cotton by steam macliinery in

India have been

much

noticed of
first

late.

Some

twenty-five years

have elapsed since the

this direction
;

attempt was made at Bombay, in

a great impulse was imparted to the movement when the cotton trade became so inflated after 18G1. There are now 53 spinning and weaving mills in India, of which 41 are in the Bombay Presidency and 5 in Calcutta. These They mills employ 10,500 looms and 1^ million of spindles. mostly belong to private companies, though some of them are owned and managed by individuals. Of the capital, a part

belongs to Europeans, the greater portion of

the hands of Natives.

it

is,

however, in

The

owTiers

and managers are generally

Natives, though Europeans are sometimes employed as foremen.

The concerns have

suffered all sorts of mishaps from speculation,

still

misapplication of capital and errors in practice,

many

of

them have been placed on a sound

footing,

and on the whole

they are very creditable to Native enterprise.

are Natives of both sexes, including adults and children.

The M'orkpeople The

goods produced by the mills are good, serviceable, and free from

Chap. xvii.
adulteration.

FIBEOUS SUBSTANCES.

295

To a limited extent they compete successfully with

at present

English-made goods, and with the indigenous goods turned out

by hand-looms. They cannot, however,

of their competing in future

compete with

the better kinds of the English manufactures, though the chance

is

gradually becoming stronger.

at

The growth
at Calcutta,

of these

and other manufactures

Bombay and

and the large numbers of Native hands employed,

to

have caused the Indian legislature

restricting the hours of

undertake legislation for

work

in the factories,

and

to enact other

humane

provisions on the model of the English legislation in

these respects.

Some moderate

restrictions

and provisions are

required in a hot climate where, for the sake of good wages in

hard times, the Native workpeople are apt to over-exert themselves.

In justice to the managers

is
;

it

must be

said that the

management

generally popular with the Native labourers and

their families

and that care

is

bestowed on the

women and
which
is

children in the factories.

There are other fibrous substances such as

obtained from the husk of the
excellent material for cables, and
quantities.

coir,

cocoa-nut,

which furnishes
exported in some
;

which

is

Flax can be produced in large quantities

it is

but the

production of
plant,

comparatively small, because the linseed

fibre is obtained, is cultivated
oil,

from the stem of wliich the

for the sake of the oil-seed

and the

rather than for the sake

of the fibre.

Several good varieties of

;

hemp

are

grown and

afford capital material for cordage

this article,

raw and manu-

factured,

is

exported in considerable quantities.

Among
is jute,

the most important of the fibrous substances of India

article

an

which has come into prominence since the war

Tliis

in the Crimea.

staple

is

grown on the banks

of the
It is

Brahmaputra and
and partly

of its branches, in eastern Bengal.

cultivated partly for consumption in manufactures within India

itself,

for exportation.

The quantity exported, which

to

is

sent chiefly to

the United Kingdom, amounts annually

nearly 5 millions of cwts., valued at 3 millions sterling.

The

296

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xvii.

jute manufactures in India itself are valued at | of a million

sterling yearly.
factories

They
tall

are carried on at Calcutta,

where the

and the

chimneys remind the spectator of some of

of Europe.

the manufacturing centres

They

consist chiefly
to the

of bags for corn, rice, seeds

and wool, which are sent

also.

United

States, Australia,

Egypt, and to England

They

employ many

thousands of Natives of both sexes and

all ages.

Among
The

natural products, the forests claim a prominent place.

forests of India

were vast according

to

ti-adition,

and

have been considerable even during periods of authentic history.

During some few

centuries, they

have been shrinking in

size

and importance, until they are at present inconsiderable

great an empire as India,

for so

which possesses
liill-sides

so

many
as

ranges of

mountains and

hills.

If the

generally had slopes

forests,

which could
gradually cut

be cultivated,

then the

they were

down and
But the
thin,

uprooted, would give place to crophills

is

bearing

fields.

are steep, the

soil,

lying upon

rocky

strata, is

and

speedily

washed away by the

rains descending violently at

certain seasons.
soil

The

forest

is

destined

liy

nature to bind the

with

roots,

and so to support

the lesser vegetation on the ground.

hill-side is

Consequently,

when

the
fail

denuded of

trees,

the shrubs, plants, and herbage

to sustain themselves,

and barrenness ensues.

The unrestrained

clearance of the forests has affected the climate unfavourably,

and lessened the supply of moisture in a country already

subject to aridity.
It has caused

wood, a necessary

article, to

become dear and

to a

scarce,

and compelled the people

to use for fuel It has reduced

substances which ought to be used for manure.

low ebb some valuable portions of the national wealth, and

cut off beyond recovery some branches of the imperial resources.

For

many

generations, the forests have been felled

to

whenever
the

firewood

had

be gathered

for

the

consumption of
hilly slopes, or
is

villagers, or

new lands reclaimed from the

towns

built with styles of architecture in

which wood
for troops

largely used,
to

more

particularly

when cantonments

had

be formed.

Cjiap. XVII.

PAST DESTRUCTION OF FOllKSTS.

The
felling-

297

or civil edifices constructed.

used to be carried on

indiscriminately, without

any thought

of leaving sonic parts of

the forests, or even a few trees here and there, for reproduction
in
tlie

future.

This destructive process was continued under

cir-

British rule,

and became even aggravated imder various

cumstances.

Timber was needed

for the roofing of barracks,

and the

officers of

the public works department used to

its

make
were

contracts with capitalists for

uinvillhig to interfere with
tlie

supply.

These

officers

operations of the contractors who,

forests, cleared

having no abiding interest in the

last logs,
tion.

them

to the

without regard for the consequences of such denudaforests

The

had been so

little

explored that the local

authorities seldom

became aware

of the mischief

which was

being-

done.
not,

When
as they

railways began to be constructed, sleepers were

now

often are, obtained from northern Europe,,

forests,

but were procured from local

contractors,

through the agency of

who denuded
unfortunately

the forests according to the custom

which

had

been

established

in

such
so

cases. far

The
they

Government

theoretically
;

deplored the evil

its

as

knew its existence long unknown by reason

but

real

proportions remained

of the ignorance

which prevailed in
has been
effective

respect to the sites, value and stock of the forests.

Within the present generation,

system of
forests has

scientific attention
itself,

awakened, the Government has bestirred

been inaugurated.

and an

Mischief, practically

immense, has been done already, of which some parts are

irreparable, or can be repaired only after the la})se of a long

time, while others

tions.

may

Ije

remedied within one or two generaforests

Of the primeval
enough

there

remain

several,

still

intact,

to constitute a national resource.

In the lower ranges of the Himalayan mountains, in central

India, in the valleys of the Vindliya

and Aravali ranges, in the

northern and western portions of the Deccan, in

of the

many

districts

Madras Presidency, the

forests

have been
is

for the

most part

so long destroyed that their restoration

hardly to be anticipated.

298

INDIA IN
ill

1880.

Chap. xvii.

But
the

the

liiglier

ranges of the Himalayas, in the central tracts

of the Panjab, in the Satpura range, in that hilly region

where

Vindhya and Satpura ranges

still

join, in the

Eastern and Western

Ghat ranges, they destroyed, and may

are either preserved,

or else but partially

prove very productive.

In some parts

of the Bengal Presidency, of

and in many parts of the Presidencies

of

Madras and Bombay, the remnant

by
bit.

them

is still

being invaded

bit

Many

authorities apprehend that the western

are,

and

southern provinces of India

forests,

owing

to the destruction of the

is

threatened with a danger which

if

feebly checked, and

which,

not arrested,

may

seriously affect the best interests of

the country.

The woods and

Comorin

forests of India

from the Himalayas to Cape

trees

comprise, as

might be expected,
fir,

of

European

kinds, the cedar, the pine, the

the mountain cypress, the

juniper, the yew, the oak, the ilex, the elm, the ash, the maple,

the ]3lane, the holly, the laurel, the birch, the walnut, the alder.

The Asiatic

sorts are the acacia, the terminalia, the ebony, the

ficus order including the

banyan and the india-rubber

sal

tree,

the

mango, the sandal-wood, the cane, the bamboo, the toon, the
neem, the blackwood, the
;

and greatest of

all,

the teak.

To these should be added the palms, including the feathery date-palm, the palmyra with its fan-like leaves, and the betelnut palm.

The

lesser products of the forests, such as

myro-

balans and other articles, are also considerable.

Many

believe that the rainfall

is

copious and seasonable, or

forests,

otherwise, according as the

woods and

and the vegetation

subsidiary to them, are preserved or destroyed, while others

disbelieve this view,
qualification.

which

at all events

must admit

of

much
total

But, after all due abatements have been made,

the view
raiiilall

is

generally held to comprise some truth.

the

The
be

of

whole

country cannot

possibly

affected

by the existence of forests. The average quantity of vapour must come from the ocean and must be condensed somewhere
:

if

it

be not changed into rain as

it

passes across the

CiiAi'. XVII.

CLIMATIC IMPOirrANCE OF FORESTS.

will pass

299

plains,
there.

it

on
is

to

the niountuins and be transformed

;

This, indeed,
float

a matter of common experience

it arid,

moisture-

ladeu clouds
to the

over the Deccan, leaving

and move on
the torrent-

Satpura range, and, being condensed there,

fill

beds with rain-water which rushes into the rivers and returns
ultimately to the plain in the shape of inundations.
Similarly,

clouds sweep over the thirsty plains of Hindostan, and, being

condensed in the Himalayas, return in the form of floods in the

great rivers.

The hope

is

that, if forest tracts

were distributed
to

over the plains,

there would be cool surfaces

it

attract the

clouds and to arrest them, as

were, on their way.

There are

many

tracts

where

forests, if preserved,
it is

would grow up within a

later rains w^ould

short time.

Thus

anticipated

by many that the climate

It is

would be improved, and that the early and the

descend more seasonably than at present.

remembered

that, throughout the world, those regions which possess rich vege-

tation receive abundant rains, while those

which are denuded of

vegetation are rainless.

It is

remarked,

too, that those regions

in India, which ordinarily receive rain but have been parched

by a long drought, are plagued afterwards with immoderate rain. At all events the forests, and their subsidiary vegetation, husband and
dry season.
store

by a natural process the exceeding moisture

better
filled

of the rainy season, for the benefit of the country during the

The streams become

;

and

more

availaljie for the use of the people

the springs are less likely

to

run dry, the wells

less liable to failure.

This consideration

becomes peculiarly important in those regions where the canals

for irrigation are

drawn from

rivers

having their source in

rainfall for moisture.
rivers,

mountains which depend on the annual

Near the

springs,

and along the upper courses of these

the vegetation needs especially to be preserved for the sake

of the canals.

The economic considerations

manifestly important, as wood
of the houses
is

relating

to

the

forests

are

used largely in the construction

and cottages in most parts of the country.

In

300
iiortlieni

INDIA IN
India,

1880.

Chap. xvii.

where

trees

are few, the earth, indurated

by

the sun, affords good material, and the earthen walls are durable, Ijut elsewhere the earth does not always possess a like degree of
consistency.

For these reasons

it

is

essential that the timber

Without interposition by markets should the State, the wood and timber would become scarcer and As dearer from time to time, as the forests became exhausted.
be well supplied.
coal
is

not available, the people require

wood

for fuel

if

they

cannot oljtain wood, they will use cowdung-cakes

for burning.

The
for

practice of

consuming

for fuel that

too,

which ought
artificial

to

be used
is

manure, in a country,
extensively
of the

where

manure

not

available,

prevails,
soil.

to exhaustion
practice, is

is most The only means of lessening

injurious

and tends
this

by preserving the

forests to provide a

cheap and

plentiful supply of

wood

for fuel.

Again, some of the woods and timbers, and

many

articles of
;

spontaneous production in the

forests,

are

exported largely

and under an adequate system of

add
to the trade of the country.

forest

conservancy would

Connected with the

pasturage of cattle.
in great

forests is the

supply of grass for the

In times of drought the animals perish

;

numbers

for lack of fodder

in ordinary times they

wander
eat.

as they graze,

and tread down much more than they

Conservancy of vegetation would save the woods, the

brushwood and the grass simultaneously.

Some

authorities consider that in the treeless parts of the

country, woods and covers might be planted and reared near

every village, to be called "

fuel to the villagers,

communal

forests," for the

supply of

and

for

ensuring at least a limited area of

vegetation,

where the growth of grass would be preserved in

the hot season for the cattle, which suffer so

period from
^\ant of

much

at that

fodder.

This project

is

well worthy of a

careful trial in

many

parts of the country.

forests rests

Thus the policy of preserving the

grounds,
first

upon two

the improvement of the climate and the retention

Chap. xvii.

FOREST LAWS.

301

of moisture, secondly the husbanding of the national resources in

timber and fuel for the use of the people. This policy

is

of

much
all

consequence to the well-being of the country and the nation.

The Government
of this

of India has enacted a

law regulating

matters connected with forest conservancy, and the provisions

law are being carried into

are " reserved,"

effect liy the several

Local
;

Governments. The
those which

forests are divided into

two categories

first,

being preserved and worked through

State agency, in the most complete

manner

secondly, those

which are

" protected," being preserved less thoroughly.

The

best timber-markets are mainly supplied from

forests.

" the " reserved

Care has been taken to determine what tracts shall

be

" reserved," or " protected,"

and

to

mark

off their boundaries.

The area thus defined

in the several provinces already, or likely

to be defined ere long, will prove to be hardly less than eighty

thousand square miles for the whole empire.

object of the administration
is

The primary

to preserve the forests for the

is

sake of the country.

out-turn,

Due attention
is

also given to the financial

is

much income

already secured, the expenditure

over 500,000

annually, but the receipts

amount

to

nearly

700,000, and in time the forest department will have a prosperous revenue.

The superior
part
British,

officers

of the department are

for

the most

trained

in

the

forest

schools

of

France and

Germany.

The Inspector-General

of forests with the Govern-

ment
which

of India is Dr. D. Brandis,

whose

services to the empire

forestry,

have been conspicuous in organizing a system of

is

sound and

scientific,

and

is

yet adapted to the circumis

stances of the country.

Instruction in forestry

afforded to

Natives also;

forest

schools are established for them, and in

time they will take a large share in the administrative work.

As might be
" reserved "

expected, the system of forest conservancy,

though generally accepted by the Natives who dwell near the

and the

" protected " tracts, is

sometimes ojiposed by
lest the foresters

them.

There must always be some danger

,

should, in their just zeal for conservancy infringe

upon the pre-

302

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xvir.
local civil authorities

scriptive rights of the inhaljitants.

The

are vigilant

and prompt

in asserting or vindicating the rights

of the people in this respect, for the recognition of

which rights,

indeed, ample provision

is

made by

the law.

They should,
officers

however, be careful to support and encourage the forest

in the execution of duties
to

which are of the utmost consequence

the

welfare

of

the

country.
of

Many

of

the
in
as
to

hill

tribes

liabitually

burn

patches
so

valuable
the virgin

forest, soil

order

that
it

the

ashes

may

fertilise

render

capable of producing a crop without

tillage.

Having reaped

one harvest, they leave the spot marked by charred stumps of

timber
trees,

and move on

to repeat the

same ravage elsewhere.

is

This barbarous and wastefuUy destructive practice

gradually

and cautiously checked, by reclaiming these people from agricultural savagery,

raise yearly crops

and by inducing them by ordinary husbandry.

to

plough lands, and

According to the latest returns there appear to be 29,600

square miles of demarcated reserve forests, 3500 square miles of
protected areas, and 35,000 square miles of unreserved forests
or 68,100 square miles in
all.

This appears a comparatively

small area for so large an empire, especially bered that of this not more than one half
is

when

it is

remem-

effectually preserved.

Some

extensive forest tracts exist, however, in the Madras Pre-

sidency, of which a return remains to be rendered.

i'urther,

There

are,

31,000 acres of plantations in various

the

districts.

Among

mineral

resources

of

India there are a few

articles deserving notice.

Coal-ljcds having a considerable yield,

though not of the

best quality, exist in

many

parts of India.

The

largest are

those which have been opened out

among

the hills
is

flanking

the western side of Bengal, and with these there

complete

railway communication.

There are good seams, successfully

worked, on the northern side of the Satpura range, overlooking

the Narbadda valley
considerable bed
river near
is

through which the railway runs.

being worked in the valley of the

tliat

Wardha

Nagpur, and to

point a branch railway has

CiiAP. XVII.

MINERAL

HKSOUIJCES.

303
in
u])[>i'i'

been constructed.

iSonie coal-beds
is

bave been Ibiuid

be

Assam

and a sbort railway

to

made
coal

to tliem
is
;

from tbc

bank of the Brahmaputra.

sumption amounts

The Indian

largely used

by

the railways, the steamers and the factories

to half a million of tons
is

the total con;

annually

and

tlie

possible output of the coUeries

yearly.

reckoned at a million of tons

The industry

affords

employment
Still,

to

upwards of
(quantities
to

50,000 men, exclusive of their

of English coal

families.

some

and coke are imported amounting

Other coal-beds are

600,000

tons annually.

known
range.

to

exist in the

Salt range of the Panjab, in the province of Berar,

and in

the

Palamow extremity
is

of the

Vindhya

Iron

found in most parts of the empire, and

It is

is

used in

many
among
of

places for small local industries.

scale,

seldom worked
fuel,

on any large

by reason of the want of available

are

other reasons.

In the undulating country on the west

being worked by a
a fair measure of success.

Bengal,

some extensive mines

private

company with
is

India

one of the oldest gold-producing countries in the

world, but during recent ages the supply has been small.
late

Of
the

some

auriferous

veins

have

been

discovered

in

southern portion of the Malabar coast region, especially in the

Wynaad
ore
;

and in the Mysore plateau near Bangalore companies have been and are being formed for working the
hills,

concessions of
;

many

square miles have been obtained for

and sanguine hopes have sprung up in the minds of many well-informed persons. The matter is undergoing
this purpose
scientific

made.
it is

enquiry by professional experts and trials are being There are traces of operations in ancient times, wdience

probable that the most readily available supplies have been

worked
too,

out. The gold which still remains must apparently be " won," by processes of crushing and reducing. Questions,

will arise regarding water-power

for

and fuel resources.

If

mining

gold in this quarter should prove successful, the economic result to the Indian empire would be important.

The supply

of precious stones in India

is

but

little

now

as

304
coniparetl with

INDIA IN
what
it

1880.

Chap. xvir.

was

in former times.

There are

still,

however, diamonds in Bundelkhand south of the

ruhies
in

Jamna

river,

Burma, and pearl

fisheries

near Tuticorin in the

Southern Peninsula.

Among

Indian products are included the

pearl fisheries of Balirein in the Persian Gulf, of

which the

produce

is

chiefly sent to the

Bombay

market.

The natural and

It

agricultural

products

having thus been

Ijrief notice.

mentioned, the industrial products claim a

seems to be held

l)y

many

that the ancient manufactures

of the Natives have been largely supplanted

factures,

by British manu-

or extinguished under the social changes vv^rought by

British rule, and that consequently a depressing influence is

exercised on the national wealth and energy

but this opinion

has less

foundation than

is

commonly supposed.
by the
These
else-

The

virtual extinction of the industry, represented

muslins of eastern Bengal,

may

be cited as an instance.

delicate fabrics can be made cheaper, though not better,

where, and the fastidiously refined classes

who were wont

of

to

use them have dwindled away.

in this industry

The number
great.

hands employed
instances might
l:)ut

was never very

arts,

Some
beauty

be adduced, where

of extreme

of limited

application, have perished,

by reason of
bands of

their being confined to

small guilds or to a very few families,

Pevolutions stopped for a

artists

moment
as

the

demand
died,

the

little

were dispersed

indi\iduals

their

skill

vanished with them.

Such
as the

circumstances, however lamental)le from an aesthetic point of view, have not produced any
effect

upon the people,

number of persons concerned is relatively so small. The armourer's trade, which once reached an excessive growth in an empire where for some centuries warfare was almost
universal and incessant, necessarily languished on the establish-

ment
was

of peace under a settled government.

Armoury

as

an

industry once employed large numbers of persons, and as an art

carried to a high degree of beauty.
is

Its gradual cessation

in the British territories at least,

hardly to be regretted.

On

the other liand,

many

ancient articles once extensively

Chap. xvii.

INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS.
still

305

made, are

produced largely, though perhaps in somewhat

If the purely indigenous industries of

diminished quantities.

the higher sorts in India, as they

now

are,

could be compared

with those which existed in the palmy days of the Mogul

empire, some decline would doubtless be perceptible.
the industries of the coarser and

But

if

commoner

sorts

were thus

compared, expansion rather than

served.
If the total

contraction

would be obcompared

number

of persons engaged in all kinds of

industry, other than agriculture, in 1880 could be

with that of 1680, the time of the emperor Arungzeb, or of 1580,

the time of

Akber the

Great,

it

is

probable that British rule

gain.

would not

suffer

by the comparison, but would rather

Those who consult the splendidly illustrated work by Dr.

Forbes Watson on the textile fabrics of India, the review by
Dr. Birdwood of contributions by India to the Paris Exhibition,
the recently

published

book by

the

same

author

on the

Industrial Arts of India, and Mr.

Baden Powell's Handbook

quantities

on the manufactures and

country
still

arts of the Panjab, will see that the

produces, in great

and of excellent
it

quality, nearly all the beautiful articles for

which

has ever been

celebrated.

The people at must be

large,

even

if

they have not increased

as ever,

in numbers,

at least

as

numerous

and

their

clothing constitutes a mighty factor

in the national industry.

It is notorious that British industry has

long been striving, as

indigenous

yet with but moderate success, to supersede this

industry,

which

still for

the most part remains in the hands

of Indians.

On

the other hand, the mining or metallurgic in-

dustries of India have been fast increasing under British rule.

Several

new industries have

jute, indigo,

arisen, so well

known

in connection

with cotton,

silk,

tea

and

coffee.

The works

of

material improvement

now

executed, to an extent not equalled

efforts

by the

architectural or structural
series of

of former dynasties,

have developed a new

mechanical industries affording

much

occupation to the working classes.

field

Thus a detailed
that, in respect

survey of the whole

would probably shew

306

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xvii.

of economic effect, the arts

and industries of India are more

of persons, once otherwise

important than they ever were, and emi^loy a greater number of

hands.
It is true

that

numbers

employed, have during the last two generations been thrown

back upon agriculture.

Such persons, however, will be found

for

the most part to have come, not from the industrial classes, but
rather from the classes formerly engaged in the defence and

administration of the country.

On

a review of the Indian

Museum

in the art department at

South Kensington, and of the several illustrated works which have been published,
it

will be apparent that India

still

has the

taste and the faculty necessary for the production of M^orks of

industrial art, that her handicraftsmen still have the leisure

and the inventive power which signalized them of yore, that her chiefs and upper classes still appreciate and encourage the
production of really beautiful things in the utmost variety.

The gold and silver plate, the metal work in Ijrass, copper and tin, the damascened work, the trappings and caparisons, the mother-of-pearl of Ahmedabad, the inlaid work of Agra and of

Bombay, the work

fabrics, the gold

of Vizagapatam, the sandal-wood carving,

the carved ivory horn and tortoise-shell, the lac work, the cotton

and

silver lace, the

all

embroidery, the carpets,

the pottery, and most of

the enamels, worthily represent the

work
world,

of these times, in comparison with former ages.

is

The
of

art of enamelling

in the

first

rank of the handicrafts of the

highest

and

is

pursued in India to the

degree

perfection yet

known.

It

cannot at any previous epoch have

it is

been more successful than

now, and probably

it is

carried

on with a greater variety of device and of method than ever. When the Native princes and chiefs of the empire attended
the Imperial Assemblage at Delhi, the mass of articles of

luxury and adornment, then collected, probably equalled anything ever seen in the

camps that were marshalled,

or

the

courts that were held, by the Moguls.

The presents

offered to

the I'rince of Wales, during his visit to India, by the Natives in

Chap. xvii.

EXHIBITIONS OF ATtT AND INDrSTRY.

tlie

307

order to illustrate

arts

and industries

ui'

their territories,

probably rivalled in
laid at the feet of a

taste,

beauty and variety any offerings ever

Mogul emperor.

Althougli

the

Indian manufactures

may

be

regarded as
variety and

comparatively satisfactory in respect of number,

quantity produced, they have been passing through a critical

period as regards artistic quality.

The good

principle,

upon

which

fine art

exhibitions were instituted in Europe, asserted

itself in India.

Similar exhil)itions were held in

many provinces
and

of the Indian empire,

and from India were sent extensive con-

tributions to the exhibitions held at Kensington, at Vienna,

at Paris.

The

British Indian section in the Paris Exhibition of

for the effect it

1878 was specially notable

produced on the

minds

of

European
arts

spectators,

by whose means a knowledge of

the industrial

of

India

was

disseminated throughout

Europe.

The

interest

of the section

was heightened by the

his visit to India,
for

consideration that therein were included the presents proffered

by the Natives

to the Prince of

Wales during

which were graciously lent by His Eoyal Highness

purposes of the Exhibition.
illustrating the. whole field of Indian art

the

This unique collection of presents,

and industry, and so

replete with instruction, has been

most considerately placed by

His Ptoyal Highness's desire temporarily at the disposal of the

local authorities at

many

places in the United

Kingdom and
all lovers of

the

Continent of Europe, for the inspection of

industrial art,

and

for the information of the public respecting

the progress and condition of India herself.

The proceedings
attention, in a

at these exhibitions doubtless

drew European

much

greater degree than formerly, to the ])yo-

ductions of India, and augmented the

demand
too,

for

them

in the

markets of the world.

The Native mind,

was enlightened
art.

in respect to the practical application of

European

The

Natives were stirred with a sense that their works were being
noticed in European circles.
effect of a

At the same time, however, another

X 2

dubious character was produced, as the Natives began

308
either to imitate
their

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xvii
to engraft,

European models absolutely, or

upon
In

own

works, accessories borrowed from European styles.

all cases of such imitation or admixture the result was unsatisAs factory, and conduced to the vitiation of the Native taste.

an instance, the recent circumstances of the Cashmir shawl manufacture may be recalled. These shawls w^ere esteemed not
only for their matchless colouring (due to the peculiar qualities
of the air
for

and water of that wondrous valley of Cashmir) but also

of

the

appropriateness

the

peculiar

elaboration

in

the

Imitative fabrics were commenced in the Panjab designs. mth the aid of skilled workmen from Cashmir, but never The demand becoming brisker equalled the superb originals.
in the Parisian markets, French agents
India.

came
to

to purchase in

In course of time the shawls began

after

be made more

and more

European designs, and

to lose their characteristic

loveliness.

Again, the Indian pottery, from Sind and elsewhere,

began to be admired, and came into demand.

there
of

For a moment

was

fear lest the article should be spoiled

;

by the imitating
mistakes

European designs
It is to be

fortunately this error was averted.

all similar

hoped that these and

may

be

avoided, as the real merits of indigenous Indian art become

recognised.
turies,
Tliis art,

formed through the labour of

many
its

cen-

and never obscured by the shadow

like

of even the darkest

adversities,

a marble

monument

retaining

beauty

despite the stains of time

and the rough usage of barbarism,

artistic judges,

seems now to be appreciated more and more by

and

to be the subject of aesthetic culture.

artists,

It has

been profather to

duced by generations of hereditary

son dedicated
arising from
self,

who from

thereto

their

hearts

and minds. and

Its

forms,

sound and exact ideas originated by nature hertasteful

fitting
detail.

are

worked out with

Its

colouring, sombre yet rich, with blended tints,

softened hues

and modulated

effect,

relieved with just

is

enough of chastened
all

and harmonious brightness,

admired by

those

who

love

to see true principles applied to

human

industry.

309

CHAPTEE

XVIII.

COMMERCE, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL.

Foreign trade of India in former times

The " East-Indiamcn ships The The Peninsular and Oriental CompanyThe Suez CanalDirect dealings of India with the Continent of Europe Africa, Asia and AustraliaFrance The United States ItalyThe Mauritius Particulars of trade with United Kingdom Shipping the most part British Coasting trade Balance trade How adjusted The Home remittances Value India of her export trade Food-supply generally Internal trade India Registration of Land communica"

"Green's" ships

for

of

to

sufficient

of

it

tion

River navigation Tendency towards equalization of prices.

commerce
of India has

The

foreign

always been surrounded

has been the theme of

by a strange and marvellous

essayists
poets.

interest,

and antiquarians, and has even inspired the verse of

it

In recent times

has attracted the severer scrutiny of

economists,
misgivings.

and has been regarded by some inquirers with

It forms one of those beacon-lights to

which

all

the believers in the progress of the country point triumphantly.

It

binds England to her

interest,

eastern

dependency with

ties

of

mutual

which are important apart from the higher

"

considerations of policy.

The

"

East-Indiamen

ships that once bore this

commerce
a class of

have passed into that domain of history, which comprises the

maritime annals of Britain.

They were succeeded by

sailing vessels, rounding the Cape of Good Hope and carrying

passengers as well as freight, of which ships

after the

many were
to

called

surnames of the ship-building firms

whom

they

belonged.

The name of a

" Green's ship " sounds to

Anglo-

Indian ears as a synonym for speed under canvas, and for

skilful

seamanship in tempests.

These ships,

too,

were once

freighted with the despatches narrating the

momentous events

310
in the East.

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xviii.
to the regularity of

For those who are habituated

postal comuiuuication in the present day, it is difficult to realise

the anxiety with which the arrival of these vessels used to be

awaited in India.

The importance
carried

of the

sailing

ships

was

niLich diminished by the establishment of the Peninsular and

Oriental

Company, which

by the overland route through

Egypt

all

the mails and the treasure, most of the passengers,

and some of the most portable and valuable articles of trade. Still, however, the mass of the trade, consisting of cheap and
bulky
articles,

continued to be carried by the sailing vessels

Their importance then received another and

round the Cape.

a heavier blow from the oj)ening of the Suez Canal to maritime

traffic.

Before the Suez Canal had been actually tried,

it

was known

that the Red Sea could be navigated by steamships only and

not by sailing ships.

It

was supposed that the

in

freight charges

on steamships would be so much dearer than those on sailing

ships,

that

steam-navigation

the

Eed Sea would

be

virtually excluded from competition with the sailing ships

round

the Cape, for the bulky articles composing the greater part of the trade.

This supposition was certainly justified by

all

ante-

cedent experience of the relative character of the two kinds of

ships.

But since the Canal has been

to

tried,

the steamers are

becoming more and more able

respect to freight charges,

compete with sailing ships in

to themselves increasing sailing ships still ply
freights,

and draw

cargoes of cheap and heavy goods.

The

round the Cape, though with diminished

against them, as an insuperable difficulty.

but time

is

The

electric telegraph

between England and India has affected mercantile transactions

in

many
the

respects.

In a few minutes intelligence

is

flashed
profit

across the intervening oceans

or
loss

and continents, deciding the

on

critical

transactions.

Ijecoming yearly more frequent,

Under such urgency, the merchants employ even at

some

sacrifice

the

steamers which can carry the produce to

in four weeks, instead of sailing-ships

England up the Pied Sea

Chap,

xviii,

THE SUEZ CANAL STATISTICS.

it

311
Conse-

which can cany

quently there
lie

round the Cape in four months.

along the quays of the river Hughli at Cal-

cutta, or in the broad waters of the

Bombay

harbour, fleets of

steamers of great length and of narrow beam, arriving from, or

departing
for,

the Suez Canal.

The

traveller
fro,

nowadays wonders

at the lines of steamers passing to

and

and

still

anxious, navigation of the lied

by the once dreaded, Sea. But the exigencies

of the navigation in the Suez Canal

and in the Eed Sea, and the

necessity of cheap construction, of speed and of

economy

in fuel,
for the

have caused a new style of ship-building to be adopted

steamers, which
is

regarded with some doubt by

many
and
is

seafaring

men.

The Suez Canal has

still

realised already a success equalling

its

the most sanguine anticipations of

to achieve

designer,

destined

further triumphs.

A chorus

of satisfaction rose

from

all

Indians

when Ferdinand de Lesseps was

commerce

decorated by

the British Sovereign with the insignia of the Star of India.

The

statistics of the external

are published in the

of India, together

greatest detail annually

by the Government

with a general review of the principal headings by Mr. O'Conor.

In round numbers, on an average of recent years and with

due allowance
be valued
this at

for fluctuations, the foreign trade of India

may

110 million ]30unds sterling yearly.

Out of
exjDorts,

amount, 60 millions represent exports, and 36 millions

;

imports, of merchandise

while 3 J millions represent

treasure.

and 10^ millions imports, of

except Great Britain, and
considerable.

This

sum

total

would

be regarded as very important in any country of the world

is

even in Great Britain deemed

water-mark, as
for
it

Towards

this

were, the tide

of trade has been

mounting
Finance

many

years, the rise being

satisfactorily perceptilile decade after decade.

In 1860 James

Wilson, the then

scientific

Minister

and one of the most

economists that ever landed in India, declared the

progress of the trade to be

among

the most conclusive proofs of

rule,

the prosperity of the country under British

and among the

to rise

most hopeful omens

for the future.

The trade continued

for several years till it received, first a

sudden development, and

312

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap.

xvm.

then an equally sudden check, from the events of the American

civil war.

Afterwards

it

seemed
not

to

oscillate

between amounts

somewhat above and amounts somewhat below, one hundred

millions sterling.
of the famine of
It did

sensibly
It

retrograde

by reason
Europe
for

1874 in Bengal.

was

rising favourably

(mainly

by reason of a quickened

demand
it

in

Indian produce) just before

the outbreak of the famine of

1877 in Madras and Bombay, when

reached the

sum

of

124

millions, the highest point ever gained.

It then suffered

depression,

when

this

famine lasted into 1878, and extended

This depression became aggravated
all

to parts of northern India.

during 1879, in sympathy with British trade

world.
year,
It has risen, again, to
is still

over the

120 millions
of

for the last official

and
;

rising.

Symptoms

improvement are now

visible

their continuance or disappearance

must depend on the

propitiousness or other\Ndse of the seasons in India after such

grave vicissitudes, and on the revival or stagnation of trade in

Great Britain.
Formerly, the trade of India with foreign countries used for
the most part to pass through England.

Eeceiving

all

these

commodities in the

first

instance,

England used

to retain

what

she required for herself, and distribute the remainder

among

her neighbours according to their needs. has

But

of late India

begun

to send,

direct to

the ports of the Continent of

Europe, the commodities required by European countries.

The

commercial intercourse

is

growing

fast

between Calcutta and

Genoa, Venice,

Bombay on
Trieste,

the

one hand, and Marseilles,

Havre and Hamburg, on the other hand. India, also, is trading more and more with America, especially with California
and San Francisco
in Calcutta.
consideral)le,
is

becoming a familiar name

to the dwellers
still is,

The trade with China has long been, and

though limited in
its

scope, consisting of

opium

and cotton goods from India, and

silver

from China, leaving a

large trade balance in favour of India.

The transactions with

the Australian colonies are growing apace, partly by reason of

the

demand

for

Australian horses, and will further increase

if

Chap,

xviii.

FOREIGN TRADE OF INDIA.

sliall

313

the Indian people

be sulficiently enterprising to send their

most attractive wares

Sydney and Melbourne. The suppression of piracy by the Indian Government has caused
to exhibitions at

much

extension of the trade along the coasts of the Siamese

;

Peninsula and of the neighbouring islands

the East

and especially on

Coast of Africa, in the sea of Oman, and in the

Persian Gulf.

Much commerce,
Gulf and
to

centred at Baghdad, which once

passed by Aleppo to the Mediterranean,

Tigris to the Persian

now

passes

down

the

Aden.
of India with

The most considerable dealings

averaged as
to

any foreign
She sends
wliicli

country are those which she has with France, and their value has

much

as five millions sterling annually.

France

oil-seed, cotton, indigo,

raw
;

silk

and shawls,

constitute the greater part of the trade

and receives in return

a small quantity of apparel, silk goods and wines.

The United
intercourse
attain vast

States

are

beginning to have a considerable

with India, an intercourse probably destined to

growth in the
as

future.

Besides the jute, both raw

and manufactured,

already mentioned, India sends to the

saltpetre, hides

United States linseed,

and

skins, receiving in

return large quantities of kerosine oil and some cotton goods.

The importation
circumstance.

of cotton goods

from America

is

a noteworthy

The trade with Italy has not

to Italian ports

as yet

grown
still

to

the extent

anticipated on the opening of the Suez Canal,

India exports

cotton, oil-seeds,

more than one million and a half sterling worth of raw silk and hides, importing small quantities

of wines, silk goods, Neapolitan corals

and glass beads. While receiving some moderate quantities of sugar from the Mauritius, in some years, India has sent as much as threecolony.

quarters of a million sterling worth of rice annually to that

In these and in other various ways, nearly 40 per

external trade of India
fact
is

cent, of the

with foreign countries, an important

shewing among other proofs the extent of her direct relations

all

with

quarters of the world, and the

means she possesses of

314

INDIA IN
lier

1880.

Chap, xviii.

adjusting the balance of

as

trade accounts.
is

The proportion
as ocean

she^vn by this

percentage

likely to increase,

conmiuuication by steam becomes more fully opened.

The remaining 60 per

chandise,
this trade
is

cent, of the trade of India, in

mer-

with the United Kingdom.

list

The export

division of

shews a long

of articles, indicating the productive

their comparative poverty,
their condition.

power of the Indian people, despite and notwithstanding any defects in

logue comprises cotton, jute,
seeds,
rice,

The
skins,

cata-

wheat,

tea, coffee, sugar, oil-

spices, indigo, lac dye, silk, wool, hides

and

and

other things, worth on the whole 28 millions sterling annually.

The imports include cotton manufactures, woollen and

goods, salt, coal, hardware, metals, machinery, railway plant
rolling stock,

silk

and

and a great variety of manufactures, in

all

worth,

on the average, 30 millions sterling per annum.

India has long been

Of

all nations,

among

the best, and

is

now perhaps

the

very best, customer for the manufactures of Great Britain.

The shipping which

5^ millions of tons
this

carries

this

sea-borne trade

consists,

on the average, of 12,500

;

vessels,

with a total tonnage of

steamers and sailing vessels included.

consists of steamers,

Of
uj)-

number one-sixth
vessels,

which include

wards of 2000

with a tonnage of 2^ millions of tons,

nearly one-half of the whole, indicating the progress

the employment
of steam power.

made

in

Of the steamers, two-thirds come and go by the Suez Canal, and the remainder by the Cape of Good Hope and by other routes.
Of the
total shipping, sail

and steam, about 12 per

;

cent, is

foreign, the

remainder being British

in other words, 88 per

cent, of the shipping is British.

on the average, 1300

vessels,

The foreign shipping numbers, with a total tonnage of threethe several thousands of

quarters of a million of tons, of which, however, a considerable

number
numbers

is

Arab.

As compared with

British ships with a tonnage of several millions of tons, the

of the ships belonging to the mercantile

marine of

Europe and America, and engaged in

very small.

this trade, will ajDpear

vessels,

For instance, there are only 244 French

99

CiiAP. xvin.

BALANCE OF TRADE.
Italian,

315

German, 134

29 Austrian, 3G Norwegian, 15 Swedish,

20 Eussian, and 122 American.

Tlicre are also about

4000 vessels which ply between port

;

and

port,

on the east and west coasts of the country

tliey are
craft.

entirely of indigenous construction

and are called country

For

many

years a remarkable characteristic of the external

tliis,

trade has

been

that

India

sells

much
to

more, by
foreign

many

millions

sterling worth, to

England and

nations,

than she buys from them.

valued at a far higher
ports, again,

In other words, her exports are

her imports
;

sum than
consists

and of the im-

some part

of machinery

and material
years, that

belonging to the Government.

is

Thus during recent

since 1868, the

value of the exports has

exceeded' that

of the

imports by 16 millions sterling per

This

average.

phenomenon has frequently

It has

annum on the caused men to

wonder how the account of the national trade can properly

be adjusted.
this condition

rendered economists apprehensive lest

of things

should prove inconsistent with the

;

permanent safety of the Indian empire

drained yearly of so

the

country being

much

of its produce

and receiving so

very unequal an amount of produce in return.

is

adjusted largely by the

The account amount which India has to remit to

for the "

England on the Government account

home
by

charges

;"

and by the sums remitted

banks and

to

England by individuals, whether

corj)orations,
profits.

in the public service or in private employ, or

others, as their savings or their

In other

words, England owes India a large amount, the balance on the

trade in merchandise.
to

On

the other hand, India has to transmit

England, or owes to England, large sums on the account of

Moreover, India has, as has

the State or of private concerns.

just been shewn,

many
all

balances or debts, due to her from China

wliich

and other nations,

she can,

if

desired,

transfer to

England

to be

used in the general adjustment of trade accounts.

In various ways, then, there are abundant means of settling

these large trade balances.

316
India remits a large

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xviii.

sum annually
cash,

for "

home

charges,"

at

present amounting to nearly 17 millions sterling, the people have

to

pay the land revenue in

and export much produce with

These facts seem to

a small return of merchandise imported.

cause alarm to some economists, and to suggest particularly

the thought that India
is

thus virtually forced to send

away

her produce.
if

It would, indeed, be

more natural and

satisfactory

India

^^'ere to

import larger quantities of British manufactures

in return for the produce she exports.

The magnitude
;

of the
it

remittance for "

home

charges " has

a serious import

is

extraordinary, perhaps even unique, in the annals of the relations

between one country and another.

policy to reduce, if possible, the

It is a pressing

matter of

amount

of the

home

remittances,

or at least to prevent their increasing.

For

all that,

the export-

ation of Indian produce

is

a pure source of satisfaction.

The

people are glad to dispose thus of their property for a valuable

consideration; they
receive

must be the

richer for so doing.

If they

other products
;

in return, well, their

artificial

wants

multiply
is

if

they receive treasure in part payment, the

money

doubtless very acceptable to them.

If they have a large

debt to discharge annually to England, their surplus exportable

produce furnishes a resource for this purpose.

Whether they

had

to

make
still

a large remittance for "home-charges" or not,

to

whether they had

pay land revenue in cash or in kind, they

would

export as

much produce

as they could spare, or as

much
in

as foreign nations could be induced to take for valuable

consideration.

As they do not at present require an equivalent kind in the shape of British merchandise, there misht
speculation as
to

be room for
adjusted
if

how

the

account would be

there

were no

remittances for

"home charges"
trade

or on other accounts.
in

Some means would

the

doubtless be found,

the settlement

of

concerns
all

of

the

between

the various nations.

At

events,

the

exportation would

be continued and would be one of those satisfactory proofs of the wealth and industry of the people wliich can be

Chap,

xviii.

FOOD-SUPPLY GENERALLY SUFFICIENT.

317

oi)posod to several unsatisfactory conditions tluit are adnutted

to exist.
It

may

be tliought by some that the exportation of so

much

edible grain, rice,

to a dangerously

wheat and some other

articles,

must reduce
an empire so

low ebb the

It

stores of food in

much exposed

to famine.

seems

clear,

however, that the

Tor, during

country can dispense with the quantities exported.

times of partial scarcity, there always
are

abundant stores
from the scene
to

somewhere in the country, though

of suffering.

at a distance

Even

in

1874, when the Government had

districts,

import food into distressed

the supplies

came, not
is

from foreign regions, but from British Burma, which

integral part of the

an

empire.

At

that time, too, and during

lasted, the

most of the time while the famine of 1877 and 1878

In

exportation of food-grain from the country proceeded briskly.

fvirther

explanation of the balance of trade, the following

passage

may

be quoted from the recent report by the Indian

Famine Commission.
was the time when the capital for tlie and there was hardly any surplus In 1869, the construction of guaranteed railways was of exports at this time. coming to a close and the system of construction by the State was beginning, and from that time India instead of drawing large sums of capital from England for investment had to pay many millions a year as interest. The great rise in the export trade dates from that time and for the last ten
"

The

period from 1854 to 1869

guaranteed railways was being raised,

years the excess of exports has averaged about 16 millions sterling (annually).

... So

far as the excess of

it is

exports

is

due

to the

investment of English
onerous

capital in India,

difficult to conceive

conditions under which the reless

mittance of interest on foreign capital, judiciously applied, could be

to the country

of a larger

which pays it, for the investment must have led to the outlay sum than the interest sent away, and the balance of what is thus
in

produced remains

the country.

Thus

in the case of the guaranteed rail-

ways, 100 millions of capital have been raised and spent in India, and 5 the millions a year have to be ]'aid in England as interest on that capita!
;

railways pay these 5 millions by earning a gross income of 10 millions,

5 of which are spent in wages and
afford

occupation.

The

people

who

voluntarily pay the 10 millions for the use of the railways are themselves
largely benefited

by them."
is

Besides the external commerce, there

a vast inland or in-

318

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xviii,

ternal trade between the various divisions of the Indian empire.

During recent
and

years,

many

judicious steps have been taken

by

the several Local Governments to prepare commercial statistics,

to

register the trade passing not only across their outer

Init

borders,

also

between the

different

territories

comprised

within their respective jurisdictions.

The interchange
greatly

of products between the distant provinces of

the empire, also the flux and reflux of treasure, have been

promoted by British rule and are nowadays much

larger than in former times.

Communications by road,

river, rail,

and canal have been improved materially and rendered secure, and the people
avail themselves of these facilities abundantly.

Many
and

millions sterling worth of products, natural, agricultural

artificial,

thus cliange hands

month by month.

If a

com-

putation could be

made

of the value of this inter-provincial

trade throughout the empire, the

for the year.

sum

total

would be enormous
on the

The

stations for registration of the trade

rivers,

sides of roads or on the banks of navigable

would

shew tens

of thousands

of

laden carts running backwards

and forwards, and even a greater number of boats plying up and down stream.
the

Those which are

set

on suitable points of
those

navigable canals would note thousands of boats;

at the gates of

which are established

towns and

cities

would
Those

sujDply evidences of trade yielding large octroi revenues.

\\-hich exist

on the margin of the great harbours would return

craft,

a surprising number of country

creeks,
shore.

working in the

estuaries,

arms of the

sea,

between the inland provinces and the

cities

In the suburbs of the

throughout the empire,

the ever-flowing stream of trade, great and small, imparts to the

observer an impression of national vitality bursting forth in

every quarter from the humblest to the highest.

potent

stimulus has been afforded by the railM^ays; and their goods

traffic,

though partly maintained by the external, depends partly

trade.

on the internal,
the industrial

The interchange
at

of the fabrics

between

centres, situated

long distances from each

Chap, xviii.

RIVER NAVIGATION,
eni])iro, is

319
In times of
l)y

other in so largo an
scarcity, the

greatly promoted.
is

movement
by the

of food grain

to

be measnred

millions of tons.
will be occupied

It is to he expected that
traffic to

many

of the roads
;

and from the railway stations

to the railroad at all.

many trunk
traffic

roads, however, are

finds its

crowded at some seasons with

which never

way

Despite the development of land carriage everywhere, the river

navigation continues to flourish.

The navigation

of the

upper
is

Ganges and of the Jamna has declined, but that decrease

owing partly
gation.
It

to the

water of these rivers being diverted to

traffic,

irri-

remains to be seen whether the water

which

has heretofore been so considerable on the Indus, will be really

affected

by the railway running along

its

its

bank.

The navigation

of the Brahmaputra and

its

affluents, of the

lower Ganges and

many

branches,

is

quite magnificent, and offers probably one

of the finest spectacles of its kind to be seen in the world.

statistics of the boats are difficult to collate

The

and may not yet

trader and land-

have

l3een completely collated.

Not only every

his canoe

holder keeps
his boats

many

vessels,

but every cultivator and peasant has

;

and almost every labourer

rivers, the vessels

thus the boats

several points

may

be reckoned by hundreds of thousands.

At

on the great

congregate for several months

consecutively and form floating cities and marts, where

many

thousands temporarily dwell, where

takes
place,

much

barter of produce

where monetary transactions are arranged and banking business done the concerns being conducted afloat.
;

Often in the daytime the horizon

sails

is

whitened by the swelling

eventide in sequestered

of the

numerous

flotillas.

At

creeks and coves, sheltered by umbrageous groves and feathery

and squalls which sweep over the expanses of the broad rivers, there lie moored under the banks
blasts

bamboos from the

many rows
These
craft

of these vessels with their forests of little masts.

have various builds, forms and styles adapted to

There are

the characters of the various rivers.

many

chang-

ing stations, where the lesser boats from the upper basins

320

INDIA IN

1880.

(JiiAP.

XVIII.

and valleys tranship their

to brave the broad estuaries

freiglits

to

the larger

boats

able

which sometimes surge and heave

with waves like the

sea.

The many building-yards,

rivers,

at divers
built,

points on the banks of the

where these vessels are

will be found full of activity

and bustle and belong entirely

of an

to

Natives.
are
so

The quantities
vast,

of timber required for boat-building

that

the maintenance

unfailing

supply

from the

forests of the

country

is

becoming a matter of anxiety

to the State forest department.

engaged in the building of

carry,

The amount of Native capital the boats, and in the traffic which they
if

must be very considerable even

judged by the standard

of advanced nations.

Among
it

the effects of the development of internal trade

is

the tendency towards equalization in prices.

In former times

used to be proverbially said that in one quarter the food grain

perish, while there

might decay and

another quarter.

was want

or

hunger in
while in

Even

in quite recent times there has been a

glut of gTain with very low prices in

some

districts,

other districts, not very distant, scarcity and very high prices
prevailed.

The

possibility of such a state of affairs has

;

now

for

the most part disappeared the sort

though perhaps a few instances of

there.

may
in

exist

here and

Despite
is

this

levelling

and equalizing tendency, however, there

difference

still

a considerable

prices

in

various

parts

of the

empire,

which

though
for

less

perceptible
to come.

now than

formerly, will probably last

some time

In northern India grain used to be

superabundant and extremely cheap, so

holders

experienced difficulty in

realising

much so that money for

landtheir

produce in order to pay their land revenue in cash.

Compara-

tive cheapness still reigns there, except at times of exceptional

drouglit.

In eastern and southern India moderate prices have

;

generally prevailed, save during times of famine

but in western

India dearness has been for

many

years prevalent generally,

intensified in times of famine,

and seldom relaxed materially

even when plenty smiles around.

^21

CHAPTER

XIX.

PUBLIC HEALTH AND SANITATION.

Organization of Sanitary Department
in hygiene

Vital Popular instruction Purification of water suj^plyWater-works of principal Conservancy in towns Sanitary engineeringUtilization of sewage Lodging-houses in townsDwellings in Examination of food Small-pox Vaccination Contagious diseases Hospitals and dispensaries.
statistics

cities

villages

The importance
to time

of sanitation lias always been recognised

by

the British Government in India, and efforts have from time

been made in this direction.

the

The

diseases, in

some

degree preventible, to which

Natives are subject, have

been mentioned in the chapter on the material progress of the

people.

The medical measures

also.

are

not only curative but

fifteen years

preventive

The sanitary proceedings were,

was
then
formally

ago, brought

under the concentrated supervision of a Sanitary

Department,

which

constituted

as

an

integral part of the civil administration.

Sanitary

Com-

missioner was appointed to serve as the professional adviser of

each of the several Local Governments

sanitary assistants, all

under him are several

medical

men

under them again are

as there are several
staff of

sub-assistants of lesser grades.

Inasmuch

such Local Governments in the empire, a considerable

sanitary officers has thus been organized.

There

is

a Sanitary

Commissioner of a

still

higher grade, attached to the Govern-

ment

of India,

who

acts as professional adviser to the

supreme

authority.

Annual
of

sanitary reports are prepared

first

by the several by the

of a

Local Governments, are reviewed in the

instance

Government
Commission
sanitary

India,

and ultimately are

This

examined by a

of experts in England.
is

commencement
y

system

foundation

on which a philanthropic

322
structure

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xix.

may

be erected.

It is a plant which,

though only a

sapling now, will grow and bear fruit hereafter.

The measures adopted by the Indian Sanitary Department, relating to the troops and to the military stations, will be
described in the chapter referring to the
to tlie civil stations, the

Army,

Those relating

towns or the country, will be mentioned

in this chapter.

The primary
that
is,

step has been the preparation of vital statistics,

returns of the

numbers of persons born in every place

This registration,

throughout the empire, and of those deceased, together with a

note of the diseases from which they died.

which constitutes a basis of

fact for the devising of

improveonly an
It has

ments, has been unavoidably entrusted to

men having

imperfect education, and destitute of special training.

extended over a vast

area,

and among a people slow to appreciate

Consequently the returns,
still

the uses of such information as this.

though gradually improving, are defective indeed, but

something which
is

supply

better than an utter blank of knowledge.

localities,

In the larger towns, and in selected rural

being prepared by trained

the returns,

men under

special supervision, are

much more

trustworthy, and afford data for checking the re-

turns in the country generally.

Short treatises in the vernacular

languages are prepared

under the

title

of hygiene primers.

Under some

of the Local

Governments, sanitary codes compiled in simple and practical

terms, such as all

men

can understand, advising them what to

do and warning them what to avoid, are being circulated

among

the villages.

In so vast a country,

it

will be imposto ensure

sible for

any government, however highly organized,

and apathetic regarding

anything approaching to general sanitation, until the people,

now

so ignorant

this subject, shall

have

become more
measures.
evils

intelligent in respect to curative or preventive

is

Meanwhile, the Government

dealing with those

which are more easily remediable and those requirements which are more immediately pressing.

Chap. xix.

WATER-WORKS OF DIFFERENT
first placo,

CITIES.

323
tlie

In the

attention has been effectively turned to

purification of the water supply at the capital cities, at the larger

civil stations

which include bazaars of an lu'ban character, and

interior of the country, a matter

at

most of the towns in the

which
is

vitally affects the public health,

and the neglect of which

three
still

the cause probably of more sickness than all other causes put

together.

The water-works

of the

Presidency

cities,

Calcutta,

Madras and Bombay, though

needing enlarge-

ment, according to the changes in circumstance and the growth

of population,

may

yet take rank with similar works in the

great cities of the world.

They

afford such

an average supply

per head of the people as would be esteemed tolerable by sanitary

authorities,

though perhaps not abundant

for all personal

and

domestic uses.

For Calcutta, the water

filtering

is

pumped with

engines

from the river Hughli into

beds and thence conducted

by pipes over a length

machinery in the
city.

of fourteen miles to the distributing

At Bombay,

the water

is

stored in
hills,

two
with

great artificial lakes, in the midst of low

wooded

massive dykes, and

is

conducted to the city by pipes extending

it

over twenty miles of distance before

channels.

reaches the distributing

Similarly, the water supply of the

in a

Madras

city is

drawn from a lake formed

low natural basin Mdth a dyke of

solidity.

remarkable length, breadth and

"Works of the same

kind, but less in degree, have been executed at most of the civil
stations

and of the towns throughout the empire.

At

all

these

towns, municipalities have been established, and one of the

most obligatory tasks of every municipality

be the supply of water.

is

acknowledged to

The provision

of such supply is the

measure to which the people are most ready to give their

support.

Several millions sterling have from

first to last

been
to

expended on these works in the whole empire, and additions

the
list of

them

are being constantly made.

While

in

some
and

parts of the country the villagers drink from streams pure

uncontaminated, in other parts they drink from wells and tanks

contaminated to a degree which by authorities in Europe would

Y 2

324
be deemed incredible.

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xix.

Thus there remain impurities

which are
disease,

in the
evils of

water, both for drinking and for washing,

themselves sufficient to account for

much

and which

the people apparently do not care to remedy.

The same account, mutatis mutandis, may be given of conmanagement of sewage and town drainThe works at age, and all arrangements connected therewith.
servancy, including the
Calcutta,
cities
cities,
;

Madras and Bombay,

are on a scale befitting capital

there are similar works of a lesser degree at all the

the civil stations and the towns in the interior of the

country;

every municipality holds

itself

chargeable with the

sterling

duty of dealing with the subject.

have been expended
scientific experience.

Several millions

for this purpose, after designs furnished

Still,

by

most of the villages and even the

towns,

environs
condition.
as yet,

of

many

of the

remain in an unsanitary
as applied to India, has not,

European conservancy,

won

fully the confidence of the Natives.

They

are

inclined to doubt

the value of the scientific or professional

remedies, some of which they think produce fresh evils as great

as or greater than the evils, the removal of
effected

which has been

is

or at least attempted.

Doubtless, there

fear lest,

from error in design or from imperfection in workmanshii?, the

sewage pipes and the drains should prove, like edged
dangerous to those
Here, then,
of science
is

tools,

who much
is

use them.
scope for sanitary engineering, a branch

which

comparatively young even in Great Britain,

j^assed its infancy.

and in India has hardly

For these improvements, water supply, conservancy, and other

useful works, both in the capital cities and in lesser towns, the

State has advanced and

is

still

advances, large

sums

of money.

It

considered, as a rule, better that the municipalities should

borrow from the State, rather than in the market, because the State can afford to lend at cheaper rates of interest. For facilitating these arrangements a general law for the empire, besides
several special laws for

some of the

capital cities separately,

CuAP. xiX.

LODGING-HOUSES IN TOWNS.
Most
of the municipal

325

have been passed.

improvements have
In

been executed from funds thus obtained.

some

cases,

however, municipalities have been allowed to borrow in the

open market when the rates of interest appeared favourable. sewage might, throughout the empire, be made the means of improving the health of the people and of
utilisation of
fertilizing the soil,

The

though

this is

done but

little in

the interior of

the country.

At several of the capital cities, however, and in otlier

is

towns of importance, the municipalities have disposed of sewage

to

neighbouring landholders, and this example

in

some
or

provinces being followed to some extent in whole

tracts

groups of villages.

The examination of dwellings

seriously attempted
as yet.
;

in the

towns

is

seldom or never
it

the inhabitants are hardly prepared for

ISTevertheless, the condition of many dwellings, especially

the large Native lodging-houses, in some of the greatest cities

much longer tolerated by public opinion. The want of ventilation is among the primary defects of the urban dwellingcannot be
houses
ly,
;

and

if

the owners will not introduce reform spontaneousso.

they will perhaps some day be obliged by regulation to do

In the villages generally, the cottages are fairly well ventilated,

better, perhaps,

than those in European countries.

villagers

But the

practice

which the

have of penning their cattle in the

in the

same houses with themselves,

narrow courtyards where

is

they and their families eat and sleep,

very deleterious.

Under these circumstances when the analyses, made by

there need not be any surprise

sanitary authorities of the air of

cities,

many

dwellings in towns and

It is

present remarkable degrees

cities in

of impurity.

most fortunate that the greatest

it
;

India are either on the sea or within reach of

sea-breezes
villages.

and that the

towns

penetrate

so

far

inland

among

the

and
most
fresh

In the rural
the

tracts,

the people live very

much

out-ofat
is

doors

among

fields,

where the crops are growing

seasons in the year, and where, consequently, the air

and

life-ffiving.

326

INDIA IN

1880.

CuAP. xix.

Although adulteration has not caused any particular scandal in India, the examination of food is nevertheless recognised
to be important.

In times of

scarcity,

mented grain
are prevented,

is

brought to market, and

much mouldy or fermany of the lower

These people

castes are in the habit of eating diseased meat.

by the ancient

prejudice,

from killing cows or

eat the
;

bullocks for consumption, but they

may

meat of the
and
this is

animals when death has come from natural causes

largely done in

some places. Fish-curing is much practised

;

in the

coast districts, wliich are generally very populous

fish

much

of the

nominally cured, has really passed into a certain stage of

decomposition.

Some
it,

of the

milk consumed in the

cities

has

poisonous germs in
of illness have

and

to this origin
traced.

some

striking instances

some times been

Inspection of all these

matters

is

proceeding satisfactorily in the principal markets

throughout the empire.

Small-pox

is

universally prevalent,

carrying oif tens

of

thousands of victims, children especially, in

province
for
life.

almost

every

year after year and injuring or disfiguring others

The Government has

to

for

many

years

made

persistent

efforts

arrest

the disease

by means of vaccination, with

remarkable success in some

districts, like that of

Kumaon

in

the Himalayas, but generally with indifferent success, and often

without any perceptible result.

The

practice of vaccination

not being in vogue, inoculation used to be largely adopted by

the Natives in

many

districts,

but has

now been

prohibited,

though not always prevented actually.

undertakes
or

The State everywhere

encourages vaccination.

vaccinators are employed;

Hundreds of Native and returns are rendered of large

Never-

numbers
theless,

of persons said to be successfully vaccinated.

small-pox appears again and again with terrible manifestations before the people, and causes them to disbelieve
the
efficacy of

vaccination.

In this

disbelief,

they will not

seriously co-oi)erate with the State in

universal.

rendering vaccination

Without

real

co-operation

on their

part,

it

is

Chap. xix.

"

CONTAGIOUS " DISEASES.

327

impossible to

carry out such a measure.

Wherever circum-

stances have enabled the authorities to vaccinate the whole

population, the disease

is

prevented, and the people believe in

the preventive. the vaccination

is

But
its

as

circumstances seldom admit of

its results

this,

unavoidably desultory,
extension
is

are casual
is

and incomplete,

not promoted, or

even

indirectly resisted,
cities

by the people. In some of the principal and in other places the vaccination is legally compulsory
really enforced with the usual benefit
;

and
tlie

is

in other places

power

to enforce it is vested in authorities

who

feel

some

natural hesitation
people.
strict,

in exercising
is to

it

against

the will of the

The desideratum
absolute

render the preventive measures

of

and

universal in limited areas

country,

so that the people

may

see that the consequence of vaccination is

the stoppage of small-pox.

Once they

are convinced of that,

they will be foremost in maintaining the preventive, and the

effect of their

example will spread

to the surrounding districts.

The

special diseases

known

as " contagious " exist

lamentably

in most of the great military and civil stations throughout the

empire and in nearly

troops,

all of

the great

cities.

For the sake of the

especially

the European, the

Government has passed

checking these
fell

laws,

and adopted measures

for at least

diseases.

Lock

hospitals have been maintained

and are gene-

rally filled with patients.

In a few places these measures have

resulted in prevention, but in

their result, or their utter

most places the imperfection in

of success, prove the difficulties
cities

want

which practically intervene.

In the

which are beyond the

an equal

limits and the immediate vicinity of the

stations, there is

need of prevention, and laws have been passed empowering

the authorities to introduce preventive measures.

The Govern;

ment has, however, hesitated to take practical steps

ways there
there
is
is

in various
;

indirect

opposition from
feebleness
part,

some quarters

and

sometimes a

of

conviction

among the
and the
the

authorities.

For the most

however, the

officials

best

men among

the Natives are alive to the nature of

328
evil
;

INDIA IN
and
aid
it is to

1880.
later,

Chap. xix.

be hoped that, sooner or

in

public opinion

will
for

the

Government

ensuring success to measures

which the legislature has made ample provision.

Such

success, if attained,

would prevent much misery, which not

is

only affects individuals, but

generation.

transmitted from generation to

The measures above

in the

described,

relate

chiefly

to

what
by

is

termed preventive medicine.

The Government
establishment

also does

much
esta-

way

of curative medicine, or medical relief,

blishing,

or encouraging

the

of,

hospitals

and

dispensaries.

At

the Presidency towns the hospitals attached

to the several medical colleges are fine institutions

worthy of

capital cities.

One

of them,

the hospital for

Bombay, was

founded by Sir Jamsetji Jijhibhoy, one of the most munificent

and philanthropic of her

established
stations,

citizens.

Similar hospitals have been

by

private

bounty at other central towns and

such as the hospital at Poona, which bears the

name

of

Sassoon, its distinguished benefactor.

Many

other native gen-

tlemen, such as Sir Cowasji Jehangir, Mr. Byramji Jijhibhoy,

Mr. Jaganath Shankarset, have been honourably distinguished

by their benefactions
and dispensaries.
gentlemen
Assistance

to

medical institutions, including hospitals

In every province of the empire, Native

have
is

come

forward

with

liberal

contributions.

obtained from local and municipal funds, and from

public subscriptions in which Europeans as well as Natives bear

a part.

The Government

affords aid,

always on the condition of

private resources being collected.

Accordingly, these institu-

tions are found at the principal places in the interior of every

district in all the provinces.

Additions are made year by year

total

to their

number, of which the

eleven hundred for the whole empire.

now amounts to upwards of At each of them there are

them
;

competent Native practitioners

the chief of
officers

are under the

all of

immediate care of European medical

are

and

them

periodically

inspected
;

by European medical

authorities.

They vary

in size

at all of

them there

is

suitable

accommoda-

Chap. xix.
tioii for

HOSPITALS AND DISPENSARIES.

;

329

indoor patients, both male and female

surgical operations

are performed,

and medicines are dispensed daily and gratuitously

to outdoor patients.

able charges are

At some of the larger institutions, reasonmade upon patients who are able to pay but for
;

the mass of Native recipients, indoor and outdoor, the relief

gratuitous and charitable.
It is difficult to present

is

an exact

statement of the numbers of these patients, because the same

persons

may

appear in the returns several times within any

given period.

During the year some millions of persons

at the dispensaries to

in the

whole empire attend

medicine
;

obtain advice and

hundreds of thousands are received and nursed as

;

indoor patients

tens of thousands undergo surgical operations,

critical nature.
;

many

of

which are of a
is

Public confidence in

European medicine

increasing

the fame of the surgical skill

displayed by the British surgeons and by the Native surgeons

trained under the European system, spreads far and wide.

The measures adopted

for training

and instructing Natives as

medical men, and as medical practitioners, have been described

in the previous chapter on education.

Notwithstanding
tive medicine,

all these

measures of curative and preven-

the average death-rate

among
is

the Natives

is

unfortunately high, being not less than 3^ per cent. times

At some
this.

and

in

some

places,

the rate

in

excess of

According to the experience of happier climes the rate ought

not to exceed 2^ per cent.
2 per
cent., or
;

in salubrious districts

it

is

only

even
the

less.

Hence

will be seen the vast field

which

exists

for

beneficent
is,

operations

of medicine

and

sanitation, a field

which

as yet, very imperfectly occupied

by the State and the public

occupation
is

in co-operation, but of

winch the

gradually advancing.


330
INDIA IN
1880.

CuAP. xx.

CHAPTEK XX.
FAMINE.
Famine under Native rule Under British rule In Behar and Bengal in 1874 Public charity in England In Madras, Bombay and elsewhere in 1877 In India Mortality Advantages of railways Calamity in 1874 com-

tors

Precautions preventing mortality be prevented from wandering Sanitary department Distressed people Relief works Village inspection Relief houses People not demoralized operations Good conduct of the peasant proprienor pauperized by Prospects of material improvement Supply of food by private

pared with that of 1877 and 1878

for

to

relief

enterprise.

DuEiNG the
pestilence,

five years,

which passed between 1873 and 1879,

not been seen for several

India has from one end to the other been visited by famine and
the like of which has

generations.

Inasmuch

as the saddest experience has

shewn that

sometimes these calamities come in quick succession, or run in

cycles of years, no

man
of

can certify that the country has even yet

emerged from the dark depths of misfortune.

liistoric

Apart from the

the

famines

India,

the

famines of

nineteenth

century have been partial in extent, though intense within

limited areas.

Under Native

rule,

when famine

occurred, there

was no want of commiseration on the part

in

of the rulers.

Alms-

houses were opened, the most pitiable creatures were fed, charity

many ways was

dispensed and some attempts were

of work.

made

to

employ labourers thrown out

was paralysed, and the
the range of
efforts

These measures, how;

ever well-meant, were casual and desultory

visitation

the

arm

of the State

was regarded

as lying

beyond

human action. were made to prevent

Thus, no systematic or effective

mortality, to provide

work and

wages

for the able-bodied temporarily destitute of

employment,

and

to afford sustenance to those

who were

too feeble to work.

CiiAP. XX.

FAMINE UNDER BRITISH RULE.

British rule, the

331
State
is

Now, under
all of

obligation
its

of the

to

do

these things, to the utmost of

power,

acknowthis

ledged.

The Government has upon every occasion during

efforts for alleviation,

century put forth signal

and has thereby

however,

done much good

to the suffering people.

Its success,

was seldom commensurate with the energies exerted, or with

the expenditure incurred.

The excitement which sprung

up,

when during 1865 and 1866

the Orissa

the measures adopted respecting

famine were thought too tardy, proves the sense

of responsibility abiding in the public mind.

When, ten
of the

years later, a
this

still

worse famine threatened in

Bengal and Behar,

sense was quickened, partly by reason

of

manner
which

in

which the people

England grasped the

were exposed.

peril to

their Indian fellow-subjects

The

English Press spared no pains to describe the emergency, and

some of the leading journals

of

London were represented by

scene
of trouble.

correspondents specially despatched to the

The Government
conviction
relying on
of
its

itself

was, as

it

ought to

be, firm in its

own
any

what was, and what was

not,

necessary, and,
to resist

own

conscience,

was quite prepared

demands

for excessive

measures being undertaken.

Neverto

theless, the force of opinion in

England imparted strength

opinion in India, and caused the remedial efforts to be maintained at a high degree of tension.
ture

very heavy expendi-

was incurred, upwards of

six millions sterling net, after

deducting recoveries and the like from the gross expenditure.

corresponding large number of persons were fed or otherwise

assisted

and

relieved,

and in general terms

duration

it

may

be said

that no lives

were

lost.

The drought, however

;

severe,

was

of comparatively short

the succeeding season was

propitious and plenty returned.

During the two years 1875 and 1876, the country had
respite,

but in 1877 the calamity began to reappear, this

time in the Presidencies of Madras and Bombay, and in the

kingdom
more
to

of

Mysore.

The

Government girded
for

itself

once

contend with this enemy

the sake of the lives

332
of the people.

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xx.

"When the following season shewed no abate-

ment, but, on the contrary, a continuance of the famine in

a
still

more aggravated form, the sympathy of England lent

the utmost moral support to the efforts of those engaged on

the spot in remedial operations.

The heartiness

of that

sympathy was evinced by the munifi-

cent subscriptions, raised partly through the agency of the Lord

Mayor

of London, partly also through

many

charitable agencies

throughout the United Kingdom, and amounting, on the two

occasions, taken together for

1874 and 1878,

moral

to nearly

one

million sterling.

Great as was the material assistance afforded

the
effect

by these

subscriptions,

upon the

grateful

loyalty of the Indian people was greater

still.

Public charity

of a like kind was evoked in India

itself,

both on the part of

Europeans and of Natives, and the

full extent of this charity

statistics.

cannot be approximately represented by any

The
of

Government performed
variety
persons,
of useful

its

part

by undertaking an extraordinary

works,

by employing several millions

by feeding with gratuitous charity several millions more, and by incm'ring an expenditure which, from 1874 to
1879, has been reckoned at the grand total of sixteen millions
sterling.

Nevertheless, there

has been
if

much

mortality, in southern

India especially, and

the diminution of the birth-rate be

taken

together

with

the

augmentation

of

the

death-rate,

the total population will probably be found to have lessened

by

several

millions,
belief

during

the

cycle
rate

of of

calamities.

If

the general

in

the normal
if

increase

of

the

population be correct, and

that ratio shall have been at all

maintained dming the period in those provinces which for a time escaped the visitation, the net diminution of the population

may

be thereby affected, as there will be some increase to

Conjectures need not be hazarded
is

be set against the decrease.

now, as the result of a future census

perished,
still

awaited.

Of those who
relief,

many were

destroyed by causes other than starvation

the fact remains that, despite all measures of

many

Chap. xx.

ADVANTAGE OF RAILWAYS
to

IX FA^flXES.

333

succumbed
officers,

famine alone.

And

in the face of the unstinted

generosity of the Government, the boundless

devotion of

its

the administrative skill employed, and the hea^y exthis fact

penditure borne,
hesitate,

may

cause the most confident to

and the most sanguine

vrith

to despair.

As compared
had, from

Xative

rule, too, the British

Government
an ad-

1874

to 1879, in the possession of railways

vantage unprecedented in the history of Indian famines.

The

railways carried food supplies measured by millions of tons, over

distances of

many hundreds

of miles, at rates

much

cheaper

than those of the old land carriage, and at a season "when deep

mud and
much
were.
;

swollen rivers would have impeded

traffic of

that sort.

Irrespective of railways, transport

still,

by sea would have accomplished

so well suj)plied as they

without railways, the grain markets in the dis-

tressed districts
If they

would not have been

had not been

so supplied, the difficulties of this

terrible time

would have been

indefinitely aggravated.

Those

who were
felt

responsible for the relief operations in that famine

devoutly thankful that the railway system had been so far

completed before the calamity occurred.

The precedent
conditions, life

of

1874 in Bengal and Behar will doubtless

be regarded by some authorities as proving that, under certain

can be saved, mortality averted, and success

attained without any drawback or abatement.

On that occasion,
it

however, the calamity, though very severe while

of comparatively short duration.
It

lasted,

was

was not accompanied or

;

followed by sickness

and pestilence

on the contrary,

its

concomitant circumstances were favourable.

the

The

territory

and

population were so situated as to readily

come under

super%-ision

and inspection.

These favouring or mitigating

contrast vrith the adverse cirTlie
it

circumstances^ were in

marked

cumstances attending the next famine in 1877 and 1878.

expenditure in 1874 was
has Ijeen
lavish.
criticised,

very hea^y

on this account
as

and sometimes condemned

having been
has been

The

relief

was

liberally afforded

it

also

S34
censured as excessive.

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xx.
it is

On the

other hand,

to be

urged that

the people shewed no symptoms of being pauperized or demoralized, that they would not have sought for or taken relief
unless they had needed
rains began to
their
fall,
it,

and that

as

soon as the succeeding

no time was

lost in

sending them back to

homes and

their fields, whither, indeed, they willingly went.

Much

of the expenditure arose from the necessity, peculiar to

this case, of importing grain

on account of Government.

The
It so

threatened tracts were beyond the reach of the grain trade,

according to the currents in which
it

ran at that time.

happened

that the trade

was not supplying the markets, the

This impor-

depletion of which signified starvation to millions, and Govern-

ment was
tation, if

obliged to undertake the importation.

first

necessary for the

year,

might be equally necessary

calamities'

for the second year, as experience

shewed that these

often last for two years

stored.

therefore a reserve supply

had

to be

It

came
if

to pass, however, that the second year

proved
to the

propitious, so the reserve

State.
Still,

remain unused, causing

loss

the

formation of the reserve was justifiable,

fail to

the fact of

its

not having to be called into play would

prove

it

to

have been inexpedient.

These several circumstances

;

account for nearly half the expenditure

are not likely to occur elsewhere.

they were peculiar, and

recur,

They would not

territory,

even

if

famine were to return to that very

because of the im-

provements in communication which have since been introduced.

If,

then, this abatement be made, the remainder of the expenditurft

It

will not appear excessive.

State,
is

was indeed heavy

as regards the

and

liberal as respects the people.

all sides,

The absence of mortality

at the time,

admitted on

and the result was regarded with lively

distress, the danger,

satisfaction

by the chief organs of Native opinion

which were thoroughly acquainted with the

the relief operations, and the expenditure.

The Native

chiefs,

the landlords of Behar, and the British Indian Association of

Calcutta, the wealthiest, the

most highly educated and the most

of Native

independently outspoken

body

gentlemen in the

Chap. xx.

CALAMITY OF 1877 AND

who were
all

1878.

335

country,

versed in the circumstances, publicly

tendered the wannest expression of gratitude on the part of

themselves and of their countrymen to the Government after

the conclusion of the operations.

But

in the

famine of 1877 and 1878, the concomitant circum-

stances were unfavourable, and intensified the

main stroke of

the calamity.

The

first

year of famine was preceded by a poor

or indifferent year

and was followed by a second yearof drouflit,

is

causing a prolongation of famine, which

an

evil increasing

with a progressive ratio every six months that

Pari passu with the famine, cholera advanced as a dread ally in destruction, and small-pox appeared to decimate the children. When the
it lasts.

prolongation of the famine at length began to yield to rain, the

rainfall

became

excessive, sometimes

drowning the new

chills,

crops,
febrile

and always
affections.

afflicting the

people with
of death

damps and

Then the work

malarious fever.

this time by In the Deccan a further evil was heaped on

was resumed,

the pile of misfortune by the appearance of rats in myiiads,

wliich

would seem fabulous were

it

not for the sad evidence

laid

afforded

by broad areas of harvest-bearing country being

rise.

waste.

This final trouble has depressed some districts to a depth

from wliich they will not soon

calamities
is to

The concatenation of
mortality
is is

be remembered,

when the

computed.
found to

When

after

such events a decrease of population

it is

have occurred,

not to be inferred that the numbers of the

decrease represent so

many

people perished of hunger.

;

Nor

is

the decrease caused by death alone

it is

partly brought about

by the diminution in the number of births, the families being scattered, and by the loss of infants at their birth.
In the Presidencies of Madras and Bombay, the suffering
people were not, as in Behar, situated in a comparatively concentrated area admitting of supervision
;

but were interspersed

among
It

lulls,

valleys

and

areas, partly uncultivated

and undifficult.

inhabited.

Consequently, supervision was

to prevent

much more

became very hard

the people from

wandering

336
hither

INDIA IN
and
till

1880.

Chap. xx.

thither, seeking

work and

subsistence, but finding

their former.

none,

their latter state

became even worse than

In western and southern India the habit of giving and receiving

alms prevailed much more than in Bengal and Behar.

In

consequence, multitudes betook themselves to the capital city of

Madras, and to the sacred places which abound in that part of

the country, and of these people
in a state past relieving even

many

reached their destination

efforts.

by the most humane

in principle the

The system pursued was

same

in

Madras

and Bombay, as in Bengal and Behar. The ideas regarding relief works, labour and wages, charitable and gratuitous relief,
kitchens and hospitals,
village

inspection for

searching out

misery, were of the same type.

There was an equal desire to

save

life to

the utmost of the power and ability of the Govern-

ment and

its officers.

Whatever

variations existed in practice,

arose from diversity of circumstances in provinces widely apart.

The only important

difference in practice consisted in this, that

in southern India there was not quite the same proportion of

European supervision
In operations
for

as in

some other parts of the empire.

European

the relief of famine, the importance

liy
officers,

of or

ensuring adequate supervision, either

by Native

officials of status

and capacity, cannot be too strongly

In default of such supervision,

impressed on the authorities.

not only will the public funds be wasted or embezzled, but also
the mortality will be aggravated.

The

relief labourers will

be

cheated of their wages

the recipients of gratuitous relief will

;

be stinted in their doles and pittances

will
l3e

many

deserving persons
relief will

turned away

and the returns of the persons on

have sometimes occurred
; ;

be

falsified.

Such

evils

they have

generally been prevented

occurring.

but there

is

always danger of their

The only means

of prevention is the provision, at

any

cost, of a

trustworthy agency for supervision.

of
India,

The recent misfortunes

consisting

of

severe the

mortality notwithstanding large expenditure, and despite

exertions of officers second to none in

humane

zeal, in

benevolent

Chap. xx.

PRECAUTIONS AGAINST MORTALITY.

in

337

persistency and

unflagging diligence,
life

ought not to cause

in

British officers to despair of saving

event of even

protracted famine.

If the expenditure liad not ])een incurred,

fortli,

and the exertions not been put

been double of even what been
depopulated
for
it

the mortality miglit have

was, and whole tracts would have

perhaps several years.

cultivation has been for the

it

Whereas, tlie most part maintained and with

the revenue has been preserved.

Beyond

all

material con-

siderations of advantage to the State, the lasting gratitude of

the people has been earned, and the moral effect throughout the

empire has been

great.

The instance
solutely

of Behar,

and other instances, shew that

if

the

collateral circumstances

are favourable, mortality

may

be ab-

But such prevention cannot with any many untoward mishaps may occur to mar the best laid schemes. The Government must look the difficulty full in the face, and must gird and brace itself witli that determination to succeed which is the surest forerunner of
prevented.
certainty be anticipated, as
success.

The recurrence

of famine at intervals of time

is

to be

expected, and the national voice declares

cost shall be spared to save
life.

that no

reasonable

The prospect
to

of famine thus

augments the financial

liabilities of the

empire, and the public

must be prepared

for accretion

from time

time to the national

debt on this account.

From

the body of experience which has

now been

collated

the requisite precautions are well known.

In the

first

place, the sanitary

agency existing throughout

the empire should be strengthened and developed, so that there

may
the

be skilled observers at hand to interpret to the authorities

indicate physical depression of the people.
is

symptoms which

When

the character of the scarcity

pronounced and

its

signs

are emphatic, then the authorities are promptly on the alert

and

decisive remedies are applied.

The danger
is

is

really greater
off

when

the scarcity threatens for a while, and

warded
officers

temporarily

by a

brief spell of better weather.

The

prepare to act
z

338
then pause
;

INDIA IN

1880.

C;hap. xx.

the people are half-suffering and yet half-relieved,

though on the whole failing in physical condition. At length the scarcity throws off all pretence of relenting, and comes on
with merciless rigour.
that
It is

under circumstances such as

have occurred.

these,

some

of the worst disasters

trained

sanitary agency, already well acquainted with the physical state

of the
district

population, would
authorities,

then be specially valuable to the

to

and would enable them

become both

forewarned and forearmed. The next step is to keep the endangered people well in hand
to let those depart
.of

who can emigrate with

to

a reasonable chance

success,
;

and who are not likely

to prevent those

return in a state of

emaciation

who

are to stay (and they will be

the great majority) from wandering about in quest of food or

work
in

to stop the multitudes

from swaying hither and thither

panic and agitation.

If aimless

wandering once begins,

it

mortality will surely ensue.

In Behar and Bengal in 1874,

;

was

generally, though not always, prevented

its

and circumstances

favoured

prevention.
it

In Bombay and

esj)ecially in

Madras

during 1877 and 1878,

vented.

was

not, perhaps could not be, preits

Circumstances hindered
attributable to
it

prevention

and much

mortality was

alone.

The

relief

works, for the employment of distressed people,

should be of various kinds, some for the able-bodied, at a

moderate distance from their homes, to be supervised by engineering and professional agency some, near their homes, for the
;

feebler persons,

who cannot do much work,

little.

yet ought not to

be fed without working at least a

Then
declares

as the scarcity
itself,

there

grows worse and the famine must be a thorough inspection

positively
of all the

poorer people in every village, daily or weekly according to

circumstances, and those
or

who

are found to be either depressed

tending
as

towards

depression,

must

be

relieved

in

such
is

manner

may

be expedient.

This village-inspection

a
it.

cardinal point in

an

effective

system of

relief;

without

Chap. xx.

RELIEF WORKS.
It

339

mortality will not be prevented.

the crisis
is

cannot be improvised when

l)e

coming on apace, but must

l.)e

organized before-

hand, and the machinery must

it is

ready in anticipation before

this purpose, the territory

actually brought into play.

into circles
circle

For

must be subdivided
groups.

and the villages arranged into

group there must be placed
circles

Over every

or

competent Native

officials,

and a certain number of

should be under the supervision of an European

least of a

officer, or at

Native

official

of trustworthy aptitude.

In every

headman should be required to render assistance the ancient communal or parocliial system of the country is peculiarly suitable for work of this nature. The
village
;

the

difficulty
relief,

will

be,

not to reject

undeserving applicants for

but to search out deserving persons who, from timidity

or listlessness, will languish at home, will fall where they stand

and perish where they

fall.

Much

of the mortality has oc-

curred from persons hesitating in this manner.

Eelief houses and hospitals
localities

must be established

in suitable

near to the local centres of the scarcity, where sufferers

may

be received, and whither they

to

may

be sent by conveyances

when found unable

move.

Great care must be taken in

rendering these temporary institutions popular, otherwise the

poor people will be unwilling to resort thither, will hide themselves to avoid being sent there,

and

after their reception will

even escape thence.

to be thus relieved
;

They often evinced extreme unwillingness

and thus arose another cause of mortality.
to relieve

Consequently,
cases in their

it

becomes desirable

many

of the worst

own houses through

the agency of the village

headmen, a practice which requires close supervision, otherwise These village headmen a door would be opened to peculation.
were not thought in 1877 and 1878 to have done as much as they might, in assisting the State to tend and care for their
suffering fellow- villagers.

But the duty

is

one clearly pertain-

ing to these men, and

its

performance can be enforced, with due

vigilance and resolution on the part of the district authorities.

z 2

340

INDIA IN
a time the

1880.

Chap. xx.

At such

work

in its various departments

becomes

very extensive, and

much

depends on the personal capacity of

district. It is the special the European officer at the head of the head of every of the Local Government to ensure that the

duty

district is a

man

of the needful ability, that over every group

superior officer in command, of distressed districts there is a and that full instructions are circulated among all concerned.

might be apprehended, perhaps, that a system such as that mortality, above sketched, however indispensable to prevent would inevitably tend to demoralise and pauperise the people
It

and would teach them unduly to lean upon the State in emergencies of this character. Such apprehensions have not been verified by the result. The people never seemed to expect
that the State

would

or could do as

much for them as has

actually
it,

been done.

They were unwilling, if they could possibly help

relief,

to

come upon

preferring to run an excessive risk in search-

Often they were willing ing after sustenance for themselves. When for public alms. ask to languish at home, rather than
relieved, they

were prompt to return

first

to their ordinary

employ-

ments on the

promise of reviving prosperity.

"Whenever
off to their

rains descended to moisten the earth, the

fields

men were

with hardly an hour's delay.

On

the wdiole, the conduct

of the Natives, during these crucially trying times, has raised the

estimate of their national character and has redounded to their

good repute.

Indeed, their spirit of self-help, their persevering

resistance to the pressure

life

and pinch of want,

their patience in

and death, have won the admiration of the most competent

witnesses.

The peasant proprietors on all occasions, and in all provinces, have evinced considerable power of self-support and a creditable
sense of their obligation to discharge their fiscal liabilities to the
State.

Very
;

few, perhaps

none, of

them succumbed
classes of

to the
relief

famine

none of the better classes among them applied for

in any shape.

Some of the humbler

that
is,

them, indeed,

received

relief,

laboured on relief works, but

many

of

CiiAP. XX.

GOOD CONDUCT OF PEASANT

ordinarily

rilOPKlETOUS.
to

3-11

them were men who

indicate

went out
fields.

work

at times

when

they Avere not busy in the

All these circumstances

generation,

much improvement since the famines of the jmst when some of the peasant pro])rietors swelled the number of those who perished. Certainly the manner in wliich
saved by tliem from diminution

the area of cultivation was

proves great industrial power.

There was no loss of land

revenue in 1874, but in 1877 and 1878 there was considerable

loss;

however,

even then, very

much

of

the

revenue was

collected,

and the

collections indicate the existence of resources

accumulated during prosperous times.

The Government was

rare
tliat

believed by some to have collected the land revenue with undue

severity.
it

If such cases occurred they

to the intention of

was contrary

must have been the Government

for

any

undue pressure should be

exerted. In Madras, where the famine was worst, the Government certainly shewed all the leniency and The broad fact is tliat considerateness that could be expected.

the mass of the peasant proprietors stood their ground, pre-

vented their lands from falling out of cultivation, and paid a

fair portion

of their land

revenue.

It is

important that

all

those peasant proprietors,

whom

the famine does not reach,

should pay their revenue at a time

resources to save those

when

the State needs all its

whom

the famine does reach.

On

the

would be most inexpedient to press unduly for revenue on those who could not pay without impoverishing
other hand,
it

themselves.
several Local

These principles are thorougldy understood by the

Governments and
famines
at
first

their ofiicers.
if

Some good may be educed

these
several

out of evil

the impulse, wliich

imparted to the progress of

material improvement, shall be sustained.

railway, the Behar branch railways,

The northern Bengal the projects for minor irrigaThe apprehension

tlie

tion works in northern Behar, and several irrigation works in

the Deccan, are in part owing to the famines.

of scarcity has promoted

the cause of irrigation througliuut

empire.

342

INDIA IN
is

1880.

Chap. xx.

The Government

not likely to be again under the necessity

of importing grain to supply the markets during scarcity.

The

grain trade throughout the interior of the

active during

empire was most

1877 and 1878, the

local resources

were vast and

the stores

of grain accumulated were evidently considerable.

The food supplies were despatched by private enterprise with regularity and promptitude to the principal marts of the distressed districts from the provinces where the harvests had been
plentiful,
craft

by the railways, by the coasting vessels, or by the and from those marts the local plying in the rivers
;

traders again sent the supplies in country carts to the villages.

In 1878, the Indian Famine Commission was appointed by

the

Government

to collect all information

which may

assist

future administrators in the task of limiting the range, or miti-

gating the intensity, of famines.

This Commission consisted of

General Eichard Strachey as President, of Mr. James Caird,

Mr. H.

S.

Cunningham, and other

official

gentlemen, European

and Native, acquainted with the

as

different parts of the empire,

members, and Mr.

C. A. Elliot as Secretary.

The eminent

names, at the head of the Commission, afford guarantees to the

State and to

the public

regarding
its

the

thoroughness of

its

enquiries and the soundness of

all

conclusions.

After visiting
oral evidence,

the districts which had suffered, taking

collecting

much

and

masses of information, the

report,

Commission has

issued an elaborate
all

which

is

not only a repertory of

is

circumstances and suggestions relating to famines, but

also

an admirable summary of economic

facts concerning the

Indian empire.

343

CHAPTER

XXI.

LEARNED RESEARCH.
Spirit of research has long existed

and

still

exists

In the present

Works
Military

history Biographies Civil and Ethnological worksBooks of travel in countries beyond the Indus Asiatic Society of Bengal at Calcutta Bombay branch of Royal Asiatic Society Antiquarian remains Archaiological Survey
of historic
fiction
political

Books written

Learned works

iu the past

to explain Oriental ideas to

European readers

history

Preservation of ancient ruins and monuments.

The

pursuit of Oriental learning imparts grace and dignity to

tlie

the conduct and policy of England in

to the there,

East, endears India

Englishmen whose

lot

it

has been to live and labour

and engages on behalf of India the sympathy of cultivated

minds not only in the United Kingdom but on the Continent

of Europe.

The

spirit of research

regarding Indian antiquities,

which animates in the present

British

so

many

talented Europeans,
It

and Continental, animated

days of British

their predecessors also.

may

be traced back to the former generation, and even to the

rule.

earlier

It prevailed in the time \\-hen

Warren Hastings first gave official encouragement to Oriental learning, when William Jones founded the Asiatic Society in Bengal and James Mackintosh a similar association in Bombay, when Colebrooke and Horace Hayman Wilson began It was felt when to search out the riches of Sanskrit literature.
Anquetil du Perron investigated the doctrines of Zoroaster as
brought by the Parsis to India, when Pieinaud drew the notice of Indian students to Albiruni and other Arabian authors,

when Bryan Hodgson

discovered

mass

of

independent

Buddhist writings in Nepal, when Burnouf threw critical light on the history of Buddhism, wlien Stevenson investigated the origin of the Jain religion. It moved William Hay Macnaghten

344
to epitomise the

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxi.

Hindu and Muhammadan codes for northern southern India, and Strange to analyse the Hindu law in the entered Prinsep It spread far and wide when James XDeninsula.
upon the
field of archaeology,

deciphered inscriptions that had

conjunction defied all previous attempts at interpretation, and, in

with Turner of Ceylon fame, elucidated the spread of the Pali The works of these great men departed, and many language. other labourers in the same field who might be mentioned,
attest the attractions

which India has always held forth

to the

European

intellect.

Their efforts evince the recognition by the

ruling race of the necessity of erudition for the due discharge

of the responsibilities

which conquest brings in

its train.

Nor

did this zeal for learning endure only while the novelty and It still endures as bright strangeness of Indian affairs lasted.

by the achievements of the past, it strives to sustain the onward flight and even to soar higher. Men still feel as keen a desire, as heretofore, to gather together the countless fragments of historic evidence, to exhume the
as ever, and, encouraged

buried remnants of the past, to unlock the oriental treasures

still

lying in obscurity, and to display

all

these noble things to

European view.

Within the present generation, many men,

deceased
or
still

either recently

living,

have emulated their predecessors in

learned research.

In illustration of this subject, honourable

of,

mention must be made of John Muir's translation

and com-

mentary on Sanskrit texts

religions,

Max

Miiller's analysis of Oriental

and numerous dependent works on Sanskrit

literature

the

contributions
;

by

Goldstiicker

and Biihler

to

Sanskrit
;

learning

Monier Williams' various Sanskrit publications John

Wilson's elaborate account of the castes

Burnell's

among

the

Hindus
Bengal.

palaeography of southern
description
of

India; Alexander Duff's

practices

graphic

the

religious

in

Eminent examples are also to be found in Edward Thomas's numismatic and archccological researches Alexander Cun;

ningliam's

memoir on the Buddhist

topes at Bhilsa, and his

';

Chap. xxi.

WORKS OF ORIENTAL LEARNING.

entitled
'

1145

more recent work

Barthelemy
St.

Corpus inscriptionum Indiciiruiu

;

Hilaire's religion uf liuddlia

Martin Hang's

researches in the religion of the Parsis; Trump's translation

of the sacred books of the Sikhs; JacoLi's inquiries into the
tenets of the Jains.

Again, signal instances are to be observed

in'Sprenger's 'Life of
close

Muhammad'
original
'

in

German,

prc])arc(l

with

study
'

of

the

Arabian

authorities;

William

Muir's
sources

Life of

Muhammad
treatises
;

in English, derived

from Arabic
;

Baillie's

on

Muhammadan law
Great.

Elliot's
first

Muhammadan
other

historians

Blochmann's translation of the

These, and

part of the institutes of

Akber the
age.

many
eye of

works which might be mentioned, sustain fully the

of the

reputation

present

Conspicuous

to

the

all readers are

Fergusson's beautifully illustrated and most inarchitecture,

teresting

works on Indian
tree

on the rock-cut temples

and on the

and serpent worship.

in English

To

tliis

distinguished

list

must be added the work

namely the
in

by a Native

of Bengal,
;

antiquities of Orissa,

by Rajendra Lai Mitra

and

Urdu by

a Native of Hindostan, namely the

monumental

remains of Delhi, by Syed Ahmed.

Elaborate histories and reviews have been published of the
current literature in the several languages of India, which
richer
is

and more varied than would

are

at first sight be su]i])osed.

Such

the periodical reviews by Garcin de Tassy, and by

Jules Mohl, also the more original work by Weber.

of India

The people

owe much

to these distinguished foreigners fur thus

awakening the interest of the

There are also
of presenting
intelligible

intellectual world in Europe.

many books

written nowadays for the purpose

eastern ideas

and thoughts

in a form

readily

to

the English reader, such as

Monier Williams'
;

extracts from the best

and wisest dicta of Hindu sages

Talboys

Wheeler's representations in an abstract shape of the classical

epic

poems
;

of the

Hindus

Mrs. Manning's ancient and medieval

India

Griffith's

renderings in verse of classic

Hindu poetry

Kinloch Forbes' annals of ancient Gujerat; Theodore Hope's

; ;

346
illustrated
;

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxi.

work on the architecture and antiquities of western India Ehys Davies' description of Buddhism Hunter's works on rural Bengal, on Orissa and on the Indian Musulmans. To
;

these

may

be added Arnold's poems on Buddha the saint and

'

reformer, entitled

The Light

of Asia.'

History has always formed an important part of AngloErskine's account of the Central Asian Indian literature.
conquerors of India
;

Tod's life-like description of the Eajputs,

all

drawing the sympathies of

Brigg's
translation
of

men
;

towards that gallant race

Ferishta

Mountstuart

Elphinstone's

description of ancient India and history of the

Muhammadan
political trans-

dynasties

Orme's narrative of the military and

actions in southern

and western India, written when the data Grant Duff's were fresh and many of the actors surviving
;

excellent history of the Mahrattas, prepared

in

when persons versed

the
records

the

transactions

were present to
;

interjDret

Malcolm's Central India

their interest

are standard works wliich do not lose

from lapse of time.

Additions to the chronicles

Yule's analysis of Marco
'

of India have been Polo's travels,

made by Henry
his

and by

work

entitled

The Journey

to Cathay.'

The history

of the
'

Muhammadans

has been in part continued

by Keene's Decline and Fall of the Mogul Empire.' The threads of the political and military history of modern India, as left by the standard works of Mill and Thornton, have The two matchless essays by not yet been fully taken up.
Macaulay on Clive and Warren Hastings
to every reader,
first

still

afford delight

European

or Native.

Kaye's history of the

Afghan war, and

his unfinished narrative of the

war of the

mutinies, are worthy records of those events.

fully completed his graphic narrative of the

Malleson has now

war of the mutinies.

He

has, in former works, depicted the

struggles between the

English and French by sea and by land for the mastery of

India,

and has accorded due admiration

to the gallant antago-

nists of his countrymen.

Durand's posthumous and unfinished

is

work on the

first

Afghan war

full

of interest.

Special

Phap. XXI.

BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL WORKS.

347
by such

portions of the military annals have been embraced

works
history

as

Broome's
the

history

of

the

Benjral

Army, Leach's
history
of
tlie

of

Indian

Navy, and

Laurie's

Burmese wars. The recent

civil

and administrative history of India,

the
military and
political,

as

contradistinguished from

remains

to be written, in full detail, beginning

from the time of Lord

of moral

William Bentinck, which was an epoch

reform.

and

social

For

this,

however, the ground has been

Campbell's

prepared
Cust's

by Marshman's

history,

modern

India,

various essays, Chesney's Indian polity, Kaye's account of the

measures of improvement under the East Indian Company,

Charles Eaikes' graphic notes

on

the

rural

affairs

of

the

North-western

Provinces

and

on the
'

Sepoy

revolt.

The

quarterly periodical, entitled the

Calcutta Review,' has been

sustained for the last thirty-five years as a record of Anglo-

Indian thought.

Administrative reports are published annually

for every province

by the Government in India

dej)artment of the State.
material progress of India

and

for

each

An
is

annual review of the moral and

prepared by the India Office in
;

London, and presented

to

Parliament

among

these were the able

and comprehensive summaries prepared by Clements Markham.

Aitchison's text of the treaties between the British

Government

and the Native

occupies

States,

with introductory notices and index,

many

volumes.

Biography has lent her aid in laying the foundations of

history.

Kaye brought out Lives

others.

of Anglo-Indian statesmen,

Metcalfe, Malcolm, and

An

account of Dalhousie's rule

tlie

in India has been wiitten

by Arnold, but

time has not yet

arrived when, according to the directions in the will, the papere

can be opened which will vindicate the policy of that great

administrator.
career

Hunter's Life of Lord

terminated.

Mayo

records a great
of

prematurely

The

memoirs

Bishops

Wilson, Cotton and Milman, and the Lives of the great missionaries

Alexander Duff and John Wilson, by Dr. George

34:8

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxi.

Smith, throw light upon the moral and religious progress of The Life of Henry Havelock has been written by the time.

Marshman.
appeared.
part

A
The

Life of Outram, Life of

by Sir F. Goldsmid, has recently Henry Lawrence has been written in

by his attached friend and pupil Herbert Edwardes. When the Life of John Lawrence, now in course of preparation, shall
appear, the story of that gifted and illustrious brotherhood will

be

told.

Historic fiction

fills

a place in Anglo-Indian literature.

Taylor, such as the novel of
'

The
Tara,'
;

popular works of Meadows portraying the revolt of the Mahrattas against the Moguls the Confessions of a Thag,' throwing a lurid light upon crimes
'

peculiar to India, and other works

'

by the same author Kaye's novel, entitled Long Engagements,' and many works of fiction, illustrate the India of the past and of the present. The ethnological and linguistic considerations relating to the aboriginal and other races of India have been elucidated by
;

Beames' able work and by Dalton's illustrated volume.

The books

of travel

and adventure by the pioneers of the

first

military and political enterprise of Britain,

beyond the
fill

Indus, and then beyond the Oxus, would by themselves

catalogue of fame.

No Englishman can think without emotion

;

upon

the

Pottinger,

names of Moorcroft, Burnes, ConoUy, Abbott, Wood, Masson men who were consumed by ardour
advance the standard
thought and

for geographical discoveries, wdiich should

of British influence for the good of

their personal distress
felt for their country.

mankind, and who, amidst

and physical

sufferings, ever

These books deserve the attention of

the rising generation of Englishmen in the East, as exemplifying

the

indomitable

qualities

which

have

characterised,

and
their

will doubtless always characterise, the representatives of

race in

India.

The same

spirit

has urged on British

officers

towards eastern Tliibet from the days of Bogle and

to the recent

Manning

time when Edgar explored the frontier

travellinsjf
still

of Sikhim.

Adventurous

has

its

charm

for

Chap. xxi.

GAZETTEERS AND STATISTICS.

is

349

many,

as

proved

l)y

Cooper's journey across China, Shaw's

sojourn in Ladakh, Gill's march from China to upper Burma,

and other signal

graphical

instances.

Henry Yule has written geoof the journey to the

prefaces to

Wood's account
the

Oxus and

to Gill's diary of

march

in

China.

He

has

himself contributed to this section of literature hy his graphic

work on the mission

Statistical, local

to

Ava.

and topographical information has always been prepared voluminously in India, but has often remained in
a disarranged and ill-digested condition, detracting
its

much from
this

usefulness.

Among

the

first

and greatest

efforts in

direction

was Buchanan Hamilton's elaborate work on northern Bengal, the Mysore province and other parts of the country,

which, in reference to the early time

when

it

was written,

is

monument of exploring and investigating skill, and is still read by many with instruction. These important steps were followed
by Thornton's Gazetteer, which long continued to be a standard work of reference. In more recent times there liave appeared
the full and learned guide-books to western and southern India

by E. B. Eastwick.
Director-General, Dr.
fications.

More important

still,

the

Government has
its

organized a Statistical Department and placed at

head, as

W. W.

Hunter, an
is

officer of

eminent quali-

To

this

department

entrusted the task of causing a

Gazetteer to be prepared giving, for each district throughout the

whole empire,

all

the details that could be required by the most

laborious and conscientious officer engaged in the civil admistration.

The work

for the various provinces

is

prepared on the

spot

by officers chosen and appointed

thereto

by the several Local

the

Governments, on a general plan

General.
after

laid

down by

Director

The manuscripts are then transmitted

in England.

to Dr.

Hunter

being approved by the Local Governments, are edited by

him and printed

The work has been done in some

It has

provinces, but remains to be completed in others.

finished for the provinces under the Government already extends to upwards of twenty volumes.

been

of Bengal,

and

most useful

350
" Statistical

INDIA IN
Abstract "
is

1880.

Chap. xxi.

issued yearly from the India Office in

London, under the signature of Sir Louis Mallet.

The Asiatic Society of Bengal has been surrounded by the

best intellectual associations
of its
illustrious

of British India, from the days

founder.

Sir

William Jones, down

to

the

present time.

It enjoyed for

many

years the services of James

into the depths of

Prinsep as

Secretary,

who not only dived

antiquarian lore, but served as a focus of energy and zeal for

others,

and trimmed the lamp of learning

for the

encouragement

of his fellow- workers.

No man

has

left

memory more fragrant

Society's

among

the

learned than he.

The volumes of the

journal, which were edited by him, are placed with respectful

regard on the library of every antiquary.

a large
is

The Society has

still

number

of

members, European and Native, and its journal

to diverse subjects.

rich in

knowledge applied
of the

Similarly the

Bombay branch
its

Eoyal Asiatic Society, from the days of

distinguished founder. Sir

James Mackintosh, down

to the

present time, has been the embodiment of

in the

much

that

is

highest

mental
of its
its

efforts of

Englishmen in western India.

is still

The
not

number
able,

members, European and Native,

considerit is

and

journal displays learning and talent.

But

possible that these two Societies, though

most highly esteemed

and respected, should hold quite the same place which they The comparative proximity of England in these once held.
days induces authors to
offer to the

Eoyal Asiatic Society in

London,

and

to

other

English Societies formed for special

offered to

objects, papers

which in other days they would have

the Societies in India.

Many

scientific fields in

India are
left

now

occupied by the

Government, which used

to

be

to the

meritorious, though casual, enterprise of private persons.

From

these causes the

for

domain of natural and physical science has, the most part, passed out of the hands of these Societies.
however,
contain
scientific

Their journals,

articles

and in
still

the realm of antiquarian and learned

potential.

research

they are

Chap. xxi.
It

ANTIQUAIUAN REMAINS.
tluit for

351

must be acknowledged
lie

a long time the Government,

oppressed by other cares, omitted to examine the antiquarian

remains which

scattered over the face of the whole empire.

of these remains

The amazing extent

which
discloses

seems

to bafile investigation,

more and more rewards

be

to the searchers, as they

probe deeper and deeper.

that there

The profoundest enquirers apprehend

undiscovered vestiges of races and

may

still

many

dynasties, of which no other records are to be found.

Of

late

years the

Government

of India has established an archffiological

its

survey, on a scale equal to that of

other great undertakings

in the direction of learning and science.

This survey will,

if

prosecuted to

its

legitimate conclusion, be worthy of the empire.

It is in the charge of General

Alexander Cunningham, a
for

man

of the

highest
its

qualification

the work.

Already

sevei'al

volumes of

proceedings have been published, embracing,

among

other things, some of the best Buddhist remains.

adjunct to this

general survey, the Government

of

As an Bombay have
This

for several years past

been conducting a special survey of the

Burgess.

antiquities of western India in charge of Mr.

survey has made among

other things a complete examination

and record, with

illustrations, of all the artificial caves

and rockIn con-

cut temples of the Buddhist period in western India.

junction wdth this survey, Mr. Fleet has rendered great service Mr. Burgess in respect to Canarese and Sanskrit inscriptions.
also prepares a periodical, entitled
'

The Indian Antiquary,' and

In
tliese surveys,

replete with the current records of research.

the photographer's art, wdiich flourishes in the clear light

eastern skies,
artistic
is

under

a helpful handmaid, and performs a

eyes,

mass of

work which human hand and

of

however assiduous

and untiring, could never have accomplished.

representations

The photographic
a

Indian

antiquities

now form

valuable

collection which in former days could not possibly have been

procured.

The preservation

of ancient

monuments

is

a duty clearly

pertaining to the Government in an empire like that of India.

352
It

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxi.

must be sorrowfully admitted that

imperfectly
discharged,
for

this

duty was neglected,

Acts
of

or

many

years.

utter

vandalism have been perpetrated by persons engaged in public

works, and by others, wliich
it

would be painful to recount. Stones,

valuable to the antiquarian, have often been used as material

for

modern

structures.

Such proceedings are prohibited, and,

it is

to be hoped, are prevented.

.pilfered

At

the best, however, bricks

and stones are constantly

Natives for their

from ancient ruins by the

of conservation is being

own

use.

The duty

recognised by the

Government
it

of India,

and by the several

Local Governments, and

will be secured.

is

to be expected that

some

result

Separate departments have been constituted

;

in different parts of the country for the purpose

and recently
Captain

the

Government has appointed

to this

special duty

Cole,

herits a

who is devotedly attached to name distino-uished in art.

the pursuit and

who

in-

353

CHAPTEE XX IT.
PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
Great Trigonometrical Survey
tory at

Madras Meteorological observations Botanical Gardens, and Herbaria The Geological Survey Natural History Imperial museum
at

Death of Basevi and Stoliczka Pisciculture Organization of an agricultural dejjartment Model farms Popular instruction agriculture Veterinary
Calcutta

OrnithologyZoological
in

Topographical SurveyAstronomical observaGardens

art.

There might, perhaps, have been

India, amidst its
leisure
for

fear lest the

Government

in

many

urgent avocations, shouhl find hut scant

science.

promoting the advancement of physical

it

Nevertheless,

has effected

much

in several branches of science,

and has carried on several and importance.

the

scientific operations of

magnitude

The Great Trigonometrical Survey is one of the earliest and best sustained among the scientific undertakings of the
It has served as a basis

Government.

and a guide

for all other

surveys in India, and has contributed

It has covered the country

much

to general science.

with a network of triangles, greater

it

or lesser.

By

these operations

has measured a large arc of

the meridian, which has supplied important data for determi-

ning the dimensions and figure of the earth. It has recently supplemented these operations by pendulum observations, conducted with great care over the wliole area between Thibet and
the Indian Ocean.
It has

determined the altitude of most of

those peaks of the Himalayas which are covered with perpetual

snow, and of

all

the principal mountains, hills and plateaux

in the continent and peninsula of India.

its

The name

of one of

Superintendents, Colonel Everest, has been given to ^Mount

Everest, the highest peak discovered in the Himalayas, and the

2

354
loftiest point as

INDIA IN
yet

1880.

Chap. xxii.
Its geodetic opera-

known

in the world.

tions have been extensive,

determining by measurement and

observation, the figure, curvature, dimensions

and areas of the

the
to

land in

many
the

portions of India, and

scientific

have thus contributed

of

much

to

representation
Its

contour

and

configuration
rectification

of

the country.

services
it

geographical

have been invaluable, and

has furnished

many
back-

of the fundamental data on which large schemes of material

improvement have been devised.

It constitutes the real

bone of the system of surveying, which has at length made India

equal to any country of the world in respect to geographical and
topographical information.
It

has raised up a school of

ofiicers

highly qualified in this l)ranch of science.

The Government has

to co-operate in such

always readily permitted these

officers

scientific researches as the observations of

the total eclipses of

the sun and the transit of Venus, for which India has offered
special facilities.
It

has also participated in the general system

of magnetic observations which were simultaneously conducted

all

over the earth.

The Topographical Survey of India, proceeding on the fundamental data furnished by the Great Trigonometrical Survey,
has

made

the most detailed delineation possible of

regions
in

many
of

of

the mountainous

the

country

inclusive

the

Himalayas, exhibiting not only every

rivulet, valley

hill-side, mountain top, and table-land, but also every ravine, torrentline.

iDed

and drainage

With

the aid of these maps,

many

can be considered in the cabinet, for the preliminary treatment of wliich much labour in the field would ordinarily be
affairs

required.

Lines of march can be determined, territorial bound-

aries provisionally fixed, material

improvements devised, and

administrative arrangements effected.

When

repeatedly tested

by these

operations, the accuracy of the Topographical Survey

has been abundantly verified.

Some

of the surveys possess an

extraordinary interest, such as those of Cashmir, of Ladakh, of Huzara in the Panjab, of the Western Ghat mountains near

Chap. xxii.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSEEVATIONS.

355

Bombay,
coast.

of Mysore, of the canal region on the East coast, of the

tea districts in Assam, of the coffee districts on the Malabar

When

the height,

steepness

and ruggedness of the

Himalayan mountains, the jealous

sition, or covert hostility of

supiciousness, covert oppofrontier tribes, the extent

many

of the Indian mountainous ranges, the malarious insalubrity of

the pent-up valleys and tangled thickets, the varieties of climatic

inclemency from ice and snow to burning heat,

are

all

duly

remembered, then will the

work, as well as
its

difficulties of the topographical

map-

beauty and usefulness, be appreciated.

The

situation

of

Madras being

suitable

for

astronomical

observations, especially in respect of the southern hemisphere,

an observatory has been long established

the Government astronopier,
is

there.

Mr. Pogson,
;

man

of

eminence and repute

and the proceedings of

scie^ific world.

his
.,

department are esteemed in the

"the meteorological observatory at

JBombay

is

peculiarly well

placed for observing

tlie

phenomena of the monsoon, as the

It has

masses of rain-cloud burst in torrents every summer.

been established

for

many

years,

and has been ably managed

by Mr. Chambers, with various scientific appliances, chemical, magnetic and others. During recent years the Government
of India has organized a meteorological department
for

the

whole empire, at the head of which was placed Mr. Blanford, a

gentleman of eminent
qualifications.

An

observatory, with

several lesser or branch observatories, has been established in

each of the several divisions of the empire. Calcutta, for Bengal, is under the care of
qualified

The
]\Ir.

oliservatory at

Elliot, a

highly
the

gentleman.

The

observations, thus

made by

department in all parts of the empire, are collated, and from

the central office are issued reports regarding the state of the atmosphere, together with some forecasts of the weather, for

public information.

These reports have a particular interest

season,

during the

rainy

and

at

times

Mdien

scarcity

is

impending.
2

A 2

356

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxii.

Botany, as a science, has always flourished in India since the

very dawn of the nineteenth century.

floras

The several types

Indian empire

of
are

existing

within

the

limits

of the

alpine, desert, temperate, tropical,

and are

allied to the floras

of

adjacent countries, Afghanistan, Thibet, and

the

Malayan
the
of

regions.

The Indian

flora

represents

great,

perhaps

greater, part of the vegetable

kingdom.

The Government
in

India has contributed numberless specimens to the botanic

science of the British empire, and
it

is

some degree

to her

Indian, as well as her colonial, possessions that England owes

her unrivalled collection of plants, which have so greatly facilitated the

oflicers of

study of systematic botany.

Among

the medical

the Government, some have been the fathers of Indian

botany.

Of these one

of the

foremost was Dr.

Eoxburgh,
This garden

superintendent of the botanic garden at Calcutta.

is

of great size, having

an area of 272

acres.

It was,

by the
from

labour of

many

years, well stocked, but suffered severely

the cyclone of 1864,

when sad havoc

to

occurred.
;

Its misfortunes

were renewed by the cyclone of 1867

efforts

but subsequently great

it,

have been made

re-stock

and

to

improve

its

grounds.
It possesses a herbarium,

which has received the

collections

made

at

various

times

Wallich and

Griffith,

by distinguished botanists, such as and contributions given by persons in

other countries devoted to the cause of botanic science.

particularly
is it

indebted to Sir Joseph Hooker of Kew,

More who
have

has presented

many

valuable specimens, and has been a great

benefactor of the institution.

Specimens of foreign

floras

been obtained
at

for it not

only from the Pioyal Botanic Gardens

Kew, but

also

from the botanic gardens at Kandy, Batavia,

St.

Melbourne, Adelaide,
It has suffered

Petersburg, Munich, Palermo, Chicago.

its its

from the premature and lamented death of

curator. Dr. Kurz, but exertions are still

made

to

maintain

progressive development.

The botanic garden

in

at Seharunpore,

near the Ganges

caiial

northern India,

was, througli the

Chap. xxii.
scientific

BOTANICAL GARDENS.
exertions of
;

357
establislicd

lloyle

and
is

l\alconcr,

and
Dr.

richly stocl^ed

witli it also

associated
first
to.

the

name

ol'

Jamieson,

who was among

in the
ISTilgiri

the

render the culture of

is

tea successful in northern India.

There

a botanic garden at

Utakamand

mountains, a region highly suited for

the growth and culture of tropical plants, and of other plants

also, by reason of its altitude. At Bangalore, on the elevated and adjacent plateau of the Mysore province, there is an

excellent botanic garden.

as yet

any botanic garden worthy of the name.

for

and continuous rains

The Bombay Presidency has not The heavy four months during the monsoon season
Stei)S

are unfavourable to the formation of such a garden.

have
is

been taken to found a botanic garden near Poona, which

suitable locality, with

what degree

of success remains to be seen.

Of the many botanic books,

botany, there

treatises,

and journals on Indian

may

be selected for mention Sir Joseph Hooker's

most interesting

travels in Sikhim; Dr. D. Brandis' 'Forest Flora

of Northern India,' written with a special view to the wt)rk

of the forest department, but replete with general instruction,
scientifically arranged
;

Dr. Balfour's work on Indian trees, and

;

Cyclopedia of southern Asia

of the useful plants of India.
in progress,

and Captain Drury's account

*

The Flora

of British India

'

is

and

is

being issued with the eminent authority of

Sir Joseph Hooker.

The Geological Survey

is,

next after the

Trigonometrical
l)y

Survey, the largest scientific

operation yet undertaken

the

Government of India. It has been in progress for about twentyfive years, and with its past proceedings the name of the late

Oldham has been honourably connected. It contains many highly qualified officers, who bear much fatigue and sickness
Dr.

from travelling in

many

of those insaluljrious localities

where

geological investigation can best be made, but

who

are sustained
scientific

in alacrity

and

zeal

by the love they

feel for their

work, and

by the countless novelties which are presented

Tiie wonderful

during a sojourn among the wilds of the country.

358

INDIA IN

180.

Chap. xxii.

attractiveness of these long marches, despite the wasting fever,

the heat, the damp, the chill, which are inseparable from them,
is

illustrated
'

entitled

Jungle Life in

by the recently published book by V. Ball, The details of the geology of India.'

the empire, so far as they are yet known, are given in the

manual

of

Indian geology by Medlicott and Blanford.

The
some

Geological Survey has

now touched most

of those points or lines

in the empire that claimed priority of consideration, such as of the formations in the

mountainous ranges of the Himalayas,

the Vindhyas, the Aravalis, the Satpuras, the

Western Ghats,
It

including the Nilgiris,

and the Eastern Ghats.

has surveyed

most of the coal-bearing strata which have as yet been discovered,

such as those of the hilly tracts of western Bengal, through

which the chord

line of the railway runs

the

Mopani mines on
river, to

the northern slope of the Satpuras near the line of railway in the

Nerbadda Valley
wdiich

the field near the

Wardha
has,

which a

branch railway has been made; the tracts of western Bengal

produce the
iron-ore.
It

among many
and
;

other

operations,

examined some

of the

limestone

sandstone
of the trap*

formations in various parts of the empire

regions of western and central India,

much

morphic
empire.

series.

the metadue course of time, embrace the whole Much, however, remains to be surveyed in so extensive
also, of

many,

It will, in

and varied an area

of the imperial

as that of India.

The

geological department

has furnished, with specimens of every

sort,

a large compartment

museum

at Calcutta.

Its records constitute a

It issues, also,

valuable repertory of scientific information.

illustrated
periodical,

an

describing the pala3ontological remains

'

discovered in India, and entitled the

Pala3ontologia Indica.'

Attention has been bestowed

History.

by the State upon Natural

Bengal
at

The

collection of specimens, belonging to the

Asiatic Society, has been transferred to the imperial

museum

and among the gentlemen in charge of the museum there are professional naturalists. Sir Joseph Fayrer's illusCalcutta
;

trated

works on the snakes of India will repay attentive study.

Chap. xxii.
111

NATURAL

lIISTallY

AND

rittClCULTUllE.

359

entomology, collections have been made, such as the collec-

tion of coleoptera by the late

W.
is

Atkinson.
excellently

The

ornithological

department of the

museum

arranged,

and

is

enriched with the collections

service of

made by many persons

in the

Government and by private gentlemen.

embodied
all or

Dr. Jerdon's

book on the birds of India will long continue

to be a standard
all

work

for reference, as it

nearly

the

know-

ledge available in his day.

for Indian ornithology

Subsequently

much

has been done

by a number

of gentlemen

who

are fond
it.

of this scientific branch,

and have opportunities

for

pursuing

At

the head of

them
C.
'

is

an eminent member of the public

the

service,

Mr.

A.

Hume, under whose management

Stray Feathers,' has been issued.

periodical entitled

Some impulse has been imparted to the practical study Natural History among the Natives, by the establishment
the gracious auspices of the Prince of Wales shortly after
Year's

of of

the Zoological Gardens at Calcutta, which was opened under

New

Day

in 1876.

Having been well stocked with animals,

a nucleus
of a similar institution in the
it

they have become very popular, and are thronged with Native
visitors.

There

is

Victoria Gardens at

Bombay, but

has not yet Ijeeu fully

developed, the climatic conditions being not so favourable as

those of Calcutta.

Among

the martyrs

of

science

in India

there should be

mentioned Basevi, of the Great Trigonometrical Survey, and

Stoliczka, of the Geological

Survey, botli of

whom

pcrislietl

among the inhospitable mountains which separate Cashmir

from Yarkand.
Attention was at one time given to pisciculture, under the care of Dr. Day, in consideration of the wastage of the fish-supply
of the rivers,

many

classes

which constitutes an important article of food to of the people but no result worthy of note ensued.
;

Afn-icultural science

is

second to no science in practical im-

portance to India, and indeed

may

be dcciued practically more

of

important than any other, by

reason

the

u\'er\vheliain,L':

360

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxii.

magnitude of agriculture as an industry. Nevertheless, the Government has as yet done but little on this behalf nor has
;

it

shewn any vivid comprehension

whereby the science

thence diffused

manner and the means may be cultivated by those in power, and

of the

among

the people.

In 1872 a department of

Kevenue, Agriculture and Commerce was established in the Government of India, under the supervision of Mr. A. 0. Hume,

an

officer of great practical ability, in

order that the attention of

the supreme authority might he better concentrated on these

economic

objects.

But

this

department was nothing more than

its

a branch of the Secretariat of the Government, and

object

primary

was avowedly revenue.

It has

been recently abolished

its

for the sake of

economizing establishments, and

work has

been transferred to the other branches of the Secretariat. Lord Mayo, when Governor-General, desired to found a department

which should be devoted solely

scheme
is

to agricultural science

and the

quite practicable.

Care would have to be taken that

whatever experiments are made, or whatever directions are

urged on the attention of the people, should be arranged through
the several Local Governments, and that they should have the

management of the operations. Otherwise, if any attempt were made to manage these matters through some central authority under the direct command of the Government of India,
executive
irrespective of the Local Governments, there

would be clashing
were properly

of authority, the people would be bewildered, and no real result

would be obtained

for

science.

But

if

this

arranged, nothing would be easier than for each Local Govern-

ment

to

appoint a gentleman, professionally trained in scientific

agriculture, to be its adviser respecting the introduction

and

diffusion of agricultural science.

There would be several such

gentlemen in the empire, as there are several Local Governments, and under them a scientific staff of Europeans and

Natives would gradually grow up.

The Government

of India

would
to

also appoint a gentleman, of high status in the profession, adviser,

1)0 its

and

to assist it in giving general instructions

Chap. xxii.

AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION.
ago, the

361

to the several Local

Governments. Some years ment of the North-western Provinces appointed

Govern-

a special director

of agriculture,

and doubtless much

])eneiit

has arisen from this

arrangement.
result

Time must be allowed

before

any appreciable
a staff

could be expected from the proceedings of the agri-

cultural department for the empire at large.

With such

of scientific
practical

men working

in

all

the provinces, a

body of

knowledge would be accumulated, and based upon

the application of proved principles to the existing circumstances of the country.

Thus, whatever experiments were made, would be scientifically

conducted, and would be really instructive.
the experiments heretofore

Whereas,

many

of

made

in
to

model farms,

if scientifically

commenced, have often

issue
;

failed

be brought to a scientific
agri-

and have probably retarded rather than promoted

instruction
;

cultural science.
cultural

Simultaneously with these operations, agri-

would form a branch

of

the

national

education

there would be separate

schools of agriculture, or

agricultural classes in existing rural schools, and agricultural

colleges for the

more advanced Native

students, as explained in

the previous chapter regarding education.

Year by year there

qualified

would be more and more Natives in some degree

assistance in conducting experiments.

by

education to appreciate scientific information and to afford

The agriculture of an

empire, carried on with

a knowledge, empiiical indeed, yet

derived from the practice of

altered,

many

centuries, cannot be quickly

but

may

be gradually improved.
is

In several respects
such as dis-

the

Indian peasant

fairly well accomplished,

soils,

criminating the qualities of

ing,

discerning the times for sow-

weeding and keeping the crops clean, avoiding hedge-rows

and making the most of every foot of ground. But in ploughing and other parts of husbandry he is delicient. Though some
fields are

well manured,

still

the want of

manure

in

many
in

of

the fields is

one of the most serious of existing faults

country.

the

condition

of the

The dung

of cattle

is,

in

many

862
districts,

INDIA IN
diverted from
its

1880.

Chap. xxn.
is

proper uses as manure, and

used

for fuel.

The bones of dead cattle, instead of being utilised for manure, are for the most part wasted. Sewage instead of being
utilised for the

good of the

fields is

but too often allowed to

stagnate for the injury of

man.

These circumstances lead to

of

the apprehension that there

the soil going on.

must be some slow exhaustion

The best means

of arresting such deteriora-

tion will be found in the diffusion of agricultural knowledge.

Connected with this subject, there

is

the veterinary

art,

in

no
has

country more important than India, where the cattle form a

part of the capital of the largest class in the country.
It

been already seen in the previous chapter, relating to material progress, that the cattle are still very numerous, though
decimated by the recent famines.
destructive murrains
occurrence,

Even

in

ordinary times,
of too

and
which

cattle plagues are arise

frequent
If

some

of

from preventible causes.

scientific agriculture were to take root in the country, veterinary

schools

and

colleges

would

arise,

where

Natives might be

instructed in all that relates to the welfare and preservation

of the cattle.

363

CHAPTER

XXIII.
SI'OKTS.

WILD ANIMALS AND

Advantages from sport Big game
Season for sport
eater "
in

Spearing the wild boarTiger-shootingThe "man The panther Dangerous when he becomes a man-eater Wounds from carnivorous animals The hunting Cheeta bear The elephant The bisonThe rhinocerosThe alligatorThe Himalayan ibex and Ovis Ammon Anglo-Indian wild
"i'he

champaign country and

in

mountains-

literature relating to

sports.

Although
seem
at

the subject of savage animals and wild sports maysight

to

first

be

wanting in

seriousness,

still

an

Englishman's knowledge of India

lifeless,

would be meagre,
of the fcrcc naturce,

jejune,

unless he

knew something
still

which

are the denizens of the forests

remaining after the invasion

of the plough

and the

axe,

and which are being driven from the

hills.

plains to their last strongholds in the everlasting

If a

man

be an accomplished and fortunate sportsman, he probably

receives

other person.

more of exciting pleasure from the country than any Though he may not bend himself to acquire
information regarding the land and
in-

knowledge, yet his sporting pursuits bring him into the way of
all sorts of useful
its

habitants,

which he easily and naturally gains and which he

If he
l)e

could hardly gain by any other means.

administrator,
to be
it is

a careworn

a great advantage to

him
spirit

in his profession

an adept, in the saddle, or with the gun.

He

is tlierclty

all t]ie

more able

to retain that

buoyant

and that springy

disposition,

which are

essential for combating the depression

and enervation of a career in the tropics. Even if he be but an erring marksman, and an unsuccessful hunter, still he must be
acquainted with the
beasts of
lairs,

haunts, tracks and

i"()n<I

habits

of

the

the jungle, he must be

tif

the sequestered nooks

364

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xxiii.

where they crouch and the hidden pathways where they prowl,
if

he would

.see

aright the realities of India.

"

Ego vitam agam sub altis Phrygia3 columiuibiis Ubi cerva sylvicultiix, ubi aper nemorivagus."
too,

The matter,
aspect, because
to the ravages

has

its

saddening, as well as

its

pleasurable
fall

many

thousands of Natives yearly

victims

of wild beasts

and

to the bites of

venomous
from the

reptiles, despite the efforts of the authorities to

encourage the

destruction of these animals.

The

loss of cattle also,

same

causes,

is

considerable.
of complaint

It is notoriously a subject

among sportsmen
and from easily

that the spread of cultivation

and habitation has driven the big

of
stations

game away from

accessible localities.

the vicinity

The ravages

of wild beasts have induced

the Government to offer rewards for destruction, and thus

many
for

a Native for the sake of lucre kills animals at the moment,

wliich might ultimately have been pursued

by gentlemen

love of the chase.

Still,

the animals find fastnesses in the

numerous mountain ranges wliich ramify throughout the empire, and in the stupendous Himalayan range which shuts out India
from Central Asia.
hunter
;

There they await the onslaught of the

forth to court

and thence sometimes they daringly issue

the combat with civilized man.

In the rainy season of summer the animals roam so far

afield

and

so constantly shift their abodes, the

woods and the brush-

wood become

so tliick in foliage

and

so tangled in growth, the

tracks are so impervious, and the mist or the

depressing, that the hunter

downpour

is

so

must

rest in enforced idleness,

rifle.

and

must hang up

his horn, spear

and

In the autumn, the

malarious exhalations warn the most hardy and adventurous to

beware of entering

forests

where in a single night a

life-long

malady may be
phere
is

contracted.

In the winter when the atmostaint, the sporting season begins,

cleared of

autumnal

and improves every month as the hot weather approaches.

is

It

at its zenith

during the heat, when the animals must perforce

resort
to certain

lie up,

and must

known

springs or pools for

Chap, xxtti.

SPEARING THE WILD-BOAR.

thirst.

365
are cauglit in a

slaking their

Then

it

is

tliat

tliey

dilemma which cannot be evaded by night

a moonlit watcher on a

or

by day.

Many
fall

summer

night, perched
l)y

up among the

branches of

trees,

has been rewarded

seeing his

game

to the rifle-shot.

One

of the few wild sports

which can be enjoyed near

is

at

home, in the midst of the inhabited country,

that of hunting on

horseback the wild boar, and piercing him with a spear, without

any assistance from hounds.

every part of the empire.

This sport

is

followed in almost

Herein are required the highest

proficiency of the horseman as well as the spearsman, and fleet-

ness together with unfailing obedience to the rider's liand on the

part of the horse.

The high average

of accidents to botli

man

and

horse, attest the arduous character of this chase, if hotly

is

pressed against a boar that

worthy of the

steel.

Thus, hog-

hunting,

if

pursued in the highest form and

sports.

style, is truly the

is

queen of Indian

The

best kind of boar

one that,

having fed highly on the most nutritious of the husbandman's

crops, has great speed for a

moderate distance, a short temper

and a desperate courage.

from his reedy
cover,

He

is

not formidable, as he bursts

at a galloping pace, if the as he runs.

and hies away

hunters can catch him up and pierce him

But

if,

on

breath failing him, he suddenly stops, squats for an instant

facing his pursuers, and charges with a grunt of fury, then the
critical

moment

is

come.

If the hunter receives

him on the
into

spear-point, well.

The But

infuriated brute will press on towards

his foe, although every struggle drives the

his

weapon deeper
tlie

own

vitals.

if

the spear misses, then

lost.

horse, at

least, is in

danger of being

One turn

of the protruding

tusk as the boar ruslies past, severs bone, sinew and artery, as with a knife many a gallant steed has thus bitten the dust.
;

The

boar's repute for fearlessness is such, that the Natives have

if

a proverb to the effect that

a tiger

and a bear happen

to

be

standing by the river side, he will step down between them, in

order to drink his
fill.

Tiger-shooting

is

sometimes attempted on

foot,

and then

366

INDIA IN
special
skill

1880.

Chap, xxiii.
It
is

demands

and wariness.

more commonly
com-

undertaken either from a perch constructed amidst the branches

of trees, or from the back of a trained elephant.
It is

paratively safe,

if

the elephant

is

staunch and steady, as he

rifle

generally

is,

because in his sagacity he relies on the

of his
If or

rider arresting the tiger as it springs with a terrific bound.

the elephant, from

want

of confidence in his master's

terrified

rifle,

from any other cause, becomes

rush, regardless of his rider,

and unsteady, he will

among
is

the outstretching branches

of the trees, of the tiger

whereby a new danger

added.

The

feline nature

makes him an arrant coward,

until the last hope of

escape

is

closed,

but when desperation possesses him, he will

leap upon his pursuers in a

manner quite magnificent.

The
habit. forest

tiger is

found under various conditions of abode and

state is

His normal and

lives

when he dwells

in the heart of the

upon deer and such-like prey.

Often, however,

he lurks in the edge of the woods, near cultivated ground, or

close to pasturage frequented
seizes the cattle.

by the herds, and then he stealthily

If not shot

down

or

hunted

out,

he and his

progeny would cause so much annoyance to the villagers as to

drive

them from

their homesteads.

Sometimes in north-eastern

Bengal, at certain seasons he quits his Himalayan abode, swims

the broad rivers, and under cover of night traverses the open
plain, till

he reaches the patches of

tall reeds

and grasses near

the banks of the

Brahmaputra.

From

that refuge, he darts

forth to decimate the cattle of the neighbouring villages.

arises the sportsman's opportunity, the cover,

Thus

dense but limited

himself environed

in space,

is

surrounded, and the

tiger, feeling

by doom, gives battle straightway. The real danger in tiger-shooting

spairingly in

is

when

the beast, being

by wounds incapacitated from further

and when the sportsman, eager
tiger flickers

retreat, lies

down
is

de-

some position from which he cannot be dislodged,

to possess his

game,

tempted

to venture into too close quarters.

The energy of the dying

near his last gasp, his waning

up suddenly; and even when he is seemingly life flares up with dread power

Chap. xxiu.
to

"

THE MAN-EATER."
who comes
witliin

^07
reach of
liis

maim and maul

the foe

teeth or claws.

Some

of the saddest accidents in the records

of sport have happened in this way.

Sometimes the
then he
eater."

tiger,

having

successfully

preyed

on the

village cattle, begins to attack

is

the villagers

tliemselves,
" the

and

called

by the awe-inspiring name of

himself to
this

maneitlier

He

betakes

dread

pursuit,

because from infirmity he can no longer catch the nimble

denizens of the forest, or because he happens to have perceived
that

man

is

easier to be killed than

any other creature capable

that

of affording food.

Then

all

the stealthy and cunning instincts

of

Ms

nature are intensified.

alive to danger, has

He

seems

to feel

man,

if

warned or

some peculiar power of

resistance,
Tlie

so he steals along, silent as the grave, towards his victim.

unsuspicious person walking quietly along, feels suddenly a

paw
from

laid like a
fate
;

hammer on

his

head or shoulder, like a bolt

and in an instant

all is over.

" man-eater," if

unchecked, would soon cause the depopulation of villages, as

the survivors fly their homes in terror.
apparition
is

But a

report of this

immediately made to the authorities, and the

panther by Europeans,

scourge

is

soon removed.
called locally the
is

The animal

sort of leopard, grey in

hue with beautiful

spots, slight in frame,

but with great motive power in the limbs, witli retractile claws,

and sharp man.

teeth.
if

If not attacked, he
to

is

generally harmless to
sliews a

But

hunted and driven

any extremity, he

terrible sagacity, different

from that of other animals.

He charges,
its

not wildly, but with a definite aim whicli seldom misses

of closing with his

object

human

foe.

If perchance he fails, he in-

stantly repairs the mistake, and repeats the assault with greater
precision.

If

the foe be perched in a tree, he will climb

up

with amazing agility to seek his revenge.

one of his assailants,
to turn

Having overthrown
wounds, he will pause

and

inflicted desperate

and charge another of those who have provoked him. Sometimes having rid himself of the sportsman, he will dash

368
off

INDIA IN
to

1880.

Chap, xxiti.

wreak

his fury

on passers-by who have not been con-

cerned in the hunt.

When

in

this

mood, he

is

the most

formidable beast that stalks the earth.

himself to man-eating;
exerted
to

He
for

very rarely betakes

when he

does,

every effort must be

the

compass

his

destruction,

sake

of

the

neighbourhood against which he would bring his dire sagacity

to bear.

Even

he,

however,

is

not proof against

human

in-

genuity in trapping.

The authentic

traditions of a panther in
to

the hills between Jabalpur and

Nagpur used
killed

be told with
sheer vice

bated breath by the witnesses.

as well

He
At

men from

from desire

for food,

and

his range of destruction during

a single night would be wide.

even-tide a Native family

would be gathered

for

supper in front of their cottage door.

In

the twinkling of an eye, a horrid form flashes before them, and

one of their number

stricken, follow,

is

hurried away.

The

survivors, terroroff,

and

find

him

a short distance

dead, with a

gaping wound in his throat from which the blood has been
hastily sucked.

At midnight

in another village

some miles

off,

a couple are fast asleep in the cool night-air outside their

stead.
left.

home-

Suddenly a death-shriek

arises,

one

is

taken, the other

The neighbours, aroused by the

torn.

cries,

search and find,

flesh

close by, the corpse,

from which a few shreds of

field,

have
off,

been

Towards dawn in a

again some miles

peasants are sleepily tending their crops, one of them instan-

taneously disappears from their midst, before the others can

realise the visitation.

Once more there

is

the same finding

discloses the

of the body, with a

wound

of

which the nature

terror can be

identity of the destroyer.

The

imagined which

such occurrences, at various hours of the same night in places

at

some distance from each

other, spread

among

the people to

whom

the panther seemed to be ubiquitous.

For some time

at length

his activity enabled

him

to elude capture

he was

mobbed and

slain.
is

Besides other reasons, there

a particular reason

why

the

sportsman should,

if

possible, avoid Avounds

from carnivorous

Chap, xxiii.

THE HUNTING

CIIEETA.

;]G!

beasts, which is this, that their claws and tcctli arc often tainted by the putrefaction of animal substances, and tiius communicate a fearful and incurable poison to tlie ])loud of the
sufferer.
first,

Sometimes even a

scratch, apparently innocuous at

becomes inflamed and sloughs with gangrene, causing a slow but most distressful death. Some known instances of
this nature are too

shocking to

relate.
is

The

" Cheeta," a sort of

hunting leopard,

kept by Native

princes and chiefs for sport;

he has the jaw and teeth of a

for a

panther, but his claws are not retractile and are less harmful
his
agility for a

few seconds, perhaps

minute or

so,

is

astonishing, but his staying

power

is slight.

rush at and seize the black buck, in this

blindfold with a hood, inside a small

He is wise. He

trained to
is

placed,
cart,

Native chariot or

drawn by bullocks and surrounded by

people, to the sight of

whom

the deer are accustomed as they graze on the green crops.

herd, led

The unsuspecting
approach

by the buck, allow the

cart to

to witliin a short distance of fifty to a

hundred yards.

At

the right

moment, the hood

is

is

withdrawn from the Cheeta's

eyes,

and the buck

disclosed to his gaze.

starts off in
is

The speed can be

liis

imagined with which the buck

agony of

fear.

With a few wonderful bounds

fleshed in

the Cheeta
If,

on
he

liim,

with teeth

some

vital part.

however, the buck can

so,
is

make

good his

flight for

a hundred yards or

saved, for the

Cheeta having expended his activity in a few bounds, abandons

the pursuit.

The

bear, of
;

many
is

species or varieties,

is

found in
creature.

all parts
If,

of India

he

often a timid ajid

stupid

on

rushing out of a cave, or otherwise suddenly coming in contact

with an assailant, he should

then his hug, scratch and
also,

fight

with his natural weapons,

bite are tremendous.

if

When wounded,
that,

he

may make

a charge which,
It

brought home, will prove

this

fatal to the sportsman.

was

in

manner
St.

by a
In the

deplorable and lamented mishap. Lord Henry

killed

Maur was
2 a

by the bear which he had mortally wounded.

370

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xxiii.

Himalayas the bear will sometimes evince surprising strength and courage, and will rush up to the muzzle of the sportsman's <Tun even the barrel of a gun may be bent and indented by a
;

bear

maddened with wounds and excited

pathways during twilight or

in the fray.

Somesportslest

times a bear, without any hostile intent, will hang about the
forest
after dark.

Then the

man
will

or the passer-by, going

home

at nightfall,

must beware

unconsciously he should walk right up against the beast, which

by

instinct strike at the

human
feature.
if

face,

and with one sw^eep

of its claws will

mar every

If he meets a she-bear
is

with her young, he

may

attack

he

sure of his

his opportunity, otherwise

he will bear in
if

means and mind her extra-

ordinary vigour and ferocity whelps.

she fears

being robbed of her

The elephant
for purposes of

is

caught in several parts of the empire by

the British Government, and by

some

of the Native sovereigns,

war and of State shows.

hill

The

best hunting-

grounds are in the

territories

country of Eastern Bengal, the Nepal

and the southern portion of the Nilgiri mountains.

The depots, where the captured elephants are kept, have the The sportsman also has liis opporlocal name of Kliedda.
tunities
;

but the

sport

generally requires

an organization

beyond the means of an individual. The gregarious habits of His daintiest the elephant are well worthy of attentive notice.
food consists of the wild plantain and the tender shoots of the

young bamboo.
" salt-licks."

He

resorts periodically to saline deposits, for

which he has a strong craving and which are called locally

Sometimes he

is

captured by the well-known

elephants, and

device of alluring

him with decoy

between
fences,

by taking
is

that opportunity to fasten and secure him.

skilfully

Sometimes he
first,

enclosed

wide apart at

but
is

gradually narrowing to an apex like the letter V, and he

driven towards that apex by the beaters.

The struggle can be

imagined which he makes against the stout barriers of the V, when his danger is fully realised by him. If at some earlier

Chap, xxiii.

THE

BISON, lUlIxNOCEKOS, ALLIGATOIJ.

liis

371

time in the day he takes alarm, and makes good

limbs ascend and descend the steepest

escape, the

ease M-ith which his huge, ungainly and apparently unwiekly

hill-sides, and the force with which he crashes through the opposing thickets, astonish beholders. For some days after his capture, the grief, rage and

chagrin, indicated

by

his

movements and demeanour,

ways of

afford a to his

sorry spectacle.
lot,

He

soon, however,

becomes reconciled

and seems

to find his happiness in the

civilized

servitude.

He

breeds but seldom while in captivity, but his

longevity renders him a valued

member
is

of

an establishment.

young elephant

of tender age

petted by Natives as

among

the choicest of animals.

But

if

a tame elephant happens to

become loosed in any

reverts to his wild

locality suited to his natural habits, he

life,

and then

his recapture is difficult for

mankind, with whose devices he has had acquaintance.

In

some

places, herds of wild elephants are

known

to

have been

descendants of domesticated elephants escaped from slavery.

The bison
affords
difficult.

is

found in most of the hill-ranges of India, and

sport

which
critical

is

interesting
is

without

being

specially

The

moment

when, with lowered head, he

rushes like a whirlwind at his enemy.

The rhinoceros
times he

is

found principally in the forests skirting the

base of the eastern Himalayas.

is

He

is

sometimes

shot, at other

captured young, and reserved by Native princes for

their wild-beast shows.

The

alligator is

seldom pursued

for sport,
lies

though marksmen

pften delight in shooting

waters, as he
species
;

him while he

on the edge of the

There are two
fish,

is

a monster hated by all men.

one

the " sharp-nosed,'"

is

which preys on

and

is

harmless.
carrion
offer,

The other

the " snub-nosed," which subsists upon

and will

seize
is

human

beings

when opportunity may

ill-omened fame.

and which

the

alligator

of such

Being ampliibious, he
so

lives often in the large tanks

which are

common

in the country.

When moving
to another,

timidly at

dawn

or

by twilight from one tank

he

is

awkward and
2 B 2

dis-

372

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xxiii.

composed, having but slight power of movement on land.

limbs are small and his potent
water.
tail is of little

His

use out of the

He

reposes cliiefly in the depths of the pools of rivers,

but he loves to emerge and bask on the sandy bed or rocky

surfaces near the banks under the broiling sun.

As he

lies in

utter stillness, he seems at a short distance to be a grey weather-

beaten log of wood.

In this manner he will often remain at a

If

short distance from the water's edge, a few yards perhaps.

any person, passing by

or going to the water's edge to drink

and
at
all

bathe, mistaking the alligator for a log, or not noticing

all,

him

should come between the monster and the water, then

is

over in a moment.

The
rush,

alligator, propelled

by

his powerful

tail,

makes a sudden

and plunges into the water with his

he
probably safe

victim in his jaws.

If the stranger, however, passes on the

is
;

outer, or the land side, of the alligator,

the

monster, seeing a

man

approach, will betake liimself to his

proper element.

It is the presence of the alligator that renders

bathing in

many

of the

most picturesque

rivers

so unsafe.

European

soldiers

and others are sometimes thus carried away

Occasionally the alligator will
lie

while swimming.

in wait in

the water for creatures

seize them.

approaching the margin, in order to

can,

The Natives say that he

his

with his terribly

armed jaw and with the leverage of

the water, even a tiger
river's edge.

tail, seize,

and drag into on the

when bending forward

is

to drink

Such a thing

quite possible, and the resistance

of a tiger, once caught in this iron grip,

would be

ineffectual.

sad tale was told thus in eastern

;

Bengal.

Some women

were bathing in the Brahmaputra

one of the

suddenly a gaping mouth,

with long rows of teeth, emerged from the water, and seized

women by

the waist.

For a moment the monster

rose half out of the water, brandished his victim aloft, and then

disappeared with her under water to be seen no more.

and the Ovis Aiimion, the mountain goat and the wild sheep of the Himalayas, demands not only
of the ibex

The hunting

the highest skill of the marksman, but also the nerve, patience.

Chap, xxiir.

ANGLO-INDIAN LITERATUEE OF SPORT.

The game
is

373

and endurance of the mountaineer.

rarely to be

descried and most difficult of approach, and at the best, the

practised and proficient sportsman will find only few rewards.

But
"

he will

live,

move, and

have his
glory,"

being

amidst

the

mountain gloom and mountain

Anglo-Indian

and he will commune

stirring

with nature in her sublimest moods.

literature

abounds in

narratives

of

sport and travel, such as Shakspeare's wild sports in the East,

the old Forest Eanger, the

Wild
in the

sports of the Deccan, Colonel

Markham's sporting tour

of those

Himalayas.

Among

books
life

recently published, the wonderful interest surrounding the

who

seek their diversion in the

forest, is

charmingly

illustrated

by Forsyth's work on the

'

forests of Central India,

travel,'

by Lockwood's
Sanderson's
*

Natural History, sport and

and by

Thirteen Years amonfj the wild beasts of India.'

374

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxiv.

CHAPTEIi XXIV.
NAVY AND MARINE.
Early naval enterprises

Companies The Indian Marine Marine Surveys Tidal observations the Shipwrecks Native passenger ships Port of Calcutta Cyclones on the Hughli Madras Dockyards Bay of Bengal Calcutta and Bombay Wet dock and foreshore at Bombay Karachi harbours Lighthouses. harbour Examination of

in
Pilots
pier
lesser

Piracy The

Indian

Navy

Naval

arrangement

The between the Government of India and the Admiralty in London Persian Gulf Defence of Indian harbours and coasts Steam Navigation

at

The ultimate
after

position of the English in India

was in part won

arduous naval contests with the French, in which the

navies of both Powers equally distinguished themselves.

the Native Powers the struggle was
for the

With

most on land, and

but seldom on the

sea.

The

earlier

Hindus and the MuhamThe Mahrattas,

the littoral districts

madans

did

not

affect

maritime warfare.

however, having the seat of their power on a long range of

mountains, wherefrom they looked
at their feet

down upon
its

and the ocean with

first

shores studded with rich

seaports,

aspired from the

to establish a power,

which,

though not to be dignified with the epithet of naval, was

essentially

maritime.

The numerous country

these
vessels
Sivaji, the

craft

of the

Malabar

coasts

were manned by Native mariners of hardihood

and courage.

Upon

Mahratta king,

mounted
effect

his guns.

With

the

fleets,

thus composed, of small

coasts,

war-ships, he used to

swoop upon the defenceless

startling conquests.

and

some

of his

most

These proceedings

greatly stimulated piracy, always rife in the Indian Ocean, and

inured

the seafaring the English,

first

men
then,

to

fighting

on their own element.

When

appeared on the scene, to claim

ascendency

and then supremacy, they found enemies on the

CiiAP. XXIV.

THE INDIAN NAVY.

375

sea as well as on the land.

Besides English-built ships of war,

many
For

country vessels with suitable armament were employed

to reduce

Mahratta enemies or
years

to

punish

pirates.

many

a separate Navy, bearing

the

now

time-

honoured
India

title of

the Indian Navy, was maintained by the East

for the control of

Company

maritime

affairs in

Indian

waters, with its headquarters in the

to the naval needs of the time,

Bombay harbour. According

was
and
effective as a fighting
it
it

it

macliine.

Besides warlike operations,

rendered service to
acted as the armed
It

the country in

many

fields of action,

and disciplined

police of the Indian seas.

was the agency

all the

for the suppression of piracy,

and

for the

hunting of the pirates

coasts of

into their lairs on land.

Its officers

examined

India

itself

and of

ail

neighbouring country wliither Indian

sMps

resort.

They

laid the foundation of the

marine surveys,

provided charts of the harbours, took soundings of the channels,

and explored navigable rivers or estuaries

inland.

for

long distances

Thus the

flag

which they hoisted was the symbol of and men were maintained in
vigour

much
But
and

gallant and honourable service.

wliile the officers
fid.1

efficiency, the sliips, wliicli

had been good in their day, were

becoming obsolete, by reason of the changes in naval architecture and armament. If new vessels were to be procured from time
to time, according to the changeful types of sliip-building, also

and men versed in the newest forms of nautical instruction, it was preferable that both ships and crews should come direct from the Eoyal Navy. It was therefore determined
with
officers

to abolish the Indian navy, as a naval force.

A marine,

indeed,

was permanently required to perform

many

duties, subsidiary to

war but not actually warlike. But

the officers and
inferior service
;

it

was not expedient to retain

as

men

for a

marine wliich they would regard

an

so they were paid off

and admitted

to pension,

with due recognition of the services long rendered

to the

country

by themselves and

their predecessors.

Some among them, who

to

were chosen on account of general aptitude, consented

remain

376
ill

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxiv.

the marine, which was provisionally maintained in order to

carry

on the public

service.

large

financial

saving was

immediately obtained by these measures.

An

arrangement was then effected whereby a certain sum

should be paid annually by the Indian Government to the

Admiralty in London, whence a certain number of ships of war

was

to be furnished for the protection of British interests in

Indian waters.

others for the service required on the East Coast of Africa

all

To the ships thus supplied were added some and

;

were placed under one Admiral, whose

naval jurisdiction
Persian Gulf, to

extended to

Aden and

the

Eed

Sea,

to the

Zanzibar and Madagascar, to

and the
and
the

Straits of Malacca, to

Bombay and Karachi, to Ceylon the Bay of Bengal, to the ports of

Calcutta and Rangun.

relations

This arrangement operates efficiently,

between the Indian Government and the

;

English Admiralty are satisfactory

though here, as elsewhere,

there are complaints of the ships of

war not being in

sufficient

strength for the protection of so

many

scattered interests.

Many
demon-

authorities think that there ought to be

more

of naval

stration than there actually

is,

at the very important harbours

of

Bombay and Aden.

The extreme heat
in the Persian Gulf during

many months

in the year,

and the consequent sufferings of the crews of the

ships of w^ar unavoidably stationed there to preserve order, have

induced some authorities to consider whether some of the ships

serving in those waters might not be
crews,
called " Lascars,"

drawn from the seamen

manned by Native Indian who abound on

several of the coasts of India.

craft

The

lascars navigate the country

which ply in the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean.

;

They are skilful, hardy and competent men they are largely employed in the steamships of the European Companies which carry the mails, and in many other steamships and they could
;

doubtless be trained to the duties on board ships of war.

officers

Their

would be English, and a ship of war thus manned would

stand in the same relation towards the ships having European

Chap. xxiv.

DEFENCE OF HARBOURS AND COASTS.

377

crews, as that in which a regiment in the Native

army stands
having

towards the English

increased so

forces.

The demand

for the lascars

much

of late, tliese

men

are

more

difficult to oljtain

now than

formerly, and their wages have risen.

of the

The defence

coasts

and harbours

of

India, against

attack from the sea, has frequently occupied the thoughts of

the Indian Government.

Fortunately Calcutta, with

its

great

port crowded with shipping, possesses natural defences of an

extraordinary character.

It is built far

inland on the banks of

if

a river

which

is

navigable for ships of the greatest draught

its

they are well piloted, but which, with

shifting quicksands, will speedily

tortuous channels and

is

engulph any ship which

not so piloted.
British

The
;

pilotage

is

entirely in the hands of the

Government

and

it

were needless to anticipate the

fate that

under these circumstances would overtake a hostile

squadron.

Eangun, the capital

of

of British

Burma,
but
is

is

also Ijuilt

inland on the banks

accessible,
its

the

Irawaddy,

much more
;

and has a port with much shipping at certain seasons position is not free from anxiety, although precautions have

been taken.

A similar remark

is

applicable to Madras, which

has, however, only

On

the western coast, the harbour of

an open roadstead, and no real port at all. Karwar is assailable from

the sea, but, though the prosperity of the place has been rising,

no important interests are as yet centred there. The important harbour of Karachi is also liable to naval attack, l)iit it has
been placed, provisionally and temporarily at least, in a state of defence and could at comparatively slight cost and in a short For the vitally imtime be rendered adequately defensible.
;

portant positions of

Aden and Bombay, schemes

of fortification

have

been elaborately prepared, but not carried into execution,

partly

by reason

of the costliness,

and partly on account of

doubts whether such fortifications constitute the best means of At Aden some batteries have been erected, but more defence.
are yet needed
;

it is felt,
1

however, that, in event of war, some

naval force must

-c

maintained there.

At Bombay,

also, batteries

378

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxiv.

have been erected at several points, though some additions to

them

are yet needed.

Two

efficient

iron-clad turret-ships are

;

stationed

there permanently for harbour defence

these

are

fully armed,

though not as yet properly manned.

The
is

establish-

ment, suitable for them under the circumstances,

sideration,

under con-

and crews could be sent out

where the shipping

for

them from England

in addition to the

at the shortest notice.

The Bombay harbour,

lies,

large expanse

possesses a considerable
of,

area of water in the rear, and under the cover

the island of

Elephanta, whither, in event of danger, the mercantile shipping

might be sent
circumstance

to

secure

and sheltered anchorage, which

great

constitutes

advantage.

Besides these

principal situations, there are long lines of coast in India dotted

here and there with rich

little

seaports offering temptation to a

naval enemy, for the protection of which reliance must be placed

upon the Royal Navy.

There
is

a flotilla of transport vessels, plying between England

for the

and Bombay through the Suez Canal,

conveyance of

European troops backwards and forwards. These are commanded

by officers

of the

Eoyal Navy they are truly magnificent

;

vesssels,

the very finest of their kind

and each of them

can carry from

a thousand to thirteen hundred

men

besides her crew.

The steam

fleets,

numbering many vessels, of the two Navigaand Oriental " and the " British

tion Companies, the " Peninsular

India," are under contract with the

Government

for

conveyance

of the mails.

They

constitute an integral part of the maritime

resources of India, because, according to the agreement, their

vessels are to be placed at the disposal of

Government,

for

any

emergency, military or other.

Their value has been satisfactorily

tested on urgent occasions, such as the transport of vast supplies

of food-grain from

Burma
after

to

Bengal during the famine of 1874,

and the despatch

of a force

from

Bombay

to

Malta in 1878.

For some time

the abolition of the Indian Navy, the

marine service of the empire, consisting chiefly of the transport

of

troops

between

Bombay, Aden

and Karachi, and

Chap. xxiv.

MARINE SURVEYS

SHIPWRECKS.
it

:{7!

between Calcutta, Madras,

P>urina

and the Andaiuans, was

remained in a somewhat
It

carried on passably well, tliough

uncertain condition, with a tendency towards deterioration.

has, however, during recent years been reorganized into a regulai-

with the advice and assistance of Admiral Jiythesea the Royal Navy, and will soon shew much improvement.
service,

oi'

The marine survey

of the coasts

and harbours, great and small,

This

throughout the empire, has been vigorously undertaken.

is

much

needed, even where old surveys exist, by reason of the

shifting character of the ground.

Doubts often prevail about

the depth of the navigable channel, which uncertainty causes

accidents to occur.

Tidal observations have been

made by

scientific

officers.

In

order to obtain a more exact knowledge of

tlie tides

of the

Indian

seas,

which have certain important

peculiarities, registers
coast,

have been established at several places on the

Mdth

self-

acting gauges, whereby data will be gradually secured which

will enable the officers to calculate the tides of all the chief
ports,

with a precision hardly yet obtained in any other part of

the globe.

Shipwrecks and other mishaps at sea are of too frequent

occurrence in

most parts of the world.

In Intlian waters

they unhappily are as

distressful

common
character,

as anywhere, are generally very

in

their

and sometimes are found

to
is

reflect discredit

on those concerned in them.

enquiry into
all

Due
by the

provision

made by law

for

such occurrences, and the inauthorities.

vestigations are promptly

and

strictly enforced

There are regulations sanctioned by

lavr for sanitation, order,

and security on board the ships M'hich carry Native passengers backwards and forwards across the seas, pilgrims, emigrants and
others.

Much

protection

is

hereby aftbrded to these people,

who would otherwise be exposed to many perils or distresses. At Calcutta, as the port consists of a broad navigable river,
there
is
is

necessarily a difficulty regarding space, which difficulty

close together with

overcome by the slups being moored

380
chain moorings
jetties.

INDIA IN
of great

1880.

Chap. xxiv.

strength,

alongside

the
is

quays and
adequacy of
is

In these moorings the primary object

the
cyclones,

strength to resist

with which that region

periodically threatened,
destructive.

and which are sometimes lamentably

is

That the resisting power of the moorings

be believed, but whether
it

con-

siderable

may

would bear the

supreme strain of a violent tornado, is more than any one can If the ships do break away from their anchorage in a say.
confined harbour like that of Calcutta, the consequences are

lamentable.

The new quays, the several

jetties

thrown out

from the bank

houses and the

into the deep channel of the river, the ware-

new

strand road have been constructed in a

is efficient
;

manner which, though unambitious, The

financial result of these

and economical.
the outlay being

works

is

favourable

moderate and the returns considerable. The pontoon bridge across the Huglili at Calcutta is one of the finest structures of
its

kind ever erected, and secures almost uninterrupted communication across the river, between the capital on the one

bank and

its

great surburb of
cost.

Howra on

the other bank, at a

comparatively cheap
their moorings

If the ships

were to be torn from

against the pontoons, the structure

by a cyclone and driven at a considerable speed must give way and add to
Such an occurrence would, however, prove
raised,

the general ruin.

fatal to

any structure that might be

even of the most

solid masonry.

After comparative immunity for

many

years, Calcutta

was

the scene of a terrific and destructive cyclone in 1864, and

The town and neighbourhood of Masulipatam, was visited by an hurricane of this kind, on and in the dead of night the inhabitants and their dwellings were submerged by the sea driven from the force of wind beyond
again in 1867.
the eastern coast,
its

natural bounds.

The most awful

visitation

was that wliich

befell, in

1876, the delta districts of south-eastern Bengal, where

the Brahmaputra and the

Megna

rivers unite their broad waters

before mingling them with the ocean.

At midnight

a furious

Chap. xxiv.

PILOTS

ON THE

HtOIILT.

381

wind drove the sea-water

river- water
for

into the estuary, thus hankin^^

many

miles,

up the and so causing many thicklyThe wind,

tlien

peopled tracts to be partially submerged.

circling round, after the

manner

of cyclones, brouglit

its force to

bear on the accumulated mass of river- water, driving

it

seawards.

Thus there was a tremendous refluence

the submergence
of

of the flood, completing

the

entire

neighbourhood, and placing

hundreds of populous villages under

many

feet of water.

More
where

than one hundred thousand persons were dro-^med in the darkness of that night.

The morning broke upon

districts

the retiring and subsiding waters disclosed death, ruin and

devastation.

The

Pilot Service has always been carefully organized on the

Hiiglili river,

where ships of the deepest draught have

to

be

guided carefully through upwards of a hundred miles of a rivercourse, having tortuous

and changeful channels, and abounding

if

in treacherous sands,

upon which

a vessel impinges, or even

touches, she will be endangered or lost.

The Service has

its

headquarters at Calcutta

it

consists entirely of Europeans

who

devote their lives to studying the navigable channels, which

vary from season to season, and of which they must possess the

most exact knowledge.

its

Improvements and modifications

in

organization have

been made according to the circum-

stances of the time, and the pilots are, as a rule, very able and

competent men.

The

position of the

Madras port does not

afford

much room
been

for harbour works.

An
may

important

.pier

has, however,

constructed,

-v^dth

the advice and assistance of Mr. Parkes, the

harbour engineer, and

be

still

further enlarged.

At Calcutta and Bombay there are dockyards belonging to the State, not indeed sufficient for any considerable naval
purposes, but adapted to execute some
repair
vessels of the Indian

work

for ships of war, to

Marine, and to perform

many

services for the mercantile shipping.

At both

these great ports

there are several private dockyards.

At Bombay,

wet dock has been constructed

to

accommodate

382

INDIA IN

1880.

CuAP. xxiv.

thirty vessels of 21 feet draught, having an area of 30 acres, with

stone revetted
strongest

sides,

with locks and gates of the best and

description,

and with
for vast

powerful

hydraulic cranes.

Adjoining this are quays, landing-places, warehouses and every

sort

of

accommodation

quantities

of merchandise.
;

The

cost of the

dock has amounted

to | million sterling

the
this.

outlay for the subsidiary

works being in

addition to

The dock itself is excellent both in design and execution, and with it the name of the engineer-in-chief, Thomas Ormiston,
will

be always

associated.

The foundation stone was

"

laid

by the Prince of Wales in November 1875, and in honour

of that

auspicious

event was called

The

Prince's

dock."

There were other private docks and interests, adjoining the

Prince's dock.
public,

These have been purchased on behalf of the

and the whole foreshore of the harbour has been placed

conformity with an Act of the legislature.

under a trust consisting of Port Commissioners, appointed or

elected
in

The

capital outlay

amounts

to 4|- millions sterling

on the extensive

property thus created, which consists partly of lands laboriously

reclaimed from the sea in the harbour, to the advantage of

sanitation as well as of commerce.

The

interest

on

this outlay,

which

is

guaranteed by the State, will be defrayed from the

dues levied on the trade, and from the rents for the extensive

accommodation provided ashore.

These arrangements

will, it is
size,

hoped, be found worthy of a seaport which, in respect of

convenience and geographical situation,

the world.

is

one of the finest in

The Karachi harbour

geographically, and

possesses

a
of

commanding

situation
If it

must always be

much

importance.

had only something of the expansiveness of Bombay, where ships can ride and swing, it would soon rise to a high rank

among

harbours.

Many improvements

have been devised with

Unfortunately
limited, there is someis

the advice of Mr. Parkes, the harbour engineer. the deep-water portion of the harbour
is

thing of a bar at the mouth, and incessant dredging

sary.

neces-

jjreakwater has been constructed

improved dredging

Chap. xxiv.

LESSER ITARBOURS LTGIITIIOUSES.

;

.^83

machinery has been provided

taken
;

commodious pier has been underharbour engineers

is

and an

efficient staff of
all

maintained.

Port dues are levied at

are still

the ports, and though complaints

still

made

occasionally by those concerned,

efforts are

made to keep these dues as low as may be demands of the service of the ports.

consistent with the

general examination, by the orders of the

of the harbours, has been

Government

of

India,

carried on

by Mr. Walker,
in detail has
little

the harbour engineer,

further examination

been made of the lesser harbours, of which many are

more than open roadsteads.

The harbours
are
for a

of

Karwar and
by

of

Goa
ships

or

Marmagaon, however,
real

sheltered

headlands,

and may be termed

harbours

limited

mth

deep draught.

On

the west coast,

number of south of Bombay,

surveys,
is

there are several small harbours properly sheltered with tolerable

accommodation

for a

very few large vessels.

By marine

by lighting and other

local arrangements, the

Government
if

endeavouring to make the most of these natural advantages.

The Karwar harbour promised

railway had been
Its

to

become very important,

to

the

made from thence

the southern Deccan.

importance
that,

will,

however, be transferred to Marmagaon,

now

with the co-operation of the British and Portuguese

coast
to

Governments, the railway from the

the

southern

Deccan

is to start

from Goa.

Much

progress has been

made

in lighting the principal points

in the coasts, for the assistance of mariners at night.

Excellent

lighthouses are provided at

the Sandheads at the

points of the
blished at
shores.

Bombay, Aden, Karaclii, Madras, mouth of the Hughli, and on the salient Lesser lights have been estaBurmese coast.

numerous points on both the eastern and western lighthouse is still grievously needed at Cape Guarda-

fui on the extreme north-east promontory of the African coast, near the island of Socotra, south of Aden. In the vicinity of

this fatal headland, several ships are

wrecked yearly, some of

which midit be saved

if

a light were established there.


384

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxv.

CHAPTER XXV.
THE ARMY.
Constitution of the armies in India

provement of his condition

army Strength of European garrison in India The Volunteer movement The Native army Basis of its fidelity Three Native armies, according to the three Presidencies Castes and tribes among the Native

Short

The
service

European
system

soldier

Former

Marked
local

imEuropean

Physique and His obtaining pay and allowancesKecent systems Regular and the Native army Native corps The Native cavalryThe ordnance The European Audit and department The commissariat The transport accountEstablished strength of military
soldiery

Families

of Native soldiery in their quarters

conduct of the Native

army Enlistment
difficulty
officers

of the

Native soldier
recruits

in

Officering

of

irregular

officers

staff

service

forces.

Though
for war,

the

army

of India, as a

combined military

force, can,

be worked as one engine, or wielded as one force under

the orders of the

technically

Government

of India, yet there still are,

and

departmentally,

three

armies,

namely, the

Bengal army, directly under the Viceroy and Governor-General

in Council, the

Madras army under the Government

their

of Madras,

and the Bombay army under the Government of Bombay.

The

Governments of Madras and Bombay and

portion of each of these armies

respective

armies are subordinate to the Government of India.

is

The Native

kept quite separate, and

separation.

much

importance

is

attached

to

tliis

The

European

portion consists of certain Eegiments of the British army, which

are attached temporarily to the establishment of each of the

Indian armies and are periodically relieved.

batteries

The European

and regiments are interchangeable from the establish-

ment As

of one

army

to that of another.
is

the European soldier in India

the mainstay of the State,

Chap. xxv.

THE EUROPEAN SOLDIER.

385

his condition has always been an important matter, enga^ang

the solicitude of the Government.

ject has fully

The magnitude of the subtlie

doubled since the augmentation of

European

forces consequent

on the war of the mutinies in 1857.

A
those

survey of the present condition of the European soldier in

India will afford grounds of satisfaction and thankfulness to

who

are able to take a retrospect of his former condition.

his barracks

Within the memory of living men,

in spaciousness

were wanting
were at

and in

ventilation,

and

his surroundings

most stations insanitary.

unlike English homes.
able

His married quarters were utterly

usually unlettered, his reason-

He was

amusements were

few, his temptations to vice

many, and

his habits but too often tended to intemperance.

He worked
to a

out his time of Indian service in the hottest plains without

respite in the cooler hills,

and

if

sent

by medical advice

sanitarium, he was

subjected to the hardships of a toilsome

journey.

Nowadays,
afford

his lofty

and commodious barracks

inside

are,

with the

exception of those at a very few stations, constructed so as

to

abundance of

air

and

to

receive

complete

ventilation from the outside, so as to admit the cheerfulness of

light

and yet

at will to be shaded

from the sun's

glare.

The

appliances for bathing and for healthy recreation are complete.

Workshops and garden-plots

are jDrovided for those

men whose
soldiers'

tastes are mechanical or horticultural.

Industrial pursuits are

encouraged and exhibitions are held for the display of

workmanship.
libraries, for

Brightly lighted buildings are provided for

skill, in

reading-rooms, and for playing games of

order to draw

men away from

to enable

taverns and other places of low

to

amusement, and

them

spend the long evenings

reasonably and happily.

These reading-rooms are crowded

during the leisure hours.

The schools both

for adults

and

for

children are superintended by certificated teachers.

The im-

proved education of the

men

is

evinced by the

little pictures,

the prints, the photographs and the small bookshelves wliich

2 c

386

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxv.

they hang round their cots in the barracks.

for the families of the
liness,

The quarters
all

married soldiers represent

the clean-

homeliness and comfort of the best English cottages.

all tlie

The drainage around

some
resort.

barracks

is

much

developed.

At

of the stations there are parks

and spacious pleasure

their families

gardens close at hand, to which the

Sanitaria, in

men and

may may

exhilarating

and invigorating

altitudes,

are provided at easy distances, to wliich the sick soldiers

be quickly and comfortably conveyed.

selected places in

Barracks are built at

the Nilgiri mountains
to

the Himalayas, in

and on plateaux enjoying a favourable climate,

European regiment

which every

may be
by

sent in
it

its

turn for serving a portion

of the time to be spent

in India.

Large numbers of the

men

deposit
it to

money

in the regimental savings-banks in India, or

remit

their families in the

United Kingdom.

The sum

of

the deposits in India amounts to di:il80,000, and of the annual

remittances to 142,000.

for in the

The welfare of the orphans of European soldiers is provided Lawrence Asylums at Kusowli, Utakamand and
after their munificent founder,
State.

Abu, named

Henry Lawrence,

and partly supported by the

The

defects of the

former barracks were, want of plinth

elevation

in

ground,

whence

malaria
;

was

much

exhaled

during certain seasons of the year

imperfect ventilation and

insufficient allowance of air in cubic feet per

head

ill-arranged

drainage in the immediate vicinity of

the

buildings.

An

improved design of barracks was introduced in the time of Sir

Charles Napier before the war of the mutinies.
war, the augmentation
of the

After that

European

forces

brought the

accommodation into fresli prominence. The matter was taken up earnestly by Lord La"svrence when
question of barrack

Governor- General, the Commander-in-Chief being Lord Strathnairn,

and then Lord Sandhurst, and designs

for barracks of the

best possible kind were approved.

double-storied, in order that the

The buildings were

to be

men might have

the benefit

Chap. xxv.

IMPROVED BARRACK ACCOMMODATION.

out
of the

387

of sleeping upstairs

reach of exhalations during

the close season and in a cooler atmosphere during the hot

whereas

all

the old barracks were single-storied.

l)y

furtlier

impulse to the work was given

Lord Napier of Magdala

when Commander-in-Chief.
these improved designs.

Many

of the barracks at different

stations in all parts of the empire have been constructed

on

Neither pains nor expense have been

buildings everything
are probably equalled

spared by the Government to

that could be desired.

make the As structures, they

by few barracks
anywhere.

in

any country in the world, and not surpassed

afford testimony to the care bestowed

They

by the
are

Government on the welfare

of its

European

soldiers,

and they

must doubtless conduce

expensive unavoidably
;

to the health of the troops.

it

They

costs not less than

150,000

to thus

house and accommodate a battalion.

The expense, however,

European
soldier

will hardly be grudged if the welfare of the

is

thereby secured.

The buildings
;

are

deemed spacious and

commodious by competent judges

still

though

many

authorities

doubt the necessity of having them double-storied, in some

;

stations at least

and hopes have been expressed

to the effect

that some

economy may be introduced

into future buildings of

this description.

Besides the several sanitaria in the Himalayas, the Nilgiris

and other
back

hills, for

those sick soldiers

who may be

restored to

health by a brief sojourn in a cool climate without being sent

to

England, there are some places in the Himalayas where

whole

Ijattalions are stationed so as to

air
;

have the benefit of the

Dagshai near Simla,

mountain

such

jplaces are Sal^athu,

Chakrata near Massuri, Eanikhet in Kumaon, and Marri near

Hazara in the Panjab.

extent lieen provided near
excellent this plan
too
far,

Similar accommodation has to some

Utakamand

in the Nilgiris.

However
required in

may

be in

itself, it

ought not to be carried

is

because the presence of most of the troops

the plains and close to the great centres of Native

life,

where a

spark

may produce

a flame, politically,

which

if

not stamped out

2 c 2

388
forcefully at once,

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxv.
It

may

blaze

up

into a conflagration.
troops,

was the
a few in

want

on the spot of the

off,

European

who were only

marches

that gave the mutinies of the Native troops

rapidly.

1857 a chance of spreading so

like so

But

this consideration,
is

many
is

other military considerations,

greatly affected

by the completion of railway communication.

There
in India the

same

sort of average of military crime

as in other countries.

The highest Indian military

of the crime wliich exists.

authorities

ascribe to drink

much

If the soldiers

only abstained from drinking, they would be comparatively free

from crime and from military

tion drunkenness

offences.

During the
;

last generait

was notoriously common

Malt

of late years

has

been happily diminished.

stituted
spirits

liquor has been largely sub-

for spirits,

the facilities for obtaining country-made

have been curtailed.

The old-fashioned

rules have been

modiiied whereby spirits were served out in a manner which

according to the light of former days was deemed beneficial, but

which really

offered temptations to insobriety.

Still,

the efforts

of the authorities to place distilleries

and liquor shops beyond

for

the reach of the soldiers are often unsuccessful, and the subject
causes constant anxiety.

Meanwhile, associations

tempe-

rance, or total abstinence, are formed

among

the soldiery, and

sobriety
will

have

several
jpa7'i

thousand

members.

Doubtless

increase

passu with the improvements in the education

and in the moral status of the men.

Much

discrimination

is

exercised

by the medical

authorities

in invaliding and sending

home to England

all soldiers

who have
Indian

become physically unfitted

climate.

for efficient service in the

When these men have been eliminated, the health of the

may
be pronounced good on the whole, and at some

soldiery

stations very satisfactory.

There is, however, one grave drawback,

namely, that of contagious disease.

The

legislature has accorded

ample powers, and the

efforts, for

local authorities

have put forth persistent

the prevention of this plague.

The examination

of
for

infected persons has been carried out,

and lock hospitals

Chap. xxv.
their

SHORT SERVICE SYSTEM.

been established everywhere.

389

cure have

At Calcutta

especially,
acliieved.
partial,

and

at at

some other

places,

much

success has been

But
at

most stations the success has been only

stations

and

many

miserably imperfect.

It

is

melancholy to

reflect that out of the total

European

force

some

thousands are on any given day to be found temporarily disabled

from

preventible, and therefore ought thousands more, during the course of their Indian service, suffer sooner or later from this complaint, which
is

this

disease

which

not to

exist.

Many

must more

or less impair or even

undermine

their constitutions.

The

local authorities are constantly attending to this painful

subject,

and

if

they shall prove successful, they will achieve

a result than which no greater boon could be conferred on the

European

soldiers in India.

If the

Government

shall continue

seriously to address itself to the task of prevention, full success

must

follow.

But there

are

many
and

elements of opposition in
indirect,

cases of this sort, both direct

and

for the over-

coming

of these, firmness

and resolution

as well as

patience

and considerateness are

requisite.

The consequences
ing

of the "short service" system, in introducinto the ranks, are

men

of

immature strength and physique

felt

beginning to be

in India.

Still,

the regiments which arrive

fine

from England
material.

are,

with some exceptions, composed of

are,

Complaints

however, made of the difficulty in

officers.

obtaining experienced non-commissioned

tion to sending so

And the objecto

many time-expired men back

is

England, just

when they
artillery

are

becoming useful in India,

to the

clearly perceived.

There was once a considerable force of European cavalry,

and infantry belonging had

East India Company,

This

which was, in 1859, amalgamated with the Eoyal Army.

system

some advantage,

as

drawing

upon

additional

recruiting grounds in England.

The transactions

arising out of

the amalgamation led to questions between the Government and the men, which were followed by some strange events whereof
the full history has not yet been written.

The men considered

390

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxv.

themselves aggrieved by the terms of the amalgamation they were technically in the wrong, but there were circumstances
;

which might make them think that they were in the right. They then committed acts of dangerous insubordination in There was, for a time, some different parts of the country.
peril to the empire,

and considerateness of the Government

which was averted by the firmness, wisdom The at that time.

warnings of this experience are doubtless remembered whenever the idea of restoring a local European

army

is

resuscitated.
ever,

The
owing

cost of the
to

European army becomes heavier than

improved

pay, armament, equipment, professional

instruction and other measures for improving the condition of

the soldier.

Consequently

many

authorities

are induced

to

reflect whether the present European garrison of the country,

66,000

officers

and men, can be safely lessened.

is

But the conit

clusion almost universally arrived at

force is judiciously disposed so

that
hold
is

cannot.

The

as to

all the strategic

points, to
all

dominate

all

the important stations and to

;

command
;

the

main

lines of

communication

there

reasonable hope

of its proving sufficient as a garrison in ordinary times

but

more than
Indians

this

cannot prudently be
is

said.

Volunteering in India
;

restricted to

Europeans and East

institution.
cities,

among them

it

flourishes as a

permanent

There are corps of volunteers at the three Presidency

and in most of the principal towns and stations in the

of the empire.

interior

The men

in the service of the several railway

companies form themselves into volunteer corps.

The

rules,

conditions and privileges of volunteering are prescribed by the

Government

of India after the

model of those in the Volunteer

army
cally

of the

United Kingdom.

The corps

are inspected periodi-

by military

authority, rifle-shooting is

much

encouraged,
degree of

associations for this purpose are formed,

soldierly efficiency
is

and a

fair

attained.

The detached corps in the

the total

interior of the country are often

weak numerically, but

strength of the volunteers in India

may

be computed at five

Cjiap, XXV.

THE NATIVE ARMY.

and
this constitutes

391
to tlie

battalions,

some addition

European

garrison of the country.

is to

The value

of the volunteer
it

movement
produce in

be estimated not only by the numbers

effect it

may

time of peace, but by the moral

civil

has upon the European

to be self-reliant in

respect of

community armed

in India, teaching

them

defence,

and imparting

to

them

that confident

bearing which arises from discipline and training, and which tends
to

overawe the evil-disposed when troubles threaten.

Should

they be at any

moment

called upon, the volunteers are able to

occupy

many

of the points

where British

interests are centred, If they

and

to

defend the places where they reside.

before

had been
In

enrolled

the disturbances

of

1857 they would have

cities at that time.

been of the utmost use in the capital

the event of a general disturbance arising, their present numbers

would
render

increase, their spirit

would

rise high,

and they would

much

service to their country.

Next
and

after the

European army, the Native army

of maintaining

is

main

stay of the State, because British soldiers are necessarily few

costly.

The obligation

a force of 66,000

British soldiers, in so distant

country as India, causes a

severe drain on the warlike resources of the United Kingdom, and would indeed tax heavily the means of any military power
in the world.
It

would be
of the

difficult to

provide the

men

for
;

any
and

large augmentation

European garrison

in India

even

if

the

men were

found, the country could not bear the

expense of maintaining them. The importance of the European Not only in his soldier is equalled only by his costliness.
maintenance, ordinarily three times, perhaps even four times, soldier; but his lodging as expensive as that of the Native

demand and accommodation in an eastern or tropical climate to and from India by sea, a vast expense. His transport, also, of England, involves a power maritime though easy for the
large

outlay

chargeable to
is

India.

On
;

the

other hand, the

Native soldier
his

maintained in comparative cheapness.

Erora
for

pay he provides himself with food

and no rations

huu

392

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxv.
State.

have ordinarily to be supplied by the

he needs no expensive barracks
;

More

especially

a small allowance

is

made

to

him

to help in defraying the cost of his hut.

Native

soldiers,

or Sepoys, have

been easily procurable in any number that

might be required.

The recent

difficulty in obtaining recruits

will prove to be transient.

However
its

thrifty the

Government

may

be respecting the number of

considerable.

Native

soldiers, still that

number must be
soldiers

There are only 130,000 Native

belonging to British India, and of them some are

in

stationed

the Native

States.

These,

together with

the

European

soldiers,

make up

a force of 196,000, officers

and

men, which

may

be regarded as a moderate strength for an

area and a population so great.

The

fact of

the

garrison

not exceeding 196,000

men

is

eminently creditable to the peaceful

the people at large.
docile,

and loyal character of

Nevertheless, the Natives are not wholly

but comprise some turbulent, even warlike, elements.

The country must be garrisoned in a competent manner and the dominant points in it must be held. Small insurrections here
and there from time
peace,
to

time are to be apprehended even during

and during

political or military disturbance are sure to

spring up in divers directions.

occurs to shake

Indeed, whenever anything

the wonderful fabric of physical and moral

power combined, which constitutes British dominion, and such

things do occur sometimes, then disturbers arise in multitudes,

none can say whence or in what manner, like insects on a hot

day, or like the fabled warriors

from the ground sown with

everything depends on the
to

dragons' teeth.

At such

moment

military potency of the

Government

withstand or resist the

gathering and thickening troubles.

If the

Government can then

stand erect and masterful,

as a

it

restrains the elements of mischief

mighty dj^ke holds back the torrents rushing to form a

flood.

united volume of
ensues, as

If it cannot so stand, then a cataclysm

when the surging waters overtop the dykes and sweep in an uncontrollable inundation over the land. Such an

Chap. xxv.

CASTES AMONG NATIVE SOLDIERY.

is

iidS

apprehension
perience,

not fanciful, but

is

derived from positive ex-

which proves that such events have happened, and indicates how they might happen again. Now, although the

European soldiery form the vertebra

supply the nervous
sufficiently
force,
still

of the

body

politic

and also
l^e

they are
all

not and cannot

functions
of

numerous

to

perform

the

the

system, and to do all the work of the limbs.

If such

duty

were imposed upon them, their energies would be

frittered

away

in operations

which

could be carried out as well, or even

better,

by Native agency.

The Native

soldiery being in the

land of their birth, can render service under climatic conditions

which would cause great mortality among the European

if

soldiery,

encountered by them.
Therefore a considerable Native

army must

ever be employed

as an indispensable condition for the preservation of British

rule.

For financial reasons

it is

essential to reduce the military

to the

forces to a

minimum, down indeed

very verge of safety.

But

if

from economic though misguided zeal that limit were to

edifice

be overpassed, then there would be risk of the whole

toppling over, or tottering to
its fall.

On the
of this

other hand, there has been an equally great danger in

It

maintaining too large a Native army.

was the overgrowth

1857 and the

army which

in part caused the mutinies of

war which ensued.

the
soldiery

There were, doubtless, concomitant causes

had some grievances which were real though The men had been drawn too exaggerated by imagination. Northern India, a class someof Brahmins the from largely

what disposed

to fan

any flame of excitement.

Various political

circumstances had rendered

many

people eager to snatch any

Still,

opportunity of striking at British domination.

one cause

was

this, that the soldiery

had acquired a sense of power,

a consciousness that they held the scales to determine whether British authority should be vindicated, or for a time be

humbled.
fortresses

They held wholly

and
arsenals.

or partly

many

of the treasuries,

At many

of the principal stations they

394
had a

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxv.

clear superiority of physical force over

any Europeans
at will seize

that could be brought into action.

They could

the treasure amassed under their eyes, and

materiel of war.
leaders

much

also of the

Swayed by

all

these temptations, the ring-

gave the rein to the ambition, the fanaticism, the

sentiments,

national

which are

still

unextinguished in
wild, unthinking

the

Native breast.

The men followed in that

is

and

excited way, which

common to

Orientals.

In

short, the

war of

the mutinies occurred largely, though not entirely, because the

Native army was too strong relatively to the European forces in

the country.

Here, then, was the lesson to be taken to heart by

If the

the British Government.

Native army

is

ever raised to

a strength overmastering the European forces in the country,

then no perfection of military system, no possible management,

however equitable and considerate, will secure

will turn

its fidelity.

It

and rend

its

masters,

who

will find that in organizing it

at excessive strength they

have only created a Frankenstein for

Let the Native soldiery see that

themselves.

Let the due proportion between the European and

Native forces be preserved.

the European soldiery have the superiority at the principal

treasuries, arsenals, fortresses, military positions

and

strategic

points.

Then the Native army,

if

well treated, organized and

to a certain point,

managed, will be faithful and trustworthy up

and will prove an excellent instrument in British hands

doing essential work which could not be done otherwise.

for

There

is,

however,

point

at

which, even under these

trusted.

conditions, the Native

army cannot be

The loyalty
soldiery.

and

fidelity of the

Native soldiery are of a type different from

qualities in the

that presented

by the same

European

With

the Native soldiery these qualities

good and kind master, an anxiety to

mean attachment to a serve him well, because he

can reward and punish, a belief in his capacity to maintain the

system under which pay and promotion are guaranteed during

the active time of
life,

and pension during the declining

years.

There

is

a thought that while they are under his standards, far

Chap. xxv.

EUROPEAN AND NATIVE FORCES.

their crops
their

395

away from
safety,

and

cottages, he keeps their relatives in

and

homesteads in peace.

There

is

also a

rememtiiist

brance of his victories and successes in the past, with a

that the same fortune will prove constant to

him

in the future.

All this

is

implied, indeed, but, as a rule, notliing more.

There

are not included the patriotism, the pride of race, the feeling of
nationality,
its

and the personal attachment between the State and

in

defenders, which,

addition

to

the

sentiments

above
if

described,

animate the European

soldiery.

Consequently,

the British Government should ever seem to stagger under the

shock of any kind of adversity, the

fidelity of the

Native army

must

necessarily be dubious.

That army cannot possibly have

the same motives for fighting to the bitter end, for standing
faithful to the utter extremity,

which the European army

has.

The
is

faith of the

Native soldier in the star of British fortune

to

too

strong and clear

be easily dimmed.
or obscured,

But

if

that

faith

were

to

become weakened
Here, then,
is

some catastrophe

would ensue.
others,

one cogent reason, among

its

many
weight

why the British Government must preserve

intact.

and influence
Profiting

by experience, the

British

Government has arranged

with exactitude the due proportion between the European and

Since 1857 the strength of the Europeans the Native armies. has been raised and of the Natives diminished so that the Natives are now not more than two to one of the Europeans. In
;

other words, out of the total force, one-third

thirds are Native.
strategic points,

is

European and twotreasuries, are held

Moreover, the forts and arsenals, the chief

and some of the principal

partly or wholly by Europeans.

in

At

every large military station

to

the empire there

are

enough Europeans

hold their

own, even in the event of a mutiny. On the other hand, there the Native troops, who take is no semblance of distrust towards having many a share in guarding and garrisoning the country,
honourable and important duties confided
guarantee can be given as against
to

them.

No

actual
;

mutiny

or

any other calamity

396
but

INDIA IN

1880.

CnAr. sxv.
It

many

effective precautions

have been adopted.

would
to

not be expedient to

employ more than two Natives

it

one

European

soldier

but

would not in the opinion of many

authorities be practicable to carry on the public service with

less.

The question whether any numerical reduction in the

Native army could be prudently made, has been recently

discussed.

much

Some eminent
is

authorities apparently consider that

But any reduction would be seriously deprecated by many whose views on military and
a moderate reduction
possible.
political subjects

command attention.
to the efficiency as well as the
is

Another arrangement, relating

fidelity of the

Native troops,

their division into three armies,

namely those
respectively.

of the Presidencies of Bengal,

Madras and Bombay

armies

The

soldiers

of

the

three

belong to

various religions, and are dissimilar in caste, in tribal associations,

and in language.

Though they may

all

know

the

Urdu

or

Hindostani tongue enough

for practical purposes, as a lingua

franca, yet their several vernacular languages are quite different.

As

their

homes

are in

most cases hundreds of miles, and in

between
is

some

cases thousands of miles apart, the differences

to varieties in nationality.

them amount
its

Each army

under

own Commander-in-Chief, and has distinct headquarters, so that the three form organization, and traditions of its own Each army ordinarily serves in its own definite entities.
;

Presidency or division of the empire, and in territories comparatively near the

serve,

homes
it

of the

men.

It

is,

however, liable to

and parts of

are frequently serving, in other parts of

the country, and in other Presidencies.

in nowise affecting the uses of the

This arrangement, while

for imperial purposes,

army

does tend to prevent combination for any evil ends.

It did to

some extent check

in 1857 the course of the mutinies,

when

they were spreading like wildfire in the prairies.

Undue

reliance

must
to

not,

however, be placed upon

coalition.

it,

as being alone adequate

prevent unlawful
in the

It

opens every

recruiting-

ground

country, and enables the State to

draw men

CiiAP. XXV,

TrJBES
tribe.

AND CASTES OF NATIVE

It

SOLDIERY.
military

397

from

every

also

renders

tlio

service
if

popular, and avoids the discontent which would arise

men

had permanently

to serve in districts

remote from their homes.

Men

Bombay
for a

from northern India will indeed accept service in the Presidency and in the Deccan. Native soldiers from
India will wallingly go, for a short tour of service or

all parts of

campaign, to any portion of the globe.

But a

battalitjn

of Panjabis

would be miserable

if

permanently quartered

in

southern India, or a battalion of Madrassis in the Panjab, or a

battalion of

Bombay Mahrattas
officers,

in Bengal proper.

The Commander-in-Chief
appoints the

of each of the three Native armies

;

European and Native

and upon

his

supervision the tone and discipline of the service largely de-

pend.

It is essential to

keep intact the status and dignity of

castes, inhabiting territories

his high of&ce.

Each army some distance

coast, of the

is

composed of various

apart.

Though the flower

of the Bengal

army

is

derived from the Panjab, of the

Bombay army from

the western

Madras army from the eastern

against
evil
it

coast, still

many

other tribes are intermingled in every regiment.

This arrange-

ment
as

is

a precaution

combination.

Overmuch
inasmuch
jiroduce

dependence must not be placed upon

as a safeguard,

community

of discontent,

from any cause,

classes

may

universality
Still,

of disaffection

among

otherwdse diverse.

neglect of this precaution would add to the chances of

mischief

One

of the collateral causes of the

mutiny

in

1857

was the

fact that in the

Bengal army too large a proportion

Ijclonging to a

consisted of

Brahmins from Oudh,

Hindu

caste,

which was more likely than any other to become susceptible of headstrong impulse, and which dwelt in a province where
recent political events had inevitably provoked hostile intrigues.

The Brahmin
ceased to

soldiery having mutinied in a mass, the authorities

enlist

men

in

Oudh

or

in

Hindostan, but they

were nearly falling into an opposite extreme almost ecpially

dangerous, for they enlisted too large a proportion from the

398
Panjab,
a

INDIA IN
province

1880.

Chap. xxv.
so

which furnished
crisis

many

gallant

and

faithful soldiers

during the

of the

mutiny.

But the
was seen
they

Panjabis, though admirable servants of a power which

to be really the

master over them, and though differing in

temper from the men of Hindostan and of Oudh

despised, were still

whom

imbued with many sentiments

and even of sectarian
to think

of race, of

birthplace, of nationality,

religion.

They

would soon have begun

restorers

whether they were not the

and upholders of British authority, and whether in that

case they might not advantageously assert their

own

position.

There was really more peril on

tliis

score in 1858
It

and 1859 than

chiefly

was perhaps

realised at the

moment.

was averted

by

the prudent conduct of the Local

Government

of the Panjab.

The
now,

risk

was subsequently obviated by a judicious intermixture

;

of other tribes
is to

and the only use of recalling the circumstance

pitfalls
lie in

shew how many

the path of British

administrators in the East.

There are
fighting

many castes and tribes in the empire which furnish men of good quality. The races capable of supplying

the best soldiers are the Sikhs of the Panjab, the Gorkhas from
the valleys near Nepal, the

Muhammadan

Pathans of the north-

west

frontier, the Jats of the

country round Delhi and Agra, the

Mahrattas of the Western Ghat mountains, and the Eajputs of

various provinces.
coast

In former days the Telugus of the eastern

to
this list,

would have been added

but they are less

prominent in the present time.

The name

of the

Brahmins of
military

Oudh
they

will readily suggest itself, but, since the events of 1857,

have

forfeited

the place they

once held in

estimation.

The best cavalry

troopers,

ready-made horsemen,

used to the saddle from their youth, are obtained from the

Muhammadan
Satlej.

tribes in the country

between Delhi and the

from among

Good horsemen

are also to be procured

the Sikhs and the Mahrattas.

A further
of

matter which concerns the fidelity and efficiency

troops,
is

Native

the

practice

which partially prevails

CiiAP.

XXV.

PHYSIQUE OF THE NATIVE ARMY.

399

whereliy the

men

are permitted to have their families, wives,

children and other relatives, with

them

in their huts in the

ordinary cantonments.
the Madras

This

is

in vogue, almost imiversally in

army, to a considerable extent in the Boml)ay

little,

army, and but

It

indeed hardly at
stations

all,

in the IBengal army.

filled

causes

the

military

to

be

with

non-

combatants, encumbers the line of march from one cantonment

to another in time of peace,

and causes some trouble when

does tend, on the other hand, to

the families are left behind in consequence of the troops pro-

ceeding on war service.

render the

But

it

men

steady and quiet, indisposed to embark on any

mischievous course, and disinclined to revolt against authority.

The Madras

officers

probably lay great stress on this practice, as

having helped to save the

the mutiny in 1857.

men from

catching the infection of

Positive trust ought not, however, to be

reposed upon this as a preservative, for experience has shewn

that in

some instances the men were but

too near being led

into mischief, notwithstanding the presence of their families.

In physique the troops of the Bengal army are

good stature and
solid

fine

men, of

martial bearing, not so

troops, but

broad, thickset

and

as

British

they have a height, in inches,

not inferior to any troops anywhere.

They

are better suited

than

other

Native troops
are needed,

for

work

in wliich

sheer

weight

and strength

and in which
men, bred

the rigours of cold have

to be endured.

The Bombay
active

soldiers are shorter

for the

and smaller,
hills,

though hardy and

most part in the

and fuU of staying power in rough marching.

soldiers

The Madras

are

slighter

still,

but steady
;

little

men, with light

frames and

much endurance

they are accustomed, however, to

more
In
are

nutritious food than their comrades in the other armies.

discipline, training

and conduct, the men of

their
;

all three
is

armies

much

the same.

Their behaviour in quarters

uniformly
orderly;

excellent

everywhere;

demeanour

is

most

sobriety generally prevails

are rare
;

drunkenness and insubordination

It is to be

military offences are slight and few.

borne

400
in

INDIA IN
that the Bengal

1880.

Chap. xxv.

mind

army

is

drawn from the most martial

and
constiStill it

and the physically strongest

tutes
is

tribes in the empire,

total

more than one-half

let

of the

Native

forces.

important not to

the

other two armies feel any sense

of inferiority, or the Bengal

army regard

itself as

occupying
;

a superior position and

as

indispensable to

the State

but

to apportion the responsibilities of service, and the opportunities

of distinction, to each army, according to its size

and capacity,
from the

and

so far as circumstances

may

permit.
differs

In some cardinal respects the Native army

armies of European powers.
conscription;

There
is

is

nothing in the shape of

the enlistment

voluntary, and heretofore the

service has been sought for as a valued profession.

There has

hitherto been no such thing as short service

on the contrary,

the enlistment

is for

a long period.

The man generally regards

is

the service as a lifelong provision, which

to afford

him pay

throughout the best years of his

Dismissal from the service
is

life

and pension afterwards.

valuable
the certainty
trial,

usually dreaded as a punishment,

that
is
;

and

as the forfeiture of

much

that such dismissal will not be ordered without enquiry or

is

respected as a safeguard.

Some Native

soldiers have, indeed,

at all times

been found

to take their discharge voluntarily,

but

until recent years such withdrawal has not been

common.

In

these respects the relation between the British

Government and
The furlough
of the
to revisit

the Native soldiery has been peculiarly happy.

regulations also add to the comfort and contentment

troops,

whereby the men are permitted periodically

their

homes and

their families, if the families are not with

them

in cantonments.
service

In the early days of British rule military

prized.
to

was very popular, and indeed much

fallen

Lands

had everywhere
devastation,
Pievolutions

out

of cultivation,

owing
little

war or
demand.

and

agricultural

labour was

in

had thrown out of employ numbers of men unacfrom such pursuits

customed

to industrial pursuits, or disused

by martial avocations.

The labour markets were depressed,

Chap. xxv.

PAY OF NATIVE SOLDIERS.

The Government

401
fixccl

trade was stagnant, wages were low.

the pay of the Native soldier at what was then thought a

liberal,

perhaps a handsome,

rate,

as a

wage

better tlian tliat

which the

soldier class could otherwise obtain.

tlie

This military wage has, however, during

lapse of time

become

less

and

less favourable as

compared with the wages of

the reviving or ex-

civil life, since all available

hands have, during a peace of more

off to

than two generations, been drawn

panding cultivation, the

industries, the

brisk

labour

markets,

the

rising

growing

trade.

From time

to time slight

im-

provements have been made in the wage, additional allowances

and advantages have been conceded,

still

so that the State

might

command

a part at least of the flower of the population for

its

armies.

Again, the value of the wage to the recipient must

largely depend on the price of food-grains.

In

all parts of

the

country the price becomes exceptionally dear during the periodically recurring

drought, and in
fifteen

many

parts of

the country
set

within the last

threatens
to

years

a dearness has

in

which
as-

be permanent.

Therefore the

Government,

suming the military wage

its

to be regulated in

some degree by

relation to the prices of food, allows compensation to the

is

soldiery whenever that price

rates
;

dearer than certain declared

is

though no reduction whatever

falls

ever

made

if

the cost of

the Native soldier's ration

of drought or scarcity, the
is

below the normal

rate.

In time

amount thus allowed

is

to the soldiery

considerable.

Nevertheless, the conviction

gaining ground

that the advantages of the military service are becoming less

and

less attractive to the petty

yeomanry and

to the better class

of labourers.

Eecruits have of late been

offering themselves

in less

abundance; whereas formerly there used to be some considerable competition, and young men used to remain in

attendance on the regiments, waiting for vacancies.

last year or so there has

Within the

been an actual difficulty in ol)taining

for the large

recruits in sufficient

numbers

requirements of the

army

during the recent campaign, a

phenomenon observed fm
2 D

402
the
first

INDIA IN
time in British India.

1880.

Chap. xxv.

The

difficulty

may

partly arise

from the prospects of extraordinary hardships

diu?ing the

snows

and
may,

frosts of the \vinter

it is

among

the northern mountains, and

to be hoped,

be mitigated or disappear hereafter.

During recent

years, also, the

number
is

of those Xative soldiers

who

voluntarily take their discharge

are often in the prime of
after
life,

worthy
is

of note.

Such

men

and there
;

doubt as to what

becomes of them

they leave the army

they mostly return

their military life

to cvnl occupations,

some perhaps continue

in the service of the Xative States.

Native commissioned

Another peculiarity in the Native army is this, that the officers have grades corresponding, though
as possible

under Oriental names, as nearly

grades, receive

with the European

I^ative society

pay quite equal

officers,

relatively in

to the pay of English

entu-ely,
seniority.

and yet

rise entirely, or

almost

from the ranks, partly by

selection,

but chiefly by

According to the old arrangement, there was in

officers,

each regular regiment, besides the Xative commissioned

a complete set of European
officers.
still

Thus

if

the Xative officers

were not of a superior stamp,

to enforce strictness

there were European officers

training,

and precision in the

and

to lead

the

way

in action.

In the Panjab and elsewhere irregular

regiments, in contradistinction to the regular regiments above

mentioned, were formed from martial races, with a comple-

ment

of

Xative

officers

of chosen

merit;

and with a very

limited

number

of

European

officers,

also of selected ability.

AYhen tried on

service or in action, the irregular regiments did at

;

least as well as the regular recnments

it

was thought sometimes

that they did even better.

Certainly, abler Xative troops have

never been seen in the empire than some of these irregular regiments.

The regular system was subsequently held

Xative

to be

open

to objection, as providing a duplicate set of

failing to raise the
officers

commissioned

officers,

morally, depriving

them

of

the
the

sense of

responsibilities
officers,

which were really devolved on

inadequate

European

affording

employment

to

Chap. xxv.

OFFICERING OF THE NATIVE ARMY.

4U3

the European officers whose work was shared with the Native
officers,

European

and causing unnecessary expense to the State. officers were reduced to a number sufficient, as

The
it

was

believed, to lead the regiment in action, leaving

more of the

ordinary regimental duty than heretofore to be performed by

the Xative
of Xative
officers,

in the expectation that in the appointment

selection

officers

would be exercised
are

more

than

formerly.
principle,

The three Xative armies

which
is

now

organized on this

approved more in the Bengal Presidency

it
is

than in Bombay, while

disapproved by

many

in Madras.

The change has given

which
is

birth to

much

controversy ever}'where,

not yet concluded.

it

Despite

many

differences

and

shades of opinion,
far as

will probably be conceded at least that, so

can be judged from appearance and from movements or

manceu%Tes on parade, the troops appear to as much advantage

under the new system as under the old

while

many mIU

affirm

that the Bengal troops are better than they ever were.

On

active service, too, the Bengal troops will be probably held to

have generally done well, vdth some exceptions, which occur

under the new system, as they occurred under the

hensions are
the
felt

old.

Appre-

by many
the
It

authorities regarding the effects of

new system with

Madras and Bombay armies

in

actual action.

seems,

however, to be considered by the

is

majority of military authorities in the empire that there

danger lest the complement of European

officers

should be too

small to lead the regiment in action, and to replace casualties

among

the leaders

that a sufficient

who are but too likely to fall while leading numbs of such European officers must be
;

allowed, which should be not less than nine (combatant) to a

regiment, and that

officers

it is

practically difficult to get able Xative

either from the

direct.

ranks or from the upper classes of

Xative society
It is held

by some high

authorities that

more attention shoidd

and
to

be given than heretofore to the selecting of really competent

men

to

be Xative commissioned

officers,

opening a
2 D 2

field

404
to

INDIA IN
for lionourable distinction.

1880.

Chap. xxv.

them

As

yet the British system

has not been quite successful in developing military talent

among

the Native officers as a whole, altliough

many

excellent

men

individually have been produced.

A change
European

has also been

to the

made

in

tlie

manner

of appointing
officers

officers

Native army.

Formerly

were

appointed to this army direct from England and they rose in

the service partly by merit, but largely by seniority.

Nowa-

days every

officer first

belongs to the British army, and serves

with a British regiment, in order that he

kind of military training.

Then,

if

so

may have the best minded, he may within

a certain limited time volunteer for one or other of the Indian

staff"

corps,

namely the three

staff"

corps of Bengal, Madras and

Bombay
corps,

respectively.

After passing the prescribed examina-

tion tests for entrance

and promotion, he
all sorts of

is

admitted to the

staff

which comprises

military employment, with

Native regiments or on the

staff",

Army

garrison and administrative

and some

sorts of political, civil

employments.
is

Thus a

European

officer,

in the Indian Staff" Corps,

in

some sense one

receiving some-

who

has obtained his position by special preparation and qualihas passed certain examinations, and
tlian
is

fication,

what more emolument

regiment.

he could receive with a British

officers of

The Commanding

the Native regiments

rather than rising to

are being generally selected for

it

command
it

by

seniority.

On

the whole,

will generally be admitted

that the status and acquirements of the European officers of the Native

army have been

staff"

raised during recent years.

The three
officers

corps,

above mentioned, supply the European

but
also
is

not

only for the Native army,

staff"

for

that

share in the general

of the

forces

which

allotted to

the Indian service, while the other share pertains to the English
service,

and

for

They

also contribute

many branches many officers

staff"

of military

administration.

to the political or diplomatic

civil

service

and some

to various

branches of

employ.

The conas

stitution of these

corps has been

condemned by many

Chap. xxv.

THE NxlTlVE

CAVx\.LRY.
field oifieers

405
whose promotion

producing an undue proportion of

is

regulated by time, and M'liose rank thus becomes too high for

the regimental duties they have to perform.

The foregoing
Native infantry,

description,
is

which has related primarily

to the

to the

generally applicable to the Native cavalry,

where

also the

change from the old

new system

has

taken place.

This change has involved a complete alteration of

the system of supplying the horses.

By

the old or regular

system, the horses were furnished by the Government as they

are
to

European regiments.

But there were always

to the

some
;

men the combine among horsemen to pay being fixed so as to enable the themselves and to form funds for providing the horses. Some of the Native officers were allowed to bring their own men and their own horses, and thus to become influential and enjoy a certain status. Some of the regiments thus constituted have done
irregular regiments

where the horses belonged

excellent service in war, and have produced really

officers.

aljle

Native

All regiments, except those of the Madras Presidency,

horsed on this principle.

are

now

The large studs

for horse-

breeding wliich the Government used to maintain in northern

India have been for the most part abandoned.

bred
horses
are
still

Many
for

Indianmilitary

obtained

in

the

market

purposes, and the

Government imports

stallions to assist the

Native breeders in improving their stock.

is

The Bengal cavalry

for

mounted
fairs in

chiefly with horses purchased at the horse-shows

and

northern India.

The remounts

the

Native

cavalry of

Madras and Bombay

are largely obtained from the

Persian Gulf through the

Bombay market

Many

of the horses

of larger build, required for the purchases by the Government, are obtained from Australia through the markets of Calcutta

and Madras.

On

the whole, a large portion of the horses in the

;

armies of India are of Australian and Persian breeds

the

Araljian horses being ridden by the officers only, and being

much more

scarce

nowadays than formerly.

The indigenous

breeds of horses, renowned of old within India itself at least,

406

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxv.

have greatly declined within the

the empire
;

last

two generations throughout

some remain and

some of them, once famed, have almost died out are fostered indirectly by the State, which does
can to preserve this local resource.

what

little it

But most of

the horses,

now

seen both in military and civil employment, are

of foreign extraction.
are,

A few

of the old studs in northern India

however,

still

maintained by the Government, under a

superintendent of horse-breeding operations,

and give a

fair

promise of success.

The Native

artillery,

once important in India before the war

of the mutinies in 1857,

was abolished

after those events,

with

the exception of batteries on the north-western frontier, and

some mountain
which are
in India
still
is

batteries,

where the guns are carried by mules,

manned by Native artillerymen. The artillery now an integral portion of the Koyal Artillery of
of forming a reserve for the Native army, after

the British service.

The question
would

the English model, has been carefully considered.

The scheme
certain

probably be

found

quite

practicable

under

conditions, that is to say. Native soldiers

would

enlist, to serve

under the colours on

thereafter return to their

to be recalled to

of years and homes on reduced pay, with a liability But they the standards whenever wanted.
full

pay

for a limited

number

would expect the reduced pay

pension, that
is,

to be ultimately converted

to

to be continued, perhaps

with some reduction,

without the liability of being called out when the time for such
pension should arrive.

There would, on the other hand, be some

objections to such a scheme,

inasmuch

as

many men,

trained to

the use of arms, would be living in villages remote from supervision.

The scheme does not seem

it

likely to be taken

up

at

present, unless

be found possible to spare a considerable

numto

ber of Native soldiers

just seen, there
is,

now

serving with the colours.

But, as

for the

moment, rather a want

If the

of

men

make up

the proper complement.

scheme were adopted

in order to provide an additional military resource, besides the

Chap. xxv.

THE ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT.

now embodied,
in
it

407
to

Native forces

would be open

objection

on the score of expense.

The departments

India for the supply, equipment and

armament
efficiency.

of the forces, are maintained in a state of complete

Even on the

gravest and most sudden emergencies

respects.
is

there has never been

any deficiency in these important

still

The Ordnance department, though

quite so essential as
it

very important,

not

once was to the safety of the empire.

In former days, before the opening of the overland route, when

the transmission of materiel from England to India occupied
several months, the Indian empii-e

would have been in danger

if

any gust

or storm of events found it unsupplied.

Consequently,

the East India

Company maintained

in the country the re-

sources on which the efficiency of

its forces

depended.

Almost
tbe

everything necessary for arming the troops was

spot.

made on

The guns,

gun-carriages, harness, accoutrements, smalllocally.

arms,

ammunition and powder, were manufactured

for casting
;

The foundries

guns in

iron, brass

and bronze were

on an extensive scale

the powder-factories were considerable,

the arsenals were placed in central and the magazines were

parts of the country.

commanding

positions,

established at convenient places

in

all

These local resources proved invaluable

with them, and when the
still.

during the war of the mutinies, when the mutinous Native

artillery carried so

many guns away

losses of small-arms

from the same cause were greater

Had

the Government not possessed the means on the spot of

its

repairing this grave damage,

position, already so serious,

would have been

these

still

further imperilled

The necessity
steps

for

precautions

was

diminished
first

by successive

in

improvement of communications,

by the opening of the

overland route, then the introduction of the electric telegraph,

then by the completion of the Suez Canal.

With

the application
it

of science to the manufacture of warlike stores,

was found
Suez

that

some things made

in India could be obtained better from

tlie

England, and could, with the aid of the telegraph and

408

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxv.

Canal steamers, be despatched

short time.

to arrive in India

within a very

The precision and elaboration required by modern

processes were also beyond the

means

of the Indian factories.

Hence the guns and the small-arms, of the Snider, Enfield and
Martini -Henry patterns, are

now made

in

England

and the

Indian foundries have been closed.

still

In India, however, there are

made

the gun-carriages, the harness, the accoutrements, the

;

small-arms' ammunition and the gunpowder

are

thus the factories

busy and resourceful

;

as ever.
is

The harness-making has

a special interest

the

work

durable and well-turned-out, at a

large saving of cost as

compared with English-made harness, by

It is carried

reason of the quality of the indigenous leather and the cheapness of Native skilled labour.
the mid-valley of the Ganges.

on

at

Cawnpore, in

The arsenals and magazines are

is

kept fully stored

officers

and the Ordnance department

managed by

of scientific training in their profession.

Among

the

principal arsenals, there

at Calcutta, for

may be mentioned those of Fort William,

;

Bengal
;

Allahabad and Agra

for the

North-

western Provinces

Ferozepur, on the Satlej, for the Panjab

;

Bombay

for

western India
St.

Secunderabad, near Hyderabad, in

for

the Deccan, and Fort

George at Madras,

southern India.

The clothing for the whole army, European and Native, has always been, and continues to be, made upon the spot, with
material imported

from England
efficient.

the Native skilled labour

proving both cheap and

The Commissariat department

men,
it

consists
its

entirely of military

has no civilian element,

of

officers are
its

commissioned
with supplies,

officers

the army.

In ordinary times
tlie

principal duty

consists

in providing

European

soldiers

as the Native troops do not receive rations from the State.

In

time of war, however,

it

often has to supply the Native troops

also.

and

tlie

camp-followers
if

For instance, during the recent

Afghan war

there were 60,000 combatants in the field there

must have been more than an equal number of non-combatants, so the Commissariat had to provide supplies at that time

Chap. xxv.
for

THE TRANSPORT SERVICE.

150,000 men.

409
Indian Comits

at least

On

the whole, the

missariat has always been very successful in this part of

duties.

The supplies

are good in time of peace,

and never

fail

in the field

when

the troops are on active service.

tlie

There has

been a tendency to impose other duties on

Commissariat,

more especially the department has been burdened with the

transport for the

army

in time of war.

If ever

it

has been

open

to blame, the real cause

was

this,

that the department

was
its

required to attend to too

many

things simultaneously.

In

proper work of supply,

its

officers

are careful to ensure that

the soldiers receive good rations, and that the State shall be
protected from fraud on the part of contractors and others.

During the recent Afghan war, the

difficulties

regarding

transport have been serious, and have been overcome only by a most liberal expenditure on the part of the State, added to the

devoted exertions of

its officers.
;

The supply

of baggage-camels

has become exhausted

within India

itself the

mortality

among
first

these animals has been very great, and

sight to be inexplicable.

may
less

appear at

Probably not

than 40,000 of

them have died

in military service

between 1878 and 1880,

liardihood

and endurance But the camel, though famed for under some circumstances, proves under other circumstances
have a delicate constitution, which succumbs and perishes suddenly. With commercial caravans in Central Asia, where
to

he

is

thoroughly cared

for, all

arrangements being subordinated

leisurely,

to his welfare,

and the movements being

is

wdth ample

opportunities for feeding, he

his

most

useful,

and well deserves

a military line

name

" the ship of the desert."

But on
fails to

of

march where the movements

necessary to his existence

are urgent,

and where many

receive the care

things have to be considered, he often

which

is

and without warning often

to die.

stretches himself out

leadino- from India

on the sands

The long passes

for

to

Afghanistan afford no sustenance for

man

or beast, during

many

marches.

To lay in supplies

the soldiers and camp-followers, and to carry the materiel of

410

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxv.

war, was a task which often taxed the resources of the authorities

To supply or to carry forage for the transport animals was a task which sometimes proved to be beyond the power of the responsible officers. Besides cold and fatigue,
to the utmost.

there

was often
the

insufficiency of fodder to account for mortality

among
In the

animals.

The same causes have operated during

loss

former wars and expeditions in the countries west of the Indus.

first

Afghan war the

of camels'

was

severe,

as

recorded in the military annals.

The records

of the

Muham-

madan

invasions of India shew that then also the conquerors

were embarrassed by mortality among their baggage-camels.

When, however, manders to make

of the

the circumstances allow the

military com-

the necessary provision for the well-being

camels, these

animals

prove

as valuable
it

in

war

as

they are in peace.

befTinnins
of a

In this respect
to

is

important in the
concerned
those

war

inculcate

on

all
first,

practical lessons which, if overlooked at

are learnt at last

by painful experience, and after heavy cost of animal life and Besides camels, there are other animals useful for of money. Pack-bullocks and draught-bullocks are military transport.
obtainable in
in

many
in

thousands from
unlimited.

all parts of India,

indeed

numbers
that,

practically

Eecent

experience has

shewn
the

the mountainous regions trans-Indus, roads

practicable for the light Indian carts can be rapidly

made by

labour of the Native

soldiery

and the camp-followers.

Pack-ponies are procurable in numbers considerable, though

limited.

Mules are not

to be

had in large numbers, but the

For the Transport
train during peace a

few which are procured prove valuable.

department the desideratum
officers,
is to

body of
in

commissioned and
all

non-commissioned, who shall be

versed in

that relates to the

management

of animals

military service.
of profession,

Such knowledge of
for

itself constitutes

a sort

and can be thoroughly acquired only by those

it

who

devote themselves to

importance at the outbreak of war.

many years, yet it is of great On such occasions, loss

Chap. xxv.

MILITARY AUDIT AND ACCOUNT.

officers,

411
of various

and embarrassment ensue from the want of

grades, thus qualified.

Such

qualifications will not be fully

its

possessed by the Commissariat department, unless

zation shall be altered.
It

organi-

were better

to organize separately

Transport department in ordinary times, wliich could be

rapidly enlarged on emergency arising.

Circumstances, relating to the estimates of the cost of the

recent Afghan war, seem to have given rise to doubt regarding the

completeness and suf&ciency of the system of military accounts.

The system, however,

inasmuch as
and
it

if

well worked, ought to prove sufficient,

It

has been carefully and elaborately devised.

was begun under James Wilson, continued under Samuel Laing

Sir Charles Trevelyan, as finance ministers
its
;

Sir

George

Balfour was

president,

and
Its

it

was managed

for

some time
specially

by

Sir

George Kellner.

organization was carefully con-

sidered

by Mr. Foster

of the English Treasury,

who was

deputed to India

for the purpose.

The several names above The system

of

mentioned are eminent in finance generally, including that

branch of
it

which

relates to account keeping.

audit has been fully arranged in all

its parts, for

the whole

empire as divided into the three Presidencies of Bengal, Madras

and Bombay, and

explained,

for each of the three armies which, as already

make up

the Indian forces.

In each Presidency the

pay and allowances of the establishments are audited by the Pay Examiners of the respective Presidencies. The accounts of
each of the administrative departments attached to the army of
the Presidency, as relating to the commissariat, the ordnance, the medical services, the clothing and the like, are audited by

departmental Examiners.

The audit

of all kinds

is

supervised

by a Controller of military accounts for the army in each Thus there are three Controllers with their rePresidency.
spective staffs of Examiners for the whole empire, all working

on a uniform system and method, and under the general supervision of a Military Accountant-General immediately under

the

Government

of India.

The accounts,

as finally audited

by

the Military Accountant-General, are embodied in the finance

412

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xxv.

accounts of the empire by the Controller and Anditor-General

acting under the Financial branch of the Government.

The

keeping and auditing of the military accounts are thus managed

upon a

plan,

which ensures

local supervision in all the scattered

is

provinces of a widely extended empire, and which

centralized as to admit of an effective control

yet so far

by the Government
For the

of India, through the high officers at its headquarters.

determination of the expenditure to

Ije

incurred for military

is

purposes, a budget in the most detailed form

prepared yearly,

and

is

passed by the Government of India after the minutest

scrutiny.
allotted

According

to the

budget thus sanctioned, funds are

to the Mili-

by the Civil Controller- General of accounts

Tlien, the military accountants

tary department.
are guided

and auditors
no

by these allotments, and

are answerable for regulating

is

the disbursements thereliy.

In ordinary times, there

diffi-

culty in keeping the disbursements within the amounts allotted.

In time of war or of military emergency, additional sums have to

be allotted and large advances
field,

made to military

disbursers in the

and in various parts of India,

for the

for the provision of transport

and supply, and

numerous and various charges

inci-

dental to extensive field operations.

More

or less delay occurs

in accounting for the appropriation of these large and scattered

advances, and in bringing the accounts under the regular audit.

Hence

it

follows that, on these special occasions, the audited

falls far short of

expenditure

the funds actually provided from

civil treasuries for the

ordinary services of the Military dej)art-

ment and for the extraordinary charges of the war. In such circumstances the audited military accounts cease to be a trustworthy
guide, and the accounts of the civil treasuries of the country
afford the only true

measure of the current military expenditure.

be concluded with the following statement

This chapter

may

of the established strength of the

European and Native army in

British India (exclusively of Native artificers and folloM'ers) for

the year 1877-8, that

is,

the year before the recent Afghan war.

the war, but after

Some
its

modifications have occurred during

-will

termination the forces

revert to their normal strenutli.

ESTABLISHED STEENGTH OF ARMY.

413


414
INDIA IN
1880.

Chap. xxvi.

CHAPTER XXVI.
FOREIGN RELATIONS.
Indica's

Aden Southern Arabia Socotra of India Afghanistan Opinion in and KashgarNorth-west India regarding Russia Kokand, Bokhara and KhivaBoundaries of Afghan doroinionsRussian embassy to Caubul Position of Badakshan and Balkh Relations of Persia towards Herat Russian advance on Merv YarkandPersian province of Khorasan Importance of HeratFreedom of Afghanistan from Russian iniluence Amir of Caubul Kyber Value of Candahar. Pass Kurrum Valley The Pishin
neighbours, north, east, and west

Muscat The Persian Gulf Mesopotamia The straits of MalaccaThe kingdom of Ava Adjacent provinces of China Eastern Thibet Yarkand
frontier

frontier

The peninsula and

to

continent of

India have been likened

is

an inverted

triangle, of

which the apex

Cape Comorin,
India

while the base consists of the Satpnra

and Vindhya mountains

;

which form the lower boundary of northern

the sides
of the
triangle being
sea-girt.

both

This

circumstance

affords to one-half of India a natural defence, like in

kind to

that afforded to the British Channel to England, in itself a

priceless

advantage.

It

also

furnishes

to
sea.

British

maritime

power the inexpugnable basis of the

vantages, however great they

But these adnot

all-sufficient.

may

be,

are

For the other half of India, consisting of the basins of the two mighty rivers Ganges and Indus, the richest and most important
half of the two,
is is

environed on most sides by mountains and

;

mainly an inland country

possessing, however,

two outlets

and two

sections of seaboard, at the

mouths

of the rivers

Ganges

and Indus, which constitute inestimable advantages to the mistress of the seas. Still, this long mountainous boundary, consisting indeed of several distinct frontiers, opens

up

to northern

India various relations with her foreign neighbours.

Southern

Chap. xxvi.

THE POSITION OF ADEN.

415

India has happily not any alien neighbours, but nortliern India
has several.
India's interests are not, however, confined to her

mainland of India proper.

in one direction to

She has stretched out

lier

antenme

Burma, the basin of the Irawaddy, and the

;

Siamese peninsula

and in another direction

to

Beluchistan and

the shores of the Persian Gulf, which are portions of mid-Asia.

Again, she has a

connection

still

intimate

with

tlie

Straits

Settlements, which, though

herself,

now separated, once formed and which command the gates of the Eastern

part of

Archi-

pelago and the Chinese Seas, protecting the route of her com-

merce with China.

She has also some interest in Sumatra and

Borneo, by reason of her growing trade, and her steam-com-

munication, with Australia.

Further, she possesses the vitally

important outpost of Aden, which guards the outlet of the Bed

Sea,

and which places her in

relation with the north-east corner

of Africa

and the south-west corner of Arabia.

Thus, notsea,

withstanding the extent of her border on the

she has

many

neighbours on the land.

of the Indian empire is certainly

The most important outwork

Aden, having a natural
rock,

fortress in its volcanic formations of

and commanding a harbour which can be made, with a

Situated
close to

moderate outlay, defensible against hostile ironclads.

on a rocky promontory of the Arabian

the Bab-el-Mandab Strait of the

coast,

it

is

Bed

Sea.

It thus

dominates

the maritime communication with that inland sea which, since

the

establishment of the overland Egyptian route and the

fre-

opening of the Suez Canal, has become one of the most

quented highways in the world, equally valuable in peace and

in war.

As

a military garrison, a naval depot, a position for a

coaling
station,
it

ships of war, an entrepot of trade, and

is

justly

styled

the
it

Gibraltar

of

the

East.

Though

com-

paratively rainless,

possesses the

means

of storing water for

the troops, and for the civil population of Asiatics Mdiich gathers
in their wake.

Being barren, however,

it

draws

its

supplies of

food

from the neighbouring Arab

territories

and from the

416
African coast opposite.
other reasons,
British at
series

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxvi.

This circumstance alone, irrespective of

reLations to spring

must cause

up between the

Aden and
and

their neighbours in

Arabia and Africa.

of political

transactions

in

Arabia has drawn these

Eesident at

relations closer

closer, till the British

Aden has
an

become the
the

arbiter

among

the

Arab

tribes

throughout

extensive tract of country.

is

In the jurisdiction of Aden there

little

barren island of Perim, just inside the Bab-el-

Mandab
portant.

Strait,

and in the veritable doorway of the Eed Sea,

eastern or Arabian
esta-

a position which in time of war might become extremely im-

Farther up the Eed Sea, on

its

coast, a consulate, partly subordinate to

Aden, has been

blished at Jedda, which

is

near to the holiest places of Islam at

to

Mecca and Medina, and

These pilgrims land
there,

which the

Muhammadan

pilgrims

from India, and from other countries, resort in great numbers.

sometimes from Indian country

ships, in all

craft

and sometimes from British

of Native passengers.

which vessels sanitary

regulations prevail, expressly framed for the comfort and safety

Opposite

Aden

is

the large island of Socotra which, situated

near the north-east corner of the African coast, has an important position.
It
is

now, according to recent

political
tribes

arrangements, virtually under British control.

The

on

the neighbouring African coast, called the Somalis, are not under
British supervision politically, but the relations of the Eesident
at

Aden with them

are of a close

and cordial nature.

The

sovereignty of Egypt along the African coast from

Suez to

Cape Guardafui has been recognised by the British Govern-

ment

for

some years past

as indisputable.

The British control

the treaties with the

of the

Arabian coast
of Muscat,

is

further secured

by

Imam
Near

who

rules the shores of

the bay of

Oman.

that, again, the northern shore of the

Indian Ocean, belonging partly to Beluchistan and partly to

Persia,
is

traversed

by a

section of the Indo-European telegraph

which, running through Persia,

connects Europe with Asia.

Chap. xxvi.

THE PERSIAN GULP.

is

417

This section of the telegraphic line

guarded at several points

by detachments of Native troops

of the British

Government.

The Persian Gulf has become

a British lake. Bushire,
It
is

practically in

many

respects
at

controlled

by the British Resident

who

specially protects its principal industry,

namely

the pearl fisheries of Bahrein near the Arabian shore, and adopts

constant precautions to prevent piracy from again rearing

its

head in these waters.

station, the military

The coaling

depot, the electric telegraph

detachment at or near the island of Kishim

inside the entrance of the Gulf,

and opposite the Ormuz of mean excellent position

diaeval history, constitute, in combination,

politically.

The

British control of this important inland sea

origin in the suppression of piracy.
ie

had a most honourable

port of Bander

The
com-

Abas near Ormuz

the commercial outlet for

the south-eastern

extremity of Persia.

Bushire

itself

mands
Persia.

the sea-route to and from Shiraz, the capital of southern

It
is

also

an important station in the line of

tele-

graphic

communication

between

India
of

and

Europe.

The

British Resident there has an escort

India.

Native troops from

Above
of the

Bushire, at a moderate distance opposite the

river, is the little island of

mouth

Mesopotamian

Karak,

which was occupied by British troops during the

a military point of view.

last Persian

war, and was found to be a salubrious station, well situated in

The Mesopotamian

river

above

mentioned
Tigris

is

the

Shat-ul-Arab, or the united stream of the

city of

and the Euphrates, which join near the important

Bassora, or Basra.

Up

to

Basra the river

is

navigable for ships

Gulf.

of war, of moderate draught, from the Persian

Under

existing political arrangements, these vessels pass to and from

Basra, and remain

there according to
is

need or convenience.
the Kariin,

Near Basra,

too,

the

confluence of
;

and

its

branches, with the Shat-ul-Arab

and the basin of the Karun,

the ancient Susiana,

Persia.

is

one of the most important provinces of

Above Bushire, again, on the Tigris, is Baghdad, where an officer is stationed, who is appointed by the Viceroy of India
2 E

418
as

INDIA IN
in

1880.

Chap. xxvi.

Political Resident

Turkish Arabia, and who exercises

consular functions directly under the orders of the

in England.

Government
Gulf
liave

The naval arrangements

of

in the Persian

been already mentioned in the chapter relating to maritime

affairs.

Thus the power

England in the Gulf gives moral

on
its

force to her relations with the countries

several shores,

including eastern Arabia, Mesopotamia and southern Persia.

These relations secure to her the control of at least one of

the possible routes between Europe and India, strengthen her
influence in

Persia

itself,

and render her voice potential in

to her eastern empire.
is

some

of those regions
too, in

which are adjacent

Her power,
The

this

quarter rests upon the sea, which

always for her the best possible base.

foreign relations of India in the west having been thus
it

mentioned,
the east.

is

now
is

necessary to turn to her relations in

Although India

not likely to be required to send forces

to vindicate British interests in

Borneo and Sumatra, yet she

defend the

may

be obliged at any

moment

to despatch troops to

just interests of the Straits Settlements, Singapore, Penang,

and

Malacca.

For example, she supplied troops

for the expedition

despatched within the last few years to Perak, near Penang.

Inasmuch
for

as collisions will occasionally be inevitable

between

these civilized settlements and the wild aborigines, the necessity

such expeditions

may

recur.

In Burma, the empire of Alompra, the greatest of Burmese

sovereigns, comprised

mainly four provinces, Arracan, Tenas-

serim, Pegu, on the seaboard,

of wars, "provoked

and Ava inland.

From

the issue

by the infatuated arrogance

of his successors,

the three

first

have been incorporated in the British dominions

and form the

dynasty.

fast rising province of British

Burma.

The

fourth,

or the inland province of Ava, alone remains to the

Burmese

In

this

kingdom

of Ava, the capital,

Amerapura,

has been the scene recently of shocking events,

when many

persons of royal blood were slaughtered in order to ensure an

Chap. xxvi.

THE KINGDOM OF AVA.

tlie

419
late

undisputed succession after the demise of

king.

British political mission used to be maintained at

Mandalay
attitude
tribes

on the river Irawaddy, near

to

Amerapura, but was withof

drawn
of the
east

last

year in

consequence

the

hostile

Burmese Court.
the Irawaddy,

The

relations

with the

hill

of

and on the British

frontier,

at

one

time rendered war with

Ava
:

quite
to

imminent.

The

king
with

had

been long

endeavouring

cultivate

friendship

powers in continental Europe

treaty with Italy
to
;

he had arranged a commercial

and on such shadowy foundations he seems

political

have built some hopes of

support.

moment he
advanced
the
aspect

yielded to the British demands

At the last when matters had

to the

very verge of

hostilities.

Again, quite recently

of affairs

became

so

threatening that additional

troops were rapidly despatched from India to British Burma.

Though the outbreak

there
is

of hostilities

was

for the

moment

averted,

no assurance of peace being rendered permanent.

pacific

How^ever

the people

may

be in the Irawaddy valley

liilly territory

of Ava, the

kingdom embraces much

troulDle
:

fraught
is

with elements of

and the Burmese Government

respects.

feeble and barbarous in many

The

interest of
it,

England

in

Ava

cliiefly

centres in the route

tlie

which connects

via Bliamo on the upper Irawaddy, with

It has long

Chinese province of Yunan.

this

been hoped that in

way

the commercial relations between British

Burma and

south-western China

may

be improved.

The

last expedition,

which was despatched

perpetrated in
defiance

for this purpose,

ended unhappily in
it.

the murder of Margary, the officer in charge of

of all
obligations,

This deed,
in

was punished

such imperfect manner

as the circumstances allowed.

Yunan, however,
to India;
for

is

not the only province of China adjacent

between Czechuen, on the extreme west of the

a route which believed by some to be capable
It

Chinese empire, and Assam, on the north-east extremity of

India, there
is

is

of development for purposes of commerce.

was traversed
2 E 2

420

INDIA IN
ago,

1880.

Chap. xxvi.

some years

by Cooper,
is

starting from the Chinese side, but

no marked result

likely to be obtained in the present.

is

The influence of China

country the capital
is

felt in

eastern Thibet, of wliicli

Lhassa, and the spiritual and temporal

head

is

the Grand Lama.

The

real

control,

however, rests

with the Chinese Government, wliich maintains a diplomatic

official

of

its

own

there,

supported by a body of Chinese

or rather

troops.

The two Indian,

Himalayan, principalities

adjoining eastern Thibet are Sikhim and Bhotan.

have, in

Both these
their trade

consequence of military and political transactions,

become dependent on the British Government, and

for

with Thibet grows, by reason of the exchange of Indian fabrics

Thibetan raw produce, flocks and herds.

Thus the

political

and commercial relations of these States will bring the British

into closer

communication than formerly with eastern Thibet,

and, through Thibet, with China.

China, again, has recently, for a time at least, reconquered and

retaken possession of the

Muhammadan

State of

Yarkand and

Kashgar combined, with which State the British Government

had made a commercial treaty

mission.

after the despatch of a special

Yarkand

(the lesser Bucharia of mediaeval history),

lying between Kokand, a part of the Ptussian possessions in Central Asia, and Ladakh, a part of the Indian Native State of
Caslunir, is a comparatively

narrow

strip separating the Asiatic

empires of England and Russia.

therefore,

Its political condition

must,
the

engage the vigilant observation of England.

is

As

population

Muhammadan, which had

it

apparently shaken off

the Chinese yoke,

was hoped that a friendly and independent

be established under the able Chief

Muhammadan State might with whom the treaty was

as the Chinese

made.

He was

killed,

however, and

the State has again passed under Chinese domination.

So long

Government shall hold its own there, the British Government may tolerate the situation without absolute disthough not without some anxiety.

satisfaction perhaps,

But

if

Russia, advancing from her military position in

Kokand, were

to

Chap. xxvi.

NORTH-WEST FRONTIER OP

INDIA.

421

occupy Kashgar or Yarkand, then she would come in contact with the outlying dominions of Cashmir and with the British empire. This would arouse apprehension among the English

Such apprehension would, however, refer to the indirect effect which the contact would have on the Himalayan
authorities.

feudatories of England, and through

to the possibility of

them on the Panjab and not any direct military movement. For, between the Cashmir dominions and Yarkand there intervene mountain
;

ranges of great altitude, crossed only by passes too difficult for

the transit of troops or of military material.
troops could not

But although

march
if

this

way, a European power holding

Yarkand might,
to

actuated by hostility, cause embarrassment

England by working mischief in the Himalayan regions which

This review of the foreign relations has

adjoin India.

now

reached the

well-known North-west Frontier,

The
Indus

tribes dwelling
frontier,

on the northern portion of the transAfridis, Waziris,

Momands,

and

others,

have

for
is,

thirty years given trouble to the British Government, that

ever since the annexation of the Panjab.

Therefore

it

became

necessary on
against

many
;

occasions to undertake military expeditions

its

them

the chastisement, though

necessity

must be

regretted,

was

essential for the introduction of civilized order

and has been

beneficial in its results.

Though the

tribes still

misbehave occasionally, they have yet in many respects yielded

to the influence of a

system which, sustained by

force, is just,
is

merciful, and

considerate.

In few parts of the empire

last thirty years

improvement more manifest wdthin the

the trans-Indus frontier of the Panjab.

than

It has

been thought

by some

that because a less severe system had to be applied

frontier, the practice

on the Sind

adopted by the Panjab Govern-

ment was
frontier

too severe.

The

severity, however,

was

in proportion

to the violent habits of the tribes.

Beluchis, Bugtis, Harris

The men on the Sind though rude and predatory,

frontier,

are less fierce than those on the

Peshawur

and therefore

422

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxvi.

did not need such stringent castigation.

British
frontier,

The

principles of the

Government have been the same

In
all

in both sections of the

though the practice has varied according to circumcases the endeavour has been to deter the

stances.

rude

tribes

from

lawlessness,

and

to

win

them

over to

peacefulness.

The most important

which

of the foreign relations of India are those

relate to Afghanistan,

and are involved in the recent or

it

present war, together with the policy whereby

taken.

was underattempted

As

commentary on

tjie

policy and the

war would be
is

beyond the scope of

a

this work, all that can be here

summary

of the phases of opinion in India in respect to the

bearing of Afghan politics upon the British empire in

the

East, with a statement of those considerations which are of

permanent importance.

Had

foreign powers never threatened that, in event of a

general war, some blow should be dealt at India from the north-

west quarter, had Eussia in particular never moved in the

direction of Central Asia,

had her movements there not afforded

the

means

of embarrassing

England in case of

hostilities arising,

had the organs of Eussian opinion never held forth menaces to

this effect,

had the history of past invasions not lent some colour

might prove possible in
interfere in Af-

to a probability that a similar operation

the future,

then no person
Most

in India

would have ever recom-

mended

that the British

Government should

ghanistan.

persons, indeed, have been anxious to avoid, if

possible, such interposition,

which they regarded

and a host of

as likely to

cause waste of
majority
of

life,

loss of treasure,

difficulties.

The

Anglo-Indian authorities have desired that Af-

ghanistan should remain independent indeed, but in friendly

relations with England,

and entirely

free

from the influence of

any other power.

it

Such an Afghanistan would have been, as

Grave
as the
still

were, a quickset hedge along the line of British limits, or a

chevaux-de-frise in front of the British position.

objections to interference in Afghanistan undoubtedly are,

Chap. xxvi.

AFGHANISTAN.

423

graver contingencies

may

arise.

practical question, therefore,

it is,

in recent years

lias

been whether such interference, bad as

should or should not be accepted as an alternative in preference

to

something worse.

From

another point of view, however, the

all

question has been whether, of

ference
is

conceivable alternatives, inter-

not the worst.

Associations
classic

hovering

round

the

Indian
the

Caucasus,
hills,

the the

Oxus, the

snow-clad

ranges,
stir the

rugged

martial mountaineers, used to

exists

adventurous

spirit
Still,

which
such

in

the breasts

of so

many Englishmen.

impulses have been curbed by prudential considerations.

The

poverty and bareness of the mountainous regions, the intractable

character of the inhabitants, the unsatisfactory nature of any

warfare that might be waged there, are likely to deter

the rash.

all

save

For

many

years past, notably since 1857,

when Eussia began

aroused
in
India.

to operate against Bokhara,

and

still

more

since she subjugated

Khiva, there

have

been

apprehensions

The alarm
operations
authorities
;

felt

in Afghanistan on

account of
itself

the Russian

in

Khiva communicated

to

many

Indian
different

and these apprehensions have assumed

shapes.

Some persons
to

feared that the proceedings of Eussia

were tending solely

India.
to be offered to the

one purpose, namely, the invasion of

The plundering of this fertile and populous country was Afghans as a bait for inducing them to join
These extreme views have been dissipated by the

the invaders.

considerations relating to Eussia herself.

tractions at

She has too many

dis-

abroad.
less

home to prevent her from engaging in complications Her power of aggression is proved by experience to be
Her
position in Central

than might be supposed from the strength of her army, and

her financial resources are restricted.

Asia

is

not, as yet, sufficiently consolidated to serve as a base

for operating against a foreign power.

If she

attempted to

establish herself in Afghanistan she

difficulties of

would encounter the very

bitter experience.

which England has had such

424

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxvi.

After the Crimean war, English opinion in the East became

favourable to Paissia.
It

was believed that

she

had

ac-

quiesced in
of Paris.

the position

assigned to Turkey by the Treaty

She would,

it

was thought, henceforth devote her

energies and resources to the construction of railways in her

territories

own

and

to the

improvement of her new acquisitions in

For her railways she would borrow
relations, of the

Circassia

and elsewhere.
and thus

British capital,

most

solid

and lasting
Before

kind, would

be established between her and England.

the complications began, which led to the last war between

Eussia and Turkey, the feeling in India towards Eussia was

becoming quite amicable. There was a hope that the amity would
prove enduring between the two European empires in Asia,
Eussia receiving capital from England, and England drawing
interest

from Eussia.

The

securities of the

Eussian Government
offer

were highly esteemed in India, and were expected to

the safest and most advantageous
fields in the

one of

world for the ininterests

vestment of money.
of borrower

The strong belief that the mutual

hostility,

and lender would restrain

induced

men

for a time to forget their suspicions respecting Central Asia,

and

to think chiefly of the peaceful course of material

improve-

This fair prospect ment upon wliich Eussia had entered. when war was declared against Turkey by Eussia in vanished Then were the apprehensions of Englishmen in India 1877.
resuscitated in regard to the indirect effect of these events

upon
have

the peace of Asia.

These apprehensions were aggravated by

the diplomatic attitude which Eussia

was understood

to

assumed towards

Persia,

and especially by the movements of

Eussian troops from the base of the Caspian towards Merv.

Further, the acquisition

by Eussia
calculated

of the three Khanates, as

they are termed, Kokand, Bokhara, and Khiva

virtually

acquired
if

was

for Kliiva is

to

cause

disquietude to

Englishmen,

these territories were intended to be used as a

basis for operations against India.

But respecting the gover-

nance of those

territories

l;)y

Eussia, Englishmen do not feel any

Chap. xxvi.

KOKAND, BOKHARA, AND KHIVA.

Knowing
the

425
lias

unworthy jealousy.

barbarism which

dis-

figured the Native administration, and the cruel incidents of the

slavery which used to exist there, they hope that TJussia, as a

civilized power, will effect

humane and

beneficent clianges in that

direction.

Tliere never has

been any hope of British dominion

being established in this region, which

as that

may be

broadly described
Jaxartes,

which
is

lies

between the

classic rivers

Oxus and

and which
power.

too

remote from any possible base of English

Whatever conduces to the good of humanity from European domination in Central Asia, may well be done by
Eussia,
is

if

she be the only power able to effect

this.

But there
a great

no reason

to disguise the fact that Ptussia has there acquired

territories

which, with good management,

It

may have

future before them.

some time supposed that Kussia was in Central Asia annexing territories which yielded but little and wliich were sparsely inhabited by untameable tribes. Such
for
is

was

not,

however, the case with the three Khanates.

They

have been in former times reckoned among the very gardens

of Asia, possessing one of the best systems of irrigation in

the world, sustaining a hardy, industrious, and, on the whole,

manageable population.
the
basis

They have more than once

empires

afforded

on

which

Asiatic

have

been

founded.

Though much

deteriorated from misgovernment during recent

centuries, they are capable of being restored to sometliing like

their pristine wealth

and power within two

the
inhabitants

or three generations.

Fanaticism

may

drive

into rebellion, if

an

unwise policy be pursued.

But

if

the administration shall be

conducted in a judicious and conciliatory manner, the people

may become
So
far,

as orderly as

many of the

subjects of other

European

powers in Asia.
then, there is no valid ground of rivalry on the part of
for

England with Eussia

supremacy in

tliis

part of Central Asia.

territories

A
to

strip of desert intervenes

between the Bokhara

still

and

the Oxus, not very broad, indeed, but

constitute

of sufficient breadth

an obstacle to the passage of a large body of

426
troops
at

INDIA IN
any one time.

1880.

Chap. xxvi.

The Oxus
for

itself constitutes a

good

boundary in
It

this particular quarter.

became necessary, however,

England

to insist that this

boundary should be respected by Eussia, though

Eussian
officers crossed

at one time there

was doubt whether the Eussian Government would acquiesce in

this view.

the

Oxus

for political explora-

tion

up

to the northern base of the

Indian Caucasus which forms

to their

the

natural limit

of Afghanistan proper, explaining

feel at

countrymen that Eussia could never

till

home

in Central Asia

she held both banks of the Oxus.

Further, they began to

interfere in the regions of the

Pamir steppes near the sources of

province of Wakhan which ad-

the Oxus, and especially in the

little

joins the British feudatory State of Cashmir.

These

difficulties

were

for a

time set at rest in 1873 by the arrangement then con-

cluded between the English and Eussian Governments, whereby

Wakhan was
point,

freed from interference, the

Oxus was declared the

to a certain specified

boundary of the Afghan kingdom down

whence a
both

line

was drawn straight across the desert or

Bokhara and Khiva were determined.

thinly inhabited country to a point near Herat, and the Afghan

limits

towards

This provisional delimitation

was arranged while Lord Clarenoffice of

don and Lord Granville successively held the

Secretary.
It

Foreign

may

be called, for the purposes of this narrative,

the Clarendon boundary.

Afghanistan was then declared by

Eussia to be beyond the sphere of her interposition.

Thus

the fears felt by the Afghan sovereign respecting the Eussian

position at

Khiva were apparently

quieted,

and some progress

Asia at

seemed

to

have been made in settling the international boundaries

this part of
least.

between Evissia and England, in

Here, then, was a hope that at last the grounds of dispute in

this quarter

between the two empires had been removed.

Had

Eussia adhered to this arrangement, had she never transgressed

the boundary thus fixed between her and England, and expressly

acknowledged by
arisen,

herself, the recent

Afghan war would not have

and all

its

troublous consequences would have been avoided.

Chap. xxvi.

RUSSIAN EMBASSY TO CAUBUL.

427

But

in 1878, Paissia despatclied tlirouu;h her representatives

at Tashkand, in the

Khanates

aliove mentioned,

an embassy to

Caubul, with the

ol^ject of

negotiating a treaty with the

Amir

of Afghanistan as against

the British Government in India.

The

particulars of this proposed treaty are not puljlicly

is

known,

but there

no reasonable doubt that they were directly hostile

These steps constituted an absolute infringement

to England.

of the Clarendon arrangement just mentioned,

and a positive
it

breach of international engagements.

They

were,

is

true,

prepared at a time

when

hostilities

between the two empires, by

could hardly

reason of the Turkish complications, were regarded as imminent,

and, so far as

the preparation went, England

complain.

Still,

according to the comity of nations, the em-

bassy ought not to have crossed the Oxus until war was actually
declared between the two empires.

Nevertheless

it

did cross,

while the international peace, though seemingly likely to be

broken, was yet maintained, in fact while the Berlin Congress

was

in

full

deliberation.

Eussia

may have

claimed,

by an
for

extreme stretch of assumption, that she should be excused

committing a deeply hostile act in anticipation of

hostilities

being declared, expecting that such declaration would soon be

promulgated.
the

Even

then, however, she

was bound

to

pause

moment

that the maintenance of peace

was assured by the

Treaty of Berlin in July

1878.

Nevertheless, the embassy,

sit,

which started
telegraphic

at the

time when the Congress began to

the
existence

was not countermanded, notwithstanding

communication
its

of

with

St.

Petersburg,

but

pro-

ceeded to
the

destination

at

Caubub
still

This occurred, despite

international

obligations

subsisting,

and the

esta-

blishment of the general peace by the proceedings at Berlin.

Arguments regarding the

on
its

difficulty of recalling

an embassy once
it,

way and

of despatching messengers in time to stop

and

the like, are of no avail whatever in so

fact

momentous

a matter.

The

remains that the Eussian authorities ought to have stopped

so.

the embassy, and failed to do

It

may

be that the Eussian

428

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxvi.

Government did not intend that the embassy should proceed and Englishmen will after the date of the treaty at Berlin
;

doubtless desire to give credit to a neighbouring empire for

good intentions.

But the Government must ultimately

its

be

answerable for the proceedings of

lieutenants.

The

late

Amir

of Afghanistan,

Shir Ali, did certain

to

acts

in connection with this affair,

which led

war being declared

was
not, excusable

against him.

The question whether he was,

or

in respect to his conduct, has been

much
It is

discussed,

and need not no longer of

be re-argued, as

it

relates to

him individually and

is

importance regarding the future.

to the controversy

not necessary to advert

not, the proper

whether the war was, or was

British
is

means

of vindicating of the

rights

respecting Afghanistan.

The policy
its results

war

passing into the domain of history

only are the subjects of immediate discussion.

Allusion has been

made above

to the proceedings of Eussia,

because they form a subject of abiding interest, and involve

principles of

permanent importance.
it is

She did indeed withdraw

the embassy, and

to

be hoped that she acquiesces in the

maxim

that no

such embassy ought to be sent, while the

peaceful and friendly relations between herself and

England

continue what they

now

are.

The Clarendon arrangement

continues in full force, whereby Piussia engages not to interfere

within the Afghanistan of which the boundaries have been

defined.

These boundaries include Wakhan, near the source

of the Oxus,

Afghan Turkestan south

Herat.

of the Oxus,

mainly

represented by the provinces of Badakshan and Balkh, and the

territories of

Maimena and

Eussia has no more right to

interfere within these boundaries than

interfere within the boundaries of the

England would have

to

Eussian empire.
;

England

respects absolutely the limits of Eussian influence

Eussia should
other hand,
to herself

do the same regarding English

limits.

On

the

England has throughout these transactions reserved

the right to enter into such relations with Afghanistan as she

may

think

fit.

It

does

not

necessarily

follow

that

she

Chap. xxvi.

THE OXUS
to

HERAT.
close,

429
or
to

undertakes
Afghanistan.

render

these

relations

control

But she may require that these

this claim explicitly.

territories sliall

be free from foreign interference;

and the liussian Governbetween

ment has admitted

There are
still

some

territorial points debataljle

tlie

two empires, in the region near the sources

these details,
to be
if

of the Oxus.

But
ought

approached in a good

spirit

on both

sides,

amicably settled without

difficulty.

Opinions have been expressed by some authorities to the

effect that the

mountain range north

of

Caubul and south of the

might

Oxus, named the Hindu

suffice,

Kush

or the Indian Caucasus,

instead of the

Oxus

itself, as

the boundary of Afghan-

istan.

But apart from the existing arrangement whereby the

is
it

Afghan boundary
Indian Caucasus,
acquiesce in
territories

placed beyond, or to

the north
for

of,

the
to

would be most impolitic

establishing

England
in

any foreign power

left

itself

the

on the southern or
as

bank of that great

are

river.

These

territories,

already stated, include

the well-known

positions of

Badakshan and Balkh, whicli

fraught with
resources

political importance.

They

possess capabilities and

whence a European power

of warlike operations
base. It

could, if so minded, derive the

means
from

and the

requisite supplies of a military

to

would be impossible

preserve Afghanistan

the influence of a European power established at Balkli.

The
to

Indian State of Cashmir could not

fail to

pay deference
at

any

European authorities who had installed themselves

In other words, the possession of these

Badakshan.

territories

by

Prussia

would be embarrassing to British India.

For some time
past,

Herat has been ruled by Eyub Khan,

to his

who seems never

brother, the late

to

have practically tendered submission

certainly did not

Amir Yacub, and

make any

acknowledgment

of the authority of the British of the general

Government,

when

it

assumed charge

administration after

Yacub resigned

his position in 1879.

Eyub's situation was

believed to be very precarious, until he recently took the field

430
and advanced
brigade.

INDIA IN
towards

1880.

Chap. xxvi.

Candahar,

after

defeating

British

He

has returned to Herat, after his crushing defeat

is

near Candahar, and his condition

more uncertain than

set

ever.

In 1879, there were negotiations

Herat
to Persia,

on foot

for

entrusting

subject to certain

arrangements to be made

with England.

Persia was ambitious of occupying that city

and the
as

tract of country

immediately adjacent
of

to

it,

as well

some further portions

Seistan, but a change

came over
a
garrison

her views in this respect, and the negotiations did not reach

any conclusion.
there,

Had she been able to Eyub would have been reduced to

have
undertaken
fact of

place

submission,

and

could not

the

recent

expedition

against
so

Candahar.
close to

The

that expedition having advanced

Candahar, with a considerable force of artillery and

much

materiel of war,
is.

shews how practicable that military

route really

Indeed, topographical information, collected at

various times, shews that a good line exists even for a railway

from Candahar

to a point M'ithin forty miles of Herat.

These

considerations point to the expediency of this route being at

least controlled
It is partly

by England.
to

on account of Herat that the apprehensions of

the Pussian advance

Englishmen are aroused in reference

towards Merv.

These repeated expeditions on the part of Pussia

are not really needed for the defence or consolidation of her

dominions in Central Asia.

The harm which Turkomans may

interests

occasionally do to the Russian

on the shore of the

constitute a

Caspian, near Chikishlar,

is

too

insignificant to

reason for important military expeditions to a distant place like

Merv.

The

real

aim of these arduous and expensive expeditions

Merv, with
it

can only be the acquisition of influence over Herat and the

adjoining province of Persia.
shall fall into the
If
its

Turkoman

tribes,

hands of Pussia,
it

can in course of time be

made

a military base, and

possesses

gated cultivation, once large but

many resources, as its irrinow contracted, can be restored.

Among

these

resources

is

to

be reckoned some of the best

Chap. xxvi.

MERV KHORASAN.
men and
to
liorses, to

431
bo found
could,

material for irregular cavalry, both in

in all Asia.

The hordes
as a base,

of well-mounted

Turkomans
tlie

under European guidance, be made

sweep over Afglianistan.

route of
skill

From Merv

Herat could be threatened by

the Murghal) river.

It

would then require vigilance and

to the

on

the part of England to keep Herat free from Eussian influence.

Therefore,
it

would be conducive

just

interests

of

England

if

Russia were again given to understand, as she was

in 1875, that any occupation of

Merv by

her

is

disliked,

and

viewed with

distrust, as

being

calculated to

cause disquiet

among

the Afghans, and to disturb the confidence and amity

to result

which ought

from the settlement of the outer boun-

daries of Afghanistan.

The present desideratum

is

tliat

Merv

should remain neutral and independent.

It has

been already shewn in

of the State of

this chapter that

any occupa-

tion

by Russia

Yarkand-Kashgar would be most

injurious to the long-established rights and interests of

England

in the north-western part of the Himalayas.

Such an occupation

would

also affect the north-eastern

boundary of Afghanistan, as

The Russians must be well aware of the with which England would regard the interposition just jealousy of a European power in Yarkand-Kashgar but it is desirable
already described.
;

that the weight of the English objections should be impressed

upon the Russian Government.

Although the
political considerations

relating

to

northern

Persia are for the most part beyond the scope of this work, yet
it is to

be remembered that the north-eastern province of Persia,

its capital,

namely Khorasan, with

political

Meshed, and
It is

its

outlying post

of Serakhs, adjoins the Herat territory.

essential to the

independence of Herat, or to

its

constitution as a part
of

of the

Afghan kingdom, that the province

Khorasau should
yet Russia has

remain free from Russian interposition.

As

evinced a disposition to interfere, even if she has not actually

interfered, in this province of

which the northern border adjoins

the

Turkoman country around Merv.

The dominant

attitude

432

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxvi.

which she preserves in respect

to

the northern

portions of

Persia adjoining the Caspian, and around the Shah's capital,

Tehran, affords ground for anxiety lest the progress of relations

with
part

the

Turkomans
the
limits

should
of

lead

to

interference

on

her

within

Khorasan, to which interference

Here,
again,

England may justly

Government.

object.

the force

of the

English objections should be brought to bear on the Eussian

There has been discussion whether

it

is

essential that the

control of affairs at Herat should be kept separate from the

sphere of Eussian interference.

As

already seen, they were

separate,

acknowledged by Eussia

to be thus

when

the city

and
two

its territory

were included within Afghan limits by the

Clarendon arrangement.

The influence

of

Herat upon the

capitals of Afghanistan proper,

Caubul and Candahar, and

It

upon the whole

territory of the Afglians, is potential.

would
quite

be impossible to preserve Afghanistan from the interference of

a European power established at Herat.
essential
to

Therefore

it is

the internal
free

quiet of Afghanistan that Herat

should remain
hand,
to

from Eussian control.

throughout
of

On
affairs
less,

the

other

England
the

has,

these

transactions,

reserved

herself

right

controlling

the

of

Herat

though the degree of her control, more or

may depend

on the circumstances of the moment.

is

The

position of Herat

of far-reaching importance affecting other countries besides

Afghanistan, and involves considerations which cannot well be

discussed in this work.
It is
sufficient

here to urge

those

considerations relating to Herat which concern Afghanistan.

Although England

may

be desirous of leaving the Afghans to

manage
ference

their

own

affairs,

and may succeed in avoiding

inter-

with the internal management of Afghanistan, she

cannot possibly allow any interposition on the part of Eussia,

either in the external relations or the domestic administration

of that country.

It

may

be said that England, by asserting

a right to exercise control on her

own

behalf,

becomes in some

Chap. xxvi.

BRITISH INTERESTS IN AFGHANISTAN.

433

degree responsible for acts of aggression committed by Afghans

upon neighbouring
responsibility
is

tribes

under the protection of Russia.

The

almost nominal, for the Afghans have neither

for

means nor motives

bability of
serious argument.

attempting such aggression, the proto be

which thus becomes too remote

worthy of

But surely England,

to

as

an imperial nation,
a
responsibility,
It
is

would never
considering

hesitate

accept

so

limited
at

the

collateral

interests

stake.
to

not

indeed

conceivable that Russia should wish

establish

an

influence in Afghanistan, except for the purpose either of

em-

barrassing British India, or of acquiring the

means

for causing

such embarrassment at will.

Central Asia she

belief is felt that in conquering

may have been

actuated by a reasonable

ambition and by the hope of discharging a beneficent mission.

But there can be no such legitimate ambition, and no such

towards Afghanistan
does not, even
if

fair

hope, in respect of Afghanistan. If she really does turn her regards

and

it is

to be

hoped that her Government

officers

individuals

among her
It

do

then

it

must be that she expects

to find there a vantage-ground

from

which India may be harassed.

a possibility to

can hardly be that she dreams

is

of attacking India in force, as such an enterprise

fall

of too

remote

within the range of practical consideration for

the immediate future.

The invasion

of India cannot at present

be compassed, as both English and Russians are well aware.

The impossibility by some

however,

of such

an invasion

is

occasionally assigned

as a reason

why England
at all, nor

should not be disquieted

This,

by a prospect
is

of Russian interference in Afghanistan.

no reason

can any satisfaction be derived

is,

therefrom.
directly,

AVhat politicians really dread

is

not

invasion

which

virtually impracticable, but embarrassment

is

indirectly,

which

easily practicable.

It

may

be matter for

just regret that there should be mistrust between two conter-

minous empires

but

it

were vain to ignore the

fact that there

would be such mistrust if Russian influence were Afghanistan. There is no space here to recount the

set

up

in

territorial

2 F

434
strides

INDIA IN
whereby Eussia
lias

1880.

Chap. xxvi.

advanced through Central Asia,

vacant by the English

nor to illustrate the indisputable fact that her influence im-

mediately
power.

fills

any space that

is

left

This political process has been aptly compared by a

air into

very high authority to the natural rushing of

a vacuum.

It follows that if Eussia once entered Afghanistan, her influence

would not stop

till

it

reached the trans-Indus frontier of the

is,

British territories, that

close

up

to the right

bank

of the Indus.

In other regions a boundary

may

be fixed, on either side of

rest in peace

which the two European empires in Asia may

and

mutual goodwill.
Indus

But that boundary must not be on the

is,

exist-

ing trans-Indus frontier of British India, that

itself.

almost on the

It

would be impossible then

trust

for the

two empires

to co-exist in

mutual

and amity.

Eussia might not indeed

;

be able to occupy Afghanistan in force

such occupation might

prove as arduous to her as

it

has proved to the English.

tliere,

But
right

she might maintain diplomatic control or influence

up

to the

mountain passes wliich are the gates

of India facing

towards Central Asia.

Such events

or circumstances

would

produce a profound impression on the vast population of British

subjects of India, especially

upon the educated

classes,

and also

upon the Native

States.

In previous chapters
is

it

has been shewn

to

how

the spread of superior education

political

awakening the Natives

an understanding of

affairs,

and how important and

numerous the Native States

really are.

The

effect

not only of the

proximity, but actually the contact, of such a power as Eussia

would be
would sap
alities

felt

throughout the Indian empire.

so

Whether

it

or

undermine the loyalty of

it

many

diverse nation-

need not be discussed, but

would be indefinitely great

beyond doubt.

The imperial relations of England with India

different from what they now are. One of momentous consequences must be this, that England would have to maintain a much larger force of European

would then be very

the

troops in India than at present.

of

If a considerable augmentation

the

European garrison

were to become necessary, then

Chap. xxvr.

THE AMIR OF CAUBUL.

large

435

inevitably a

portion
It
is

of

the

English

army would be

locked

up

in

India.

not necessary to dwell on the

military difficulties that would arise, nor upon the financial

embarrassment that would ensue.

The
to

late

Amir

Yaciib, having executed the treaty of

Ganthe
is

damak with
ill,

the British Government, was held to have behaved

say the least, during the events connected with

destruction of the British embassy at Caubul in 1879, and

detained virtually as a State prisoner in India.

The present
as
ruler,

Amir Abd-ur-rahman having been

recognised

the

British troops have departed from Caubul, leaving

him to sustain himself. No treaty has been made with him, but he knows well what England expects in regard to Afghanistan, and what may be the consequences if he deviates therefrom the fate of Amir
;

Shir Ali
as yet

is

also before his eyes as

an example.

There

is

not

any assurance in
rife

resj)ect to the

continuance of his power

riunours are

from time

to

time regarding dangers and

troubles besetting

him

at Caubul.

occur in that ill-starred capital, some

to the surface,

Whatever revolutions may man must ultimately come

who can be

recognised by the British Government

as de facto ruler.

Meanwhile, the British Government has

the treaty of

territorial rights

by

Gandamak

respecting

the

two military routes

leading from India to Caubul, namely that by

that

tlie Khyl^er, and by the Kurram which leads towards the Paiwar and Shutargardan passes, though it does not follow that the Government

should undertake to occupy these passes.

The Amir of Caubul

The British
troops,

has ceased to have any claim on the allegiance of the tribes

which dwell in

this part of the frontier.

which
could

occupied

the

passes

of

Khyber and

Kurram, have
they

been withdrawn, but are kept in

positions wherefrom

move
have

for re-occupation at the shortest notice.

Arrangefor

ments

been made with

the

frontier

tribes

the

holding of these several passes, in a manner conformable to

the policy of the British Government.

During most months, or

2 F 2

436

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxvi.

about two-thirds, of the year, the

Kurram

route affords comis

paratively easy and speedy access to Caubul, which

a military

and

political advantage.

The route by the Khyber

been

to Jelalabad,

and onwards

to Caubul, has

much improved during

it is

the

recent military operations.

On

passing from northern to southern Afghanistan,

after

to be

noted that the British Government,

occupying Candahar

with troops, installed Shir Ali, a relative of the late Amir Shir He raised some Ali, as a ruler there, independent of Caulral.
troops for the service of the Candahar province, and with

them

he marched in June 1880, in company with a British brigade, His to oppose the advance of the hostile forces from Herat.
troops, however, mutinied,

and he appears

to

be unable to carry

on the administration of his province.

with him
is

If the

arrangement made

deemed

to be

terminated in consequence, then

It

Candahar

is still at

the disposal of the British Government.

seems probable that the British troops will remain there for a
time, until the

with or without the

transfer
it to

Government can decide either to retain the city, districts of which it is the capital, or to
Meanwhile there is an advantage
affect this question.

some Afghan chief.

in noting the

main considerations which

By

the treaty of

Gandamak

a long strip of territory adjoining

the south-eastern border of Afghanistan

British

was assigned

to the

Government

for administration.

This territory com-

prises the districts of Thai Chutiali, of Sibi,

and of Pishin, the

range,

two

last of wdiich lie

on the route from the Indus to Candahar.

comprises the

The Pishin

district also

Khwaja Amran

which divides the valley of Pishin from the plateau of Candahar. This important range is crossed by the well-known Khojak
pass,

which

is

and will be (until the completion of the railway)

an obligatory point in the communication between India and

southern Afghanistan.

The British

authorities

have taken

charge of these extensive districts, and have introduced a civil

administration into the best parts of them.
rich or populous, but
it

The

territory is not

has a considerable extent of cultivation

Chap. xxvi.

THE PISHIN FEONTIEE.

resources.

437
been opened from
Sibi
to

and possesses various

A railway has

the Indus to Sibi, and has been beg-un from

Pishin,
to

though the operations have been

suspended

owing

the
at

disturbed state of the frontier, consequent on

the events

Candahar during the summer of 1880.

These
the
districts are adjacent to Beluchistan, the territory of

Khan

of Khelat.

It

has been seen, from the previous

affairs of

chapter on Native States, that the internal

Beluchistan

have been

satisfactorily settled.

The Khan
situate

of

Khelat has

made

over to the

British

Government the town and valley

and
on the military route

of Quetta, adjoining Pishin,

from the Indus

to

southern Afghanistan by the Bolan pass.

terri-

Thus Quetta and Pishin together make up a compact

tory,

commanding

effectually the

Bolan and Khojak passes and

above described, are on the
predatory and in a certain
its

dominating the whole route.

Moreover, the assigned
districts,
is

flank of the Marri tribe, which

sense formidable, having long been a scourge to

neighbours

in Beluchistan, and having often caused trouble on the frontiers of the lower Panjab and of Sind.

When

British

power

shall be

properly established in the assigned

districts,

the Marris, and

some other tribes heretofore troublesome, Thus

will be reduced to order.

is

the retention of these assigned districts

imperatively

necessary for the preservation of order on the frontier near the

southern part of the Indus valley, the consolidation of the

British position in Beluchistan, the maintenance of control over

the great highw^ay from Herat and southern Afghanistan to India,

and the fulfilment

people when
the

of the

engagements virtually made with the

of this territory.

Government assumed charge

lies

In support of Pishin

Quetta, close at hand, an excellent

military station, with a bracing climate and with resources for

supplying troops.

The possession of

it

enables
is

the British
to

Government
safety of the

to

control Beluchistan, and

essential

the

comnnmication with southern Afghanistan in

event of need.

438

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxvi.

The

situation of Pisliin closely concerns the question whether

not, continue
it

Candahar should, or should

British garrison.

to

be held by a
if

On

the one hand,

may

be said that even

the British troops retire

from Candahar to Pishin, a distance of

still

ninety miles and more, the Government will hold upon southern Afghanistan.
transport
held,

retain its

Some expense

in military

would be saved.
the

dominating

The Khojak pass may still be range of hills which overlook the

plains of Candahar, and from the base of which to that city

there

is

good military communication.

By
feel

the relinquishment

of Candahar, there will be averted that

enmity and jealousy

at the sight of a

which some among the Afghans may

British force at the southern capital of their country.

Pishin

has a cool climate, and resources which, though moderate,

suffice for

may
the

a cantonment having supports at Quetta.

its

With

presence of a British garrison, Candahar and

province can

hardly form part of an Afghan kingdom.

of such a garrison, they

But in the absence

may

be assigned to any chief

whom

the

Government may deem competent

Afghanistan.

to rule over a consolidated

On

the other hand,

answering

it may be urged many important purposes, in

that Pishin, though

default of anything

better, is yet not at all equal to

Candahar as a military and

political position.

The

object is to secure the

means
The

of control-

ling southern Afghanistan

object
is

and the route

to

and from Herat. That

city

best attained

by holding Candahar.

and

its

environs are easily occupied, and inexpensively too.

for

Barracks

both European and Native troops already

;

exist,

where the

men have salubrious accommodation it is hard to find a station anywhere in which they enjoy such vigorous health as in Candahar during the winter. Whereas, Pishin has not any available

accommodation whatever, and barracks would have

structed there at a considerable cost.
in supplies of every sort, being

to be con-

The

city of

Candahar is rich

an emporium of trade and having

strips of irrigated

in

its

neighbourhood long lines or

and highly

Chap. xxvr.

IMPORTANCE OF CANDAHAE.
lands,

439
will

cultivated

the

productiveness

of

wliicli

hardly
Pishin

be

surpassed
be,

anywhere.

Good
is

as

the

position

of

may

that of Candahar
desert
it

flank the great

ranges dividing

better. Having on one and on the other flank the mountain from India, Candahar cannot be turned by

much

any enemy advancing from the Herat

dwelling immediately around
intractable, like
it

direction.
fierce,

The

tribes

are
for

not

warlike and

those

dwelling,

instance,

immediately

around Caubul.
trouble with

The British
skilful

authorities at

Candahar never have

the

and industrious

cultivate the beautiful river-basins all round.

husbandmen who The opposition,

occasionally

met

with, comes not at all from the neighbourhood,

but from places at some distance, beyond Kelat-i-Ghilzye, or

Zemindawar, or the trans-Helmand

territory,

and the

like.

As

regards the

employment
;

of British troops, little

would be

saved by retirement
will be

most of the troops which held Candahar

hold Pishin.
is

required to

Whereas,

if

Candahar

is

occupied in strength, then Pishin

garrison.

fully covered,

and needs no

As

British troops

must be maintained

in this quarter,

they should remain, where they

tion, instead of
is

now are,

in the liest possible situa-

moving back on

Pishin, which, though tolerable,

inferior in every point of view.

its

Eespecting the disposal of

Candahar and

province, there

is

no local chief

to

whom

the

charge of them could be entrusted.

The

chief of Herat,

Eyub

Khan, though defeated and a fugitive, is still in arms against us. The new Amir of Caubul appears as yet to have a most uncertain tenure even at Caubul itself, and it remains to be seen whether he
succeeds in holding his

own

there,

without attempting to found

an additional dominion
Such
question
present,
are, in brief,
;

in a distant quarter like Candahar.

the considerations on both sides of this

new when
the

conjunctures
all

may

at

any moment

arise

but at
a

the reasons are weighed, there

appears

balance of argument in favour of retaining Candahar.

Besides
general considerations,

one particular reason

that recently in the

exists at the present time,

nnmely

this,

440

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxvi.

summer
repaired

of 1880, a disaster befell a brigade of British troops

near the Helmand.

The military misfortune has been

For a time, several of the
along the line
of

fully

by subsequent achievements, but the moral

felt.

effect of the
tribes,

defeat has been widely

occupying various points

communication
submissive-

between Candahar and the Indus, threw

ness,

off their

and rose against British authority.

This instance

may

be

added to the
invincibility

many

other instances which shew that the spell of

in a
It

must be maintained
if

dominion which partly

depends on the force of opinion.

British repute,

would be injurious

to

the Afghans were to fall into the error of

supposing that the Government would be disposed to evacuate a

territory because it

had been the scene of

defeat.

It

would be

well

if,

on the contrary, they should see that such misfortune

hardens the persistency of the Government in pursuing a fixed

policy,

and

stiffens its resolves.

On

this ground, in addition to

other grounds, a display of some tenacity respecting Candahar

will tend to the vindication of British interests in that quarter.

The

influence

of

England on Beluchistan and southern

Afghanistan will be materially strengthened by the construction of the railway from Sibi, near Bolan, the present terminus
of the

open

line, to the valley of Pishin,

with a branch from

is

that valley to Quetta.

The

line chosen

by Nari and Hamai

favourable for the engineers, respecting curves and gradients,

and can be permanently maintained

to the British

at all seasons.

It is ad-

vantageous politically, as running through the district assigned

Government by the

treaty of

Gandamak, and
territory.

enabling the authorities to effectively manage that

It has

been preferred to the alternative route through the Bolan

pass to Quetta and thence to Pishin, because a line through

that pass, though practicable, offers

more engineering

difiiculties,

and fewer

political or administrative advantages.

441

CHAPTER XXYII.
FINANCE.
Publication of budget in

India Statement of income and expenditure Apprehensions expressed by some authorities regarding Indian finance

Want

of elasticity in the revenue

expenses

Cost

Control

of expenditure

of

the

civil

administration

The military Provincial

services

Cost of material improvements Guaranteed railways State railways Canals and irrigation works Total outlay on public works results during recent famines Recurrence of famine
European and Native agency
Its
to England Former proposals regarding gold standard The national debt Equilibrium between ordinary income and expenditure Audit and account Government paper currency Coinage at mints Savings-banks Presidency banks Cash balances.

Loss by exchange on remittances by Government of India

The chapter on

finance has been reserved for the end, because

financial considerations really

form the basis of that fabric upon

which the Indian empire

considerations

rests,

and

afford tests

by which other

must be

finally judged.

The circumstances of
military

finance represent an epitome of all other circumstances, econo-

mic, administrative and defensive.

Good government,

defence, progressive administration, political and diplomatic

ma-

nagement, material improvement, moral advancement and spread

of civilization

would be

of

no avail

to save the empire, if the

equilibrum between income and expenditure were permanently

lost,

and

if

national insolvency impended.

is

It has

been well

said that the imperial balance-sheet

the " articulus stantis

aut cadentis imperii."

Before 1859,

budget estimates of the finances in British

for publication.

India were not regularly prepared

Since that

time, however, yearly statements have been promulgated

by the
for

Government

in India, including the accounts

made up

the

442

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xxvii.

last preceding year, the revised estimate for

the current year,

It is enacted

and a budget estimate

for the

coming

year.

by

law that the accounts of the Indian empire shall be annually

presented to Parliament.

The parliamentary statement, thus

in India, with such modifications or
as

rendered necessary, has come to be a commentary on the financial

statement already
corrections,

made

and with such additions,

may

be deemed
is

fit

by Her Majesty's Government.

to statesmen,

Information

thus afforded

economists, capitalists, and to all concerned in

Tlie first

the welfare of the Indian empire.

budget was pro-

duced

at Calcutta
it is

Although

by James Wilson. by no means intended here

to

comment on

each item of the incomings and the outgoings of the Indian

treasury, yet
it

is

well to present, as a foundation for such

remarks as

may

be desirable, a statement of the receipts and

expenditure of British India, during the two last completed

years,

which will be found on pages 444, 445.

order to

In

convey an idea of

the extent

to

which the

finances of the empire have grown, the subjoined statement in

abstract shews the total of receipts

and of expenditure, as
it

it

stood

in

several

previous

decades and as

stands

at

the

present time
Official

Years

Chap, xxvii.

APrREHENSIONS REGAEDING FINANCE.

whose
i)osition,

443

Some

persons,

knowledge and general expe-

rience entitle

them

to high respect, hold that the finances of

state.

India are in an unsound

situation
is

Some think

that the financial

even menaced with danger.

is

An

answer to a

portion of these opinions

presented in a clear and condensed

form by the report of the Indian Famine Commission, and by

the treatise recently published by Mr. H.
'

S.

Cunningham,

entitled

Notes on some disputed Points in Indian Finance and Taxa-

tion.'

As

a judgment can be formed best

by studying both

sides of a large case like this, a reference ought to be

made

by the student
and
'

to the parliamentary speeches of

articles
'

Mr. Fawcett,

to the

two

by Mr. H. M. Hyndman,
review, and
entitled "

^\Titten for the

Nineteenth Century

The Bankruptcy

of India."

The

objections, wdiich

have been propounded at various times,

Those which
from
thus.

relate to other

economic subjects besides finance.

relate to finance, so far as they can be gathered

many
The

writings

at

various

times,

may

be

summarized
inelastic,

revenues of the Indian Government are

be increased
of safety.
trolled
; ;

and cannot

taxation has been already advanced to the limit

of expenditure
is

The increase

not adequately con-

the military expenses are overwhelming.

The

civil

and
the
sive

judicial

administration

is

costly

and
where

elaborate,

beyond

needs

and means of the country and people.

agency
suffice.
is

ExpenNative
public

European

retained,

cheaper

agency

would

Material

improvements
scale

and

works have been undertaken on a

too

vast,

and in a
if

manner which cannot prove remunerative.

Even

foreign

wars and internal disturbances shall be avoided,

still

the re-

currence of famines must cause a severe drain on the resources

of the empire.
to

The necessity
liable
to

of

making very

large remittances

England, in silver to be measured by a gold standard, renders

finances

the

derangement from
is

loss

by exchange.
till

The

national debt has grown, and

to an,

growing,

its interest

amounts

annual sum which the Indian treasury cannot

Abstract Account sliowing

Rkvenue.

tlie

Eevenue and
Estimate,
1879-80.

Land Eevenue
Tributes and Contributions Forest Excise on Spirits and Drugs
.

Assessed Taxes Provincial Kates

Customs
Salt

OiDium

Stamps
Registration

Mint

..

..

Post Office Telegraph

Minor Departments

Law and
Police

Justice

Marine
Education Medical
Stationery and Printing Interest Receipts in aid of Superannuation, Retired and passionate Allowances

22,323,869* 21,679,000 714,000 703, 6G0 662,091 005,433 2,765,000 2,619,349 797,000 900,920 2,706,000 2,638,835 2,231,000 2,326,561 6,941,120 7,335,000 10,459,000 9,399,401 3,203,000 3,110,540 266,360* 262,000 254,038 172,335 968,000 911,806 487,476 426,694 95,266 84,977 647,130* 663,000 211,108 221,000 206,017 250,595 147,425 137,000 44,332 54,751 52,916 47,096 628,367 711,325

Com-

667,485
348,218* 10,822 168,619 571,076 973 974,781 133,313*

531,442

Miscellaneous

327,246
192,000 479,858 59,000 947,812 324,000

Railways
Irrigation

and Navigation Other Public Works Provincial and Local Deficits

Army
Gain by Exchange on Transactions with London

Total

..

..

58,283,200* 59,525,238

Revenue from Productive Public "Works

Railways
Irrigation

and Navigation
ditto

6,167,312* 622,156

6,701,000 678,967

Ditto

Portion of

Land Revenuel
j

due

to Irrigation

126,934
6,916,402=*

710,000
8,089,967

Total

Grand Total, Revenue

65,199,602

67,615,205

* The reason that these figures do not correspond with those contained in the Finance and Revenue Accounts for 1878-79, is that the new arrangement of these items, which has been adopted ii>1879-80, has been applied in the above Account to the year 1878-79, for purposes of comparison.

Expenditure, for 1878-79, aud as estimated for 1879-80.

Expenditure.
1878-79.
E.STIMATI:,

1879-80.

Refunds and Drawbacks Payments in Realisation of Revenue

406,562
:

350,000
2,944.749 521,177 110,000 35,000 50,000 201,000 356,223 2,058,856 114,250 162,000 91,583 1,133,032 482,038
1,899,965

Land Revenue
Forest Excise on Spirits and Drugs Assessed Taxes
Provincial Rates

Customs
Salt

Opium
Stamps
Registration

2.960,010* 454,934 87,839 37,617 64,431 200,417 404,743 1,698,730 115,452 160,801*
103,991 1,033, H27

Mint
Post Office

Telegraph Allowances and Assignments under Treaties

470,790
and"!
j

Engagements

1,826,484

Total

of the Direct Claims and Demands uponl the Revenues, includiug Charges of Collec-> 10,026,128* tion, and Cost of Salt and Opium .
.
. .

10,509,873

Interest on Permanent and Floating Debt Interest on Service Funds and other Obligations

Administration

Minor Departments Law and Justice

Police

Marine Education
Ecclesiastical

Medical
Stationery and Printing
Political Agencies Civil Furlough and

Absentee Allowances

Superannuation, Retired and Compassionate Allowances Miscellaneous Famine Relief

Railways

and Navigation Other Public Works Provincial and Local Surpluses

Irrigation

Army
Loss by Exchange on Transactions with London

4,575,069 4,451,735 378,952 381,027 1,487,852 1,486 247 355,347 362,522 3,297,063* 3,291,049 2,419,119 2,485,000 548,703 548,363 978,254 971,864 155,200 155,800 672,901 669,059 471,470 432,757 440,440 448,793 214,386 231,561 2,087,279 1,997,327 293,094* 314,615 99,343 313,420 360,000 226,846 630,919 753,551 4,104,405 4,318,247 324,000 716,378 17,092,488+ 20,974,348t 3,188,000 3,359,144

Total Expenditure, Ordinary

54,990,433

58,609,505

Expenditure on Productive Public Works (Working Expenses and Interest): Railways Irrigation and Navigation Interest on Debt incurred for Productive Publicl

6,334,981 432,118
,

6,627,076 462,109
1,587,000

Works
Total

1.407,824

.nr,r,r,.

8,174,923

8,676,185
67,285,690

Grand Total

63,165,356
4,381,898

Pkoductive Public Works (Capital Expenuiture)

3,564,140

Revenue
Expenditure chargeable thereon

65,199,602 67,615,205 63 1 65 356 67,285,690

.

Exce

of

Revenue over Expenditure

for Operations in Afghanistan

2,034,246
1878-79. 676,380

329,515
1879-80. 3,207,880 1,324,426

f Including
,,

Frontier Railways

446
properly bear.
to preserve

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xxvii.
failed for

The Government has

many

years

an equilibrium between income and expenditure.

Therefore some disaster, almost approaching to a collapse, must

sooner or later occur.

These apprehensions are chiefly expressed by independent

observers,
of

and are entertained by some, but not by the majority, official men but they are stoutly controverted by some
;

authorities,

and are not admitted by the Government.

They
Indian

are not felt

by English
the
latest

capitalists, if the quotations of

Government
tenders for
indications.

securities in the

London money market, and the

loans,

Indian

may

be accepted

as

Being published in England in the most telling

manner, they have
elicited

and

effective

much comment
to

in

India, but have not been seriously regarded there

of Europeans, official

by the majority some they must

and

non-official,

though

have caused alarm.

They have been noticed by the educated a portion of them has been echoed by classes of the Natives In some respects they coincide the organs of Native opinion.
;

with the views which influential bodies of Natives have long

urged upon the Government.
It
is

impossible to

say for
in their

certain whether they have affected the Native

mind

extreme conclusion regarding the probability of some national

disaster occurring
safe,
;

perhaps they have not.

It

would hardly be

however, to pronounce any positive opinion upon a point

which concerns the estimate wliich the Natives form resfarding

the ultimate stability of British rule, an estimate which Euro-

peans can hardly divine.

Nevertheless,
receive

these

apprehensions

deserve

and

doubtless

the most earnest and

constant

attention

from the

For, although they may be rejected in the form whereby they are expressed, they are not destitute of plausible

Government.

reason,

nor wholly devoid

of

apparent foundation.

Indeed,

they represent the very dangers to which the Indian empire would be exposed, if it were to be carelessly managed. They
point exactly to the
pitfalls

into

wliich

an administration.

Chap, xxvii.
financially"
sive,

GEADUAL INCEEASE OP EEVENUE.

447

imprudent, or unduly sanguine, or hastily progres-

would lead the country.

They give warning

of the tempta-

tions

which beset many of the most benevolent reformers and

the most enlightened administrators.

They counteract the

disposition to overstrain the strength of the country for the

sake of immediate

effect,

and the tendencies of that vaulting

itself.

ambition which overleaps

Therefore those
so

who

declare

and expound

these

apprehensions

lucidly

and forcibly

render good service to their country by keeping the public eye

fixed on these subjects.
Still, if
;

the dangers exist, the country

is

may

escape from them

and the interesting question

whether

they are being averted or avoided.

For the better examination

several apprehen-

of this all-important question, each of the

sions above mentioned will be briefly noticed.

In respect to the

elasticity or otherwise of the revenues, it

must be acknowledged that they are inelastic as compared with those of the most advanced European nations, especially with those of Great Britain as compared also with what many well;

wishers might have expected or

may

still

hope

to see.

There

has not been, nor, in

all probability, will there be,

any bound

forward, nor any rebound after temporary depression, of the

Indian revenues.
pressive effect

This want of

fiscal elasticity

must have a
to

re-

upon the hopes

in

of those

who wish

improve the

country.

Nevertheless, all the branches of the revenue increase

;

slowly, though steadily

to

none of them has there been any

permanently decline, notwithstanding the unprecetendency dented calamities from famine and pestilence within the last few
years.

The land revenue has

risen, irrespective of accessions of

territory, in consequence of increase of cultivation, notwithstand-

ing that the share in the rent claimable by Government has not

been enhanced, and that the rate of incidence per acre has been
diminished.
It

may

yet rise considerably further, hereafter, by

reason of improvements in agriculture.

The revenue from

salt,

from

excise,

changes in rates of duty.

from stamps, increases by degrees, irrespective of The income from the State forests

448
is

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xxvii.

likely to increase indefinitely.

The customs revenue has

likely to increase.

decreased, indeed, owing to remission or reduction of duties

irrespective of such causes of diminution,
it is

Eepeated consideration, caused by general warnings in respect to

the uncertainty surrounding the

opium revenue, has

The

failed to

shew any symptom

of decline in that branch.

receipts

from

departments managed by the State, such as the Post-office and

the Electric telegraph, are increasing, and are likely to increase
still further.

In reference

to taxation
it

having been already advanced to the

of

limits of safety,

must be admitted that the possible sources

it is

additional taxation are very few, and that

a primary object

of policy to avoid the imposition of

new

taxes, although the

existing taxation of the country, judged, not

by a European,
light.

but by an Indian standard,

Still,

is

demonstrably low and

is

there

is

the income-tax which

not new, but

is

a well-

understood impost.

However strong may be

after
it

the objections

against this tax, and however great the expediency

refraining from its re-imposition

may

be of

has been formally

remitted,

it

yet remains as an available resource in the event

necessity,

of absolute

and

it

will

touch some classes

otherwise escape taxation almost entirely.

Even
is

those,

who who

do not admit that

the

general taxation

moderate, vnll

acknowledge that there are some of the wealthier classes who

do not at present bear their proper share in the
of the country.
fiscal

burdens

In regard
trolled, it

to the national

expenses not being adequately con-

must be allowed that from ofiicial and non-of&cial quarters pressure is incessantly put upon the Government to
augment expenditure.
All are agreed that in general terms expenditure ought to be kept down.

But many persons, while defor beneficent

precating existing expenditure on branches in wliich they have

no concern, do not hesitate

objects in

to

recommend expense

which they

feel a just interest.

Some, who preach

economy

as a rule,

seem

to think that a favourite project is to

Chap, xxvii.

MILITARY EXPENSES.
;

449

be the exception
general

the sense of
to

its

particular merits causes the

maxims

be forgotten.

Now,

the

very numerous

persons of

all sorts

who have

to

make

proposals for improveto for

to the fact that the

ments of any kind, may be confidently appealed Government in India sets

testimony
against

its face

everything that will cause an increase of expenditure.

respect, too,

In this
strictest

Her Majesty's Government

;

exercise the

under special considerations any augmentation has been allowed in India, it may very possibly be dissupervision
if

and

allowed by orders from England.

Thus, whether the control be

it,

perfect or not, there is a disposition to exercise

it is

and therefore and

sure to be exercised in some considerable degree at least.

are alleged to be

The military expenses The thought

overwhelming

indeed they constitute by far the largest item of the expenditure.

of repressing or reducing

them has never been

absent from the mind of the Government for

reductions in the forces, European and Native,

many

years

the

made during 1859

and 1860 were very considerable

years.

nor has there been any

addition to the fighting strength during the subsequent twenty

Even during the

two

recent

Afghan war, when

forces,

equal

to nearly

Army

Corps, had to be despatched beyond the

Indus, there has

not been any actual augmentation of the

troops permanently.

The

slight

augmentation ordered

for the

Native army of Bengal was temi^orary only, and

hardly been given to
it.

effect

has

The additional European troops sent

from England are employed temporarily, and will be withdrawn

on the termination of the war.

high commission has sat in

India to consider every practicable means of reducing the

military expenditure
tion of fighting
;

though not able

it

to propose

any diminu-

strength,

has

suggested various measures

Still it

whereby expense may be lessened.

though
slightly, increased

despite all precautions, the cost of

;

must be owned that, the army has somewhat,

owing
to the

but this

is

improved
of
to

armament and equipment rendered necessary by the progress The Government could not possibly deny science in war. 2 G

450
its

INDIA IN

1880.

CuAP. xxvii.

Indian armies the fighting advantages which the other

armies of the day possess.

As

to the

proportion which the

it

military expenditure bears to the income of the State,

not, perhaps, be

should

reckoned upon the total receipts, as shewn in

the accounts, 66,000,000 sterling, but rather

upon the

total of

the revenue proper as

shewn

in a previous chapter,
is

namely

43 millions.

This expenditure
;

shewn

at

16^ millions in the

with a show of

accounts of recent years

but some

critics allege,

reason, that, including cost of barracks

it

and certain other charges,

This

stands really at more than 17 millions.

is

sum

represents

practically the cost wliich

incurred by India for defence, as

annually.

her naval charges are insignificant, only 80,000

The proportion

will not appear

large

as

compared with the

existing defensive expenditure of the United

Kingdom,
States.

or of

any of the Great Powers, excepting the United

As

to

the civil

administration
is

becoming too costly and

undoubtedly reason to fear
constrain
tlie

elaborate for the country, there

that the

demands

of civilization

may

Government
The best
in-

to allow tilings which,

though good in themselves, are more than

for.

a poor country like India can afford to pay

tentioned persons

commonly

press a reform or an imj)rovement

of its

upon the Government, thinking only

counting
its cost.

merits without

If the cost be

mentioned as an objection,
for

they will reply that as

money was forthcoming

it

such and

such a beneficial measure,

might

be,

and ought

to be,

found

for this particular proposal.

The vehemence of such moral

pressure will hardly be understood by any save those

actually experienced
phatically
it.

who have
in the

Therefore, those

do well who emtoo

warn the public against expecting

is

much

way

of a costly

and elaborate administration in a poor country.

apt to assume different

In these respects public opinion

phases;
at the present

time
the

it

would probably support the

for

Government
present.

in

arresting

course of improvement, as the

belief perhaps prevails

that

enough has been done

it is,

the

But

if

instead uf being, as

progressive and civilized.

CiiAP. XXVII.

COST OF CIVIL ADMINISTRATION.

451

the administration had been backward or halting, because the country could not afford the cost, then a public cry, of a

would have arisen, and the Government would have been reproached as being benighted and as lagging behind
different tone,

the spirit of the age.

After

all,

the administrative improve-

ments which have

cost

money

in India

were almost entirely

of an obligatory character; they were hardly optional in

degree.

any

The

police is corrupt
officials

organized.
to

Native

must be redo not receive remuneration enough

inefficient
;

and

it

The mass

keep them in honesty; their emoluments must be raised. of the children throughout the country are growino'
in ignorance
;

up

something must be done

for education.

The
the

courts are too few to dispose of the

business brought before

them, or are too distant from the homes of the suitors;

judicial

establishments must be strengthened.

is

A
;

vast terriit

torial area

consolidated under one dominion

must be

fully surveyed.

The empire
found to
be

is

known

to
for

abound in natural
physical science.

resources;

something must be effected

is

Much
some
jails

mortality
efforts

arise

from preventible diseases

must

put

forth

on behalf

of

sanitation.

Prisoners are languishing in badly-ventilated and ill-regulated

;

some outlay

for

improved prisons must be sanctioned.

;

Instances might be added

but enough

is

here adduced to con-

vey some idea of the reproaches which would have been justly
levelled at the Indian

Government by English philanthropists

and other kindred matters, had been
such neglect been brought home to the
doubtful whether any financial plea

and reformers,

if these,

neglected for any reason whatever, even the reason that funds

were not available.

Had
it

Indian Government,

is

which, on need arising, always asserts

fluence dominant.

would have been accepted by that public opinion in England itself and makes its in-

the very critics

As a case in point, it may be observed that who condemn the Indian Government for the
its

alleged extravagance of

administration, often reprove

statistical

it for

not having collected and collated a mass of

information, in addition to
all

and

otlier

the reports and statistics whicli 2 G 2

452
are already published.

INDIxi IN 1880.

Chap, xxvii.

But

it

seems hardly to be remembered

is

that such information, to be worth anything,

Lastly, in the higher salaries, in wliich

costly to obtain.

Europeans are more

expenditure

concerned than others, there has been no increase but rather a

diminution.
is

During the

last

few years the

civil

shewn

to

have not increased, but, on the contrary, to have

slightly decreased.

An

arrangement was commenced in 1872 known by the

designation of " Provincial Services," whereby certain sums are

allotted

by the Government

of India
for

to

the several Local

:

Governments in the empire

object of the arrangement

certain

services
like.

education,

prisons, police, roads, civil buildings

is this,

and the

The primary

that the various Local Govern-

ments should have resources

poses, of

at their disposal for these pur-

which resources the most and the best must be made,

and which may be supplemented by any legitimate means that

can be devised locally, on the understanding that no further

demand
accounts.

is

to

be made upon the general treasury on these

is this,

Another object

that a peremptory limit should

be set to expenditure from the imperial finances on these

several departments,

which are the very departments

in

which

expenditure
to resist.

may

be advocated with a moral pressure most hard

The scheme was introduced, under the auspices of

for

Lord Mayo, with an appreciable retrenchment of the average

amounts previously allowed

general treasury.
It has

these departments

from the

worked well

financially, for the limit

thus ]3rescribed has been observed and no additional

demand

has since been

to possess

made on the imperial finance. many other advantages, but in this

is

It has

been found
its financial

place

advantage
several

dwelt upon, because

it

distinctly established in

spending

departments

that

very control, which

is

alleged

by some

critics to

be wanting.

Eespecting the retention of expensive

European

agency,

where cheaper Native agency would

covenanted

suffice, it is to

be remem-

bered that, despite the expansion of the empire, the European

civil service

has not been augmented, but, on the

Chap, xxvii.

EMPLOYMENT OF

NATIA'ES.
is

453

contrary, has been

somewhat diminished and

likely to be furtlier

reduced in numbers.

Natives are being admitted more and

more into that

European agency

service with

some saving of expense

effect, in all
is still

for all
f(jr

lesser administrative posts the policy of substituting Native

is

being carried into

departments

save the police, where European supervision

indispensable.

In the ministerial offices, educated Natives have succeeded in almost entirely supplanting the European or East Indian clerks

who used
to train

to

be

employed.

For such departments as en-

gineering, telegraphy, forestry,

and

others, every effort is

made
Euro-

up Natives
some

for the work.

The

training, if successful,
for

must have the

peans
to

effect of substituting

them ultimately
policy,

extent.

To
in

this

however, manifest

necessity has assigned certain limits, which are perliaps over-

looked by some
transgressed,

critics

the present

day,

and which,

if

might leave the empire exposed

pul)lic

to jeopardy.

In

most of those places wherein the

exercise of

safety requires the

what

are
for

known

as the distinctive British qualities,

to

Europeans must
employed.

an indefinite time

come continue

to be

The argument that material improvements have been undertaken on a scale too vast, and in a manner which cannot
prove remunerative, would,
if

substantiated, be serious indeed.

It is true that projects of this

somewhat extravagant nature

are

frequently proposed for the sanction of the Government, and

that the utmost vigilance
is

required to prevent their acceptance

but they are usually rejected.

Therefore those

critics,

who

insist

on a jealous scrutiny being exercised, lend moral support

to the

Government
vidious,

in performing

duty which often becomes in-

when the schemes are in their nature excellent and have much to recommend them, barring the prospect of an early
financial profit.

The question

is

whether the Government

lias

undertaken any large work wliich on financial grounds ought to

have been postponed, or which from
to
its results

can be pronounced

have been wrong in inception and execution.

consist
of railways

The works

in

question

and canals

they are open to

454
inspection

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xxvii,

by the most independent observers on the spot the them are accessible to If they were to be taken one by one, it would be the pubUc, difficult to single out any of them which, for financial or any
;

minutest

statistical particulars regarding

other reasons, ought not to have been undertaken.

The only

one which, with any semblance of reason, could be indicated as

falling within
this

category, is

the

canal system of Orissa,

a.

as it is

not likely to prove remunerative for

long time to

come, unless a famine should supervene.

ever,

Few

persons,

how-

who

are acquainted with that

which once happened in

if

that

province,

and

which might happen again

drought

occurred in the absence of any means

of irrigation,

would

assume the responsibility of saying that these works ought not

to

have been undertaken.

For many of the other works,

in abundance.

justification

would be produced
said,

It

may

be

however, that although the condemnation of be

difficult

individual works
piecemeal, yet

may

its results

when the system is examined when regarded in the aggregate are

The works
consist

financially unfavourable.

of Guaranteed

railways, State railways,

and

canals.

Eespecting the Guaranteed railways the excess of guaranteed

interest over net traffic receipts,
to the State

which represents the real charge

on their account,

for

some years stood

at
to

If million

sterling annually,

and during one year mounted up

more than

two millions.

It fell,

however, to below a million, and in one

;

year dwindled to one quarter of a million

three-quarters of a million
;

it

rose again to

in one year

it

disappeared and was

It

replaced by a considerable profit to the State.

these

may under

circumstances be expected

to

disappear

permanently

ere long.

The State railways have already involved an

26^ millions
pleted,
sterling,

outlay of

on which the interest would be upwards

of one million annually.

Though the

lines are not all

com-

and not in

full

working

order, they are already yielding

half a million annually of net earnings for part defrayal of

interest charges.
It is therefore probable that

they

will, after

Chap, xxvii,

RAILWAYS AND CANALS.

455

completion, soon begin to reconp the State for the interest

chargeable on them.

On

State railways

Famine Commissioners report

and Guaranteed railways together, the that the net receipts in 1879-80 on a capital of 114| millions,
on a capital
to 6;^ millions sterling

amount

to

5 J millions sterling

and will amount in 1880-1

of 123 millions, the former giving a return a little less, and the
latter a return of a little more, than 5 per cent., a result wliich

compares favourably with those obtained in any other country.

This success,
large
too,
is

attained

already,

notwithstanding that

sums

are still locked

up

in works not yet brought into

full operation.

Upon

the canals, upwards of 20 millions sterling of capital

have been spent.

After some trouble and delay the Governin

ment has succeeded

available
for

making out an exact account

of the

returns, and that shews a net return of 1^ million annually,

defrayal

of interest charges, or 6 per cent., as

is satisfactory.

already seen in the chapter on canals, which

It is satisfactory to note that, notwithstanding the considerable

increase in the capital of the debt, the interest will be found to

have not appreciably increased when the net income from the productive public works is taken into consideration, as will be seen thus by figures taken from the finance and revenue
accounts.

On
;

the 31st of March, 1872, the interest-bearing

debt stood at 105,581,068 plus 1,378,466, the total being

106,959,534

the charges

were
1871-2.

Interest on

Debt On Service Funds

5,483,518 482,781
5,966,299 629 970
,

Deduct dividend on East India Stock

Total

5,336,329

however, 482,781 stated above should be dein ducted, as the capital of these obligations was not included 4,853,548. stand at the debt thus the total charge will

From

this,


456

INDIA IN
1880.

. .

Chap, xxvii.

On

the 31st of March, 1879, the debt stood at 137,868,043.

The charges were

1878-9.
Interest, exclusive of productive Public

Works

4 575 069
, ,

Irrigation

on Service Funds
.. ..
.

378,952

State Kail ways, working and maintenance..

ditto ditto Works, .. Interest on Debt for productive Public Works

734,377 381,550
1

,407,824

7,477,772

Deduct Earnings of State Railways

966 006 ditto Irrigation Works 613,270 Land Revenue due to Irrigation 126,934
,

1,706,210

Total

5,771,562

From
Again,

this

378,952

for service

funds should be deducted,

leaving a total of 5,392,610.

it is

held by some authorities that the capital outlay

on the Guaranteed railways, as forming a part of the State

obligations, ought for practical consideration to be

added

to the
tliis

national debt.
position
is

From

a technical point of view, however,

is

hardly tenable, or at the best

tenable only to a

limited extent.
fifth of

That portion of the national debt, about one-

the whole, which has been borrowed for productive public

works, does indeed bear some resemblance to the capital outlay

on the Guaranteed railways.

obligations, against

In both cases the State has incurred

to be set valuable properties
is

which there are

yielding returns.

The remaining, that

not at

much

the greater, part

of the national debt, incurred for military, political,

and ad-

ministrative necessities,

is

all

analogous to the capital

outlay on Guaranteed railways, wliich constitute a productive

possession.
If,

however, the two sorts of State obligations were

it

added together

would be found that the Government

little

is

at the

present time paying

the whole.

more than 2 per

cent, interest

on
be

As

this

view will be interesting

to some, it

may

presented thus by figures taken from the finance and revenue

accounts, and from the official statements
:

Chap, xxvii.

SCHEME OF PRODUCTIVE PUBLIC WORKS.

457

458

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xxvii.

when embarrassment was caused by

silver, these

the fall in the value of

works were comprehensively re^dewed by a par-

liamentary committee.
tained
;

The leading

principles were all main-

but further precautions were enjoined respecting the

ascertainment of the remunerative prospect before works are

sanctioned,

and the annual outlay was restricted to the amount which could be advantageously borrowed within India itself. A retrospect of the recent famines will convince most persons
that
it

was truly fortunate

for the

Government that the public

had been
so far carried

works, both the former and the

latter,

out as to place the country in possession of railways and canals

when
1874,

it

had

to withstand the shock of these calamities.

it

In

when

mortality was happily averted,

would have been

if

impossible to prevent some misfortune occurring

there had not

been the means of rapidly transporting grain from the port of

Calcutta to the banks of the Ganges in Behar.

In 1877-8 the

famine in southern India, already so widespread, would have

extended

much
still

further,

and the diminished food-supply would

it

have been

further contracted, had

not been for the canals.

The importation of food, from long distances to the distressed districts inland, would have been impossible without the railways. Thus the mortality, already so lamentable, would have been indefinitely greater,

and would have embraced many millions of

Let any one
reflect as to

people in

its fatal grasp.

what would

have been the state of public sentiment in England, so righteously

sensitive

on these subjects,

if

such a dire event had come to pass.

Many

organs of public opinion would have denounced the

criminal short-sightedness of those

who had

failed to store the

waters for fertilization, and who, despite the good example

before their eyes of all civilized nations, had omitted to apply

the ordinary resources of science to providing transport by rail

over the long distances which intervene between the different

parts of so wide a dominion.

Then the

authorities

would have
to face

been reproached as being indirectly the authors of a part of the

great calamity
;

and the Government might have had

the wrathof a justly incensed nation.

Chap, xxvii.

LOSS BY

EXCHANGE ON REMITTANCES.
may
still

459
full,

One

of tho objections mentioned

if

be admitted to the

namely, that even

extraordinary causes, political and military,

the recurrence of famines

of financial disturbance be avoided,

must cause a drain on the resources of the empire. This prospect must be regarded with resignation to the will of Providence,
but with the most resolute
spirit of self-help.

Material improve-

ments will mitigate, though they cannot

avert, the misfortune.

The

receipts

from the public works vnll in ordinary times reduce

the interest on the national debt, so that there

may

be some

margin

left for

unavoidable increase in time of famine.

In view

of such misfortunes there

must be such a
be found with

rigid

economy, and
trial

such a judicious husbanding of resources, that when the

comes, the Government

may

its

ordinary finance
casli

sound and

safe,

and with

its

treasury so full that the

balances can afford a considerable

sum

for

immediate

use.

The embarrassment,
arises

also,

must be

fully

acknowledged which
large remittancas

from the

loss

by exchange on the very

by

Government from India to England in silver, to be measured by a gold standard. The Secretary of State for India in Council draws bills on the Government of India which are sold in London
the
at rates, ranging

from a shilling and so many pence

It is the rate thus obtained

to

two

shillings, for a rupee.

which causes

so

much

anxiety to financiers.

The

rate

is

also of great interest

to the general trade, for it is the

main

indicator of the exchange

between England and India.

silver,

The

slightest fall in the value of

even by the fraction of a penny,

may

cause to the State a

large additional loss against

which no financier can provide.

In

former days the exchange used not to cause any apprehension

the value of silver was high, approaching the assumed par of two
shillings for the rupee,

and the amount of the remittances was

late,

comparatively small.

Of

while the remittances have largely

increased, the value of silver

this

happens to have

fallen,

and from

double cause

much
years,

financial trouble has ensued.

Within

the

most recent

while the finances were strained by

famine and by war, the loss by exchange has been superadded. In 1876, the exchange fell below Is. 7d. for the rupee, and the

460
alarm in

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xxvii. chief losers were the

it.

many

quarters was great.

The

State and all the interests depending on

official

The European
classes, suffered

classes,

and some of the

non-official

severely.
trade,

Some detriment happened

to portions of the foreign

it

but the export trade was not injured, on the contrary,

was
any

affected favourably,
ill effect.

and the Natives generally did not

feel

In India, however, so
State, that there

many

interests are

bound

up with
tion

tlie

were misgivings throughout the

its zero,

empire when the exchange was at

and general
risen

satisfac-

when

it

began to

rise again.
is

Though

somewhat
Is.
8(^.

after

several fluctuations,

it

still

low (averaging

for the
is

rupee) and causes

felt at

much

trouble,

though no particular alarm

from

the present moment.

tlie

Tliese serious difficulties arise

existence of a silver
of a gold standard

standard and currency.

into India,

The introduction

whereby gold coins would be

in India,

legal tender to

amounts
financial

without limit, was strongly recommended by

autliorities

many

among whom were

the finance ministers

Mr.

S.

Laing, Sir Charles Trevelyan and Mr, Massey.

The only

authority in India of equal rank,

who

held an opposite view,

was James Wilson.

by the Government
relative to gold

But the
liigh.

obstacles were even then found

to be insuperable,

when

the value of silver

aggravated as

They have subsequently become that value has fallen, and practically there is not
was
There
if
is

any hope of a gold standard being adopted.

whether the case would be materially
believed by
altered,

doubt

even

gold shall be

discovered in large quantities %vithin India

itself,

of which

some

prospect

is

many

to be

opening out, on the southern

perhaps unfortunate that

portion of the Malabar coast.

It is

originally, at the outset of British rule, a gold standard

was not

introduced, and

many now

think that at that time circumstances

were not unfavourable to the measure.

But when once a

silver

standard has been established in a large empire, and has lasted

for

many

years, a

change from silver to gold involves

infinite

complications; and India must, apparently, continue to bear

the burden and the risk
entailed

upon her by the existing

Chap, xxvii.

FALL IN VALUE OF SILVEK.

461

standard.

Meanwhile, since the discovery of gokl in Australia,

this
suljject.

there

have been anomalies connected with

late Sir

It

was remarked by the

to be after

W.

Mansfield (afterwards Lord

Sandhurst) that the gold of Australia had to go to London

exchanged

for silver,

which was then sent out

artificially

to India

being bought at an
spectacle

high price in Europe.

The strange

was exhibited

for

many

years of ships,

freighted with gold, traversing half the globe in one direction,

crossing ships conveying an equal value of silver in the opposite

direction, for the

adjustment of balances of trade capable of

settlement \^dthout either voyage.

Meanwhile the causes

not prove permanent, and

of the fall of the value of silver

may

may either

abate or disappear, such as

the excessive produce of the American mines, the glut of silver

in the

the

money market in consequence of the changes made by German Government, and the altered condition of trade.
of the potent factors in hardening the exchange in favour

One
of

India and
is

remedying

the

losses

which

have

recently

occurred,

held to be the briskness of the Indian export trade.

is

Whenever
is

a powerful impulse

given to that trade, then silver

of silver to India

likely to rise in value.

The flow

was

enormous when the cotton trade started forward with a bound This subject is in consequence of the civil war in America.
well explained in

Colonel Nassau Lees' book, entitled 'The

Drain of Silver

to the East,'

and published in 1866.

to the national debt,

The next
perly bear.

difficulty relates

which

is

said to be growing to

an amount that the treasury cannot proGuaranteed railways (97

to be virtually a part of the national

The
is

capital outlay on the

millions) is held

by many

debt

but

it

technically excluded and, as already seen, the

chai'ge

upon the State on account of Guaranteed interest is expected to disappear. The national debt proper, that is the
registered interest-bearing debt,
sterling

may

be stated at 151^ millions

on the 31st of March, 1880.

Of

this,

37 millions have

been spent on the remunerative public works which are abeady

in part defraying,

and are expected ultimately

to defray alto-

462
getlier,
4:h

INDIA IN
the interest charges

1880.

Chap, xxvii.

incurred on their account

of the

and

millions on the redemption

dividend due to the

holders of East India stock.

Thus, what

may

be termed the

unproductive debt would stand at 110 millions.

Of

this again

something
cost the
for

is

due to the famines, which are estimated

millions.

to

have

Government 16
is

The national debt incurred

If 100 millions
to less

war

considerably less than 100 millions.

it

be taken as the unproductive debt,

amounts

than two

years of the receipts of the Government shewn in the accounts

as 65 millions annually.

But

it

has been seen that a part of

these receipts cannot be reckoned as revenue proper,

which has

been shewn to amount

two

years, then,

The revenue proper of to 43^ millions. would amount to 87 millions, a sum not far short
years' revenue.

of the
little

sum

of

100 millions, which sum, therefore, represents a

more than two

Judged by the standard

If India, as

of

indebtedness in

many advanced

countries, this

amount of national
is

debt in India would not appear excessive.

understood to be probable, shall receive from England substantial relief in respect to the debt incurred for the recent

Afghan war, the only known cause

Indian debt
is

of

immediate increase

to the

the prosecution of the reproductive public works.

interest charges

But

it

would not thence follow that the

must

increase, for, as already seen, they are in part defrayed

by the

receipts

from the works, and do not stand at a materially higher

in 1871,
to

amount now than they stood less. These charges amount

ally
;

when

the debt was

much

wliich

amount

is

equal to

upwards of 5 J millions annuone-eighth or 12^ per cent of

the 43J millions already shewn as the

proper, or 11 per cent.

amount

of the revenue

The normal

rate of interest used to be

5 per cent.

But

of late years the Indian financiers have availed

rate,
till

themselves of every opportunity of reducing this

in

1878-9 only 15 mHlions stood at 4i, 600,000 in India, and

17,200,000 in England at
all
5,

and 1^ millions

the rest stood at 4 per cent.

Even
at

in

at 5^ per cent. 1879 the process of

cent,

reduction went

on

1^ millions

5^ per

were con-

verted into a 4^ per cent., and in July of 1880 the whole of the

Chap, xxvii.

PUBLIC DEBT OF INDIA.

463
cent.,

English debt, 17,200,000, which bore interest at 5 per

was converted
lose

into a

4 per

cent,

stock.

In these ways the

reducing the capital

interest charges are lessened.

That the Indian financiers would

offer itself of

no chance which might

is

of the debt

shewn by the

fact that, bet\veen

to

18G1-2 and the

end of 1866,

it

was reduced from 98^

90^ millions.

Of the

registered debt, 149 millions, 90 millions are held in

India and 59 in England.

The debt owing

in

England involves

an annual payment there of 2f millions, which sum forms an There is some reason for important item of the home charges.
satisfaction in the fact that so large a part of the debt is held in

India, although, of the whole sum,

more belongs

to

Europeans

than to Natives,

Government has or has not failed to preserve an equilibrium between income and expenditure
Lastly, the question whether the

depends on the inclusion or exclusion of the expenditure from

borrowed money,

on the productive public works.

In no
ordinary

country are such works largely constructed out of

revenue

nor

is

there

any reason why India should be made an

exception to a rule of such wide application.

and
This

financiers

would admit that

will

tliis

Most economists expenditure must be

excluded from the ordinary account and treated separately.

being
excluded,
it

be found that during the last

17 years there has been an aggregate surplus of 15,185,000,

and an aggregate
1,159,000.

deficit of

14,026,000, or a net surj)lus of

This result, too, has been obtained after paying

relief,

15 millions for famine

and 10 millions on account

of loss

by exchange.

If

tliis

very important position be made good,

then the ordinary finances of India are clearly seen to have been sound and healthy, to have been capable of sustaining, not
only the defence and administration of the country, but also several grave and uncontrollable misfortunes, such as famines

and

losses

by exchange, and

to

have maintained the desirable

this

equilibrium.

In justification of

fundamental proposition the

following figures are taken from Mr. Cunningham's pamphlet,

which embodies

ofi&cial

information

464
^-3

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xxvii.


Chap, xxvii.

SYSTEM OF AUDIT AND ACCOUNT.

465

The

objections urged with so

much

force

and

ability against

Indian finance have

now been

briefly reviewed.

Of

these,

some

have been fully admitted, others have been controverted, or

have been mitigated by counter-considerations.

effect

The general

of the review

is,

however, decidedly favourable to the

finance. finance,

position

and prospects of Indian

Some few
mentioned.

subjects, relating to

yet remain to be

The system
whole empire,

of audit

and account

is

highly organized for the

sufficiently decentralized to

meet the needs of

the various provinces, yet so centralized as to admit of control

being completely exercised by the central Government in India.

There

is

in each division of the empire an Accountant-General,

who works with

the local authorities, but

who

is,

as regards

audit and account, independent of the Local Government.

several Accountants-General are

The

under a Controller-General,

wdio

is

the auditor-in-chief immediately under the

Government
treasuries

of India,

who

supervises the keeping of the national accounts,

to

and controls the supply of funds

throughout the empire.

the various

Since 1860 there has been in India a Government papercurrency,

which was proposed by James Wilson, when

he

became finance minister.

Previously there was a paper cur-

rency pertaining to the three Presidency banks of Calcutta,

Madras, and Bombay, which was limited to 5 millions

or 5 crores of rupees, against wliich one-fourth
specie, while the
securities.

sterling,

must be held

in

remaining three-fourths might be issued against

This currency was abolished on the introduction of

Government currency, when the right of issue was transferred from the banks to the State by an Act of the legislature. The principle on which the Government currency was based
the
is

thus set forth in a despatch in March 1860 by the Secretary

of State for India, Sir Charles

"

Wood, now Lord Halifax

England by the Act of 1844,

The

soiuid principle for regulating tlie issue of a paper circulation

of
i.e.

is tliat

wliicli

was enforced on the Tank

that the

II

466
amount of notes
issued on

INDIA IN
Government

1880.
securities should be

Chap, xxvii.
maintained at

a fixed sum, within the limit of the smallest amount which experience has proved to be necessary for the monetary transactions of the country ; and
that any further

amount of notes should be

issued on coin or bullion,

and

should vary with the amount of the reserve of specie in the Bank, according The important condition is thus to the wants and demands of the public.
realised that the

mixed currency

of notes and coin should vary in quantity

exactly as

if it

were wholly in coin."

Upon this principle, then, the Government when Mr. S. Laing was finance minister.
amounted very shortly
rose gradually
till it

notes were issued

The

circulation

4^ millions sterling in 1862-63, and amounts nowadays to llf millions on the

to

average, though

it

has sometimes exceeded 12, and once mounted

to nearly 13 millions.

In the

first

instance the

Government was empowered by law

up
to

to issue notes on its

own

securities
it

4 crores of rupees, or
tliat

4 millions

sterling.

In 1870

was found

the circulation

had reached the amount of 11 millions

there

sterling, against

which

was a reserve
or bullion.

of

4 millions in

securities

and 7 millions
this

in coin

It

was considered that

circulation

could not,

under any possibility that might be reasonably

fall

imagined,

short of 6 millions, or 6 crores of rupees,

and

power was taken by law to issue notes on Government securities

up

to that

amount.

The reserve stands

securities, over

at

5f millions

5f millions of silver coin and bullion, wdth a few thousand pounds' worth only
sterling

worth of Government

in gold.
securities,

The

interest saved on the 5f millions of Government about 230,000 per annum, less about 30,000 of

expenses incurred, represents the profit to the State.

There are ten

circles of issue in British India,

for

each of

which notes are

head

issued.

The State

is

bound by law
circles.

to cash the

notes of each circle at the Note office of the circle and at the
office at Calcutta,

but not in other

It is

not concircles

sidered safe as yet to

undertake to cash the notes in

other than that where they are issued.

"

The notes range in value from

5 rupees, or

lO.s.,

to 10,000

Chap, xxvir.

GOVERNMENT PAPER CURRENCY.

About half the 100 and upwards
;

467
comprised

rupees, or 1000.
in

total circulation is

notes of

the notes of the lowest, or

5 rupee denomination, have a total value of | million sterling.

The expansion
been but

of the

Government paper currency

years the
is

is

regarded

as satisfactory, though of late

slight.

rate

of

growth has
There

The increase

naturally found at the trade

existed.
is

centres where a note currency

also

had previously
to about

some

circulation,

amounting

2J millions

sterling,

in the interior of the country where notes were formerly un-

known. The
or

fluctuations in the circulation have been for the

most

part inconsiderable, and there never has been any contraction

fall,

indicating the slightest degree of public distrust.

During

times of national danger and disturbance, the currency of notes

was maintained.
circulation of the
sterling,

For instance, in 1857, the darkest period

seen,

which the Indian empire has ever

the annual average

Bank

of Bengal notes stood at 1^ million

and between
of that year,

May and

August, that
to

is

the most critical

;

upwards of If million and equal to any that had been attained fully these amounts were

months

amounted

before the political troubles broke out.

There were formerly three mints in India, namely those at

Calcutta,

Madras and Bombay

the

Madras mint was closed

crisis of

in

1869.

In some seasons, such as the cotton

1865, the

mints have been the scenes of extraordinary bustle and activity

of late years their business has been

normal and

quiet.

During

ten years since 1869, 192,263 worth of gold, 54,342,391 of

and 611,995 worth of copper, in all 55,146,649, have been coined in the mints of India. Specimen coins from each mint are tested in the London mint and the coinage is found
silver,
;

to

be perfectly good.

Government
country

savings-banks

have been established at the

places in the interior of the

Presidency towns and at

;

many

interest at 4|- per cent, is

to small amounts not exceeding 50 per

now allowed on deposits up annum for a single

sterling,

depositor.

The

total of deposits,

namely 2 millions
2

H 2

468
has risen to 3 millions
;

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xxvii.

the depositors are tens of thousands in

to the professional classes, at all to

number, chiefly Natives belonging

the agricultural community.
It has

and certain sections of the mercantile body, but hardly

sometimes been strongly recommended that the Golife

vernment in India should undertake

insurance to a moderate
for the benefit of

and limited

extent.

The measure was designed

the Natives, as being calculated to teach them habits of thrifty

forethought, and to form ties of the happiest kind

between

them and the

State.

Owing

to various practical difficulties,

also to the objections against interference

mth

private enter-

prise in this respect, the

to

Government has not yet seen its way undertaking business of this nature, however desirable that
be on

may

many

grounds.
of maintaining

The principle
of the

some connection on the part

banks has long prevailed in

Government with

certain

India, though State banks, in the full sense of the term, have

never been established.

The three Presidency banks of Bengal,

for

Madras and Bombay respectively have existed

many
sat

years.

The Government used

boards of direction
to

to hold shares in these institutions,

and

appointed a certain number among the directors

;

who

on the

the paid-up capital of the banks amounted

4| millions
of

sterling,

and the Government shares

crisis

to nearly

^ million in

all.

During the commercial

failed,

of

1866 the

Bank

Bombay

involving

serious

consequences to

the Government and the public, under circumstances which

need not now be recounted.

the

Bank

of

The other two banks, especially Bengal, have had unbroken careers of successful The constitution
of these banks,

and prosperous management.

and the
relations of the

Government with them, have been

more than once revised by the legislature. The Government no longer holds shares in them, nor takes any part in their
direction, but keeps

an ordinary deposit account current with

them, engaging virtually to maintain at least a certain balance

in their hands,

and

to

pay

interest if the balance falls

below

this

Chap, xxvii.

THE

"

PRESIDENCY" BANKS.

4G9

minimmn. On the other hand, the 1)anks making advances beyond a certain amount,
ties

are precluded h-om

or

any upon

securi-

save those specified in the charter,

namely Government
like.

securities,

guaranteed railway stock and the

They

are

styled the Indian or Presidency banks, and are precluded from

doing

much

of the business that

is

done by the ordinary banks,

exchange banks,"

which are
Mercantile

called, in contradistinction, the "

namely, the Chartered Bank of India and China, the Chartered

Bank, the Hongkong and

Shanghai

Bank, the

National Bank, the Agra Bank, and the Oriental Bank.

The
still

exchange banks ordinarily keep a large portion of their own

balances in the Indian or Presidency banks which have
special position in the mercantile

community, by reason of
it

their

connection with the Government, limited though

be.

The

Government imparts
ment.

to the Presidency

banks some elements of

strength, without itself incurring the risk of

any

real embarrassto

The

total

capital

of these

three

banks amounts

3^ millions, the balance which the Government keeps in hands ranges from | million sterling to 3 millions. While
in the interior of every province in the empire.
stituted,

their their

headquarters are at the Presidency towns, they have branches

As now

con-

they are most valuable institutions, adding

staljility to

the trade, and encouraging confidence in the

money market.

They provide a
upon
word,

safe place

where money may be deposited, and

in times of pressure have the

securities of the best

means

of affording accommodation,

kind being tendered, serving, in a

as

anchors to the

commerce

of the

country.
;

Their

management has during recent years been very successful they have paid dividends at favourable rates, even during the period
of commercial depression from
emer-ed,

which the empire has hardly yet

and they have produced several bankers eminent in

the profession.

Besides the balances in the Presidency banks, the Government in India maintains large sums in cash in its treasuries
scattered

throughout

the

empire, which

arc

not less

than

470

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xxvii.
treasuries,

250 in number, including only

district

and ex-

cluding the lesser treasuries in the interior of the districts.

Tlie needs of

numerous provinces so widely dispersed cause countless demands to arise at distant points, and it hence
becomes necessary
to

keep large resources of cash in hand.

It

has been often held by Indian financiers that the Government

ought to maintain in India a very high cash balance, so that

there should always be a reserve or surplus beyond the ordinary

requirements of the public service, which resource would be

immediately available in any emergency.

India usually rises and
flux
falls at certain
;

The cash balance

is

in

times in the year, like

tlie

and reflux of a tide

the lowest point the

at the beginning will be

of November,

when on the average

and
tlie

amount
at the

down

at 9 millions sterling,

liighest

end of June,
official

when
even

it

may

be up at 15 millions; at the end of the

year, that is 31st of

March,

it

ought to be at least 14 millions,

In

perhaps

15

millions.

March

1870

it

stood

at

17 millions, in March 1872 at 22 millions, in March 1873 at

18| millions.

When

during 1873 the Bengal famine super-

vened, then the Government appreciated the national vigour

which springs from the possession of a

full treasury.

471

CHAPTEE

XXVIII.

STATISTICAL SUMMARY.
Area of India Population Several religions, castes, professions, and employments of the people Agriculture Works of irrigation Embankments
Civil
justice

TenuresPolice CrimePrisons Hospitals and Dispensaries Education Universities Literature and telegraph Emigration Eailways Roads Foreign sea-borne trade Coasting trade Harbours Shipping Frontier trade Tea and Manufactures of cotton and jute Exports of wheat and Coal ForestsArmiesFinance Revenues and Expenditure Coinage and paper currencyEquilibrium of income and ordinary expenditure.
Post-office
electric

cotiee

rice

receipts

In the previous chapters

incidentally presented
;

statistics

have been here and there

but no attempt has been made to array

;

or marshal the figures in a connected form

and reference
abstract

may

be had with advantage to the

statistical

published

annually by the India Office in London.

principal statistical facts relating to India,
if

Nevertheless the

grouped according

to the natural sequence of the subjects, will strike the imagination,

and

fill it

with ideas of the grandeur of the eastern empire.

will

brief

summary

now be

given, for the most j^art in round

numbers, of those salient facts which are the most easily borne
in recollection

and are the most pertinent

to a conception of the

magnitude

to

which the Indian dominions of the British Crown

have attained.

The area

of the Indian empire

amounts

to

one miUion and

a half of square miles.

Of

this area,

one-third, consisting of

upwards of half a million

States

of square miles, belongs to Native

and chiefships great and small, about 450 in number. The remaining two-thirds, or something less than one million of
square
miles,
are

British

territories.

These

territories

are

divided into eight Local Governments or Administrations of

472
various
grades,

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xxviii.

namely two Governorships, three Lieutenant

Governorships and three Chief Commissionerships.

are under one central or

The whole

supreme authority, namely the Govern-

ment of India, administered by the Governor-General in Council. The executive or administrative unit is termed a district, which is somewhat like a county in England or a department in France.
There are 224 such
of a district being
districts in British India, the average area

4000 square

miles.

The

social unit

among

the Natives

is

the township or village, which resembles an

English parish.
India
;

There are 494,000 of such villages in British

containing 37 millions of inhabited houses.

to

The population of the Indian empire amounts

of souls, of

241 millions

whom

49 millions are in the Native

States,

and

tlie

remainder, or 192 millions, are in the British territories.

The
will
is

population in the British territories shews an average of 211 souls

to the square mile.

This

may

appear a low average, but

it

be seen presently that nearly half of the whole country

uncultivated.
field

In those provinces which have been surveyed

the

by

field,

population

is

found

to

be 446 souls to

the square

mile of inhabited country,

representing a high

ratio of density.

There

is

one village to half a square mile, 386

persons on the average to a village, and 5 persons to a house.

Of the towns, 44 have 50,000 inhabitants and upwards, and

1358 have from 10,000
to 50,000 inhabitants.

Of the

British subjects, there are 141 millions of Hindus,

races,

41 millions of Muhammadans, 1^ million of Sikhs, and nearly 3 millions of Jains and Buddliists.
18 millions of aboriginal

The Christians
6

are less than one million in

number.

There are

millions professing religions other than those above stated.

of Hindus, 10 millions are

Of the 141 millions

Brahmins and

5^ millions Kajputs, 105^ millions belong

castes, Avhile 8|- millions

to other or

humbler
not

are either out-castes or people

recognising caste.

The Asiatic non-Indian people, including

Arabs, Persians, Armenians, Chinese, Siamese, Malays, Turks,

Afghans and Beluches, are 550,000 in number; there are also

Chap, xxviii.

OCCUPATIONS OF THE PEOPLE.

The Europeans, Americans and Australians
It

473
are

3600 Africans.
536,000 in
the
all.

may

be interesting to those engaged in

work

of evangelization to observe that the aborigines

and

those outside the pale of caste

number 26f

millions,

among

whom
new
of

there exist no antecedent obstacles to the reception of a

religion.
territories there are

In the British

62 millions of adult males,

whom more
;

than one-half, or 35 millions, are engaged in

or 27 millions, the labourers are

agriculture.

Of the remainder,

8 millions

while nearly 8 millions follow industrial pursuits,

;

and 4^ millions domestic occupation

in commerce,

3^ millions are employed

to the various professions,

and 2^ millions belong

stress is laid

including Government service;

pendent.

2 millions

only being inde-

When

on the excessive dependence of the

to be

population on agriculture,

it is

remembered

that, still, there

are 25 millions of adult males depending on other occupations.

The numbers
of

of adult males
;

employed by Government and

municipalities are noteworthy

their total

amounts

to 1,236,523,

whom

222,594 are military and marine, 442,594 are village

less

watchmen, while no
administration.

than 571,335 are employed in general

In

other words, the

Government
civil

of

British
its

India has more than half a million of

service, of

employes in

whom

the vast majority are Natives.

Besides these,

there

are

21,000

employed on railways.
all

Further, there are

to the

33,000 engaged in law, including

humblest, that
is,

from the highest

to

from the barrister

the

stamp vendor.

Some 61,000
fashion.

follow the profession of medicine after the oriental

arts

Those who pursue the various Asiatic

music, dancing, juggling and the like

to

are 218,000.
employment

painting,
The extent

which the trade in

money

affords

will be under-

stood from the facts that 118,000 are bankers, 21,000 moneyLastly, the beggars and changers, and 110,000 money-lenders.
paupers, not however supported by any poor law, are 1,050,000,
or just one million.

Of the 38 millions

of adult

males engaged in agriculture, 6^

474

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xxviii.

millions are proprietors, of

f million, or 750,000, do not work, but live as landlords great or small, while the remainder,

whom

or

5| millions, are engaged in cultivation, more or

less,

as

peasant proprietors.

The farm

servants

and labourers are

nearly one million, while the

105,000.

bailiffs

and upper servants are

There are 20,100 cattle dealers, 589,000 herdsmen

and

graziers,

and 260,000 otherwise employed with animals.

statistics

The

agricultural

of the

empire are unavoidably

has
considered
itself

imperfect,

because

the

Government

precluded from insisting on the collection of such information

in these provinces which are under the permanent settlement

consequently
rendered
for

many

interesting
are

particulars

which

can
for

be
the

other provinces

not

forthcoming

provinces under the Government of Bengal.

reservation,

With

this large
stated.

however,

many

important facts can be

Exclusive, then, of Bengal, Behar, and Orissa, there have been

132 millions of acres surveyed and assessed

field

by

field in

the

manner described
this total,
fifth of

in the foregoing chapter on the land-tax.

Of

25 millions of acres are irrigated, or less than one-

the whole, the remaining four-fifths being unirrigated.

Moreover, there are 10^ millions of cultivated acres not yet

surveyed in

detail,

millions of acres.

making up a total cultivated area of 142^ As a remarkable fact in juxtaposition with

it

the above circumstances,

area,
acres,

is

to be noted that the cultivable

inclusive of grazing lands,

amounts

to

102 millions of
;

equal to more than two-thirds of the cultivated area

and

there can hardly be

this cultivable area

any mistake on
less

this point, because out of

no

than 88 millions of acres have been

total of the cultivated

surveyed in

detail.

The grand
to

and the

cultivable area

amounts
is

244^ millions

of acres.

Now, the
area
is

uncultivable area
acres
;

nearly the same, namely 243^ millions of

in
;

other words, only one-half of the entire

a fact wdiich shews

cultivated

how

extensive the hill-sides,

stony plains and deserts really

to exist also in the provinces

are.

Similar conditions appear

under the Government of Bengal,

Chap, xxvin.

AGRICULTURE AND TENURES.

475

of which the total area (exclusive of rivers

to

and lakes) amounts

101 millions of acres, of wliich 54 millions only are estimated

as being under cultivation.

In the provinces surveyed as above, 8 millions of ploughs have

been returned, and 31 millions head of

bullocks and buffaloes).
provinces,

cattle (including cows,

But the information is defective

high as they
are,

in

some

and these

figures,

do not convey an

adequate idea of the resources of the empire in such respects.

Out
above,

of the 25 millions of acres under irrigation, as

6|-

shewn

millions are irrigated from canals, as seen in the

previous chapter on canals.

there been stated

The length of these canals has

main channels,
sterling, already

at nearly 13,000 miles of

besides distributing structed

channels.
at a cost of

These works have been con-

by the State

21^ millions

yielding a net return of Ij million sterling annually, equal to

6 per cent, interest on the capital outlay.

There

are,

on the

other hand,

embankments

for protecting the lands,

near the
floods.

lower course of the Ganges and the Indus, from injury by

The
to

total length of the principal of these

;

1370 miles

besides
for the

many

lesser

embankments amounts embankments.

to the production of

The land
edible grains

is
;

most part devoted

out of 188 millions of cultivated acres, 161 millions

are under food-crops,

and only 27 millions under non-food-crops.

The prevalence

of the several tenures described in the previous

chapter on the land-tax

may

be illustrated numerically thus.

In the provinces under the Government of Bengal there are 130,000 estates, held by landlords great and small some of
;

whom

have

large rentals, for instance the Ptaja of

an annual income from land of Bettia 130,000, Hatwa 90,000, and

Bardwan with 400,000, Darbhanga 210,000,

others.

In the Central

Provinces there are 28,000 estates, mostly held

lords.

by small land-

In the Panjab 91 per cent., North-western Provinces 90 per Oudh 36 per cent, of the land is held by the village and cent., communities described in a previous chapter. In Madras there
are 2,302,000 peasant proprietors, holding under the ryotwari

476
tenure, of
year.

INDIA IN

1880.

CiiAr. xxviii.

whom 1,251,750 pay less

Bombay

than 1 of land revenue each

In

there are 1,367,622 of these peasant proless.

prietors, of

whom

737,000 each hold ten acres of land or

The

selling price of land

is it

may

be indicated in this wise.

In

the Panjab the price

27 years' purchase, of the Government

ranges up to

revenue; in

Madras

10 per
area,

acre unirrigated

and 36 per acre

Internal order
population,

irrigated.
is

maintained in this

and among

this

by

a regular police force of 158,000, officers and

men.

Out

of this

number, the cost of 27,000

men

is

defrayed

by

municipalities and other bodies, while the charges for the

falls entirely
is

remainder, or 131,000 men,

on the State.
is

That

tlie

strength of this police force

moderate,

shewn by the average

police,

of one such policeman to seven square miles and to 1000 people.

Besides these, however, there

is

the

rural

or village

watchmen, of

whom

the

number

will be nearly coincident with

that of villages, which has been already set

down

at 442,000.

In so large a population the number of crimes and offences must it stands at nearly 880,000 in the year. necessarily be large
;

Then, the number of persons brought to trial in the year amounts to 970,000, or nearly one million, of whom 350,000, on
the average, are discharged, and 550,000 convicted or committed, the rest being under
trial.

These

facts will give

some idea of

the business devolving on the police and the magistracy.

There are 211 prisons in the whole country, exclusive of 386

lock-ups, and the daily average of prisoners
of

amounts

to 118,500,

whom
The

only 5500 are females.

considerable, as will be seen from the

civil litigation is

Of number of suits instituted in the year, namely 1,500,000. the remainder money and for for are two-tliirds number this The estimated value of the suits, that is, rent and other things.
the

amount claimed and disputed, stands

of

at the large

sum

of

upwards

14 millions sterling annually.

Out

of this

number

the suits for small amounts

up

to

10

are

upwards

of 1,100,000,

valued at 3| millions sterling.

Tliese facts

throw some light

Chap, xxviii.

PUBLIC CHARITY

EDUCATION.
to

477
is

on the question so often debated as

wealth in the country.

whether there

niiich

The main
charitable

result of the organization of public charity

by the

State will be comprehended in the facts that there are 1150

dispensaries

and

hospitals, wliich receive 270,000

indoor

patients

during the

year,

and

afford

outdoor relief

in 6^ millions of cases.

The

total of indoor

and outdoor pa-

tients exceeds 6,900,000 in the year, exhibiting a daily average

of 19,000 persons.

There are also 22 lunatic asylums, having

of persons

3470 inmates.

The returns shew that 3^ millions

are successfully vaccinated annually.

In a year 20,000 persons and 50,000 head of

stroyed by wild beasts and snakes.
Sir

cattle are de-

Reference

may

be had to

Joseph Fayrer's illustrated work on the venomous snakes

of India.

The three Presidency towns,

the

Calcutta, Madras,

and Bombay,
number, of
;

have a population within municipal limits of 1,471,492 souls

members

of the three corporations are 176 in

whom

122 are Natives and the remainder Europeans the income

annually.

administered by them amounts to 668,400

district municipalities in the interior of the

The

country are 894 in

number, and the members of the municipal committees are 7519,

of

whom

5725 are Natives and the remainder Europeans

the

income administered by them amounts to 1,284,312 annually;

the population within their municipal limits stands at 12,380,000
souls.
9s.

per head per

The average incidence of municipal duties and taxes is annum in the Presidency towns, and only 2s. in

the district municipalities.

The national education is promoted by about 65,500 institutions including schools and colleges of all sorts supported in some The number of students is decree, or inspected, by the State.
returned as 1,900,000, or nearly two millions.

Out

of this

number

there are 72,200 girls at schools maintained for

specially, besides

boys and

girls.

them number at mixed schools of a considerable The colleges are 82 in number, with 8900

students, the normal and technical schools are 155, with 6900

478
students.

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xxviii

In the returns are included 104 schools for Europeans,

with 9100 students of both sexes.

in themselves great,
is

The

total of these

numbers,

relatively not large, for in all they

shew
be

only nine scholars to

1000 of the population.

It appears to

thought by some that the State undertakes too

of public instruction through its

much

in the

way

own

direct agency.

But the

purely Government institutions are only 14,500 in number, with

550,000 students, equal to less than one-fourth of the whole.

Again,
it

seems to be supposed that the State maintains in;

adequately the grant-in-aid system

but the aided schools are

;

28,500 in number, with 650,000 students

institutions are

while the remaining

under State inspection.

Some

light is

thrown upon the

effect of the

high education by

the result of the examinations at the Universities.

During the

ten years preceding 1879, 49,000 candidates. Natives with but few
exceptions, presented themselves for Entrance
;

of

whom

18,500

only passed, a fact which

aminers.

is

creditable to the strictness of the ex-

During the same period, in round numbers, 4200 passed

examination, which, as explained in the chapter on

the

first arts
is

education,
of Arts,

only an intermediate one; 1610 became Bachelors

;

and 305 Masters of Arts

890 took a degree in law, 950

in medicine,
arts

and 255 in
is

civil engineering.

As passing

the

first

examination

not equivalent to taking a degree,

it

follows

that during ten years, out of 18,500

young men who entered the

in

Universities, only 4040, or less than one-fourth, took degrees.

Some
from

literary

activity

prevails

British

India, as seen

the

registration

of

publications

under the law.

In

the course of a year 4900 works

are in English,

are published, of

which 550
classical

3050 in the vernacular, 730 in the

languages of India, and 570 in more than one language.

In Bengal there are 38 vernacular newspapers, in Madras 22, in Bombay 78, in upper and Central India 65. In Bengal the
circulation is represented

by 19,360

copies, in

Madras

5,750, in

Bombay

15,587, in upper and Central India 15,608.

sliews variations according

The State expenditure on education

as certain items are excluded or included,

and the

total ranges

Chap, xxviii.

POST OFFICE
to

TELEGRAPII RAILWAYS.
;

479

from 750,000

970,000 annually

in the previous chapter

on education the sum of 800,000 has been taken as an average.

The progress
illustrated

of the country in general intelligence

facts of the postal

may

1)0

by the principal
lines,

and

telegrapliic

departments.

There are 5500 post-offices in the whole country,

58,000 miles of postal

GG0,000 of cash receipts annually

official postage,

from the public, exclusive of

of letters

and 131 millions

There are 240
1^

and covers despatched in the

open
for

year.

signal

offices

telegraphic

communication, and

million of private messages are despatched annually, exclusive

of State

and service messages.

The telegraphic

lines extend

over 19,100 miles, have involved an outlay of 3^ millions

sterling,

and despatch 1| million of messages a year

either for the

State or the public, including the private messages stated above.

The

total

number

of persons, Natives,

who have emigrated

from India

to the colonies
is

during the ten years between 1869

and 1879,

173,420, of

whom

29,600 went to French, and

4200
It

to

Dutch

colonies, while the

remainder proceeded

to the

British possessions.

has been seen in the chapter on railways that the lines

for traffic

opened

comprise 8600 miles, of which 6073 miles

belong to guaranteed companies, 2363 miles to the Govern-

ment, and 175 to Native States.

Besides these, there are 1850

miles of lines proposed to be executed soon.

traffic is

The passenger

represented by 43 millions of passengers in the year,

traffic

and the goods

amounts

to 8 millions of tons annually.

The The

rolling stock

employed in working the railways

carriages,

consists of

1850 locomotives, 4294 passenger

capital outlay

and 34,856 trucks.

millions sterling,

by the guaranteed companies amounts to 97^ that by the Government to 24i millions, tliat
all.

by Native
cf-ross

States to 1^ million, or 123^^ millions in

The

receipts on the guaranteed lines

amount

to
;

9| millions

sterlinf in the year,

and the expenses

to

4| millions
1 million.

and on the
to

State lines (incomj)lete) the gross receipts

amount annually

11

million, the expenses to

something over

The extent

480
to

INDIA IN
classes in

1880.

Chap, xxviir.
are interested in the

which the moneyed

England

guaranteed railways

may

be understood from the fact that the

stock and debentures of these companies are held by 63,290

persons, of

whom

only 301 are registered in India.

Out

of the 58,000 miles of postal roads, at least 20,000 miles

are metalled or macadamized,

and
is it

partially bridged.

The external sea-borne trade

annually
;

valued at 110 millions sterling

stood at 120 millions.

for

one recent year

Out of
treasure.

the 110 millions, 60 millions represent exports of merchandise

and 36 millions imports the remainder

;

is

made up by

Out

of this foreign trade 60 per cent, is with the

cent,

United King-

dom, and 40 per

with other nations.

India sends to

England 28 millions

sterling

worth of produce, and receives 30

;

millions worth of merchandise

in other words, regarding this

part of the trade the imports are fully equal in value to the
exports.

But

in

the

trade

with other countries, India has

during recent years sold more of her produce to them than she
has taken of their products in return.

On

the whole trade the

value of the exports has for recent years exceeded that of the

imports by 16 millions sterling per

annum on

the average.

The
at

value of the stores imported by the

2;^

Government now stands

sterling.
is

millions sterling annually, and during the ten years between

to

1869 and 1879 has amounted

13^ millions

The coasting trade between the various ports

siderable,

now

con-

and has risen in value from 44 millions

sterling

in 1873 to 67f millions in 1877-8.

coast,

There are 9185 miles of

as ports,

and 300 places which are recognised

most of

which are very small.

This foreign trade
in
it

is

entirely sea-borne

the shipping engaged

may

be stated at 12,500 vessels, with a total tonnage of 5J

of the steamers about two-thirds

millions of tons, of which 2000 vessels, with a tonnage of 2j

millions of tons, are steamers

come and go by the Suez Canal.

cent, is British,

Of the

total shipping,

88 per

and the remainder, or 12 per

cent., is foreign.

The Suez Canal was opened on November

17,

1869; the

Chap, xxviii.

NATUEAL AND INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS.

481

figures of the shipping are not recorded until the year 1871-2.

During the nine years which have since elapsed, nearly 8000
steamers, with a tonnage of 10 millions of tons, have passed

through the Canal.

On

the

average, 1200 steamers, with

tonnage of 1| million of tons, use the Canal annually.

The external trade by land with Afghanistan, Beluchistan and the Himalayan regions, though small as compared with the
sea-borne trade,
is

yet considerable, and amounts, exports and

imports together, to 4^ millions.

Some
Of
tea,

interesting

particulars

may

here

be

summarized

regarding the products and manufactures.

34 millions of pounds, valued

;

at 3 millions sterling,

are produced annually

and of

coffee,

350,000 cwts., valued at

fluctuate in amount,

1^ million
in

sterling.

The exports of wheat

to

1877 they amounted

5^ millions of cwts., and in 1878 to

of rice exported

6^ millions.

The quantity

amounts

to nearly

21 millions of cwts.

There are 53 spinning and weaving mills in India, which

employ 10,500 looms and 1^ million of spindles. On the average 4 millions of cwts. of raw cotton are exported annually.

Of

jute 5 millions, of cwts. are exported annually, valued at

;

3 millions sterling

tlie

jute manufactures in India itself are

valued at | of a million yearly.

The
tons

total out-put of the collieries is

;

reckoned at 1 million of

tons annually
;

the local consumption amounts to J million of

and upwards of ^ million of tons of English coal and coke are imported. The coal industry affords employment to
60,000 men.

The
half

forests

more

or less under protection or

conservation

cover an area of 68,100 square miles, of which less than oneis

fully

preserved.

Indeed

the

Famine

Commission

reckon that hardly more than one-third, or 24,000 square miles,

are thus preserved.

In the previous chapter on the material progress of the Natives

allusion has been

made

to the

doubts expressed by some as to

2
I

482
whether British India

INDIA IN
raises

1880.

Chap, xxviii.
for

enough of food-crops

the

sustenance of the people, and whether the value of the total

products, agricultural and non-agricultural, indicates an income
sufficient for

meeting their wants and

for

paying the revenue

without impoverishment.
at

The Famine Commission have been

bearing on this point.
of.

some pains

to present calculations

Exclusive of British Burma, there are 166^ millions

acres

under food-crops and 27 millions of acres under non-foodcrops.

The

gross annual value

is

set

down

at

331 millions

sterling per
for

annum,

at

per ton for food and

3 per
included,

acre

non-food-crops.
total

If

British
less

Burma were
;

the

grand

would not be

than 345 millions

which

is

conable

siderably in excess of calculations recently

writers,

made by some

which shewed a

total value of

under 280 millions, ex-

clusive of British

Burma.

Upon
for

this area the average out-turn

;

of food is estimated at

51^ millions of tons

of

which amount

38 millions are required

consumption by the people, 3^

millions for seed, 3 millions for cattle-fodder, while 2^ millions

are allowed for wastage
;

leaving 4^ millions of tons surplus,

or exportation abroad.

available for storage at

home

To which

must be added f million, the exportable surplus of British Burma; making up the total to 5| millions of tons. This calculation is offered by the Commission as approximate only
the

known movements
it

of grain during the famines of

1874 and

1877-8 prove
the reality.

to be

moderate;

it

is

indeed probably below

During the famine of 1877-8, 2 millions of tons of

food were imported by sea into the distressed districts and 4

millions of tons were
country.

moved by

rail in different parts of

the

The established strength of the European army stands in

round numbers at 4570
officers

officers

and 60,156 non-commissioned

and

privates, in all 64,726 officers

and men
officers

that of the

Native army stands at

1617 European
all

and 123,254 and

men.

Native

officers

and men, in

189,597

officers

Out

of the last-named total, 104,216 officers

and men belong

Chap, xxviii.
to the to that

EEVENUE AND PUBLIC EXPENDITURE.

to that of

483

army of Bengal, 47,02 G of Bombay.

financial facts

Madras, and 38,355

The principal

may

be thus epitomized.

The

ordinary revenue and receipts amount to 58| millions sterling

annually, to which are added 7 millions sterling receipts from

productive public works, making up a grand total of G5^

millions.
It is

expected that during the current year 1880 this

total will exceed

67 millions.

Of the 7 millions above

stated,

f million pertain to canals and works of irrigation, and the

remainder to railways belonging to Guaranteed companies and

to the State.

Erom

the chapter on the revenues

total,

it

has been
to

seen that, out of the grand

the revenues proper

amount

43^ millions sterling annually. The ordinary expenditure amounts

to 55

millions

sterling

annually, including 5 millions of expenditure on ordinary puldic

works, civil and military buildings and the

like.

To this

are added

8j millions of expenditure on productive public works, working

expenses and interest, making up a grand total of 63j millions
annually.

The

capital expenditure on productive public

works
be

amounts

annually to 4^ millions,

which

may

perhaps

diminished in future years.

The 65 J millions sterling above mentioned have risen to 67^ and 66f during the years 1879-80 and 1880-1, gross but the charges of collection and the like are considerable, and these
;

being deducted, the net revenue stands at 44^ millions.

In the

total of

55 millions sterling of ordinary expenditure

there are comprised 10 millions of direct claims and

;

demands

upon the revenues, including charges of collection 4^ millions of interest on permanent and floating debt, 3;^ millions of expenditure on law and justice
;

2^ millions on police
loss

17

niilli(jiis

on the army, and 3^ millions of

actions with London.

by exchange on transmentioned in

The incidence

of the existing taxation has been

the previous chapter on revenue.

It is further descrilied in tlie

following extract from the report by the

Famine Commission
2
I

484

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xxviii.

"The

general incidence of all taxation, including the land

is

revenue in this term, on the whole population

4s.

a head.
;

The landed

classes

pay about

5s.

M.

(44 annas) per head

but,

excluding the revenue they pay for their land to the State, their
share of taxation
is Is. 9fZ.

(14 annas) per head.

salt,

The agricultural
to Is.
Sc?.

labourers pay taxes on their liquor and

(or

amounting

13^ annas) per head, or each family pays about a

fortnight's

wages in the year.

The

artisans

pay about

2s.

(16 annas) each,

or about the average earnings of five working days.

Traders

pay

3s. ?>d.

(26 annas) each.

But any native

to

of India

who

does

not trade or

own

land,

and who chooses

drink no spirituous

liquor or to use no English cloth or iron, need pay in taxation

only about
personally
to Is.
9c/.,
;

Id. a year

on account of the

salt

he consumes

and on a family of three persons the charge amounts

or about four days'

wages of a labouring

man and

his Mdfe."

The public
millions

debt

proper,

that

is,

the registered interest-

bearing debt, amounts to 149 millions sterling, of which 33^

have been spent on productive public works.

of the public debt incurred for

The

portion

war

is

less

than 100

millions, or little

more than two years of the annual revenue

proper of 43^ millions, or 87 millions, and

years
of

much

less

than two
to

the

total

revenues

and

receipts,

which amount

65 millions annually.

With

the exception of 17 millions, this

debt bears a 4 per cent, rate of interest.

The
stands

credit of the
liigh, as is

Government

of India has stood,

.

and

still

proved by the prices of the Indian securities

in India

and in England.

Of the rupee debt

securities
;

(in silver) the

to be

4 per

cent.

Government

some years ago used

in 1873.

sold in India at 91 for 100 rupees

then gradually rose to par

and reached 105, or 5 per

since receded,

cent,

premium

They have

owing partly
at

to the fall in the value of silver,

and now stand

97.
its

For several years before 1878 the

loans at 4 per cent., whereas the rate

Government obtained

used formerly to be 5 per cent.

Since 1878 the rate has been

Chap, xxviii.

PUBLIC DEBT
and the

PRODUCTIVE
under
tliis

WORKS.

485

4^ per

cent.,

securities
;

category were sold in

India at 99^ and 100^

they

now

stand at 105.

Of the
which
is

sterling

debt (in

gold) the

4 per

cent, securities

have ranged from 92 to 106.

They now stand

at 105, a rate

one of the most favourable rates in the world, and

may

be regarded as second only to the rate at which the Government

of

England

itself

would be able

to borrow.

In a previous chapter on the material progress of the Natives,

the proportion held by

them out

of the total public del)t in

at

India and in England was set

one-eighth.

down

18 millions sterling, or

The latest returns, however, raise this amount to Now, the debt held in India amounts to 80 millions sterling in assumed value, of which 20 millions are enfaced for payment of interest in England and are presumably
20 millions.
held by Europeans paid in India.
;

leaving 60 millions, of which the interest

is

Out

of the latter sum, 20 millions, equal to one-

third, belong to Natives.

It is

noteworthy that in June 1880, when three crores of rupees,

or three millions sterling, were borrowed

by the Government in

India at 4^ per cent., the large sum of 26^ crores were tendered, of which no less than 9^ crores or millions were offered by Natives. The total coinage at the two mints during the decade ending with 1878 amounted to 52^ millions sterling, of which 51^
millions'

worth were in

silver.

The

circulation of the

Government

currency notes on the average amounts to 11 -J millions sterling.

Government savings-banks amount to more than 2 millions sterling. The total capital of the three Presidency banks amounts to 3^ millions sterling. Some light is thrown on the wealth of India by the facts that,
The deposits
in

the

during the ten years ending with 1879, 25 millions' sterling worth of gold and 66 of silver, in all 91 millions of specie and
bullion
silver

while

6 millions' worth of gold

all

and 16 millions of
being an

were exported, in

22 millions, leaving a net amount

of 69 millions in the hands of the Indian people,

average of about 7 millions a year.


486
In
the previous

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap, xxviii.

chapters on canals, on

railways

and on

finance, it has

been seen that the public works are now proving

that,

remunerative to the State, and

owing partly

to this cause

and partly

to reduction

of the rates of interest, the interest

charges on the public debt have not materially increased, not-

withstanding the considerable augmentation of the capital of

the debt.

On

this subject the

for the

Famine Commission
first

report that

" in the present year

time the public accounts

contain a correct statement of the financial results of the class

of

works now known

It appears
is

as " productive," that

is,

all

those carried

out with the help of borrowed capital, or under a guarantee of

interest.

from the estimates of 1880-1 that a surplus

all charges,

of

income

expected from these works over

all

includ-

ing the whole of the interest on

that capital

the capital laid out, whether

tlie

was specially borrowed or provided from

revenues

of last years, or raised

under guarantee, and whether the works

the Commission present

on which

it

has been expended are in operation or not."

sul)ject,
:

In further illustration of this

the following table.

They say

Chap, xxviii.

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE.

effect

487

"The

financial

of the public

works policy of the

Government during the

p. 486], " wliich

last 12 years is further,

and more comthe table on

pletely, exhibited in the following figures "

[in

shew

(1) the net charge for interest

on the

public

debt,

excluding the amount borrowed for productive

in par. 12
;

works
works
this

as defined

(2) the net

all

charge for interest productive public

on capital and

working

expenses of

after setting off the

income received from them

under
all

head are included guaranteed railways, State railways,

irrigation

and

works

(3) the

whole ordinary outlay on

other public works."

Lastly,
it

has been seen that an equilibrium

is

maintained

between income and ordinary expenditure.

The

deficits,

which

used during several years to be exhibited in the national

accounts, were attributable to the inclusion of the capital outlay

on productive public works.

When

this outlay is excluded,

and shewn

separately, as it ought to be, then

upon the

latest

series of years there will be found to exist a net surplus of 1^

million sterling of income over ordinary expenditure during

the period.

488

INDIA IN

18a0.

Chap. xxix.

CHAPTER XXIX.
CONCLUSION.
Kecent war in Afghanistan
contradicted

Its results

and lessons

Indian empire, despite some inevitable drawbacks

by

existing facts

Prosperity of the Adverse calculations

why
and merits
in the

Satisfactory answer to question as to

England should retain possession of India

character of the Natives

Their general contentment under British rule

end of
this exposition

Virtues

Happy

prospect rising before them.

The beginning
Hostilities

of the

may well

comprise

a brief notice of the second

carried
on,

Afghan war.
from the autumn of 1878 to the
can yet say whether they are
is

present time, in
conclusion,

Afghanistan, have been brought near to a

though no

man

actually concluded.

Their political effect

connected with

the considerations set forth in the previous chapter on foreign

relations
its

head, propounded

The Indian Government, when Lord Lytton was a definite policy, which was calcupermanency
as is possible in a troublous

lated to have such

region.

The broad

results of that policy

were embodied in the

treaty of
lost,

Gandamak.
to

owing

Of these results a small portion has been events beyond the control of the Government

whether the remainder, or greater portion, shall be preserved,

depends on the action of the Government itself, of which action
the future course
as it
is

not as yet publicly known.

Be

this course

may, however, some results have actually been obtained.

as well as the right of

The might
tion,

England

to control the foreign

relations of Afghanistan, irrespective of its internal administra-

has been vindicated before the world.

British

The resolution of
if

the

Government

to

take up arms,

necessary,

in

defence of claims wdiich have once been deliberately asserted,

has been proved in the face of

all Asia.

The

hostile

power of the

Chap. xxix.
late

SECOND AFGHAN WAR.

Shir-Ali has been overturned.

489

Amir

The military means

possessed by the Indian Government for overrunning Afghanistan, after

one month's preparation, have been demonstrated.

This display will serve as a serious warning to the future rulers

of that country. The moral effect upon neighbouring nations has been salutary, and the impression upon Persia decisive.

The military power

respected

of the Indian
nations.
Still,

by Asiatic

Government was already inasmuch as deterioration

according to

during a long peace of twenty years

perience, but too

is,

common,

it is

well that
at least

common exall men should know by

kept up to
its historic

these events that this power

is

standard, and

is

probably greater than ever.

Since the complefirst

tion of the present railway system, this

was the

occasion

when war on a considerable scale had been carried on. On the commencement of hostilities in 1878, the advantages of railway
communication were remarkable,
to the frontier as the troops

were brought up

by

rail

from great distances.

The enemy must

have been struck with surprise on perceiving that an invasion,

which in the

first

war
as

of

1839 occupied several months of pre-

paration, took only as

at

some points only

It is

many weeks in the second war of 1878, and many days. There had of late years been

debates as to what force the Government of India could send to

the
field.

now

seen that a force equal to two army corps

of 33,000
across
it.

men

each, or 66,000

men, was sent

tliis

to the frontier or

During the time of

war, the conduct of the vast

Indian population was loyal and exemplary, with one unimportant exception on the east coast, and one notable exception
in the Deccan, as explained in the previous chapter on crime.

The Native troops behaved well, even better on the whole than during the war of 1839 the Gorkha and Panjabi soldiers being specially distinguished. One regiment only, that of Jacob's Rifles,
;

formed an exception to the general standard of merit. But the experience of this war is held to have proved the correctness of

what had been urged by many authorities regarding the paucity of European oSicers, and the need of properly maintaining the

490

INDIA IN
of these officers.

1880.

Chap. xxix.

complement
the

It is also

found

that,

although

Native soldiery proceeded with the utmost alacrity to

Afghanistan for a campaign, yet protracted service in that

country proves to be unpopular with some of the Indian races

which have heretofore furnished

recruits for the Native army.

Among

the European forces, the cavalry and artillery proved

quite worthy of their ancient renown.

Of the

infantry, those

regiments which consisted of comparatively old soldiers dis-

played

all

the best fighting qualities for wdiich the British

army
short

has been famous.

service regulations
fied

Some corps, however, in wliich the

had produced a considerable

new

effect,

exempli-

the very defects attributed to that system by so

many

military authorities, and the inconvenient consequences which

had been predicted

of the

as likely to result.

It is to be

hoped the

serious teachings of this experience will be duly noted.

difficulties

The
never

transport in

the

field

have been already

It

described

in

the

chapter on the army.

should

be forgotten that, if military operations are undertaken in the

winter, the animals have to traverse frost-bound regions with-

out a blade of fodder, and must soon succumb to inanition

unless the difficult task of conveying and storing food for
shall be accomplished.

them

These

difficulties

were overcome by

the strenuous exertions of the officers of all grades from the

highest to the lowest, and thus the resources of India were

brought into

full play.

It

is

very desirable that a permanent

organization of this important branch of the service should be

undertaken

for the future.

The Afghans, as a fighting race, recently displayed all the characteristics which have so often proved embarrassing to
British commanders.

They

are in

the

first

instance beaten

without

difficulty,

upon being regularly attacked, and then seem But they soon
rally again
aw^ait a favourable

ready to tender a virtual submission.

for resistance,

and

moment

for assailing their

conquerors.

If they find their

enemy placed

at

any disad-

vantage, they are wonderfully prompt and skilful in seizing their

Chap. xxix.

FIGHTING QUALITIES OF THE AFGHANS.

491

opportunity.

Their clans muster rapidly in tliickly gathering

is a ready-made soldier after The word passes round, and all the men of the fighting age turn out under arms instantly. This is the reason why it so often becomes impossible for British commanders to

numbers, and every husbandman

his kind.

learn the strength of the

Afghan

forces in the field.

It

would

not be just to blame British

officers for failing to ascertain that

which

is

not ascertainable.

The Afghans are in

their

homes

one day, apparently non-combatant, the next day they are in

the field arrayed for battle, a few days afterwards they are in
their villages again,

assuming the appearance of peaceable in-

habitants.

It

is

possible that they might submit to foreign

domination so long as they saw that their rulers were in too

great strength to be disj^laced

and that resistance was hopeless. But they would be ever on the watch for a chance of striking for their independence and if among the many accidents which
;

are but too possible in sucli a country, an occasion were to

present

itself,

they w^ould break out into insurrection with unThis description

is

subdued energy.

applicable fully to the

country around Caubul and to northern Afghanistan, but in a

much

less

degree to the country

;

around Candahar and to

believe that the city and

southern Afghanistan
district of

indeed
if

many

Candahar could,

necessary, be permanently held.

tlie

There

is

a considerable difference between the character of

northern tribes

and that of the southern.

Paiwar pass in the autumn of 1878, the
in 1879,

The
rapid

fight at the

advance upon Candahar somewhat later in the same

year, the

march from Kurrum upon Caubul

city,

and the

battle

on the heights before that

the fight near Ghazni, in

for the relief of

1880, and the fine

movement from Caubul

fit

Candahar, followed by the decisive battle near that city,

make

up a sum

of success

to be included in the military annals of

England, and chequered by only one defeat, namely, that at Maiwand. The memory of Sir Frederick Roberts and Sir

Donald Stewart

will be

handed down

to history as

belonging

492
to

INDIA IN
and
illustrious roll

1880.

Chap. xxix.

that long

of

commanders whom the

Indian service has produced, and with them will be associated

the names of their able coadjutors Generals Baker, Macgregor,

Macpherson, and Gough.

Signal as the successes of the Indian Government have been
in war, its achievements in
Sir

peace have been equally great.

James Stephen wrote,

in 1877, regarding the administration

of British India, that he

had enjoyed the privilege of being a close

spectator of one of the greatest sights in the world.

Of the

East India
full

Company he
of its

truly said that

in

it

ceased to exist in the

pride

strength,

the

triumph, at the hands, not of the mutineers

it

proper place

men who raised when they made it Government of England. Though

down, but of

moment of its cro"\vning who tried to throw the imperial Company to its a permanent member of the
the corporation had gone,

yet,

he declared, the corporators remain, and

as of old.

men

of the

same

stamp do the same work,

The Company's

colours,

which had been displayed on many seas and many battle-fields, were struck twenty years ago, and the flag of England was
hoisted in their place.

The various phases and conditions presented by the Indian

empire have

now been

described.

The motto

of the imperial

administration

should be

"festina lente."

By

"festina"

is

meant that confident energy which must ever be the mainspring

of progress.
is

By "lente"

is

meant that circumspect

caution which

essential to success.

If the views of the existing facts

and circumstances wliich have

apprehensions of those whose
affairs,

been

set forth in the foregoing chapters shall find acceptance,

the effect

must be

to mitigate the

gaze has dwelt on the darker side of current

and

to

confirm the hopefulness of those whose regards are attracted

towards the brighter.

Though endeavour has been made

still

to
tlie

paint broadly the veritable shadows in the picture,

Chap. xxix.

ELEMENTS OF SECURITY AND OF DANGER.

493

lights of various degrees

have forced themselves into promiexceptions, the state of the

nence.

With some few manifest

is

empire

such as to cause pride on the retrospect of a glorious

past, satisfaction

on the survey of an animated present, and

future.

hope on the contemplation of a pregnant

Three grave and abiding dangers must indeed be borne in

remembrance, namely, the reappearance of famine

fatal

to

lay

its

hand on the

lives of millions, the financial disturbance

silver in the foreign exchanges,

from the fluctuating value of

Afghanistan

and the war-cloud hanging heavily over the regions which

divide

from

Central

Asia.

But while

these

elements of evil are borne in mind, the

many grounds

of safety

must be observed.
expands, wealth

During

seasons, ordinarily propitious in

respect of rain and sunshine, the population increases, cultivation

is stored,

capital

is

accumulated, trade grows,

of the people,

and the revenue

rises.

While the material condition

from one generation

to another, is gradually being raised, the

Government adopts
of
their
rights,

all practicable

measures for the protection

of
their

the

encouragement

industry,

the

elevation of their social status and the advancement of their

education.

The moral development

of the classes
is

who most
The

immediately come under these influences

remarkable.
is

temper of the masses

disposition
is

is

peaceful, their

mind

contented, their
of the people,

law abiding.

The vast majority

and feudatory

including British subjects

States, is actuated

by

loyalty towards the Sovereign, and by good-will towards the

British nation.

In times of prosperity the Government, though

of success, searches vigilantly for the evils

claiming so

much

yet to be cured, the shortcomings to be retrieved, the defects to In times of adversity, improvements are devised be remedied.

which not only

relieve the pressure of the emergency, but also pro-

duce permanent benefit when the storm shall have passed away. Elaborate calculations are sometimes made to shew that the
population
is

outgrowing the limits of agriculture, that the

people do not raise enough income to enable them to live in

494
reasonable comfort,
cultivated at a loss,

INDIA IN
that

1880.

Chap. xxix.
is

even sometimes the land

being

and does not yield enough to enable the

Such calculations are which conduces
rest

landowners
instructive,

to

pay

their land revenue.

and evince an enquiring

spirit,

to

administrative improvement.

But they often

on assumed

data which do not admit of exact verification.

conclusions cannot be accepted in

Their extreme
to

opposition

large

facts

which are patent

country.
validity
It
is

to all

who

take a comprehensive survey of the

to their

That they must have some flaw destructive

proved by the
to

known

circumstances of the empire.

];)eople

were vain

estimate that the

must

ere

long be

famished for lack of agriculture, when vast cultivable areas

within India
plough.
It
itself are

seen to be inviting the approach of the

were

futile to offer statistical proof that the food-

supply must be
grain are being

insufi&cient,

stored

at

when large quantities of edible home and exported abroad. Tlie

Government
the

is

not likely to credit calculations shewing that

cultivation, being

burdened with the existing land-tax,

is

cannot prove remunerative, when the revenue

ease and punctuality
;

collected with

when

it

actually increases from time to

its rates, because new when landed property is treated by the people as a valuable security; when land commands a selling price unknown in any previous era when the fiscal demand is demonstrably much below that which

time notwithstanding the reduction in

lands are brought under cultivation
;

prevailed under the preceding

prevails

Native dynasties and which

Let the

among

the Native States at the present time.

revenues of the Queen-Empress of India to-day be compared

with the most authentic account of those of Akber the Great or

the

Emperor Shah Jehan, and

trade, a

it

will be observed that

upon

at

least

an equal population, a probably wider area of cultivation,

lower
fiscal

and a greater
formerly.
If

demand

is

made now than

in

any one of the Native

is

States,

which the

administration

wisest

and the taxation mildest, be now

it

contrasted with the adjacent British territories,

will be found

CiiAP. XXIX.

ANSWER TO ADVERSE CALCULATIONS.

proportionably from
its

495
is

to exact

much more

subjects than

levied under

Her Majesty's Government.

Nor

will reliance be placed on vague estimates, accompanied

with broad assertions that the people are becoming poorer, in

the face of the improvement of their dwellings, the rise of their

wages, the expansion of their trade, foreign and domestic, and

the growth of

new

industries.

The

fact that

many

persons will

die during famine, unless relieved

by the

State, is not to be

admitted as a proof of deepening poverty, because no laljouring

class in

any country can withstand

Avithout mortal injury the

cessation of

employment and

of wages for several consecutive

But the experience of the recent famines has proved, what was quite beKeved before, that large classes habitually
months.
hoard,
in

times

of

plenty,

some

stores

of

grain
these

for

their

sustenance in the day of dearth.

Indeed,

calamities,
politic,

while exposing some chinks in the armour of the body

have yet afforded substantial encouragement, in that so many

sections of the population were found to possess resources for

self-support as well as a resolute spirit of self-help.

These fears and apprehensions tend

practical conclusions,

avowedly

to

certain

and will in some degree be judged by

is

those conclusions, as a tree

esteemed according

to its fruits.

These conclusions are set forth somewhat in

this wise.

The

agencies of steam and electricity, wliich have revolutionized

so beneficently the condition of Europe, cannot be afforded for

The attempts to protect the country, by works of material improvement against famine, result from a
the Indian empire.

mistaken policy.
tion,

The introduction
to

of a civilized administrasociety, is

calculated

humanize and elevate Native

beyond the present needs of the people.

Laws, derived from

the best traditions of bygone times and from the practice of the most advanced nations, are not conducive to the welfare
of Indians.

The

virtue,

energy,

and resolution of British

esta-

administrators,
blished,

whereby an imperial dominion has been

may

be dispensed with.

Even

the military strength

496
of the empire

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxix.
left

may

be reduced,

till

India shall be

with her

The mere statement of such conclusions shews that there must be a radical defect in the
breast bare to every foe.

reasoning which gives birth to them.

The
till

train of

argument

is

even carried further by some persons,

at length the electors of the

United Kingdom are asked to

all.

consider

why

they should vote for keeping India at

Stress

seems

to

be laid but slightly upon the sense of

national

responsibility,

and the

spirit of patriotic duty,

which stir English;

men

to a degree

never surpassed by any race at any era

these

sentiments are apparently set aside, as pertaining to the pride

of empire.

But attention

is

drawn

to

the

risks

which are
of foreign

supposed to be inseparable from the

possession

dominion, and to far outweigh the advantages of commerce

being extended, or fresh
fields

being opened abroad for British

energy and capital.

is

It almost

seems to be thought that India

a source of expense to England, a clog

upon the

resources,

and a

drain upon the population of the United Kingdom. The cutting

adrift of the

encumbrance

is

pronounced to be the true remedy

for the alleged

embarrassment.

Englishmen are actually advised

have the courage, the imperial
it
off.

to relinquish the heritage of their fathers, and other nations

are

invited

to don, if they

mantle when England shall have cast

that,

Still, it is

well

as a prudent nation, England should address searching

enquiries to herself, and

among such

investigations

may

be the

question
thereto.

why

she should keep India, together with the answer

England, then, must keep India

because because,
immense
of rights

during more than a century she has assumed the

government of a vast population, rescued by her from anarchy, revolution, and internecine strife, and now living in loyalty
contentment and prosperity under her sway
in

the faith of

British

power being permanent,

interests

have

arisen,

which depend on the security

under fixed laws with a competent executive, and

;;

"

Chap. xxix.

REASONS FOR KEEPING INDIA.

of the

497 paramount

would be imperilled by the withdrawal

authority, letting loose the destructive elements that the British

Government now

restrains, as iEolus imprisons in his cave

" Lnctantes ventos, tempestitesqne sonoras

because
her

the abnegation by England of responsibilities, per-

sistently taken

up by

her,

would leave her

friends, allies,

and

supporters in India, and

segis, to

all,

who have
Western

there prospered under

;

become the prey and sport

the influences
of

of disruptive forces
civilization,

because
belief,

especially

education, have called into being

new

schools of thought and

comprising

men who have

not

sacrificed social status

and

broken ancestral
guidance, and

ties,

in order to follow the light of European

who ought

now

to be deserted

by England

because
and

a vast

amount

of British capital has been

sunk in

the country, on the assurance of British rule being,

humanly

speaking, perpetual, the said capital being invested in railways

canals, or in industrial

and commercial enterprises

because the British because

which,
languish
if

Government has incurred a considerable

is

debt by issuing securities, of wliich a large portion

held by

Europeans and a considerable part by

under the British

ISl"atives

flag a great trade has

sprung up,

though sea-borne, does yet wholly

depend

on

the

maintenance

of order in the interior of the country,

and would

British

power were

to cease

because extensive markets have been, and

for

are being, opened

be,

British
if

manufactures,

all

which must

more

or less,

closed

the country should revert to disorder on the retire-

ment

of the British authorities

is

because the Indian empire

borne the cost of
all its wars,

self-supporLing financially, has

without imposing any charge or

burden upon the United Kingdom, and has on the other hand
rendered assistance in British wars waged beyond
in Persia, Abyssinia
its

own

limits

and China
for

because England does not incur any expense

maintaining
2

498

INDIA IN

1880.

Chap. xxix.

the communications to the east of Egypt and in the

Eed

Sea,

and because the intermediate

stations of Gibraltar

and Malta

are held in force for guarding British interests on the shores

of the Mediterranean, besides protecting the overland route to

India

because the Indian empire does not cause any

for their

real drain

upon

the English people, inasmuch as all Englishmen

who go

there,

proceed upon service which they have voluntarily undertaken

own

benefit

and because, on the contrary, such service

;

affords

employment

to the surplus of a fast-growing population

because India
aspirations

offers to

England an unequalled scope

for giving

effect to the purest philanthropy, the noblest ideas, the loftiest

by which the English nation can be moved and

herself is elevated morally

actuated

and

because England
of caring

by the obligation

humanely and

unselfishly for the good of a vast

population which Providence has committed to her charge.

Nor has England,

in assuming the governance of so vast a

people, undertaken an ungrateful task.

happy experience has

by education, and
a good standard

shewn that the Natives

it

are morally improvable

has been explained in previous chapters

how

uf probity
classes

and rectitude has been established among the educated

society does indeed present
difficulties to its foreign rulers,

The complex mass of Native

numerous

and many of the phases

eyes.
Still there

of the Indian
is,

mind seem obscure

to

European
to

in the Native character,

much

engage the sympathetic

regards of Englishmen, over and above their sentiment of duty

towards those whose destiny has been linked with that of

England.

The Native

character, as a whole,

may

be disparaged

by some whose experience is short and whose knowledge is not But with an Englishman who lives and labours in profound.
the country, the wider his acquaintance with the Natives and the deeper his insight, the greater
is

his liking for them.

He

who

has the best and longest acquaintance with the Natives,

esteems them the most.

Probably every Englishman, without

Chap. xxix.

VIRTUES OF THE NATIVES.

499

exception,

who

has,

during a lengthened residence, been brought

much

into contact

sincere regret,

^^'ith the Natives, parts from them with remembers them with the most kindly regards

and breathes heartfelt aspirations

for their welfare

and happiness.

He who

has the best data for an opinion regarding them and

the firmest ground on which to found his belief, will have the

most hopeful

faith in their

mental and moral progress.

He who

has to deal wdth

many

millions of them,

who

has been more or

less intimately acquainted

with some thousands of them, will

have formed
dures.

friendsliips that will survive so long as life en-

Many

of their virtues are of a type or

mould

different

from the Anglo-Saxon, but their domestic qualities

a quiet unobtrusive light which deserves
of even the most civilized nations.

sliine

with

the

admiring gaze
before

While bowing down

graven images, they

power, believing that,
"

still reflect

inwardly on an all-pervading

Its threads are love

and

life,

and death and pain

The

shuttles of

its

loom."

There

is, in their disposition, a cheerful and courageous patience nurtured in the midst of national tribulations, a mllingness to

submit the unruly will to the dictates of a venerated law, and

a reliance on an almighty power as the refuge of the weak,

and the helper of the

of religion.

helpless, wliich are akin to the best forms

Those primeval characteristics which denote the

refinement and elevation of

human

nature in

all climes,

and

which

are mirrored in the oldest epic poetry of the East

and

West, have ever been, and are

Natives of India.
to the decrees of

to this hour, exemplified in the

is

Though
ill,

there

with them a calm resignation

is

yet the remembrance

never lost of the

eternal benevolence, in the thought, that

" Unseen,
it

helpeth ye with faithful hands.

Unheard,

it

speaketh stronger than the storm."

The

social

and

political life of India is like

an ocean that

has long been swept and lashed by storms following each other 2 K 2

500
in

INDIA
too

1880.

Chap. xxix.

rapid

succession.
after

which ensue
the national

The heaving and the long swell, such events, may cause some to think that
There will

agitation has not wholly subsided.

always be those whose pulse throbs at the anticipation of

coming tempest, and who wait expectantly for disturbance, like as the stormy petrel in its flight hangs low over the rising
waves.

But the mass

of the teeming Indian population desire

nothing so

much

as that sort of repose

which they enjoy under

the strong, mild and just rule of England,

gathers in quiet the fruits of his
toil, is

when every man

not forced to render

up

his goods against

his will, sleeps without fear of violence,

has redress for wi-ong done to liim by his neighbour, performs

his religious rites,

and follows his caste observances, undisturbed,

and

lifts

his eyes towards the State as to a father.

They love

to dwell under a
tree, of

Government
sings, as

as they repose

under the banyan-

which Milton

"...
High o'erarched
There
oft the

a
.

pillarVl
. .

shade

Indian herdsman, shunning heat,

.

Shelters in cool

."
.

They

desire

of their

Government that
it

its

policy

shall

be
real

truly benevolent, and that

effect to its

shall

have

tlie

power of giving

good intentions.

Whatever be the exceptional view

of

some

classes

among

the people, the overwhelming majority

think that, in this iron age, the marks of imperial qualification

are found in the British

Government more than in any governto

ment

that has

been seen since the golden age of an ideal

themselves the Queen-Empress

antiquity.

They picture

seated on the throne of justice under the canopy of mercy.

They were

rejoiced at the presence of the Heir- Apparent,

and

founded charitable and educational institutions in memory of

the royal visitor.

Some

Natives,

who
feel

are

beginning to be

imbued with the Western education, occupy a comparatively

high range of thought, and these
for placing intellectual

grateful

to

the

State

resources

at

their

disposal.

Others

Chap. xxix.

BRIGHT PROMISE OF THE FUTURE,

still,

501

soar

higher

enjoying that

mental

independence

and

moral

freedom

into

which
and
foreign

they

have

been

initiated

by

studious

preparation,
of their

they derive encouragement from

rulers.

the example

Among

them,

many

consider that the

Government must

ere long offer higher careers

than heretofore to Native talent in the public service, and

concede to qualified Natives a larger share in the manage-

ment

Undoubtedly such opportunities will be afforded gradually, and the advancement of the Natives will
of the country.

proceed so far as

may

be consistent with the maintenance of a

all

due proportion of European administrative strength in

situations
is

those

where the absolute safety of the imperial

interests

concerned.

Here

also the Natives,

though regretting what

seems to them the slow rate of such advancement, yet note

the

onward

movement which

is

already

effected,

and

feel

assured that their claims will meet with consideration from

English justice.

Although the loyalty and

unchanged,
if

fidelity of the

Natives will remain

the British administration shall continue to be

heretofore,
their

wisely conducted as
respects

minds

will

in

many

be powerfully affected by the mental and material

is

progress which

being wTought.

The morning of a new

Those who look
for

day

is

about to break for them.

this

light are like travellers in the Himalayas,

who during
sit

the last

hour of the night arise from their beds, and

tents on the mountain summits, watching

outside their

for the

behind the distant range of everlasting snow.

dawn to appear At first a faint

glimmer

steals over the eastern horizon,

and the peerless peaks

up black as Erebus, with no promise as yet of the shining robes in which they are shortly to be arrayed. As the sky becomes illtiminated with amber hues, the outline of the
are reared

peaks,

with their needles,

spires
till

and pinnacles,

is

defined

with an amazing sharpness,

a

the whole range presents for

moment

the jagged teeth of a gigantic saw.

Then, as the

orb of day surmounts the horizon, the darkness of the

snowy

502
range yields gradually
a purple mist,

INDIA IN
;

1880.

Chap. xxix.

parts of the range

become suffused with

some points are obscured by a veil of golden gauze,

while others, fronting the sun, are smitten with splendour and

seem
So
India.

to catch

fire.

At

length, the

whole mass of mountains

good time coming to

subsides into a state of radiant whiteness.

it is

with those who wait

for the

Formerly
" midnight hushed the world

Save where the beasts of darkness in the brake

Crept and cried out, as fear and hatred cry.

As

vice

and avarice and anger creep

In the black jungle of man's ignorance."

As
which

the daylight for the nation

approaches,

as yet stand out gloomily, will be irradiated,

many points, many mists

faith.

of superstition, prejudice

and error will be cleared away by a

sounder knowledge, a higher morality, a purer

there will be a bright epoch
for these

Then

Eastern races under

This era will arise as

the guidance of Western civilization. the sunrise manifests itself to the earth

"...
Of

high as the herald star which fades in floods

silver,

warming

into pale gold, caught

By

topmost clouds, and flaming on their rims

To fervent glow, flushed from the brink With saffron, scarlet, crimson, amethyst
Whereat the sky burns splendid to the blue, And, robed in raiment of glad light, the King Of life and glory cometh " *
!

The Light

of Asia,'

by Edwin Arnold,

C.S.I.,

p. 113.

INDEX.
ABBOTT.

AECH^OLOGICAL.
Akber the
era
Great, palace
of,

ABBOTT,
Abdul

his travels, 348

Latif,

mention

of,

114

sheltered in infancy
of,

at Fatehpur Sikri, 40 by Rajputs, 70

Ab-dur-raliman,

Aboriginal tribes

Amir of Caubul, 435 among peasantry, 112, 472,473

473

305
of,

revenue

494

offer fields for missions, 112,

Albiriini, the philosopher, 343

Abu,

cliaracteristic of, 13

Jain temples at, 31 Acacia tree, 298 Acts of the legislature, 181, 182 Aden, its position, 415, 416 its political relations, 416 defence of, 377 Adhi-Brahmos sect, mention of, 130 Adina mosque at Gour, 39 Adoption, right of in Native States, Admiralty, arrangement with, 376 use of teak wood by, 290 Adult males, employment of, 473 Adulteration of food, 326 Adultery, punishment of, 200 Afghanistan, position of, 422 importance of, 423-440 protracted war in, 488
trade with, 481

Alder tree, 298 Aleppo, trade by, 313 Alexandra Institute at Bombay, 157
Aligarh, viaduct
at,

267

Allahabad, arsenal
Alligator,
its

at,

408
25

view of bridge

at,

characteristics, 371, 372

in, 17

Almora, views
66, 61

Almshouses in time of famine, 339 Alompra, empire of, 418 Ambair, buildings at, 37 Amerapura, mention of, 419 American merchants in India, 56
vessels, 315

tramways

in

Bombay, 286

cotton, 288, 293

use of jute, 296

See United States.

Afghans, characteristics
491

of,

as lighting men, 490,

Amir Amir

of Caubul, 435

Ali, Nawab, 114 Ammunition, manufacture

of, 407,

408

African deserts, some parts of India compared

with, 8
Afridi tribe, 421

Andaman

islands,

210

Agents of guaranteed railway companies, 272

Agra, arsenal
at,

Andrew, W.

408

hot winds at, 10 Moti Masjid at, 41

Anderson, of Madras, mention of, 52 Anderson, Rev., mention of, 170 P., his connection with railways, 272 Anglo-Indian newspaper press, 57, 58 Anicat in canals, 2i9 Anjuman of Lahore, 127

Taj Mahal mausoleum

.

at,

42

industries at, 306

Agra Bank, 469

Agricultural statistics, 474-476
education, 153
science, 359

Anquetil du Perron, his researches regarding the Parsis, 343 Antiquarian remains, 351 Antiquary, attractions of India for, 3
Appeal, right of, in civil causes, 185 Applied sciences in India, 149 Arab mercenaries in the Deccan, 68

department, 360
Agriculture, native position
of,

84

vessels, 314

merits and defects

of,

85

Arabia, southern, relations with, 416

Ahalya Bai, mention of, 156 Ahmedabad, buildings at, 39

industrial arts
at,

Arabian
with, 8

deserts,

some parts of India compared

306
at,

Aravali, 297
Arbitration,

Ajanta, caves

of,

28 65

how

far resorted to, 187

Ajmir, college for young native princes Ajudhia see Ayodhya, 36

:

Archifiological Survey, 351

its
its

importance, 351

Akbcr

the Great,

tumb

of, at

Sikaudra, to

work

in India, 351


504
ABOaaCOLOQIOAL.
Archaeological Survey, in

INDEX.
BASSEIN.
Presidency,

Bombay

351
Archipelago, Eastern, 415
Architect, attractions of India for, 3

Architecture,

Muhammadan, 38-42

Hindu, 31-38
Buddhist, 26-31
Jain, 31
British, 23

Assemblage, Imperial, at Delhi, 61, 306 Assessed taxes consist of licence tax on trades, 234 Assessment of land revenue, how made, 215 Astronomical observatory at Madras, 355 Asylums, Lawrence, 386 Atkinson, \V., his entomology, 359
Audit,
civil, 4

65

military, 411, 412

471, 472
of, 115,

Area of country,

Australia, trade with, 313

Aristocracy, Native, position

116

Australian wools, 289

horses, 289, 405

Armoury

industry, 304
of,

Arms, bearing, regulation

207

industrial exhibitions, 313

laws regarding, 207 surrendered by people, 207

Austrian merchants in India, 56 vessels, 315

384-391

Army,

constitution

of, in India,

Ava, kingdom

of,

419
of,

European, 385
its strength, 413, 482

Yule's account

349

Ayodhya, remains

of,

36
Strait of, 415,

Native, 391-404
its

use and value, 392

it

BAB-EL-MANDAB,
Bailakshan, mention

416

basis of, its fidelity, 394

of,

428, 429

proportion between

and the European,

to

Baden Powell, Mr.,

Baghdad, trade

his

395
divided
castes
its
its

of, 313,

work, 305 417

of,

into

three armies, according

Bahawalpur, Native State

Bahrein, pearl fisheries
of,

72

Presidencies, 396

304

and

tribes of

which

It is

composed, 397

Bailey, Archdeacon, promotes education of

East

physique, 399

good conduct, 399

Indian and poor European children, 160 Bailey guard, remains of, at Lucknow, 25
missionary, 170
Baillie, his treatises

terms of enlistment, 400 pay and allowances, 401 its ofiBcering, 402 its native officers, 403 its European oiBcers, 404 its cavaliy, 405 horses and remounts, 405 regular and irregular systems, 402 staff corps, 404 question of forming a reserve, 406 armament and equipment, 407
ordnance, 407, 408 commissariat, 408
clothing, 408

on

Muhammadan
52

law, 315

Baird Smith, mention

of,

Baker, General, 492

missionary, 170
Sir

W., 272
"

district of Madras, 283 Balance of Indian foreign trafle, 315 how adjusted, 315, 316

Balaghat

Balfour, Ur., his scientific works, 357

Sir George,

Balkh, mention
Ball,

on military accounts, 411 428, 429 v., his book on jungle life, 358
of,

Bamboo

tree,

298

transport, 409-411

Bander Abas, position

Bangalore, railway

military accounts, 411

Arnold, E., his puems on Buddha, 346 quotations from, 502 Preface, is. Arracan, province of, 418

of, 417 to, 268 Banks, Presidency, 468, 469 savings, 467 exchange, 469

Arsenals belonging to Native States, 66 British Government, 407, 408

Art, schools
of,

Banyan

tree, description of,

500

Baoli wells in Gujerat, 35

154

Baptist missions, 168

Bar, English, 55
native, qualifications, 123

industrial, 306, 307

ancient, of India, 308

Ash

Artillery,

European, 406
of,

status

of,

123, 184

Native, 406

Arungzeb, era
tree,

305

Bardwan estate, 475 Bari Doab canal, 255

Baroda, Native State
of, 71

298

Asiatic Society of Bengal, 350

see

Barracks for European troops, 385-387

Bombay.
at,

BarLh^lemy
36

St.

HiUire, 345
of,

Asirgarh, fort

Barve, minister, mention

Basevi, his death, 359

76

Asoka, Buddliist emperor, 28, 154 Asoka tree, 292 Assam, tea-planters in, 57, 291

Basra, navigation

to,

417

Bdssein, ruins of, 25

INDEX.
BACHELOR.
Bachelor of Arts, native, 145

505
BUDDH.

Boar, wild, characteristics

of,

365

Bauhinia

tree,

291
of,

spearing

of,

365

Beads, importation
Bear,

313

Beanies, his ethnological works, 318

its characteristics,

Boats on rivers, 319] Bogle, his travels, 348

369

Bedar, buildings
Beggars, class
of,

at,

39

101, 473
of, 109,

Bolan Pass, military stores and material railway to near foot of, 440 Bokhara, position of, 247, 423-425

in, 75

Behar, peasantry
tenures
in,

110

Bombay, Barodi, and Central India

270

Railway

217

railways

in,

267

Bombay, arsenal

famine

in, 331,

333
437

indigo planting in, 291

Beliicliistan, position of: see Khelat,

Beluch

tribes,

behaviour
of,

of,

421

Benares, view

35

Bengal Asiatic Society at Calcutta, 343, 349, 350 Bengal, bay of, vapours from, 9
eastern,

at, 408 branch of Royal Asiatic Society, 350 bank of, 468, 469 Bombay Presidency city, view of buildings at, 24 port of, 377, 381, 382 wet dock at, 381 foreshore at, 382

monsoon
of,

In,

population

80

tramways

in,

286

famine

in, 331,

333
in,

railways from, 266, 267 roads from, 282

indigo planting In, 291

waterworks
conservancy
defence

of,

323 324
378

tenures of land

217

of,

army, 384, 3S6, 398, 400

Bengali people, appearance of, 20 Bentinck, Lord William, era of, 347
Berkeley, George, 272
- James, railway engineer, 272 Berlin treaty, mention of, 426 Betel nut, production of, 288

of, 377,

dockyard

at,

381

police of, 204

Bethune

Driukwater, founds institution Calcutta for female education, 157

river, 253,

at

army, 384, 396, 398, 400 famine in, 331-335 municipal franchise in, 127 Books, statistics of, 478 Borax, produce of, 289
Borneo, relations with, 415, 418

Betwa

254
at,

Beypore, railway

268

Bhamo, route through, 419

Bhils, tribe of, 111

Botanic science in India, 356 services of medical men, 356 gardens and herbaria, 356, 357 Botanist, attractions of India for, 4

Bbilsa, topes of, 26, 27

Bhinsa in Kumaon, view from, 17 Bhopal, Native State of, 71 Its State railway, 276 Bhore Ghat, view of, 24
railway over, 24
road over, 283 Bhotan, Native State
Bijapur,
of, 73,

Botany, progress of in India, 356 wealth and variety of, 356

Bovine breeds, 289 Brahmaputra, river, 254, 380, 291

navigation, 319

Brahminist, Hindus, 31 Brahmins in the aimy, 397

420

Brahmo
his

sect,

mention

of, 130,

174

dome and

buildings at, 39
of,

Brandis, Dr., his services to the forests, 301

'

Bijayanagar, ruins

37

Forest Flora,' 357

Biographies of eminent men, 347

Brass, industrial art in, 306

Birch tree, 298

Bird, Mertins, mention
of,

Brassey, railway contractor, 272

50

Briggs, his translation of Ferishta, 346

British India

services in settlement, 214

Steam Navigation Company, 378

378
at,

Birdwood, Dr., his description of handicrafts-

Its services,

men and

villagers, 103

British Indian Association of Calcutta, 334

his report
bition, 305

on Indian works in Paris Exhiof,

Brindaban, near Mathra, temple

Broach, view of bridge
at,

33

25

Bishops, establishment

in India, 53

missionary and suffragan, 172

Bison, mention
of,

371

Black Pagoda, ruins of in Orissa, 33 Blackwood tree, 298

Blanford, Mr., meteorologi.st, 355

on Indian geology, 358 Blochmann, his translation of the institutes of

Broome, his history of the Bengal army, 127,347 Bruce, Colonel, organizes police, 204 Bryan Hodgson, 343 Buchanan Hamilton, his statistical works, 349 Buckley, his book on canals, 262 Budget, financial, in India, 441 Buddha, figures of, generally, 28
figures of, in Sikhim, 29

Akber

the Great, 315

Bud

Ih

Gya, temple

of,

29

506
BUDDHIST.
26 ruins and remains, 26 Buddhism, roclj-cut temples

INDEX.
CAVALRY.
Canals, from the Tunga-badra, 252
in Tanjore, 251
of,

Buddhist

tfjpes,

27

in Sind, 252 in

]5ugti, tribe of,

421
of,

Bombay

Deccan, 252

Buist, Dr.,

mention

58
71

projected canals, 252, 253

different principles of constructing, 254

Bullocks in military service, 410

Bundelkhand, mention diamonds in, 304

of,

in the north, 255

in the south, 256

Burgess, his antiquarian survey, 351 his 'Indian Antiquary,' 351

water-rent from, 258

use of water from, 258

natives often backward in using, 259

Burma, architecture
railways
rubies in, 304

of,

30

in, 268,

269

proposed rate

for,

260

receipts of, 260 direct return, 260

indirect beriefit, 263
sites still

food-supplies from, 317

Burnell, his paleography, 344

Burnes, Sir Alexander, his travels, 348

remaining

for,

262

mention of, 51 Burnouf, his Buddhist researches, 343 Bushire, political importance of, 417
Bythesea, Admiral, 379

rivers not yet

drawn upon, 254

prijects by private companies, 261

Candahar,
affairs of, 430, 432, 436,

navigation project.

Upper Godavery, 261

438

fight near, 439, 440

CADDAPA,
342

road near, 284

Cane

Caird, James,

member

of

Famine Commission,

tree, 298 Cannanore, road near, 284

Capital,

accumulation

of,

94,

95

Calcutta, arsenal at, 408

discussion regarding, 96, 97

bank of, 468, 469 view at, 24 pontoon bridge at, 380
port
of,

Carey, Rev. Dr., mention of, 168 Carnac, Rivett, his services in cotton department,

380
of, of,

293 Carnivorous animals, wounds from, 369

Carolina
rice,

waterworks
conservancy
police
of,

324
324

288

Carpenter,

Mary, promotes female education!

204'

159

defence

of,

377

advocates certain reforms in prisons, 211

Carpets, merits of prison-made, 209

Review, periodical, 347

cyclones
at,

380

Carts in military service, 410

dockyards at, 381 municipal franchise In, 127 Caldwell, Bishop, mention of, 170
Calicut district, wealth of, 103 California, direct trade with, 312 Cambridge mission to Delhi, 175, 176

improved build of, 93 Cash balance of government, 469, 470 Cashmir, beauty of, 18, 19 panoramic view of, 19 government of, 68, 429 its relations with Yarkand, 421
its shawls, 308 Caspian Sea, Russian base on, 424 system of, not yet weakened, 118

Camels, quality

of,

289

in transport service, 409 Campbell, Sir George, his work

on modern India

Caste,

347
Canals, for navigation and irrigation, 246 of India compared with those of Mesopo-

affected slightly

by railways, 118
166, 167

Catholic: see

Roman,
of,

Cattak, canal near, 251

Cattle,

tamia, 247
.

numbers
of,

98

of Central Asia, 247

in India, constructtd

increase

99

by

natives, 248

breeds

of,

93

especially in the South, 249

constructed by British, 250

from the Ganges and Jamna, 250 in Rohilkhand, 250

in the Panjab, 250 from the Satlej in Sirhind, 250

murrains among, 362 Cattle-stealing, crime of, 201 Caubul, embassy to, 427 mention of, 432 Robert's march to, 488
fight before, 491

inundation canals. 251 from the Sone, 251 in Midnapur, 251

in Orissa, 251

Caucasus, Indian, 423-429 Cautley, Sir Proby, mention

of,

52

constructs Ganges Canal, 257

from the lower Godavery, 251 from the lower Kistiia, 251

Cavalry, European, in India, 405 Native, 405 recruits, whence obtained, 303


INDEX.
CAVALRY.
Cavalry horses and remounts, 405 Cavery, canals from, 251-253 tJawnpore, Well at, 25 manufacture of harness at, 403 Cedar-tree in India, 290, 298 Census of the Indian population, 78, 79
Central Prisons, 209
Clive, essay on,

507
COMMISSARIAT.
by Macaulay, 346

Clothing of army, 408 Coal in India, 3U2

Coal, places of
its

production, 302, 303

railways
its
its

to, 302, 303 average production, 303, 481

quality, 302
of,

Central Provinces, tenures of land Ceylon, products

of,

in,

218

importation

303
of,

288
of,

Coasting-trade, 480

labour market
Chakrata,

83 387

Cocoa-nut, Indian, excellence

Coffee-planters as a class, 57

290

hill station at,

Chambal, poosible canals from, 253, 254 Chambers, Mr., meteorologist at Bombay, 355 Chambers of Commerce, position of, 56

Indian,

its

merits, 289

planting in India, 292

exportation
Coinage,

of, 292, of,

481

Champa
Chand

tree, 291

amount

467

Bibi, history of, 156

of,

Coir, production of, 295

Chandragarh, palace
Chaplains, position

near Arcot, 37

Colebrooke, his learned works, 343

Colerun, canals from, 251-253
Cole, Capt.,

53 Charity in England for famine, 332 in India for famine, 332

of,

employed on antiquarian remains, 352

Collection of land revenue in cash, 231 in kind, 232

Collector of district, duties
of,

Chartered Mercantile Bank, 469 Bank of India, 469

46-48

Cheeta kept for hunting, 369

Chenab, possible canal from, 252, 254 Chesney, CoL, his Indian polity, 347
Chester, salt from, 238

Colleges affiliated to universities, 146

of civil engineering in India, 151

medical, 149, 150

private colleges, 146

Chief Commissionerships, 472

^ Justice of High Court, 183

Childe Harold, quotation from.
China,

Colonies

see

Emigration, 85
of Indian emigrants, 479
:

statistics

how

Preface, vi. affected by Indian opium, 240-241

of,

Collieries, out-put of, 303, 481

see Coal.

Commander-in-Chief
397

in three Presidencies, 396,

trade of India with, 419

Chikishlar, Russian station

430

Commerce,

internal and external, 309-320, 480

Chimalari, Mount, view

Christian natives, 172

of,

13

external, round Cape of Good Hope, 309, 310

Chitorgarh in Rajputana, 36
Christianity, policy of British

by Suez Canal, 310

average total value, 311

Government

re-

direct

with countries beyond England,

specting, 166
Christians, number of, 472 Church Missionary Society, 167

312

Cinchona, Indian, Inferior to American, 289 culture of, 292

Cirencester Agricultural College, 153
Civil Engineers, attractions of India for, 5

educated at Cooper's Hill, 51

position in public works department, 52

with France, 313 with United States, 313 with Italy, 313 with China, 312 with Australia, 313 with Mauritius, 313 with the United Kmgdom, 314 shipping engaged in, 314
British, 314

engineering as an applied science in India,

colleges
of,

149
in India, 151
Civil service, covenanted, its duties, 43-50
its

foreign, 315

excess of exports over imports, 315

balance of trade, 315, 317

branches, 45

executive, 46, 47
judicial,

ac^ustment of national account, 315 advantage of export trade, 316

leaves sufiHcient food-supply, 317

49
its duties,

courts, their popularity,

procedure, 181
suits, statistics of,

uncovenanted,

53

Commerce,

internal, registration of, 318

185

stations for collecting statistics, 318

its vitality,

318

476

land carriage, 319

Clarendon, Lord, his negotiations, 426, 428

Clarke, missionary, 170

navigable rivers, 319

boats of Eastern Bengal, 319
floating cities, 319
effect

Clergy of English Church, 53

Climate of India, varieties of, 9 its effect on Europeans, 11,12

Clive,

on

prices,

320

statistics of,

480

mention

of,

51

Commissariat,

its

duties in India, 408

508
C03IMTS ARIAT.
Commissariat,
its

INDEX.
DEBENTUKKS.
Covenanted
Civil Service, its numljers, 43

eJBciency, 409
for framing laws, 181 framing laws, 181

Commission

in

England

Craft, native sea-going vessels, 315

in India for

for investigating

Deccan indebtedness,

Crime, statistics of, 476 Criminal Code, 201

Procedure, 181, 201

222
for reorganizing regular police, 204 for Indian famine, 3-12

Cubbon,

Sir Mark, mention of, 51 Cuch Behar, Native State of, 73

for reducing military expenses, 449 Commissioners, divisional position of, 49 Communities, village, in Northern India, 218
Sir

Cultivable waste in India, 83, 472

Curg, coflFee-planters
Currie,

in, 57,

292

Edward, rent law, 225

of,

Henry Maines book

:

on, 218

Cutch, Native State

See Tenants.

73

Companies

see Guaranteed.

Cultivators, moral effect of British rule upon, 110

Competition system of appointing to covenanted civil service, 44 Concan, tenures in, 225 Congress of Berlin, 427 Conolly, his travels, 348 Conservancy in towns and cities, 324
in Calcutta, 324
ill

Cunningham, Arthur,
344

his

book on Bbilsa topes,

his other worlis, 345 General Alexander, head of Archiuological Survey, 351 H. S., member of Famine Commission, 254,

Bombay, 324

342, 443, 463

Contagious diseases, 327 measures regarding, 327

Currency in

silver,

460

in gold, proposals for, 460,

461

army, 389 Continuity of system desirable, 194 Contract, law of, 181 Controller General of civil accounts 412
in the

in paper, 465-467

development of, 466 notes held by natives, 96

Cust, his essays, 347

of military accounts, 411, 412 Converts, Native character of, 172

Customs, duties on imports, 235

on exports, 235
partially remitted on English piece goods,

Cooper, his journey in China, 349, 420 Cooper's Hill, college at, for Civil Engineers, 51

Coparcenary communities in

Northern India

236 question of total abolition, 237

inland for salt and other articles, 238, 239
abolished, 238

218 Copper, production of, 289 Corps see Staff, 404 of engineers, 52 Corals, importation of, 313 ' Corpus inscriptionum Indicarum,' 345 Correspondents, special, sent by English press to
:

Cyclones at Calcutta, 380

at Masulipatam, 380

in delta of

Megra and Brahmaputra, 381

Cypress

tree,

298

Czechuen, relations with, 419

Behar famine, 331

Cost of
civil suits,

184

DACCA

territory,
of,

wealth
197

of,

103

Costumes, effect of, in India, 21 Cotton, Sir Arthur, mention of, 52

his services to canals, 257

Dacoity, crime

serious occurrences in the Deccan, 198

Dagon pagoda

at

Rangun,
at,

30, 31

Cotton, Bishop, mention

life of,

of,

53

Dagshai, hill station

387

347 founds schools in Himalayas, 160 Cotton, production of, in India, 293
efforts for

Dalhousie, Lord, his scheme for railways, 265

his biography, 347

Dalton,

hi,-,

ethnological works, 348

improvement, 293

Damascened work, 306

Danvers, Juland, his connection with railways,
272 DanieU, Major, his able conduct hi suppression
of Deccan dacoities, 199

indigenous varieties, 294 exportation of, 29 4 inferior to American, 293

local

manufactures

of,

294, 481

Councillors of the Empve.-s, 62

Councils, Legislative, 181

Daidatabad, fort

at, :^6

Country

craft

see Craft,

315
115

Davbhanga estate, 475 Darjiling, view from, 17

characteristics of, 13

boats on rivers, 319

Court of Wards,

work

of,

tea-planters at, 57, 292

Courts, High, of Judicature, 183

in interior of districts, 185

Date, produce

of,

288
pisciculture, 369
3'29,

Davies, Rbys, on Buddhism, 346

of small causes, 185 Sadar, or Company's, 180

Day,
its dutic;-,

Dr., his

work on

Death-rate of population, 81,

332

Covenanted Civil Service,

43-50

Debentures, municipal, 95

INDEX.
DEBT.
Debt, public
private
:
'

509
EMiaBATION.

see National, 461, 48.)

see Indebtedness.
in, 9

Eastern Ghat mountains, roads across, 283 Eastwick, E. B., bis guide books, 349

monsoon Deccan, the Nizam of,

Deccan, the,
dacoities in, 193

Ebony, produce

of,

290

67

Ecclesiastical establishment, 162

its income, 163 Economist, attractions of India
in,

canals

in, 2;>2

for, 5

indebtedness of peasantry

222

Eden, gardens

at,

Calcutta, 24

Mahratta associations
Decrees, civil execution
in science, 129, 152
of,

in,

72

186, 187

Edinburgh, H.R.H. Duke of, visits India, 61 Edgar, his travels in Sikhim, 348

Degrees conferred by universities in India, 145

Delhi, ruins at, 39

Edmonstone, mention of, 50 Educated classes. Native, of the old school, 121
of the

new

school, 121

imperial assemblage
prize

at,

61

their characteristics, 122

their
relief,

money

at,

92

moral standard, 122

for, 133,

Demoralisation not caused by fomine Dhannsala, characteristics of, 12 Diamonds, production of, 304
Dig, palace
at,

340

their political reflections, 125

want of employment

134

possible careers for, 134, 135

37
of,

Dinkar Rao, mention

76

Educational statistics, 477, 473, 495 Education under Native rule, 138

Directors of railway companies, 272

under British rule, 139

results of, 139

Disarming measures adopted in new provinces,

207
Dispensaries, charitable, 328
their statistics, 477 for outdoor patients, 329
for indoor patients, 329

grants

for, 139,
of, 139,

140

income

140
141

several kinds

of,

primary, 142 middle or secondary, 143 high or superior, 145

of

Dock, wet at Bombay, 382

private, at Calcutta, 381

young native

princes, 65

Dockyards

at Calcutta, 381

at Bombay, 381 Dumesday-book for India, 214

Egypt, jurisdiction of, on Red Sea coast, 416 Edwardes, Herbert, mention of, 51
his biography of

Henry Lawrence, 347

of Edinburgh, H.R.H., visit to India, 61 Drainage in towns and villages, 324

Duke

Electoral franchise in municipalities, 127

Electric telegraph introduced into India, 278
lines of guaranteed companies, 279

Drama, Indian,
Drinking, effect

status

of,

133

legislation regarding,
of,

133

of the Slate, 279

on soldiery, 383
of,

their cost, 279

Droitwich salt-works, 238

Duff, Alexander, mention
his

170

their

their financial result, 279

success, 279 to England, 280

work on Native religion, 344 Drury, his work on useful plants, 357
Dufla tribes, behaviour
of,

by Red Sea, 280 by Persia, 280

to Cliina

Duration of civil suits, 184, 185 Durand, Sir Henry, mention of, 51 Durand, his history of first Afghan war, 346 Dwellings, sanitary examination of, 325

and Australia, 280

to South Africa, 280

statistics of, 479 Elephant, characteristics of, 370 catching of wild, 371 depots of tame, 371 Elephanta, caves of, 32 position of, in harbour, 378

EAST INDIA COMPANY

its its

policy, 103

regulations, 179

its

arsenals and magazines, 407

Elliot, his

works on Muhammedan
meteuiulogist, 355

historians, 345

its canals,
its its

250

Mr^

roadmaking, 282 railways, 265

ending, 495

C. A., secretary to

Famine Commission, 342

Elm

tree,

293
of, 31,

its

Elura, caves

32
in,

East India railway company, 270 Eastern Bengal railway company, 270 East Indiamen ships, 309 East Indians, prospects of, 54
education
of,

extraordinary temple

31

Elphinstone, Mountstuart, mention of him, 50 his history of Muhammadans, 346

Embankments,

their uses, 286

159-161

their extent, 287

Eastern Ghat mountains, range' of, 251 canals near, 251 railways across, 266

Embroidery, merits of, 306 Emigration from India to British Burma, 83

to the colonies, 85

510
EMIGRATION.
Emigration to the Mauritius, 85
to Natal, 85

INDEX.
FINANCE.

FACTORIES
Indies, 85

of Jute, 296

from India

to tlie

West

to Guiana, 85 Empire, Indian, Order of, 129 Employtnents of the people, 473, 474 Enamel, art of, in India, 306

of cotton, 294 proposed Act regarding, 295 Faiz Ali Khan, mention of, 76
Falconer, Dr., Botanist, 357

Encumbered E<!tates, legislation Endowments, religious, 163

of Buddhists, 163 of Hindus, 163 of

for,

116

FamiUes of Native soldiers, 399 Famine, Indian Commission, 342, 483-487 Famines under Native rule, 330
British rule, 331
in 1874,

in 1877-8, Madras,

Behar and Bengal, 331 Bombay, and elsewhere,

England, 332

Muhammadans,
securities, 485
rifles,

164

331, 332

of the Portuguese, 165

charity

for, in

Enfaced
Enfield

India, 332

408
of,

mortality from, 332

Engineers, corps
civil,

52

educated at Coopers' Hill, 51

of,

advantage 333
particulars

from possession of railways,

of,

position

in India, 52
far prevailing in

1874, 333

English law,
180, 192

how
:

India, 179,

of 1877, 335

precautions for the future, 337

see Education, 144, 145

education

Enlistment in Native army, 400 Entomologist, attractions of India

collections by, 359

for,

sanitary inspection beforehand, 337 prevent famishing people from wandering, 338

management
its

of relief works, 338

Equilibrium of income and expenditure, 463,

464, 487

village inspection, 338

organization, 339

Erskine, his history of central Asian emperors,

relief

houses and hospitals, 339

346
Established Church of Scotland, 167

Establishment: see Ecclesiastical, 162

Ethics, instruction
in,

462 Faraday, his dictum regarding scientific education, 153

total cost of relief to the State, 332,

155

Ethnologists, attractions of India for, 4

Farms, model, 153 Fatehpur Sikri, palace of Akber the Great

40
Faviell, railway contractor, 272

at,

works

of,

in India, 343

Eucalyptus in India, 290

Eurasians, prospects
of,

54
in

see

East Indians

Fawcett, Right Hon. H., speeches

358, 477

of,

443

European colonization

India, 54

Fay rer. Sir Joseph, his work on venomous snakes,

Feeder roads for railways, 285 Fee-simple tenure, 217

non-official classes, 54-58

children educated, 159, 160

employes of railway companies, 273

art in India, 38-42

supervision in relief operations, 336, 339

Female infanticide, 197 Female education in India, 155-159

schools, 158, 477

soldier: see Suldier, 385-390,395

local

army:

see

Army,
of,

officers,

paucity

389, 390 with Native regiments

Fergusson, his works on architecture, 345

Ferozepur, arsenal
Field survey, 213
its

at,

408

489
Euphrates, river. 417 Evidence Act, 181 Everest, Motmt, view
Colonel, mention

Fibrous substances of India, 295

importance, 214 215
of,

of, of,

18

its extent,

353

Fife, Colonel,

mention
of,

52

Examiners of military accounts, 411

Exchange,
loss by, 459,

lake called after him, 252

Figs, produce

460

288

Exchange banks, 469

Excise on drugs, 232

Finance, fundamental importance

on
its

spirits,

its effect

233 on drinking, 233

of, 441 budget, statements of, 442 accounts of, presented to parliament, 442

average yield, 232

Execution of decrees, civil, 186 Elxecutive branch of covenanted civil service, 45 Exhaustion of soil, 84, 85, 300, 362 Exportation of Indian produce, 315-317 Exports from India, 311 Eyiib Khan, of Heiat, 429,430, 439

statement of for two past years, 444, 445 growth of, 442 apprehensions regarding, 443, 445 want of elasticity in revenue, 447
limit of taxation, 448

control of expenditure generally, 448, 449

military expenses, 449

cost of civil administration, 450, 451


INDEX.
FINANCE.
Finance, scheme of provincial services, 452 Kuropeaii and Native agency, 453
cost of material improvements, 453

511
GRANTS-IN-AID.

Gandak canal project, 252, 254 Gandamak, treaty of, 435, 436,

440, 488

financial effect of, 454

of guaranteed railways, 454

of state railways, 455 of canals and irrigation works, 455, 456 of total outlay on public works, 456 scheme of remunerative works, 457 disturbance from recurrence of famine, 458

Garcin de Tasgy, on Oriental literature, 345 Ganges at Hardwar, 255 at Benares, 35 canal of, 250 delta of, 414 navigation of, 319 Gauges, broad and narrow, on Indian railway^
276
relative merits of, 277, 278

from

loss

by exchange, 459, 460

public debt, 461-463

objections to break

of,

277

equilibrium between ordinary lacome

expenditure, 403, 464
Financier, attractions of India for, 5

and

Gawilgarh, fort

at,

36

Gazetteer of British India, 349

Fir

tree,

293
of,

Flax, quality

290
of,

Genoa, direct trade with, 312 Geodetic operations, 354 Geoghegan, Mr., his work on
Geological Survey, 357
inscriptions,
its

silk,

293

production
Fleet, Mr., his

295

work on Canarese

works, 358

351
Flora, Indian, 356

its uses,

358
in India, 56

Geologist, attractions of India for, 3

Food-supply generally sufficient, 86, 87, 317, 482 exportation of, during famine of 17), 317 Forbes: see Kinlocb, 345 I)r., his services in cotton department, 293

German merchants
Ghat mountains
Gill,
:

see

Eastern and Western.

Ghazui, fight near, 491

Major, his copies of Ajanta frescoes, 23 Captain, his travels in China, 349
of,

Watson, his work, 305 Foreign relations, 414-440 Forgery, crime of, 200 Forest officers covenanted, 51

Glass beads, importation

313

Glover, railway contractor, 272

Goa, old, ruins

of,

of,

25

how

appointed, 301

railway from, 383

301

department, organization
ranker, old, book, 373
Forestrj', school of, 301

harbour of, 383 Godavery, gorge of, 15

lower, canals
of,

251, 253, 257

Forests, destruction of in past times, 296

some still remaining, 297 mention of principal trees, 29S

climatic importance
of,

upper, navigation works at, 26 Golab Sing of Cashmir, mention of, 68 Golconda, tombs at, 39
Gold,

298

amount

of, in

circulation in India, 96
of,

economic value
use
of, in

of,

299

proposed standard

460
of, in

pn serving pasturage, 300 communal, 300

laws
for conservation of, 301

standard in exchange, 460

anticipated production
India, 303
of, 96 import and export of, 485 Goldsmid, Mr., mention of, 214 Sir F., his life of Outram, 348

importation

feeling of the people regarding, 301

wasteful cultivation
statistics of, 481

in,

302

Forsyth, his book on forests, 373

Fort

St.

George, arsenal
I\Ir.,

at,

408

Gond, Goods

tribe of. 111

traffic

on railways, 274, 275

Foster,

on military accounts, 411

Goparums

or gateways, 34

Foundries, miUtary, 407

Gorkhas, their mountain home, 74

their military qualities, 74

France, direct commerce with, 313

Free Church of Scotland missions, 168

as soldiers in British service, 398, 489

French merchants in India, 55 French, Bishop, mention of, 170

Colonel, his connection with railways, 272

Gougb, General, 492

Gour, ruins
of,

in Bengal, 39

Governorships, 472
Lieutenant, 471

Frere, Sir Bartle, promotes art education, 154

in favour of missions, 171

Graduates, Native, of universities in India, 14 7

characteristics
of,

Frescoes at Ajanta, 23
Frontiers, 112, 421

149

Grain, importation
for

of,

by Government during

Furlough regulations

Native troops, 400

famine, 334, 342

Grant-Duff, his history of the Mahrattas, 346

6AIRS0PA,

waterfalls of,

15. Also Preface, vi.

of, 71

Grant-Duff,

M.
of,

E.,

tour in India.

Preface,

viii.

Gaekwar of Baroda, Native State Gandak, embankments of, 286

Grants-in-aid, educational, 139

Kj'stcm

141


512
GRANVILLE.
Granville, Lord, his negotiation, 426

INDEX.
INDEBTEDNESS.
Himalayas, scenery
of,

16-18

Great Trigonometrical Survey, 353 Great Indian Peninsular railway company, 270
Green's ships, 309
Grlflath, his poetical translations
krit,

view of the plains from, 14

Hindu architecture, 31-38

tribes. 111, 112,

472

from the Sans-

Hindu

castes, 111

345

priesthood, 117, 118

religion, 130, 131

botanist, 356

Groves, sacred, description of. Preface, ix. Guaranteed railway companies, 269
their system, 270, 271

law, 178, 179

Patriot,

newspaper, 132

Kush Mountain, 429

Government, 272,273
Hislop, Rev. Stephen, mention of, 170 Hobhouse, Sir Arthur, as a legislator, 182 Hodgson, discovers Buddhist writings, 343

their names, 270

their relations towards

:

Railways. their usefulness Guardafui, Cape, lighthouse, 383

see

Holkar, as a sovereign, 70

sovereignty

of,

416
of,

Native State
103
of,

of,

71

Gujerat province, wealth

his State railway, 276

Gun-carriages, manufacture

408

Home
Holly

charges, 316

Guns, manufacture
Gwalior, fortress
of,

of,

407, 408

Hongkong and Shanghai Bank, 469

tree,

Gftty, fortress of, 36

298

36

Honorary magistrates, 127

Hooker, Sir Joseph, his Flora of British India,' 357 his book on Sikhim, 357 his contributions to Calcutta herbarium, 356 Hope, Theodore, his book on Ahmedabad, 345, 346 Horns, quantity of, 290
'

railway

to,

267

Gya, temple at Buddh Gya near, 29 Gypsum, produce of, 289 Gypsy tribes sometimes criminal, 200

HAIG

see Buchanan, 349 Harbours of Indian coasts, examination

:

Hamburg, Hamilton

of Godavery, mention of, 52 direct trade with, 312

of,

Horses, breeds

of,

in India, 289

383

decline

of,

405-406
of,

of lesser size, 383

see Port.

Importation
Hospitals
:

405 328

see Dispensaries,

Hard war, view

at, 15,

255

statistics,

477

Hardware, importation of, 314 Hare, David, mention of, 138

Harnai railway, by, 440 Harness, military, manufacture
of,

407, 403

Hubli, railway by, 268 Hughes, missionary, 170 Hughli river, 25, 380, 381 Hume, A. 0., head of agricultural department
360
his services to ornithology, 359

Hatwa

estate, 475

Haug, Martin,

his learned works, 345

Havre, direct trade with, 312 Hawkshaw, Sir John, 272

Hazara, roads
in,

Hunter,

W. W.,

his statistical works, 349

his learned works, 346, 347

283

Hyderabad

in the Deccan,
to,

mob

at,

67

headman,

village, 220

railway

266

sometimes has police powers, 220 his duties in time of famine, 339 Heber, Bishop, mention of, 53

Hyderabad

in Sind,

Hygiene, introduction primers of, 322

prize-money at, 92 of, 321-329

for,

Helmand river, 439, 440 Hemp, quality of, 290

production and exportation of, 295 Henfrey, railway contractor, 272

Hygienist, attractions of India

Hyndman, Mr.,

writings on India, 443

IBEX, mention
Ilex tree, 298

of,

372
of,

Herat, boundary near to, 426 importance of, 429-432, 439 Herbarium at Calcutta, value
science, 356

Ibrahim, King, tomb

in botanic

at Bijapur, 39

of,

Imam

of Muscat, 416
title

Imperial
of,

proclaimed, 61

Hides, quantity

290 314
for,

exportation

of,

50
to,

assemblage at Delhi, 61 Crown of India, Order of, 62

High Courts,

civil

servants chosen

Imports into India, 311

Incidence of taxation, 245, 483 Income-tax, comparative unproductiveness of, in India, 235 abolition of, 235 Indebtedness, moral effect on peasantry, 110,221 how far prevailing among landowners, 221

Natives admitted

134

establishment of, 183 popular esteem for, 186

High Education

see

Education, 145
in,

Himalayas, the, military stations

schools in, 160

387


INDEX.
INDEBTEDNESS.
Inik'btPtlncss, special cases In tlie Deccan, 222

513
KATHIAWAIi.

.Jain, religion, 119,

its

472

liidcpoiidcnt
liKlia,

community, missions

of,

168
it,

temples, 31

reasons wliy England sbouldkecp

496-

498 Indian Caucasus, mention of, 423, 429 Indian corn: see Maize, 289
Indian Famine Commission, 317, 342, 483-487
tljeir opinions regarding tenants, 229 Indian Institute at Oxford, 136 navy, 375

its adherents, 119 at Delhi, 40-41 Jamaica, sugarcane of, 288 James, Lord Justice, on Law Commission, 181 Jamieson, Dr., his services to science, 357

Jama Mosque

Jammu,
Jamna
of, 71

State

of,

66

sovereign

of,

68

Bai, princess, regent of liaroda,

mention

Ocean, monsoon from, 9 ndia-rubber of India, 290

Jamna, old canal from, 250

Indigo-planters, as a class, 56

new

canals from, 250

Indigo, Indian, merits

of,

290

bridges over, 265

planting in Bengal, 291 in Behar, 291

Jats as soldiers, 398

Jaxartes river, 425

Jedda, consulate
Jesuit order,
at,

Indo-European telegraph, 279 guarding of, 417

Indore, railway to

416
of,

Jelalabad, position

436
of, in India,

Malwa

plateau, 267

members
of,

167

road near, 283 Indus, canals from, in Sind, 252 navigation of, 319
delta

Jheluni, source
valley
of,

in Cashmir, 19

in Cashmir, 20
of,

Jhind, Native State

69

of,

414
-

bridge over, at Sakar, 266

Jodhpur, Native State of, 70 Joint responsibility, system

Infantry, European, 385

Native, 301
See

of, 219 Jones, Sir William, founds Asiatic Society of Bengal, 343, 350

Army.

Jounpur, mosques
Judges of
455, 456, 461,
district,

at,

39

Infanticide, female, suppression of, 197

Institute, Indian, at Oxford, 136
Interest, rates of,

Journalist, attractions of India for, 4

Europeans, duties

of,

49

on National Debt,

assistant, 50

462
in private transactions, 97

Native, 49
Judicial branch of covenant<?d civil service, 45

Inundation canals in Panjab: see Canals. Invaliding of soldiers, 388 Irawaddy, river, tribes near, 419
Iron, production
of,

system, 179

Judson, Rev., mention

of,

168

Jung Behadur,
Juniper
tree,

his administration of Nepal, 74

in India, 303

298 36

company
403
Irrigation

for raising, in Bengal, 303

Junir, fort

at,

Irregular system of officering native army, 402,

Jurist, attractions of India for, 5

Jute, fibre, 290, 295

works by the Natives, 248

production
exportation
local

of, 247, of,

296
of,

in Central Asia, 247

in Nortliern India, 250

296
296

manufactures
of,

in Central, 249

Juvenile Offenders: see Offenders, 210

in Southern, 249

Jyepur, city

37
of,

by
in in

British, 250

Native State

70

Upper

India, 250

in in

Behar and Orissa, 251 Madras Presidency, 252 Bombay, 252

of,

KACHNAR
Kailas,

TREE,
of,

291
in valleys

temple

at Elura, 31

Kangra of the Panjab, tea-planters

near, 57, 292

importance

247

relative extent of, 247

Karachi, defen'^e

of,

377

value in famine: see Canals.

Irwin, Mr., book on tenures in Oudb, 229
Italian

harbour

of,

382

merchants in India, 56

Karak, island of, 417 Kariz for irrigation, 246

Karli, cave of, 29 Karnul, road near, 284 Kanin, river, 417

vessels in Indian trade, 315

Italy, trade with, 313

J ABALPUR, marble rocks near,

Jacobi, his literary work, 345

15

Prefaced-

Jacob, John, mention

Jails
see Prisons.

of,

51

Karwar, position of, 377 harbour of, 383 Kashgar, relations with, 420
position of, 431

Jacob's Rifles, conduct

;

of,

489

Kathlawar, Native States

of,

72

2 L


514
KA.THIAWAR.
Kathlawar, railway
in,

INDEX.
LONG.
Lala Rukh, poem, scene Land-tax, nature of, 212
is

267

of,

19

Katmandu

in Nepal, events at, 74

Kaye, Sir John, his biographies, 347

a part of the rent, 212, 213

Kazi,

historical novel, 348

percentage of gross value, 213

his history of first

Afghan war, 346

of

war

of the mutinies, 346

where permanently settled, 217 where liable to revision, 218, 219

average incidence per acre, 230 causes of its increase, 231 its average yield, 230 question of collecting it in kind, 231 British system of collecting in cash, 232
Lascars, native seamen, 376

of East India Company, 347 Muhammadan, 183 Keene, H. G., his historic work, 346 Kellner, Sir George, on military accounts, 411 Kene river, 253, 254

Kennedy, Michael, mention of, 52 Kensington, South, Indian Museum

exhibitions
at,

at,

306

Laurel

tree,

298

307
of,

Laurie, his history of

Burmese wars, 347

Kerosine

oil,

importation

313

Law,

native, profession of, its status, 128, 184

officers,

Keshab Chander Sen, 131 Khanates in Central Asia, 424, 426 Khande Rao, Gaekwar, mention of, 71 KheJda, depots for elephants see Elephant,
:

Hindu, 179
in India, 179

Muhammadan, 179 English, how fiir prevailing

370
Khelat, Native State
of, 75,

437

Muhammadan,
native system
life of,

Hindu, sacred character

sanctity
of,

of,
of,

178
178

how

far observed, 179

of,

Khiva, condition of, 247, 423, 426 Khorasan, Persian province, 431, 423 Khote landlords, 225

Lawrence, Lord John, mention

348
of,

50

in favour of missions, 171

services in the settlement, 214
Sir

Khyber
Kliwaja

pass, 435, 436

Amran

mountains, 436

Henry, mention
life of,

51

Kidnapping young children, crime of, 200 Kinchiiijanga, mountain view of, 17
Kind, collection of land revenue in, 232 Kinloch Forbes, his work on Gujerat, 345

348

Asylums, 386
Leach, his history of Indian navy, 347
Lees, Nassau, his book on drain of silver to the
East, 461 Legislation by British

Kirpa

Ram

of

Kirwi, prize

Jammu, mention money at, 92

of,

of,

76

Government

in India, 180

Kishim, island

417

objections against, ccn^idered, 190-194

Kistna, upper, canals from, 252

lower, canals from, 251

merits

of,

193

Legislative Council of Governor-General, 181

Kumaon, views

in,

17

of the several local governments, 181

tea-planters in, 57, 292

Leopard
5S

see

Cheeta

see Panther.

Knight, Robert, mention

of,

Lesseps, Sir Ferdinand de, his success with Suez

Kokand, mention
Kol, tribe
of,

of,

424
of,

Canal, 311

111

Kolhapur, Native State

72

Leupolt, the Rev., mention Lhassa, mention of, 420

Licence-tax, 234

of,

170

Krishna, scene of his childliood, 33

Kurram

pass, 435
of,

Kurram, valley

435, 436

Kurz, Dr., botanist, 356

Light of Asia, poem, 500 Preface, ix. Lighthouses, mention of at principal 383
at,

points,

Kusowli, Lawrence Asylum Kutab Minar, at Delhi, 39

386

want
Lingayet

of,

at

sect,

Cape Guardafui, 383 mention of, 119

Livelihood, evil, cognizable by magistrates, 199

LABOURING classes,
110, 111

effect of British rule on,

Lama, the Grand, 420

Local governments, 285, 452, 471 European army, 389
Its

Lac dye, quantity of, 290 Lace, gold and silver, 306 Ladakh, travels in, 348
situation of, 420

former existence, 390

its abolition,

390

taxation, 244

Ladies, European, example of, in female education, 159

amount
workshops

of,

244, 477
of,

Locomotives, supply
of,

275

Native, example

when
at,

educated, 159

for repairing, 275, 276

Lagerstra^mia tree, 291 Lahore, Padshai.i mosque 40

Wazir's mosque at, 40 railway from, 265, 2fi

Lakes

IS, 249, 253,

257

'

479 Lock hospitals, establishment of, 389 Lockwood, his bo"k on jungle life, 373 Long, Rev. James, mention of, 170 Long Engagements,' novel by Kaye, 348
statistics of,

INDEX.
LOKD,
l>oril

515
MAYO,

Mayoi' of Londou organizes charity, 332

Imw, Sir John, mention of, 51 Lowo, Mr. Roljert, on law commission, 181
Loyalty, probability
136,498-501
of Native army, 394, 395
of,

among

Natives,

131,

Lucknow,

prize

money
at,

at,

92

Maine, Sir Henry Sumner, as a legislator, 182 his work on village communities, 218 Maize, produce of, 289 Makum, delivery to, 267 Malabar, coast, gold discoveries in, 303 Malacca, Straits of, 418 Malcolm, mention of, 51
life of,

Btructures

39
of,

347
India,

Bailey guard

Lushai

tribes,

at, 25 behaviour

112

Malhar Rao, Gaekwar, mention of, 71 Malli'son, Col., his history of French in
346
his history of

Lytton, Earl, his policy embodied in treaty of

Gandamak, 489

war of mutinies, 316

Mallet, Sir Louis, 350

MACHINERY,

importation of, 314 Macanlay, Lord, frames penal code, 201

bis essays, 34G Macgregor, General, in Afghan war, 492 Mackintosh, Sir James, founds Bombay branch

Malwa, railway to, 267 Mandalay, mission at, 419 Mandla, palace at, 37

Mandu, ruins at, 39 Manganese produce, 289

Mau-oater tiger
:

of Royal Asiatic Society, 343, 350

see

'1

iger.

Maclean, J. M., mention of, 58 Macleod, Sir Donald, in favour of missions, 171

Mango

tree, 290,

298
India, 345

Macnaghten, W. H., mention of, 50 his works on Hindu and Muhammadan

law, 343, 344 Macpherson, General, 492 Madagascar, mention of, 376 Madhava Rao, minister, mention of, 76 Madhu Rao Barve, mention of, 76

Manning, his travels, 348 Manning, Mrs., her medieval

Jlanipur, Native State
of,

73

Manockjl

Cursetji, his services to female educa-

tion, 157

Manufivctures, local, of cotton, 294

of jute, 295

proposed Factory Act, 295

Maple-tree, 298

Madhupur, canal works

Madras, arsenal
at,

at,

255

408 34

Marble rocks near Jabalpur, 15 Preface,

vi.

bank

of,

468, 469
at, 23,

Marco

buildings

irrigation, 256, 257

famine
port
of,

in, 331, 332,

335

381

pier at, 381

Polo, his travels, 346 Margary, Mr., murder of, 419 Marine, in tune of Indian navy, 375 remained after abolition of navy, 378 its reconstitution, 379 its duties, 379

railway company, 270 defence of, 377 army, 384, 396, 398, 400

Madura, palace
temples
railway

at,

38

surveys, 379 Mariner, attractions of India for, 5 Markham, Clements, his report on India, 347 Colonel, his sporting tour in the Himalayas,

at,

35 268

373

projected canal near, 252, 254

to,

Marmaguon

harbour, 383
at,

Marri, military station

tribe, 421, 437

387

Magazines belonging to Native States, 66 to British Government, 407, 408 Magistrate and Collector, duties of, 45-49
control of police, 204

Marriages, early, in India, 81

expenses

of,

197

projected tax on, deprecated, 245

Magnetic observations, 354 Magnolia tree, 291 Mahableshwar, characteristics of, 13 Mahabalipuram near Madras, temples Mahanaddi, gorges of, 15
lower canals
of,

Married quarters for soldiers, 385 Marshman, John, mention of, 58

Marshman, Rev.
at,

Dr.,

mention

of,

168

34

Marseilles, direct trade with, 312

251

Mahikanta, Native States Mahratta, hill forts, 36

upper, projected canal, 253 of, 73

Martand, temple of, in Cashmlr, 32 Martini-Henry rifle, 408 Marty n. Rev. Henry, mention of, 168 Marwari bankers, conduct of, 117

Mahrattas, history of the, 346 appearance of, 20

political association of, 72

Masson, his travels, 348 Master of Arts, Native, 145 Matheran, view from, 14

Mathew,

F., his

connection with railways, 272

Native

States, 72

Max
428

Milller, his learned works, 344

life of,

south country, 72

Mayo, Lord,

347

Malmena, mention

of,

views on agriculture, 360

516
MAYO.
Mayo, Lord, on provincial flnauce, 452

INDEX.
NATIONAL.
Monier Williams founds Indian Monsoon, season of, 9
171
institutes, 136

Meadows. Taylor, his historic Mecca, mention of, 416

Medical service, 51 position of, 52
colleges in India, 149
schools, 150

fictions,

348

Jlontgomery, Sir Robert, in favour of missions,

Moorcroft, his travels, 348

Mopani coal mines, 353

Moral progress of the natives, 122,
Moralist, attractions of India for, 4
123, 137

men,

natives, 150, 151

Sledicine, as an applied science In India, 149

Mortality from famine,

Medlicott, his Indian Geology, 358

Medina, mention of, 416 Melbourne, exhibition at, 313 Melvill, Sir .lames Cosmo, 272

freedom from in 1874, 331, 333 severe in 1877 and 1878, 332, 335 Mosaic in stone, art of, among ;\Iuhammadans,

Moti Masjid,
its

at Agra, 41

Megna

river,

254

beauty, 41

cyclone near, 380

Mental progress of the natives, 121-137 Merchant, attractions of India for, 5

Merchants, native, mention of, 116, 117 Merv, importance of, 424, 430, 431 Meshed in Khorasan, mention of, 431 Mesopotamia, relations with, 418 Metalling of roads, 277. 284 Metals, importation of, 314
Metcalfe, Lord, mention
life of,
of,

Moulmein, pagodas at, 30 Mountstuart see Elphinstone, 346 Muhammad Ali Rogh?, mention of, 114
:

Muhammadan

genius in architecture, 38
part of Indian peasantrj', 112

Muhammadans,
-

scattered throughout India, 113

their disposition

and temper, 114

their education, 113

their number, 472 Muir, John, his Sanscrit texts, 344 Muir, Sir William, in favour of missions, 171 his life of Muhammad, 345

50

347
of,

Meteorology, importance
observations at
at Calcutta, 355

355

Meteorologiciil department, 355

Mules

for military service,

410

Bombay, 355

Mullens, missionary, 170

lesser observatories at other places, 355

Meteorologist, attractions of India for, 4

MUller: see Max, 344 Multan, climate of, 11 Mumtazi-i-Mahal, her tomb,
the Taj, 41, 42

ordinarily called

Middle Schools, 140, 1<3 Midnapur, canal in, 251

Military accountant-general, 411, 412 expenses, 449
See Finance.

Municipal commissioners, native, 127

taxation, 32
1,

477,
of,

Municipalities, mention

477
of,

Munro,

Sir

Thomas, mention

51

Mill history, 316

Millet, 247

Murghab
of,

river,

near Herat, 431

of,

Murray-Mitchell, Rev. Dr., mention

53

170

Milman, Bishop, mention

life of,

Muscat,

Imam

of, political

relations with, 416

347

Museum

at Calcutta, 358

Mineral resources of India, 302, 303 Mints, coinage at, 467

Missionaries, attractions of India for, 4
of distinguished, 168, 1*0 their relations with the Natives, 171

at Kensington, 306

Jluslins of Bengal, 30

names

Mysore, Native State of, 73 Myrobalan produce, 298

their services to oriental literature, 173

their

example

in India, 177

NABBA,
Naga

Missions,

Roman

Catholic, 165-1(j7

tribes,

Native State behaviour

of, of,

69
112

Protestant, 167-177
statistics of, 169

Nagpur, city and province, 263 Naini Tal, characteristics of, 12, 13
Nandidilrg, fort
of,

income of, 169 opponents of, 170, 171

authorities in favour of, 171
especially despatched

36
of,

Napier, Lord, of Magdala, mention

his advocacy of

52

from

Oxford

and

Napier, Sir

improved barracks, 387 Charles, on barracks, 386

Cambridge, 175
political effect of, in India, 176, 177

Nari, railway by, 440

National Bank, 460 National debt in India, 484, 435 amount of, 461-463

Model see Farms. Mogul empire, 306

:

Mobl, Juled, on Oriental

literatiu-e,

345
117

rates of interest on, 462

Moraand

tribe, 421

partly held by Natives, 94

Money

lenders, native,

mention

of, 97,

largely held by Europeans, 95, 96

Monier Williams, his learned works, 344, 315

National Indian Association, 135

INDEX.
NATIVE.
Native

517
rANNAII.

army

see

Anny.
of, in India,

Oilseeds, exportation

of,

314

Cburcb, prospects
Christians, 172

173

Oldbani, Dr., head of geologiail survey, 357 Oman, sea of, 313, 416

Native industries, how far existing under British rule, 88-93, 304-306 Native press, description of, 132, 133 Native States, 59-76
size of, 59

Opium, duties on, 239 Bengal and Bombay systems, 239 Bengal system discussed, 239 effect of Indian, on China, 240

grown
during

largely in China, 241, 29i)

their

conduct

war of

the

Orange, 290
Order, decorations of Star of India, 61

mutinies, 60
their right to adopt, 60
their political value, 62, 63 their administration, 63, 64, lh9

of

Crown

of India, 62

of Indian Empire, 129 Ordnance Department, 407

its

their fiscal system, 65

- their military forces, 66

constitution, 407

Oriental bank, 469

learning, 131, 144, 343-346
its resources,

their railways, 65

Natural history studied in India, 358 Naval arrangement between Indian Government and Admiralty, 376 history of India, 374 Navy, Indian, its services, 375 its abolition, 375 Royal, 376 furnishes ships for Indian waters, 376 Neem tree, 298 Negapataui, railway at, 268 Nepal, BuddLiist pag'idas in, 30

408
260, 261

Orissa, ruins in, 33

canals

in, 251,
in,

famine

454

antiquarian book regarding, 315

Orrae, his historical work, 316

Ormiston, engineer, 382

Ormuz, mention

of,

417

Ornitbologiciil collections in

museum, 359

journals, 359

Ornithologist, attractions of India for, 4

kingdom of, 74 government of, 74 Nerbadda, marble rocks of, 15 view from viaduct over the, 25
lower, canal project, 252

Ornithology studied in India, 359 O'Shaugbnessy, Sir William, introduces electric telegraph, 279 Oudh, talukdars of, 218
tenures of land
cultivators
in, in,

218, 219

coal-mines near, 302

Nesbitt, the Rev., mention of, 170

229

Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway Company, 270

Outcasts, mention of, 472

Newspaper

press, Anglo-Indian, 57, 58

native, 132, 133

Outram, mention
of,

of,

51

Nicholson, John, mention

Nightingale, Florence,

51

life of,

347
of,

advocates cause of the

of,

Ovis

Amman, mention

372

Deccau peasantry, 222 Nilgiri mountains, view from neighbourhood

13
coffee-planters
in, 57,

Oxford, mission from, to India, 175, 176

292

Oxus, political importance of, 423-425 boundary formed by, 42t) sources of, 426-429

floriculture in, 291

Nimar, railway

in,

267

Nizam

of the Deccan, bis government, 67

his railway, 276

PACHMARI,

characteristics of, 13 Pack-bullocks in military service, 410

Non-offlcial

community

of Europeans, 54-ES

partly superseded by roads and railways,

284, 285

Non-regulation system, 189

Normal

schools, 144

Padshahi, mosque at Lahore, 40

Painter, attractions of India for, 3

North-western Provinces, 213, 218, 250

Nur

Jehau, mention

of,

156

Palm-trees, 298
Palajontologia Indica, 358

Pamir steppes, 426

OAli-TREE, 298
Occupancy tenants, 221 sUtus of, 225
privileges
of,

Panchayet, ancient, 187

Pandit Mauphul, mention

canals
in,

of,

76

Panjab, the, cultivable waste in, 83

225

251
in,

Ocean, Indian, 9
O'Conor, Mr., his review of trade, 311
Octroi, 244

railways

266

Sikh faith

in, 120

army
ol,

of,

397
71

Offenders, 2lu
Oilseeds, production

290

produce of, 2S9 Pannah, Native State

ot,

518
PANTHEB.
Panther,
its characteristics,

INDEX.
PRIESTLY.
Pilot service

367, 368
of,

on Hftghli

river,

381

Paper currency, introduction principle of, 466

progress
of,

465

Pine tree, 298

Pisciculture in India, 359
Pishin, notice of, 436-439

467

Paras-Niitb, mount, 31
Paris, exhibition at, 307
uiarlcets at, 303

Plane

tree,
:

298

Planters

see Coffee, Indigo,

Tea.

Plantain, 291
wild, 370

Parkes', harbour engineer, 381, 382

Parsis, their characteristics generally, 114

Plantations in forests, 392

as bankers and traders, 117

Passenger

traffic

on railways,
at,

273, 274

Pogson, astronomer at Madras, 355 Poinsiana tree, 291

Poisoning, crime of, 196

Pertabgurh, fort

36

Patan near Katmandu, temples at, 33 Pathan tribes on frontier, behaviour of, 112, 421
appearance
of,

Pohce, two kinds

202, 203

of,

201

Police, regular, formerly corrupt

and

inefficient,

20

Patriarchal rule, 188, 189

Pattiala, Native State of, 69

reorganization
in
relief,

of, in

Presidency towns, 2u4

whole empire, 04, 205

of,

Pauperism not caused by famine

Paymasters, military, 411 Payment by results, system
Peacock, Sir Barnes, 201
Pearl
of,

310

in rural villages, 206

improvement
141

206

Politician, attractions of India for, 4

Pondicheri, railway

mosque

at Agra, 41

Pearls, production of, 301

fisheries in Persian Gulf, 416

268 Ponies in military service, 410 Poona, cultivation near, 103 college at, 151-153
to,

mosque, 41 see Moti. Peasant proprietors, mural upon them, 109

:

irrigiition near,

252

effect of British rule

their martial spirit, 110

dacoity disturbances near, 198 Poor-law, none in India, 101, 473 Population in India, question whether
creases, 80-83

it

in-

moral 110,221

effect

of indebtedness upon

them

Port of Calcutta, 377-380

generally unlettered. 111

largely belong to

Bombay, 377-382
castes. 111, 112

humble
of,

Madras, 377-381
Karachi, 377, 382

Pegu, political position Peiwar Pass, 435-492

418
201

Penal code, introduction Penang, mention of, 418

of,

Eangun, 377 Karwar, 377 Aden, 377

Port dues, 353 Portuguese churches, 25
ecclesiastical establishment, 165

Pendulum

observations, 353

Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Com-

pany, 310, 378 Pennar, canal from, 252 Perim, island of, 416

Post ofBce, progress

of,

124, 479

revenues

of,

243

Permanent settlement of land revenue, 217 where made, 217, 218

question of extending
it,

Potato, culture of in India, 290

Pottery, Indian, merits

of,

308

223

Pottinger, his travels, 348

Persia, relations with, 247, 417, 418,

Powell, Baden, his work, 305

telegraph line through, 280

Prarthana Samaj, mention

Pratt, Archdeacon,

of,

130

Persian Gulf, naval affairs

in,

376
417

importance
telegraph

of, politically,

in,

280

Persian horses, 289, 405 Personal rule dying out in India, 188, 194 Pertabgurh, fort at, 36

53 Precious stones in India, 303, 304 Presbyterian chaplains, position of, 53 missions, 167
of,

mention

Presidencies, armies

Peshawur, railway

to,

265
to,

frontier near, 421

of, 3^4, 413 Banks, 468, 409. see Calcutta, Madras, Bombay. Press, English in India, 57, 58

Presidency

see

Petersburg, telegraph

427
of,

Native, 132, 133, 478

Pfander, the Rev., mention

170

vernacular, law regarding, 132

Prestage, F., his connection with railways, 272 Prices, equalisation of, 370
Priesthood, Hindu, characteristics
of,

Philologist, attractions of India for, 4

Philosophy, ancient Indian, 131, 174

moral

instructior. in, 155

118

Piece goods, 236, 237 Pig-sticking see Boar.

:

Muhammadan,
Priestly. Colonel,

disposition of, 120

Sikh, temper of, 120

Pilgrims, 81, 117, 274

mention

of,

214

INDEX.
PRIMARY.
I'limary schools
poUtical
:

519
RED.

see Education,

142

Prince ofWales, H.R.H..visits India, 61

effi'ct

Railways, difficulty in tlieir construction, 264 from C;dcutta to North-west Frontier, 265

of visit. Gl

schools founded in his honour, 161

artistic offeringj

presented to him, 306,

for piibac benefit, 307

307
exhibition of

them

from from from from from

267
in

Allahabad

to

Bombay, 207

Bombay

to

Madras, 266

Lahore to Karaclii, 266 Sakar towards Candaliar, 266 Bombay through Giyerat to Kajpntana,

opens zoological gardens at Calcutta, 359

inaugurates wet docli at Bombay, 382
institutions founded in

memory of his visit,

from Rajputana to Agra, 267 Rohilkhand and Oudh, 267

500
services of railways during his tour, 273

in Behar, 267
in Eastern

and Northern Bengal, 267

Prince's dock, 382

Prinsep, Jam-s, his learned worlvs, 344

in Central India, 267

Secretary to Asiatic Society, 350

Prisons under Native rule, 207

Berar and Nagpur, 268 in Southern peninsula, 268

in

under British rule, 208 gradually improved, 209 manufactures in, 209
central, 209
'

from Goa to Southern Deccan, 268 Railway, projected, from Gujerat to Sind, 268 branch, to Hyderabad in the Deccan, 266 chord line in the Deccan, 266 from Rangun
268
Islands, 210
to

solitary cimfinemont, 211

projected, direct

Prome, 268 from Nagpur

to

Calcutta
'

transportation, 210
to Port Blair,

Andaman

juvenile reformatories, 210

defects remaining in, 211

mileage of system, 269 guaranteed companies, 269

total

Prize

money

at several places, 92

advantages of guaranteed system, 271 arrangement terminable, 272

relations of guaranteed companies towards the State, 272, 273

Productive public works 454-453

Prome, temples

at,

30
:

Propagation of the Gospel

see Society, 167

passenger

traffic,

273

Property in land
British

conferred or recognised by

goods

traffic,

274

Government, 215
paying revenue,

liable to sale for default in

by the State, 276 gauges, broad and narrow, 276, 277

lines constructed

216
several forms of, 217-221

rolling stock

and engines, 275

value

of,

in time of war, 278

fee-simple, 217
in permanently settled estates, 217
partition

in time of fiimine, 278

use

of, to tourists, 7
of,

of,

217

plant, importation
statistics,

265

petty landlords, 213

of peasant proprietors, 218
village communities in Northern India, 218,

479

Rajendra Lai Mitra, his learned book on Orissa, 345

Rajgurh, fort
at,

219
joint responsibility of their

36
at,

members, 219

Rajkot, college for young chiefs

65

under ryotwari tenure, 219, 220

Proprietors: see Peasant.

Rajputana, Native States

of,

70

See Property

see

Zemindars.

Protected Sikh States, their government, 69 Hill States, 70

forests, 301

Rajput chiefs, bravery of, 70 appearance of, 20 Rameshwarram, colonnade at, 35

Rampa

disturbances, 199
forest, boolc,
at,

Ranger, old
defence

373

Protestant missions in India, 167

Provincial service system, 285, 452

Rangun, pagoda
of,

30

377 268
at,

Public deljt

see National Debt.

of,

railway

at,

Public works, scheme and policy Purnia, minister of Mysore, 76

453-158

port

of,

377

Ranikhet, station

337

Ravi, canal from, 255

QUETTA,

view from, 13
of,

Reading-rooms

for soldiers, 385

position

437, 440

Receijjts in the public accounts, 243

Quarters," married, for soldiers, 385

Quit-rent tenure, 217

contradistinguished from reveinic, 212 nature of, 243

amount

of,

243, 244

RADHANPUR,
Raegurh,

Native State

of,

73

fort at, 36

exhibited gross in the accounts, 213 Record of rights of settlement, 214

Raikes, Charles, his historic writings, 347

Red

Sfa, navigation

of,

310

520
RED.
Ked
Sea, electric telegraph in, 2S0

INDEX.
SAXITARY.
Roads from Poona to the Soutliem Deccan, 284 from Coimbatur to the Nilgiris, 284
across passes in Eastern

Reformatories for juvenile offenders, 210

Registration of documents, 188
of trade, 318

Ghat mountains,

284

Regular system of oflBcering Native army, 402, 403

Regulations of East India Company, 179

Reinaud, his learned works, 343 Relief worlcs in famine, 338 Relief, houses and hospitals, 339 See Famine. Religious tendencies of educated Natives, 130, 131
missions in India
:

how far completed, 284 many lines still required, 285

lines
effect of roads

on habits of the people, 285

finance of roadmaking, 285

entrusted to Local Governments, 285

Roberts, Sir Frederick, 491

Robertson, professor of agriculture, 153

Robinson, Sir William, organizes police In Madras,

see

Chaptek IX.

Remains, ancient, preservation of, 351 Remittances by Indian Government, 88, 316, 439

204

Rohilkhand, irrigation works

railways
in,

in,

250

by soldiers, 386 Remounts for cavalry, 405 Remunerative public works, 454-458
Rendels, railway engineers, 212

267

Rohillas of the Deccan, 67

Rolling stock of railways, 275, 479

Roman

Catholic Church in India, 1C6, 167

its
its

Rent, 212, 228 Rent-law, 225-228

Research, learned: set Chapter XXII. Reserve, military. Native, 406

organization, 167

operations, 167

Romilly, Justice, on
Roshanara,
Preface,
sister of

Law Commission, 181 an emperor, 156

Reserved

forests, 301 Reservoirs for irrigation, 249, 253, 257 Resident, political, at Aden, 416

Rousselet, his description of the native princes,

viii.

Roxburgh, Dr., botanist, 356

Royle, Dr., his services to science, 357 Ruins, ancient, preservation of, 352

at Bushire, 417.

Responsibility, joint, system

of,

219

Revenue, proper, several heads of, 230-242 contradistinguished from receipts, 243

Rupar canal works, 255

Hurki, college, 153
Russell,

amount

of,

242

W.

H.,

his

narrative of
viii.

Prince

of

incidence

of,

245

Wales' tour. Preface,

gi-adual increase of, 244

Russia, opinion in India regarding, 424

Rewa

Kanta, Native States of, 73 Rhinoceros in North-Eastern India, 371 Rhododendrons in eastern Himalayas, 291

her position in Central Asia, 425 her attitude towards Afghanistan, 426, 427, 433, 434

Rhys

see Davies,

348
247, 288, 289
314, 481

Rice, production

of, of,

exportation

export duties on, 235 Rioting, crime of, 199

instances
of,

towards Yarkand, 431 towards Merv, 431 Ryots, statistics of, 475 Ryotwari tenure, 220

199
rule,

SABATHU,
281

Roadmaking under Native

under British rule, 282

by the East India Company, 282 Roads from Calcutta to Delhi, 282 prolonged to North-West Frontier, 282
from Bombay to Agra, 282 from Madras to Bombay, 282 in the North- Western Provinces, 283 between the Jhelum and Indus, 283 over mountains near Indore, 283 in the Thai pass near Khandesh, 283 on the Bhore pass near Bombay, 283 in the Eastern Ghat mountains, 283, 284 in Hazara of the Panjab, 283 between Ambala and Simla, 283 from Simla towards Chini, 283 to Darjiling from the plains, 283 from Mirzapur to Jabalpur, 283 from Jabalpur to Nagpur, 284 over passes in the Western Ghat mountains,
284

station at, 387 Sadar courts formerly existing, 180, 183 St. George, Fort, arsenal at, 408 Sakar, crossing of Indus at, 266

embankments
Sal tree, 298
Salt,

near, 287
of,

Salar Jung, mention

76

tax upon

its

yield, 237, 265

how

levied, 237

imported from England, 237, 238

salt-producing tracts in India, 237
incidence per head of population, 237

inland preventive
its

line,

238

aboUtion, 238

Salt licks for elephants, 370

San Francisco, trade with, 312 Sandal wood, 298 Sanderson, his work on wild animals, 373 Sandhurst, Lord, on barracks, 386 on gold standard, 461 Sanitary reports and statistics, 321 reviewed by experts in England, 321

INDEX.
SANITARY.
Santtaiy Commissioner with the Government of
India, 321

521
SLEEPERS.

.Senate of Indian universities, 145

Sepoy

see

Army,

391, 404

with each local government, 321 department organized, 321

engineering, 324
its

Settlement of land revenue, 213

nature
record

of,
ot,

215 214

importance in time of famine. 337

321

Sanitation, military, 385

civil,
its

Sewage, utilization of, 325 Shah Jehan, emperor, erects

empress, 41
architecture of his reign, 40

mausoleum

of

measures, 321

vital statistics, 322

.Shakspeare's wild sports in the East, 373

hygienic instrnctions, 322

purification,

Shareholders of guaranteed Railway Companies,

water supply, 323 conservancy, 324

utilization of sewage,

480

Shat-ub-Arab, river, 417

325 examination of dwellings, 325 adulteration of food, 325 small-pox and vaccination, 326
contagious diseases, 327
Sanskrit, importance of, in education, 144, 145

Shaughnessy see O'Shaughnessy, 279 Shaw, his travels in i.adakh, 349 Shawls of Cashmir, 308 Sherring, the Rev., mention of, 170
:

Sarda Canal, project of, 252, 254 Sargent, Bishop, mention of, 170

ShlUong, characteristics of, 13 Shipping, British, in external trade, 309-311, 314 foreign, in external trade, 315
Ships, native passenger, regulations, 379

Saava .Janik

S:ibha, 127

Sassoon founds hospital, 328 Sati, practice of, 196

prohibited
Satlej,

Shipwrecks in Indian waters, 379 mention of, 417 Shir All, late Amir of Caubul, 423, 488
Shiraz,

view

of,

by British Government, 197 from Himalayas, 15

canal from, 250, 253 bridge over, 265

of Candahar, 436 Short service system, 389, 490 Shutargardan Pass, 435
Sibi,

railway

to,

440

Satpura range, monsoon

roads
in, 283,

in, 9,

299
11, 288,

district of. 436

climatic division caused by, 10,

289

284

Sikandra, tomb of Akber the Great at, 40 Sikhim, chapels and monasteries in, 29
lake region
of,

railways in, 266, 267 forests in, 298 Satrunj mountain, near Palitana, 31 Saunders, J. O'B., mention of, 58
Savings-bank, deposits
progress
of,

18

at,

Native State of, 73, 420 Sikh sect, mention of, 119, 120, 472 Sikhs, appear.ince of, 20 Protected States of, 69
Silk, raw, 288,

467
of,

293
of,

Scholarships, system

112
1

exportation
Silver,

293

Schoolmistresses, native,

58

amount

of,

in circulation in India, 96

Schools

see Education. primary, 142

:

currency
loss

in,

460
on, 460

by exchange

secondary, 143
technical, 143

causes, 461

superior, 145

former drain to East, 461 import and export of, 485

Sind, frontier
of,

normal, 144
female, 157, 158
art,

112,4 21

canals in, 252

154

railways
desert
of,

in,

266 287

medical, 150

268
in,

Schwartz, Rev., mention of, 168 Science, education in, wanted, 1.'52
its

embankments
Sind,

Panjab,

and Delhi

Railway Company,

advantages to natives, 129 degrees In, 152

of,

270
Sindhia as a sovereign, 70

physical, 353

Native State
167
of,
:

of,

71
of,

Scotland, Established Church

Simla, characteristics

12

Free Church Secondary schools

Securities issued

168

view
408
469,

of,

17
of,

see Middle, 113

at,

Singapore, mention

418
of,

Secunderabad, arsenal
484, 485.

Sirinagar, capital of Cashmir, situation

Sivaji, his several fort",

19

by Government. 461-463,
at,

36

his maritime exploits, 374

S^haranpur, botanic gardens

Self- government,
N.atives, 127

357

his religious zeal, 164

progress

towards,

anmn-^

his mother, 156

Sleepers for railways, 297

522
SMALL-rOX.
Small-pox, ravages
of,

INDEX.
TELUGU.
Sumatra, mention
:

326
see Vaccination, 327
of,

of,

418

means

of preventing

Strathnairn, Lord, on barracks, 386

Stokes, Whitley, his services in legislation, 183
Stoliczka, death of, 359

Smitb, Baird, mention

George, mention
his
life

52
58

of,

and Wilson, 347, 343 Rev. William, mention of, 170 Snakes, venomous, 477
of Duff

Snider

rifles,

403

Srirangam near Trichinopoly, temples Subscriptions for relief of famine, 332 Suez Canal, its success, 311, 407, 481 Suez-Egyptian sovereignty, 416
Sugarcane, Indian, inferior
Indies, 288

at,

35

Society for Propagation of the Gospel, 167

to

that of

West

Church Missionary, 1 67 Socotra, island of, imporUmt position

Soldier, attractions of India for, 5

of,

416

grown
Superior
:

in the Panjab, 289

Sugar, former duties on, 239

see Educiition.

European, 384
his former condition in India, 385

his present condition, 385, 386 his value, 384

:

Supreme Courts established, 179 merged in High Court, 183

Surat, serious riots in, 199

Solitary confinement

see Prisons,
of,

211

Surnomaye, Maharani, mention

Topographical, 354
Geological, 357

of,

156

Somali, African tribe

416]
of,

Surveys, Great Trigonometrical, 353

Sone, view from viaduct

25

canal from, 251, 253

Sontal tribe. 111, 199

marine, 379
field or cadastral, 213,

South Indian Peninsular Railway Company, 270 southern States of America, 294 South Kensington, Indian Museum at, 306
exhibitions
at,

214

archaeological, 351

Sydney, exhibition

at,

313
of,

307
of,

Syed
170

Ahmed

of Aligarh, mention

114

Speechly, Bishop, mention

Spices, quality of, 283

his antiquities of Delhi, 345

Spices, export of, 314

Syed Idrus of Surat, mention of, 114 Syndicate in Indian universities, 145
for,

Sportsmen, opportunities

364

attractions of India for, 3

Sports, wild, of India, 363-373

T'AJ MAHAL, at Agra, 42 Takht-i-Suleman in Cashmir, panoramic view

from, 19

'

reason

for,

363

literature of, 373

wild, of the Deccan, 373

Sprenger, his
St. Hilaire,

life

of

Muhammad,

345

Talboys see WTieeler, 345 Talukdars of Oudh, tenures Tanjore, temples at, 34
:

of, 115,

218

315: see Barthelemy.

Tapti, upper, small canals from, 252

Staff corps, its condition, 404

Stamps, revenue from, 241 judicial, 242 commercial and general, 242 Star of India, Order of, 61
Stewart, Sir Donald, 491
State railways in India, 269-276, 455

^ railway over, 266

:

lower, project, 252

Tassy see Garcin de, 345 Tashkand, mention of, 427

Tatta, in Sind,

mosque

at,

40

Tax,
for, 5

Statesmen, attractions of India

Statistical

on trades, 234 income, 235 on salt, 237

licence,

Department, 349.
see

projected on tobacco, 245

Abstract, India Office, 349

Statistics of trade
:

Chapter XV^III., 480

on houses, 245 on marriages, 245

deprecated, 245

external, 311
interaal, 318

Taxation, new, 245

incideuce
of,

322 Steamers, advantage

vital,

245, 483

of, to travellers, 7

local,

244
of,

numbers of, 314, 481 Stephen, Sir James, as a legislator, 182

his opinion on legislation, 191, 192

Taylor, Sir Alexander, mention

52

Tea-planters as a class, 57
Tea, Indian, value
exportation
of, in

market, 289

on Indian administration, 492 Stephenson, his connection with Indian railways, 272 Stevenson, the Rev., his learned works, 343 Strachey, Genoral R., President of Famine Commission, 342
Strange, his learned works, 344
Straits Settlements, 418

planting in India, 292

of,

292, 298

Teak

tree of India, 290

Technical schools, 143

Tehran, mention

of,

432

Teignmouth, Lord, mention of, 50 Telegraph see Electric Telegraph. Telugu people, appearance of, 20
:

INDEX.
TEMPERANCE.
Temperance, associations
Tenant-right, nature
in Bengal, 225
of,

523
VILLAGE.

388 221-229
for,

Travancorc, coffee-planters

in,

57

Native State of, 72 Native Christians in, 173

Travellers, attractions of India for, 3

in Bebar, 225

in

tlie

Central Provinces, 224

Trees, sorts of, 298

in North-western Provinces, 226

in Oiidh, 226

in Sindh, 225 in the Concan, 225 in the Paiijub, 226

privileges of, 227

beauty of, 20 Trevelyan, Sir Charles, on gold standard, 460 on military accounts, 411
Tribes, frontier, 421
criminal,

Act regarding, 200

Native

Tributes received under treaties from

States, 232

status of occupancy, 227

feeling regarding at Calcutta, 223

Trichinopoly, temples near, 34

elsewhere, 228
Tenants-at-will, protection
of,

railway
228
its

to,

268

Trigonometrical Survey (Great), 353

Tenasserim, province

of,

418
196

work, 353
achievements, 354
value, 354

Terminalia

tree,

298
of, 195,
of,

its Its

Thagi, character

Thag, confessions

348

Trieste, direct trade with, 312

Thai Thai

Chutiali, district of, 436

pass, road over, 283
of,

Theosophists, mention

130

Thibet, eastern, relations with, 420

Thomas, Edward, his antiquarian research, 344 Thomason, mention of, 50

his services in the settlement, 214

his work on Sikh religion, 345 Tuuga-badra, canal from, 252 TurnbuU, railway engineer, 272 Turkoman tribes, 430, 431 Turkey, Russian war with, 424 Turner, his Pali works, 344 Turkish Arabia, Political President of, 418

Trump,

begins a system of national education, 139

Tusser

silk,

293

founds a college of civil engineering, 151 Thornton, his Gazetteer, 349

his history, 346 Tidal observations, 379

Tuticorin pearl-fisheries, 304

UDEYPUR,

lake and palace at, 37 Native State of, 70 Uncovenanted civil service, duties
Undergi'aduates, Native, 147

of,

53

Tiger, its characteristics, 366 the " man-eater," 367

Tiger-shooting, 365
Tigris river, 417

United States, trade with, 313, 296 Universities at Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta,
145, 155
In,

Tinnevelly, Native Christians

173

graduates
175, 176

of,

148, 149

railway to, 268 Tirumal Naik, his palace, 33

his death, 33

Universities of United

Kingdom, missions from,

Utacamand

in the Nilgirls, characteristics of, 13

Tobacco, projected tax upon, 245

Indian inferior to American, 288 experiments for improving Indian, 292 Tod, Colonel, his work on the Rajputs, 346

station at, 337

Lawrence Asylum

at,

386

Utilization of sewage, 325

Toghlakabad, ruins at, 39 Tonghu railway project, 269 Toon tree, 298 Topes, Buddhist mounds, 26 Topographical Survey, 354 its work, 355

VACCINATION,
its

its

introduction, 326

partial success, 326

reasons of failure, 326, 327

means

cf insuring success, 327

Vegetables, Indian, 288

Venice, direct trade with, 312

Tour of India easily practicable, 7 Towers of victory in Rajputana, 36

Town

duties, 244

see Octroi.
of,

Venus, transit observations, 354 Verniicuiar l^ess Act, mention of, 132 - languages learnt by civil servants, 49

Tovvnsend, Meredith, mention

Traffic

53

education
press, 473

among

natives, 144

on railways, 273-275
In

literature, 144,

478
schools, 144
_

Tramways

Bombay, 286

in Calcutta, 286

colleges In

normal

Transport for army, 409 its deficiencies, 410

its difficulties,

Vernag

in Cashmir, fountain of, 19

Veterinary art in India, 362

410

want of

instruction in, 361

at,

its

organization, 411

Vienna, exhibition
of,

307
of,

vessels, 373

Village schoolmasters, training

143

Trans- Indus frontier, managemfnt

421

police, 206


524
VILLAGE.
Village watchman, 221
accountant,, 202

INDEX.
ZOROASTER.
Wild
f-ports in

India

see Sports-

of the Deccan, 373

Willes, Justice, on law commission, 181
relief,

headman, 220
inspection for famine

338

Williams, Monier, promotes

his learned works, 341

upper India, 218 Villages in India, appearances of, 8 number, of 472 Vines, produce of, 288 Vindhya mountains, 265, 284, 297, 303, 414 Vizagapatam, industrial arts of, 306 Volunteer movement generally, 390, 391 in railway department, 273
in

communities

establishment Indian Institute at Oxford, 136

of,

of

Wilson, Bishop, mention

life of,

53

347
.lobn, as

Rev. Dr.
his

a missionary, 170

work on caste, 344 Horace Hayman, his learned works, 343

Right Hon. James, Finance Minister and

scientific economist, 311

WAGE, military,
Wages,

98, 401

introduces

first

budget, 442

rates of, in rural districts, 108

In urban districts, 109 Wahabis, effect of, in India, 114 Walar, lake in Gishmir, 20

Wukhan, position of, 426 Walar, lake in Cashniir, 20 Wales, H.R.H. Prince of, vi^it to India,
Prince.

on gold currency, 460 proposes paper currency, 465 arrangements for military accounts, 411 Wiugate, Sir George, his services in the settlement, 214
his opinion

Wood,
G!
:

Sir Charles, his educational despatch, 139

see

his paper currency despatch, 465

Lieut., his journey to source of Oxus, 349

Walker, harbour engineer, 3S3

Wallich, Dr., botanist, 356

Wool, quality

of,

289
of,

exportation

314
Preface,

Walnut-tree, 298

Ward,

Rev., mention of, 168 AVardha, river, proposed canal from, 253

Woollen goods, importation of, 314 Wordsworth, his description of groves.

i.x.

mines near, 302 Wardle, Mr., his work on silk, 293 Wards, Court of, 115 Warren, Hastings, mention of, 60, 343
coal

Workshops

for canals, 262

for railways, 275

AVynaad, view

of,

13

coffee-planters in, 57

Water supply,

purification

of,

323

\\ynganga, possible canal from, 253

in towns, cities,
in Calcutta,

and

villages, 323

Wythes, railway contractor, 272

Xavier,
St.

323
Francis, 25, 165, 167

in Bombay, 323 works by Muhammadans at Delhi, 250 Watson, Dr. Forbes, his reports on Indian pro-

YACUB,

late

Amir

of Caubul, 429, 435

Yarkand, relations with, 420, 431

Yew-tree, 298
Yule, Colonel H., mediajval chronicles, 346 his mission to Ava, 349

ducts, 305

Waziri mosque at Lahore, 40

tribe, 421

Wealth, national question whether 88-93

it

increases,

his contributions to historic geography, 34!)

Yunan, route towards, 419

Weber, on Oriental

literature, 345
of,

Welland, the Rev., mention Wells for irrigation, 248

170
170

ZANZIBAR,
Zemindars

mention

of,

376

in Bengal,

115, 217

Wenger, missionary, mention Western Ghat mountains, 9

of,

in Behar, 115, 217 in

Oudh,

115, 218

monsoon

in, 9

in part of North-western Provinces, 217 in Central Provinces, 217

importance of, 72 266 roads across, 283 Wheat exported from India, 314, 481
political
railv.'ays across,

in the Concan, 225 in other parts of India, 218

Zenana missions, 158

Ziebenbalg, the missionary, mention
Zoological gardens, Calcutta, 359
of,

inferior
States, 288

to that of

England ^nd United

168

Wheeler, Talboys, his historical works, 34 5 Whitley see Stokes. Wild animals, 363-373
:

Bombay, 359
Zoroaster, religioa of, brought to India by Parsia,

114

interest attaching to them, 363

mention

of,

343

LONDON

PltlNTEn BT WILLIAM CLOWES

AND AND CHARING

SONS, LIJIITED,

STAMFORD STREET

CROSS.

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