COAL

Chemical Structure of Coal

(Depending upon source, structure may be widely different)

Anthracite Coal Carbon 92-98%

COAL : DEFINITION Coal is a stored fossil fuel, occurring in layers in the earths crust, which has been formed by the partial decay of plant materials accumulated millions of years ago and further altered by the action of heat and pressure.

COAL FORMATION

THEORIES OF COAL FORMATION

IN SITU THEORY DRIFT THEORY - Flood /Tsunami type wave (velocity 800 km/h) 300 million of years (earth is 4.6 billion years old) 15-20 m OF PLANT MATERIAL= 1 m OF COAL SEAM In INDIA 30 m seam of coal has been found

450-600 m of plant material might have accumulated at that place. (Taipei 101:509 m tallest building in world)

COALIFICATION
COAL %C C H O Heating value (MJ/kg) 19.77 18.66 20-25 27.20 32.10 32.56 32.91

Cellulose Wood Peat Lignite Brown coal Bituminous coal Anthracite Graphite

44.5 50.0 59.9 61.8 69.5 78.7 91.0 100

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

13.9 12.0 10.0 7.8 7.9 6.0 4.7 0.0

111 88 57 54 36 21 5.2 0.0

Time

COAL RANKS
1.Peat: starting point of coal formation does not come in the category of coal Carbon: 60-64%; Oxygen:35-30% 2. Lignites: mark the transition of peat to coal Carbon: 60-75% ; Oxygen: 30-20% Colour: black, brown, earthy Disintegrate very easily Briquetting is done
Neyveli Lignite Corporation, Chennai, Tamilnadu Possesses largest reserves of Lignite in India Electricity generation: 2490 MW

COAL RANKS contd

3. Bituminous coals
Sub-bituminous: Between lignites and bituminous Carbon: 75-83% ; Oxygen: 20-10% No caking power (Briquettes can not be made) Bituminous: black and banded Industrial and domestic usage Carbon: 75-90%: Oxygen:10-5% Semi-bituminous: Between bituminous and anthracite Metallurgical coke formation Carbon: 90-93%; Oxygen:4-1%

COAL RANKS contd

4. Anthracites Highest rank of coal Extreme of metamorphosis from the original plant material Carbon: 93+%: Oxygen: 2-1% Caking power zero

Unusual coals
Cannels: found rarely; high hydrogen content: burn
with smoke and bright flame; does not fall in any category. Torbanites: fine grained coal, named after Torbane Hill of Scotland, rich in paraffin oil.

Unusual Solid Fuel (Methane Clathrate)

Burning Ice 1 mole methane in 5.75 mole H 2O Available in Deep sea (methane from trench + cold water + high pressure) and at the lower ice layer in Antarctica It is expected that 15,000 Gt (211015 m3) of methane is available in this form (as compared to 1,000 Gt of Coal)

WORLD PRODUCTION OF COAL IN YEAR 2006

Country
China USA India Australia South Africa Canada United Kingdom Pakistan Japan Total of the world

Million tonnes
2380 1053.6 447.3 373.8 256.9 62.9 18.6 4.3 1.3 5,986.90

% of world production
39.75 17.59 7.47 6.24 4.29 1.05 0.31 0.07 0.02 100

WORLD PRODUCTION OF COAL IN YEAR 2006

South Africa Canada Australia United Kingdom Pakistan Japan

India China

USA

WORLD TOP TEN COAL PRODUCING AND CONSUMING COUNTRIES

1 quadrillion=1000 trillion 1 Btu=1.055 kJ

COAL RESERVES OF INDIA

(As on 1.1.2007 in billion tonnes)
TOTAL RESERVE PROVED RESERVE INDICATED INFERRED RESERVE RESERVE

Type of coal

COKING NONCOKING TOTAL

32 223 255

17 81 98

13 105 118

2 36 38

Years to consume this coal with present rate: 600

Cokes are the solid carbonaceous material derived from destructive distillation of low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal.

Source: MoC

COAL RESOURCES OF STATES

Proved: boreholes (1200m deep) @ 400 m Indicated & Inferred: boreholes @ 1-2 km
State
Jharkhand Orissa Chhattisgarh West Bengal Madhya Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Maharashtra Uttar Pradesh Meghalaya Assam Bihar Arunachal Pdesh Sikkim Nagaland Total IN MILLION TONNES Jan 1, 2007

Proved
36881 17464 10182 11454 7584 8475 4856 766 118 315 0 31 0 3 98129

Indicated 31094 30239 26826 11810 9259 6328 2822 296 41 27 0 40 55 1 118838

Inferred
6339 14296 4443 5071 2934 2658 1992 0 301 34 160 19 18 15 38280

Total
74314 61999 41451 28335 19777 17461 9670 1062 460 376 160 90 73 19 255247

% of total
29.11 24.29 16.24 11.10 7.75 6.84 3.79 0.42 0.18 0.15 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.01 100

GRADING OF INDIAN COAL

Coking coal (carbon: 81-91%) Non-coking coal
Grades of coking coal Grade I II I II III IV Industry steel steel washery* washery* washery* washery* Ash % <15 15-18 18-21 21-24 24-28 28-35

* Washed Coal is used as fuel in thermal power plants

GRADING OF INDIAN COAL

High ash content (up to 50%)

Lower heating/calorific value Inferior quality but suitable for power gen. Grades of non-coking coal
Grade A B C D E F G UHV, kcal/kg >6200 5600-6200 4940-5600 4200-4940 3360-4200 2400-3360 1300-2400 Ash % <13.56 13.56-17.91 17.91-22.69 22.69-28.06 28.06-34.14 34.14-41.10 41.10-49.07
Based on 6 % moisture content

UHV:Useful Heating Value =8900-138[ash% + moisture%]

ROYALTY TO STATES Nationalization in 1971 Coal companies are paying the royalty to states This varies from Rs 90-250/tonne The rate is dependent of coal grade Rates are 16 August 2002 onwards

IMPORT OF COAL
Coking and non-coking coals being imported
Year 1991/92 1996/97 2000/01 2003/04 2005/06 2006/07 Coking 5.27 10.62 11.06 12.99 16.89 22.00 Non-coking 0.66 2.56 9.87 8.69 21.70 23.00 Total 5.93 13.18 19.70 21.68 38.59 45.00
In million tonnes

ANALYSIS OF COAL
Proximate analysis

Ultimate analysis Heating/calorific value

PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
1. Moisture content: 105 -110 oC 2. Volatiles: 92515 oC for 7 min time (with lid) 3. Fixed carbon: by difference 4. Ash: 80015 oC (without lid)
REPORTING: AS RECEIVED BASIS, MOISTURE FREE BASIS/DRY BASIS OR DRY ASH FREE BASIS IS:1350-I (1984)

EXAMPLE OF PA
A sample of finely ground coal of mass 0.9945 g was placed in a crucible of 8.5506 g in an oven, maintained at 105 oC for 4.0 ks. The sample was then removed, cooled in a dessicator and reweighed; the procedure being repeated until a constant total mass of 9.5340 g was attained. A second sample, of mass 1.0120 g in a crucible of mass 8.5685 g was heated with a lid in a furnace at 920 oC for 420 s. On cooling and reweighing, the total mass was 9.1921 g. This sample was then heated without a lid in the same furnace maintained at 725 oC until a constant total mass of 8.6255 g was attained. Calculate the proximate analysis of the sample and express the results on as sampled and dry, ash-free basis.

EXAMPLE OF PA contd..
MOISTURE (from first sample) mass of sample = 0.9945 g mass of dry coal = (9.5340-8.5506) = 0.9834 g mass of moisture = (0.9945-0.9834) = 0.0111 g % moisture = 0.0111 100/0.9945 = 1.11 % ASH (from second sample) Mass of sample = 1.0120 g Mass of crucible = 8.5685 g Heating up to 920C in absence of air removes volatile matters, subsequent heating up to 725C in presence of air burns all fixed carbon of the sample leaving behind ash in the crucible. Mass of ash (remnant in crucible) = (8.6255 - 8.5685) = 0.0570 g % ash = 0.0570 100/1.0120 = 5.63 %

EXAMPLE OF PA contd..
VOLATILE MATTER Initial mass of sample + crucible = 1.0120 + 8.5685 = 9.5805 g Final mass after heating up to 920C (without air) = 9.1921 g Mass of volatile matter + moisture = Initial Final mass = (9.5805-9.1921) g = 0.3884 g % Moisture + Volatiles = 0.3884 x 100/1.0120 = 38.3794 % % VOLATILE MATTER = 38.3794 1.11 (% Moisture) = 37.26 % FIXED CARBON % FC = 100 - % VM - % ash - % moisture = 100 37.26 - 5.53 - 1.11 = 55.98 %

EXAMPLE OF PA contd..
Proximate analysis as received basis Moisture : 1.11 % Ash : 5.63 % Fixed carbon : 55.99 % Volatile matter : 37.26 % Proximate analysis on dry, ash free basis Moisture + ash = 1.11 + 5.63 = 6.74% Fixed carbon: 55.99x100/(100-6.74) = 60.04 % Volatile matter: 37.26x100/(100-6.74) = 39.95 %

ULTIMATE ANALYSIS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Sulfur Nitrogen Phosphorus Chlorine

:0.5-2.50 % :1.0-2.25 % :0.1%;Blast Furnace: <0.01 %

Mercury: A big problem from NTPC plants (up to 0.3mg/kg)

IS:1350- IV (1974)

HEATING VALUE
1. Calculated from proximate analysis 2. Calculated from ultimate analysis 3. Experimental determination 1. Gross/High heating value 2. Useful/low heating value
Hydrogen Carbon Water (gas/vapor or liquid phase) Carbon Dioxide (gas phase)

Latent heat of vaporization of water: 2.26 MJ/kg

HEATING VALUE
1. Calculated from proximate analysis TAYLOR AND PATTERSON RELATIONSHIP HV=4.19 (82FC+ a VM) kJ/kg Where FC and VM are on dry ash free basis and a is an empirical constant which depends on the VM content of coal.
170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80

10

20

30

40

VM a

10

15

20

25

30 98

35 94

38 85

40 80

145 130 117 109 103

HEATING VALUE
2. Calculated from ultimate analysis DULONG FORMULA HV=338.2C+1442.8(H-O/8)+94.2S kJ/kg Where C, H, O and S are the % of these elements on dry ash free basis.

HEATING VALUE
3. Experimental determination: Bomb calorimeter

solid /liquid samples can be analyzed 1 g air dried sample is burnt in a bomb in oxygen atmosphere rise in temperature gives the heat liberated and heating value is determined after doing the corrections for resistance wire and thread. microprocessor based bomb calorimeters are now available
IS:1350-II (1970)

BOMB OF CALORIEMETER

VARIOUS COMPONENTS OF BOMB CALORIMETERIC EQUIPMENT

ROUTES OF GENERATION OF HEAT AND POWER FROM COAL 1. Direct use as thermal energy in heating processes, furnaces and domestic heating by open fires 2. Transfer of the heat to a thermal fluid and application of the latter for heating and power e.g., steam for heating in process industry, central heating and electricity generation by steam turbines 3. Gas turbine route to electricity generation 4. Conversion to gas/liquid fuels and subsequent usage in IC engines/turbines (gas/steam)

ROUTE I (Direct Heating)

Domestic cooking (Chula at tea stalls, dhaba, bakery) Space heating (Fireplace) Lime and brick kilns (Direct heating of stack) Ceramic industry (Oven/Furnace)

ROUTE II (Thermal Fluid)

Generation of steam in a boiler Space heating by transferring heat of steam to air Process industry : Cogeneration is employed Utility services : steam turbines used

SUPERCRITICAL BOILERS: A RECENT CONCEPT Critical pressure: 218 bar (21.8 MPa); Critical temperature: 374oC Mark Benson; in 1922 Patent was granted 22 MPa pressure ; = 1-T1/T2 0.53 GOVERNMENT ALLOWED ELECTRICITY GENERATION BY PRIVATE DEVELOPERS Tariffing Wheeling Banking

ROUTE II contd..
Heat exchanger Hot air for space heating Air Cogeneration Steam turbine Condensate Steam Alternator Electricity to grid

Coal Condensate

Boiler Steam

Steam

Steam

Alternator

Steam turbine

Electricity to grid

Process plant

ROUTE III
Coal Preheated air Pulverizer Turbine exhaust Vent Heat exchanger

Combustion chamber

Gas turbine

Compressor

Alternator

Air

Electricity to grid

ROUTE III
Vent Preheated air Turbine exhaust Heat exchanger

Combustion chamber

Gas turbine

Compressor

Alternator

Coal

Gasifier and gas cleaning unit

Air

Electricity to grid

ROUTE IV (Pyrolysis / Gasification)

1. Partial Gasification or Pyrolysis /coking /carbonization / destructive distillation (heating in the absence of air)
Solid Liquid Gas

2. Complete gasification with air/oxygen

Gas

PYROLYSIS
Low temperature carbonization 500-700 oC

Coke (solid fuel) maximum; classical domestic smokeless fuel production

Medium temperature carbonization

700-900 oC

Liquid fraction for chemicals recovery/liquid fuel

High temperature carbonization

>900 oC

Coke for metallurgical furnaces; gas yield high; liquid low

PYROLYSIS
Coal Pretreatment unit Water in Flue gas Pyrolyser Condenser Water out Coke Liquid fraction Gas for heating of pyrolyser

Gas for IC engines/ Gas turbines/ thermal applications

Coal tar Liquid fuels Chemicals

GASIFICATION

12x3=36 kg

1k mole =1000.R.T/P (m3) =22.41 Nm3

18 Liter

(Air Separation Unit)

ROUTE IV BERGIUS PROCESS

Coal is hydrogen starved/hydrogen needs to be added to make it liquid (directly or indirectly)

1. Bergius process
Friedrich Karl Rudolf Bergius (Germany) in 1913, Nobel Prize in 1931 (Shared with Carl Bosch) By end of World war II most of the fuel for German army was produced by this method. Hydrogenation of vegetable oils

2. Fischer-Tropsch process
Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch in 1926, Germany

BERGIUS PROCESS
Coal T=400-500 oC P= 20 -70 MPa Catalyst=Tin Conver.=97% Pulverizer Bergius Reactor Coal pasting unit HCs Hydrogen

Fractionating column

Heavy fraction

F-T PROCESS
Coal T=150-250 oC P= 1 -25 Mpa Catalysts : Fe, Co

Fractionating column

Syn gas

Gasification unit F-T Reactor Syn gas Cleaning

HCs

(Large number of patents worldwide)

F-T PROCESS (COMMERCIAL PLANTS)

South Africa Oil and Gas Company 1950 established Oldest plant proving the F-T process viability Presently engaged in Qatar, Iran and Nigeria in similar projects

F-T PROCESS (COMMERCIAL PLANTS)

F-T PROCESS(COMMERCIAL PLANTS)

UNDERGROUND/ IN SITU COAL GASIFICATION

A process applied to the non-mined coal seams Injection and production wells are drilled End gas mix depends on type of coal seam Air/ oxygen can be used for gasification Syn gas can be used for power generation in combined cycle Syn gas can be converted to chemicals/fuel by F-T process

UNDERGROUND/ IN SITU COAL GASIFICATION

Source: World Coal Institute

COAL COMBUSTION AND ENVIORNMENT

Global warming Green house gases: water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons), PFCs (perfluorocarbons), SF6 (Sulphur Hexafluoride) SF6 is 22, 200 more potential than CO2 Carbon dioxide gas: main culprit from fossil fuels; not from biomass Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Nobel Peace Prize 2007 : R. K. Pauchari and Al Gore Reduction in Carbon Dioxide emissions G8 meeting in Japan in July 2008

COAL COMBUSTION AND ENVIORNMENT

Present CO2 level:483 PPM

Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Carbon Dioxide Concentrations (1751-2004)

COAL COMBUSTION AND ENVIORNMENT

Global Carbon Cycle (Billion Metric Tons Carbon)

COAL COMBUSTION AND ENVIORNMENT

U.S. Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Gas, 2006 (Million Metric Tons of Carbon Dioxide Equivalent)

ULTIMATE SOLUTIONS

Solar: photovoltaic

Fuel cells: Chemical to electrical conversion

Hybrid vehicles: Honda introduced in India