Overview of Biomass Utilization in Thailand

Seksan Papong
1
, Chantana Yuvaniyama
1
,
Pongvipa Lohsomboon
2
, and Pomthong Malakul
1,*


1
Cleaner Technology Advancement Program, National Metal and Materials Technology Center,
National Science and Technology Development Agency, Ministry of Science and Technology
73/1 NSTDA Building, Rama VI road, Rajdhevee, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
2
Thailand Environment I nstitute, 16/151-154 Muang Thong Thani, Bond Street, Bangpood, Pakkred,
Nonthaburi 11120, Thailand
* Corresponding Author: pomthong@mtec.or.th

ABSTRACT
Biomass is an important source of renewable energy in Thailand and currently is the
second major energy sources in the country, especially for households and small
industries in rural area. I t provides basic energy requirement for cooking and process
heating in residential and manufacturing sectors as well as for processing in
traditional industries. Four major sources of biomass in Thailand are sugar cane, rice,
oil palm and wood wastes which yield a total potential of nearly 80 million tons per
year. At present, agro-industry is an important source of the biomass due to a large-
scale production and expedience collection such as rice mills, sugar mills, and oil palm
mills. These mills are producing rice husk, bagasse, and residues from oil palm that
consists of empty fruit bunches, fiber and shells. Wood industry is also a major source
for biomass energy that includes residues from teak logs, which is mostly concentrated
in the northern part of the country, whereas rubber wood and eucalyptus plantations
are found mostly in the southern and northeastern regions, respectively. Among these
potential biomass sources, waste products from wood and agro-industries apparently
are the least expensive. Biomass utilization technologies range from local, well-
established technologies, to those in research stage. Major technologies currently used
are gasification, combustion, pyrolysis, and biogas. However, many technologies,
especially in rural use and in some factories, are considered to be quite old with low
efficiency. Constrains of biomass utilization include the assessment and collection of
recourses, the biomass characteristics, the availability of land for planting, crop
patterns, transportation and storage. This paper will discuss in detail the major
potential biomass resources, biomass production, and biomass utilization in Thailand.

Keywords: Biomass, Thailand, Sources, Utilization, Technology

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1. I NTRODUCTI ON
Biomass is an important renewable energy source for the rural areas in
Thailand. Biomass fuels are not traded, and are mostly home grown. I t provides basic
energy requirement for cooking and heating in rural households and for processing in
traditional industries of Thailand. Many rural small-scale industries still depend on
biomass fuel for energy that is used as main source of energy for industries like agro-
processing, food processing, wood processing industries, etc. Biomass is still the
cheapest fuel available, and it will remain the major alternative to commercial energy
sources for the future [1]. I n addition, the use of biomass is environmental friendly
because the biomass is reduced, recycled, and then reused.
Nowadays, in Thailand, biomass materials can be used to generate electricity,
heat, or liquid fuels such as ethanol for motor vehicles that have substantially lower
environmental impacts than traditional fossil fuels. Ethanol can be used in special

types of cars that are made for using alcohol fuel instead of gasoline. The alcohol can
also be blended with gasoline to produce gasohol. This reduces the amount of fuels
derived from non-renewable sources such as fossil fuel. This paper presents current
data, and information on biomass resources, biomass production, biomass utilization
and biomass utilization technologies in Thailand.

2. BI OMASS RESOURCES I N THAI LAND
A definition of biomass is provided by the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory, The U.S. Department of Energy [2]:
Biomass is organic matter available on a renewable basis. Biomass includes
forest and mill residues, agricultural crops and waste, wood and wood wastes, animal
wastes, livestock operation residues, aquatic plants, fast-growing trees and plants, and
municipal and industrial wastes.
Biomass is organic materials from various sources, which is the natural source
of energy, and can be used to produce energy e.g. wood and wood residues, agricultural
crop and residues, agro-industrial wastes as follows [3]:
! Agricultural crops such as sugarcane, cassava, corn, etc. that are sources of
carbohydrate, starch, and sugar including energy crops can be used for
vegetable oil to energy fuel.
! Agricultural residues such as rice straw from rice fields, cassava rhizome
from tapioca fields, corncobs from cornfields, etc.
! Wood and wood residues such as fast-growing trees, wood waste from wood
mill, waste from pulp and paper mill, etc.
! Waste streams such as rice husk from rice mills, molasses and bagasse from
sugar refineries, residues from palm oil extraction plants, municipal solid
wastes (MSW), etc.

2.1 Agricultural and agro-industries based resources
Three major potential sources of the biomass from agriculture-based industries
in Thailand are sugar cane, rice, and oil palm sectors. Sugar cane and rice are mostly
concentrated in the northern and northeastern regions of the country, while the oil
palm is found in the southern region [4-5]. Table 1 shows the national production
trends in tons of sugar cane, paddy, and oil palm from 1997-2003 [6].

Table 1: National production of sugarcane, paddy, and oil palm
(Unit: 1,000 Tons)
Crop year Sugar cane Paddy Oil Palm (Fresh Fruit Bunches)
1997/98 46,873 23,580 2,681
1998/99 50,332 22,999 2,465
1999/00 52,813 24,172 3,514
2000/01 49,563 25,844 3,256
2001/02 60,013 26,523 4,089
2002/03 74,263 26,057 4,001
2003/04 70,101 26,841 4,903
Average 57,708 25,145 3,558
Source: Office of Agricultural Economics (2004)

Sugar cane
Sugar cane is grown mostly in the central region of the country, and some
productions are found in the northern and northeastern region. Sugar cane production
over period from 1997/98 to 2003/04 has an average value of about 57.7 million tons per
year. I n the country, there are 46 sugar mills, which in crop year 2000/01 processed

about 99% of the sugarcane produced. Most of residues from sugar cane processing can
be found at the mills except the sugar cane tops (stumps and leaves, etc.) that are
usually harvested in the fields by farmers.

Rice
Rice is grown in every region of Thailand. Paddy production over period from
1997/98 to 2003/04 has an average value of about 25 million tons per year. The
cropping pattern for paddy consists of the major rice growing during the rainy months
of May to September, and the second rice cultivating during the dry months of
November to February. I n 2000, the National Energy Planning and Policy estimated
that more than 40,500 rice mills existed in the country. Most of the paddy fields in
Thailand are in small size. However, there are 215 mills that have capacities ranging
from 100 to 2,000 tons of paddies per day [4].

Oil palm
The southern region of the country is the major area of the oil palm planting,
while the eastern region has only small area for the oil palm planting and palm oil
production. The oil palm production over period from 1997/98 to 2003/04 has an
average value of about 3.6 million tons per year. I n 2002, there were 50 palm oil
refineries located close to the oil palm planting areas. Currently, there are 26 mills
that ranked as the large-sized factories. The raw material for the palm oil industry is
fresh fruit bunches (FFB), which is harvested from oil palm trees [7].

Other agricultural sources
Two other biomass sources in the country that should be mentioned are coconut
and tapioca. The coconut is a traditional crop in Thailand, which is grown for the
domestic market. The coconut residues e.g. husk and shells have been used for the
production of higher value added products in the local and export markets since 1998.
For tapioca, it is grown almost in all areas in the northeastern Thailand. I n tapioca
fields, there are a lot of residues which are not utilized. However, these residues are
difficult to collect because they usually scattered all over the fields [4].

2.2 Wood and wood industries based resources
Saw mills and plywood mills are the main sources of biomass from wood
industry. Most of logs for wood processing are imported from foreign countries. The
main local logs of the country are from rubber woods in the southern region of
Thailand. The rubber trees have rotation period of 25-30 years. After they have been
harvested for latex, rubber trees are cut down for re-plantation. At present, wood from
rubber tree, apart from harvesting the latex, is both used as fuel and as timber. Timber
is an important source for the furniture industry. Eucalyptus is another source of
wood-based biomass. I t is the most common fast growing species for pulp and wood fuel
production. Eucalyptus plantations are found mostly in the northeastern region of the
country. I t is easy to manage and will sustain to a period of 3-4 rotations for 25-30
years [4]. I n 2003, there were 599 sawmills, which processed sawdust and wood wastes.

3. BI OMASS PRODUCTI ON I N THAI LAND
Thailand is a nation rich in agricultural and forestry resources, which provide
potential sources of biomass. Table 2 shows the biomass residue availability of
Thailand in 2004 based on Crop-to-Residues-Ratios (CRR) and surplus availability
factor for sugarcane, rice, and palm oil residues. The total residues and unused
residues of these crops have been estimated to be about 75 and 50 million tons,
respectively.


Table 2: Biomass residues from rice, sugar cane, and palm oil in 2004
(Unit: 1,000 tons per year)
Type Production
[6]
Agricultural
residues
CRR
[7]
Residues Surplus
[7]

availability
factor
Available
unused
residue
Sugar
cane
70,101 Bagasse
Trash
0.291
0.302
20,399
21,171
0.207
0.986
4,223
20,874
Rice 26,841 Rice husk
Rice straw
0.230
0.447
6,173
11,998
0.493
0.684
3,044
8,207
Oil
Palm
4,903 EFB
Fiber
Shells
Fronds
0.250
0.147
0.049
2.604
1,226
721
240
12,767
0.584
0.134
0.037
1.000
716
97
9
12,767
Total 74,695 49,936
Remark: EFB =empty fruit bunches
Sources: Office of Agricultural Economics (2004)
Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency (2003b)

I n addition, the wood industry is also a major source for biomass energy that
includes residues from teak logs, which is mostly concentrated in the northern
Thailand. While, the rubber wood and eucalyptus plantations are found mostly in the
southern and northeastern regions, respectively. I n 2000, wood residues including
sawdust have been estimated to be about 5.8 million tons, but the availability unused
residue were only 1.8 million tons [5].

Plantation biomass
The Thailand Agricultural Statistics are published annually by the Office of
Agricultural Economics. They provide statistical data of the Thai agriculture for each
crop year including important data such as yields and harvested areas. Harvested
areas of rice, sugarcane, and oil palm over period from 1997/98 to 2003/04 have average
values of about 61.4, 6.2, and 1.4 million rai, respectively. Table 3 shows trends of the
national harvested area of rice, sugarcane, and oil palm fields from 1997-2003 [6].

Non-plantation biomass
I n addition, non-plantation biomass, including agricultural residues, animal
waste, municipal solid waste, wastewater, black liquor, etc., can be estimated at 475,
716 and 880 Petajoules (PJ ) for the years 1997, 2005, and 2010, respectively [8].

Table 3: National harvested areas of sugarcane, rice, and oil palm

Planted area (x1,000 rai
*
) Harvested area (x1,000 rai
*
) Crop year
Sugar cane Rice Oil Palm
1997/98 5,897 61,955 1,097
1998/99 5,735 59,447 1,129
1999/00 5,862 62,312 1,247
2000/01 5,481 61820 1,303
2001/02 6,320 63,283 1,457
2002/03 7,121 60,335 1,644
2003/04 7,120 61,025 1,799
Average 6,219 61,454 1,382
Source: Office of Agricultural Economics (2004)
*
2.5 rai =1 acre

Land use for plantation
I n 1999, Thailand had an area of about 320.7 million rai consisting of forest
land (25.14%), farm holding land (40.95%), and unclassified lands including degraded
national forest reserves, swamp lands, sanitary districts, municipal areas, railroads,
highways, real estates, public areas, etc. (33.91%) [6].

4. BI OMASS UTI LI ZATI ON
Biomass energy in Thailand is mainly consumed in 2 economic sectors:
residential and commercial sector and manufacturing sector. I n 2002, approximately
56% of biomass energy was used in residential and commercial sector and the rest
(about 44%) was used in manufacturing sector. Charcoal and fuel woods are mainly
used for cooking and process heating in residential and commercial sector while
bagasse, paddy husks and fuel woods are used mostly for processing heating in
manufacturing sector. The biomass consumption during 1998-2003 indicated that the
trend of biomass demand has increased at the moderate rate of 2-3% per annum [9, 10].

4.1 Biomass consumption
! Rice husk
Rice husk is produced from paddy milling that constitutes about 23% of the
paddy weight. I n each year, the 25 million tons of paddy products can produce 5.75
million ton of rice husks. Rice husk is traditionally used as an energy source through
direct combustion in the large rice mills, or as fuel in the production of charcoal from
wood [9]. Nowadays, rice husk can be used as fuel to generate electricity that is a 1 MW
of electricity using 9,800 ton of rice husks. The utilization of rice husk is shown in
Figure 1.
Resi due and
Other
30.8%
Soi l
condi ti oner
2.4%
Feed
2.3%
Use i n process
38.0%
Ferti l i zer
17.7%
Fuel
8.8%


Figure 1: Percentage of the rice husk consumption [10].

Potential residue availability of rice husks, assuming an annual paddy
production of 25 million tons and a residue collectivity of 76% [4], the availability of
this resource is estimated at 2.71 million tons per year.

! Bagasse
Bagasse is the residue after sugar cane has been processed to remove the sugar
juice. From the milling statistics, bagasse constitutes 29% of the cane. Therefore, sugar
cane amount of 57.7 million tons can produce 16.7 million tons of bagasse. The

traditional use of bagasse is as a fuel in the sugar mill, to produce steam for the process
and electricity for mills. At present, sugar mills can sell the excess electricity to the
grid. The other usage of bagasse is as a raw material in particleboard and pulp
industry. Typically 7% of the cane weight remains as excess because of the large
amount of bagasse used for steam and power supply in sugar mills. The annual
availability of this resource is estimated at 4.04 million tons [4, 9].

! Residues from palm oil production
The fresh fruit bunches (FFB) consist of fruit stems or commonly known as
empty fruit bunches (EFB) and fruits, which contain crude palm oil, fiber, and nuts.
The nut portion of the fruit can be processed to produce palm kernel oil. Solid residues
from palm oil mills are EFB, fiber, and shells account for 44% of the FFB weight [5].
The traditional use of the palm oil residues is as a fuel to generate the steam and
power of the mill [9]. I n general, most of the shell and fiber from the processing
operations are used as fuel in the mill. Figure 2 shows the utilization of by products
from palm oil mill.

Empty Fruit
B h
Residue
58.4%
Other
7.7%
Fertilizer
30.9%
Fuel
3.0%

Fiber and Shell from Fruit
Residue
17.8%
Sell
8.8%
Fuel
73.1%
Fertilizer
0.3%

Figure 2: The utilization of by products from palm oil mill [7].

! Wood residues
Wood residues include chip, bark, and sawdust that produced within various
wood-processing industries including sawmills, furniture factories, and other
industries. Rubber wood from old age rubber trees is a main source of domestic wood in
the southern region of Thailand. The averaged residue production of the wood wastes is
53% of sources. I n general, charcoal and fuel wood are the main used for cooking,
process heating, and rural industries [9]. I n 2003, total final energy demand of fuel
wood was about 3.493 million tons of oil equivalents (mtoe) with an increasing rate of
4.5% from the past year.

Table 4 shows the biomass energy consumption in Thailand during 1998-2003.
I t indicated that the trend of biomass demand has increased of 4% per year [9, 10].

Table 4: Biomass energy consumption in Thailand during 1998-2003 (Final Energy: ktoe)
Source 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Fuel Wood 3,188 3,279 3,258 3,265 3,342 3,493
Charcoal 3,188 2,218 2,277 2,286 2,307 2,357
Paddy Husk 778 733 828 903 896 996
Bagasse 1,665 2,092 2,236 1,989 2,498 2,905
Total 7,885 8,322 8,599 8,443 9,043 9,751
Source: DEDP/Thailand Energy Situation 2003

4.2 Biomass energy using industries
Manufacturing sector according to Thai I ndustrial Standards, is divided into 9
sub-sectors of which 4 sub-sectors use biomass as an energy source in their production
process to produce heat, steam, and power. They are food and beverages, non-metal,
chemical, and wood and furniture. Food and beverage industries are the major biomass
energy using industry. The types of factory that use biomass energy consist of sugar
mills, rice mills, oil palm mills, food cans, etc. These factories use biomass residues as
fuel for production by using in heat, steam, and power for the processing such as:
! Sugar mills use bagasse as fuel for production of thermal energy for the
distillation process. Some mills are using steam from combustion of bagasse
in steam turbines for electricity generation, while some others are using
steam from bagasse combustion in steam engines for operation of the rollers
used to extract the cane juice.
! Rice mills commonly use the rice husks as fuel for drying of the paddy. The
rice husks also generally use as fuel for further processing such as
parboiling and production of rice noodles.
! Oil palm mills often use the fiber and shells from fruits as fuel for producing
thermal energy to the sterilization of the fresh fruit bunches. I n addition,
most oil palm mills are provided with backpressure steam turbines and
diesel generators for electricity generation to the palm oil production.
! I t is a common practice for pulp and paper mills to use wood waste and
black liquor as fuel for production of thermal and electricity.
Non-metal, chemical, and wood and furniture sub-sectors are small biomass
energy consumption industries. Types of factories are for example lime making, brick
making, rubber curing and tire. Furniture factories use wood wastes and sawdust in
steam boiler for wood processing.

4.3 Biomass conversion technologies [12]
The development of biomass utilization can be considered from its sources and
technology for transformation and utilization. Biomass is mainly collected from
residues or by-products of crops, food, and other production especially agro-industry,
which has generated a fairly large biomass resource base of nearly 80 million tons per
year that could be utilized for energy purposes. Technologies for transformation and
utilization of biomass cover a wide range, from local to well-established technologies, or
to research level technologies. The biomass conversion technologies have been
concentrated on gasification technology, combustion technology, pyrolysis technology,
and biogas technology. The varieties of biomass and its preparing procedures offer a lot
of options for the biomass utilization. There are also several technologies for biomass
conversion such as technologies for producing heat, electricity, and fuel (solid, liquid,
and gas). Modern applications of biomass energy resulted from a wide range of
different technologies that can be divided in to 4 groups as follows: biomass-fired
electric power plants, liquid fuel, biogas production, and improved cookstove and kilns
technologies [4, 11].
Biomass-fired electric power plants
Small rural industries engaged in power production from biomass can sell their
excess energy generation back to the electrical grid through the Small Power Producers
(SPP) Program initiated by the National Energy Policy Council [5]. I n 2004, SPP from
biomass has sold power to the grid for more than 300 Megawatts which come from 38
plants [9]. The general energy conversion technology from biomass is a thermo-
chemical process. Examples of conversion systems for burning biomass fuels in
Thailand are as follows:

! Mass burn stoker boiler.
! Stoker boiler (stationary sloping grate, travelling grate, and vibration grate).
! Fluidized bed boiler (bubbling and circulating).
! Gasification with combustion in a closed-coupled boiler.
! Pulverized fuel suspension fired boiler.
Each technology mentioned above has advantages and disadvantages. These
systems are commercially available and have been operated in Thailand. Stoker boiler
is widely in use, but it is not always the most appropriate choice, for example, the rice
husk is more easily burned in fluidized bed or gasifier boilers because of its low
operation temperature that help prevent aggregation of ashes. Rice husk can be burnt
in Stoker or Suspension fired boilers, but the aggregation of ashes must be minimized.
I n general, fluidized bed boiler is the most suitable choice because it can tolerate
different moisture from biomass materials and it has various sizes. Gasification may be
an interesting choice, but it lacks of technical- and commercial- acceptance. Suspension
fired boiler is not suitable for most biomass sources because they need to be ground
before putting into the boiler.
Liquid fuel technologies
Liquid fuel, e.g. bio-ethanol and bio-diesel, the pyrolysis technologies can
convert biomass into liquid (bio-oil), gaseous, and solid fraction. Bio-ethanol
technologies are varying widely in states of development and extent of need for
government action. Bio-oil can be converted to bio-diesel by using extraction and
esterification techniques [7]. Recently, the Thai government announced plans to start
the commercial use of ethanol to replace MTBE in the 95-octane gasoline for the whole
kingdom beginning in 2006. I n Thailand, ethanol is produced from many crops,
including sugarcane, cassava, and maize [10].
Biogas production technologies
A large-scale of industries and animal farms have been interested in biogas
plants because treatment of wastewater was in their concerns due to more stringent
environmental regulations to be imposed. I n 2002, 14 biogas plants of 3000 m
3
each
were used in distilleries. More than 10 biogas plants, 1000 to 4000 m
3
each, were
demonstrated projects in pig farms to solve their pollution problems. The National
Energy Policy Office (NEPO) has set a target to support the establishment of biogas
plants of 40,000 m
3
in total in pig farms for heating and power production, which
implemented by Chiangmai University during 1997-2002 [11].
I mproved cookstove and kiln technologies
I n the rural areas, cooking is the most energy consuming activity in the
household sector. The conventional cookstoves are inconvenient to use because they
create a lot of smoke and have low energy conversion efficiency. Therefore, the
Department of Energy Development and Promotion (DEDP) in corporation with the
Royal Forestry Department (RFD) have developed improved wood and charcoal
cookstoves [11]. I n rural industries (e.g. brick, lime, palm, sugar, noodle and pottery),
wood is used as a major fuel. I n 1996, the Faculty of Engineering, Chiangmai
University received budget from the DEDP to study energy use in rural industries, and
to develop kilns that have more energy efficiency for them. I n 2002, the DEDP
prepared a master plan to promote highly efficient biomass combustors for small- and
medium-scale rural industries [11].

5. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ON BI OMASS UTI LI ZATI ON
5.1 Research and development organizations
Government
! Ministry of Energy
! Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives

! Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
! Ministry of Science and Technology such as National Science and
Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), etc.
Universities
! Asian I nstitute of Technology (AI T)
! King Mongkuts University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT)
! Chulalongkorn University (CU)
! Kasetsart University(KU)
! Chiang Mai University (CMU)
! The J oint Graduate School of Energy and Environment (J GSEE), etc.
NGOs
! Thailand Environment I nstitute (TEI )
! Energy for Environment Foundation (EfE), etc.

5.2 Main research and development areas
Policy research
! Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency (DEDE)
! Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives
! Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, etc.
Energy and environment research
! Universities: AI T, KMUTT, CU, KU, CMU, J GSEE, etc.
! Government: DEDE, NSTDA, etc.
! NGOs: TEI , EfE, etc.
Other biomass utilization
! Universities: AI T, KU, etc
! Government: Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Ministry of
Science and Technology, NSTDA, etc.

5.3 Government policy [9], [12]
The Seventh Five-year National Economic and Social Development Plan
(NESDP) (1992-1996) formulated various energy policy issues related to biomass
energy utilization. I t emphasized on developing domestic energy resources and
encouragement of efficient use and conservation of energy.
The Eighth NESDP (1997-2001) was also stated the promotion of biomass
utilization in Small Power Producer (SPP) scheme especially power production from
biomass, and encouraged using of green energy sources in order to reduce the
environmental impacts causing by green house gases (GHG).
The Ninth NESDP (2002-2006) is aiming to promote on research and
development of renewable energy especially on commercial technology, and to
encourage public participation in setting the guidelines of energy utilization for
sustainable development.
Recently, Thai government has set a target to increase the share of renewable
energy from the present level of 0.5% to 8% by the year 2011.

6. PROBLEM OF BI OMASS ENERGY UTI LI ZATI ON [9]
The major limitations of biomass utilization in Thailand are difficulty in
assessment of resources, inconsistent production, inappropriate properties such as low
bulk density and high moisture content, problems of collection, transportation and
storage, and availability and reliability concerns. I n general, barriers in the
development of biomass utilization in Thailand can be classified as follows:
! I nstitutional barriers: Poor coordination among government agencies and
especially with the private sector.

! Policy barriers: The government policy to support renewable Energy SPPs
through bidding process has drawn interest and private sector investments, but
this measure seems to bias in favor of large scale and low power production cost
SPPs.
! Technical barriers: Lack of standards on bioenergy systems and equipment.
! I nformation barriers: Lack of awareness/confidence in available new and
renewable source of energy (NRSE) technologies and applications.

7. CONCLUSI ON
Biomass is a major contribution to energy needs in the fast-growing country
like Thailand. I t is an essential source of energy for energy production particularly for
saving the environment of the country. There are many potential biomass energy
resources, which are suitable for energy production in both industry and residential
sectors. Various technologies for biomass utilization are currently used, ranging from
local made to imported technology. Still, many technologies used, especially in rural
use and some factories, are considered to be quite an old technology with low efficiency.
While there are several constrains still to be overcome, it can be clearly seen that there
are enormous opportunities for promoting the utilization of biomass and improving an
efficient and most promising biomass technology.

REFERENCES
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[5] Black & Veatch (Thailand) Co., Ltd. (2000). Thailand Biomass-Based Power
Generation and Cogeneration within Small Rural I ndustries. Final Report,
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[11] Sajjakulnukit B., et.al. Assessment of Sustainable National Resource Potential
for Thailand. Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency,
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