Austere Politics: The Abstraction of the Political in Post-Marxism

Tim Fisken University of Birmingham timfisken@gmail.com

On August 6, 2011, following the shooting of

ark !uggan "y the

etro#olitan

$olice, riots "roke out in %ottenham, &orth 'on(on, which s#rea( s#ora(ically over the ne)t seven (ays to other areas of 'on(on an( other cities in *nglan(. %he riots an( the looting that followe( were wi(ely con(emne( for violence an( lawlessness, "ut in a((ition some +inclu(ing some on the left who s#oke #ositively of the #olitical significance of earlier 'on(on riots,, chose to critici-e these riots for "eing a#olitical. 1 .hy was the #olitical or otherwise nature of these events the groun( on which #eo#le chose to make their criti/ue0 .hy has 1a#olitical2 "ecome a term of a"use, an( 1#olitical2 a term of #raise, #articularly for those on the left0 %his is har(ly an isolate( inci(ent3 the (ecline of the #olitical is a common com#laint on the left, with the #olitical a##arently "eing wi#e( out "y economics or technocracy, sometimes com"ine( un(er the name 4neoli"eralism5. A #osition that values the #olitical "y shar#ly (istinguishing #olitics, on the "asis of certain essential characteristics, from the non6#olitical, #ro(uces its own #olitical #ro"lems. A (efinition which (raws a shar# line "etween #olitical an( non6#olitical, risks missing the #olitical significance of events an( activities which, intertwine( with
1 7ee An(rew 7wallow, 4$oliticians 8on(emn %ottenham 9iots5, The Guardian, 2011, as well as Bauman5s claim that those involve( in the riots e)hi"ite( literally no su":ective agency at all, that their min(s containe( only 4the e)#lanations they hear( on %; an( rea( in the #a#ers5, an( so the events can only "e e)#laine( in terms of causes, not meanings, 4can "e only e)#laine( in terms of 1"ecause of2, not in terms of 1in or(er to25 +<ygmunt Bauman, 4=uels, 7#arks an( =ires3 On %aking to the 7treets5, Thesis Eleven, 10> +2012,, 11?6 +#. 12,,. 1

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the su##ose(ly non6#olitical, fall outsi(e the strictly6(rawn lines of the #olitical. %he case with which @ o#ene(, the 2011 UA riots, is one e)am#le where a strict (efinition of #olitics le( theorists to miss the significance of events, "ut such cases seem to "e increasingly the norm. @f #olitics is tie( to #articular organi-ations +#arties, unions,, #articular sites +legislatures, the me(ia, or #articular forms of action +from electoral #artici#ation to #etitions an( (emonstrations,, the #olitical seems to "e a contracting an( ever less relevant s#here. =rom the new social movements of the B0s an( C0s +critici-e( as a#olitical for their focus on single issues, to the anti6glo"ali-ation movement of the >0s an( early 2000s +critici-e( as a#olitical for its unwillingness to unite issues into a coherent criti/ue of contem#orary institutions,, to the Occu#y encam#ments which arose in U7 an( *uro#ean cities in 2011612 +critici-e( as a#olitical for their unwillingness to make (eman(s or e)#ress a #ositive vision of the society they (esire(,, the last few (eca(es have "een characteri-e( "y collective action in o##osition to the #revailing organi-ation of society in ways which are not fully or at least not straightforwar(ly ca#ture( "y (efinitions of the #olitical. A #olitical theory which is concerne( with maintaining the (istinctiveness of the category of the #olitical "y #urifying that category, "y (etermining #recisely what is #olitical an( what is not, #revents us from seeing these movements as #olitical, an( in #articular it #revents us from consi(ering that it might "e their 4im#urity5, their com"ination of #olitical, social, economic, an( other tro#es, which allows them to "e #olitical. @ call this #olitics, which is (isconnecte( from a consi(eration of society an( the economy, 4austere #olitics5. @t is austere "ecause it attem#ts to (efine #olitics in the narrowest #ossi"le way, an( it treats any e)#ansive or im#ure (efinition of #olitics as (angerous, as a lu)ury we cannot affor(. @t is this (isconnection of #olitics from a consi(eration of society an( the economy which makes austere #olitics a #ro"lematic
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form of #olitical theory. A #olitical theory #re(icate( on the autonomy of the #olitical encourages us to e)#lain #olitical conce#ts only "y reference to other conce#ts which we can "e sure are also #oliticalD in(ee(, any attem#t to relate #olitics to non6#olitical categories comes to "e viewe( with sus#icion, as involving a re(uction of the #olitical to some other, non6#olitical, s#here. y view is that any satisfactory investigation

into #olitics will involve e)#laining how what a##ear to "e #olitical conce#ts are necessarily relate( to other, less o"viously #olitical, conce#ts. %his is not a re(uctivist move, "ecause the a##arently non6#olitical conce#ts im"ricate( with #olitics are no more #urely non6#olitical than #olitical conce#ts are #urely an( solely #olitical. @f #olitics involves action, that action takes #lace in a worl(, an( that worl( cannot "e e)#laine( solely in #olitical termsD therefore any a(e/uate theory of #olitics will nee( to "e o#en to all the categories an( areas of stu(y necessary to un(erstan( the worl( in which #olitical action takes #lace. .e cannot say anything useful a"out :ustice without consi(ering the economic organi-ations which control (istri"ution, nor can we say anything useful a"out #ower without consi(ering the institutions through which #ower is e)ercise(, nor a"out i(entities without consi(ering the histories which have #ro(uce( an( continue to ascri"e these i(entities. Austere #olitics, "y focusing our attention on #olitics consi(ere( as autonomous, encourages us to forget these necessary su##lements to our #olitical categories. %his #a#er has two #ur#oses. %he first is to #ersua(e you that 4austere #olitics5 is a coherent conce#t an( one which usefully characterises certain elements of contem#orary #olitical theory. %he secon( #ur#ose is to suggest that that austere #olitics lea(s to "a( #olitical theory. @n the course of making my case on this secon( #oint, @ will also suggest that ar)5s work can "e hel#ful in (evelo#ing a #olitical

theory which #rovi(es an alternative to austere #olitics. @ "egin the #a#er "y
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(escri"ing some current work in #olitical theory from Alain Ba(iou, $eter Fallwar(, an( Go(i !ean, which @ think #articularly e)em#lifies austere #olitics. @ then turn to a much "roa(er (iscussion of mo(ern #olitical theory to show how austere #olitics is roote( in features of #olitical theory which we can fin( more wi(elyD in (oing this, @ also offer some :ustification for my use of the term 4austere #olitics5. =inally, @ (evelo# a more (etaile( rea(ing of !ean5s work to show what @ think are the #ro"lem that result from austere #olitics.

Post-Marxist austerity One use of this theme of the central im#ortance of a narrow, #urifie( notion of #olitics is of #articular interest. @n recent years what we might call a neo6Gaco"in or neo6'eninist tren( in #olitical theory from the ar)ist or #ost6 ar)ist tra(ition. %his

tren( has insiste( that the lack of attention to #olitics, narrowly (efine(, has #lace( a limitation on the ra(ical #otential of left6wing #olitical theory an( #racticeD the e)am#les of this tren( @ will e)#lore here are Ba(iou, Fallwar( an( !ean. %his neo6Gaco"in tren( can "e (istinguishe( from the more general theme of a mo(ern 4(ecline of #olitics5 "ecause the neo6Gaco"in #osition (oes not necessarily i(entify a general, e#ochal (ecline of #olitics, "ut instea( sees the #ro"lem as a lack of #olitical will s#ecifically on the left.2 %hese authors #ro#ose a reinvigorate( #olitics of will as the solution, which is why @ call them 4neo6Gaco"in5D this #olitics of will is also central to the features of this account of #olitics which lea( me to la"el it 4austere5. Before @ turn to this /uestion of austere #olitics, however, @ will e)#lain in more general terms how the category of the #olitical is constructe( "y these authors.
2 @n(ee(, the #o#ularity, on the left, of accounts of a (ecline of the #olitical is "ecause they #rovi(e a theoretical ali"i for the failure of actual left #olitics, accor(ing to Go(i !ean, 4$olitics without $olitics5, in Reading Rancire, e(. "y $aul Bowman +8ontinuum, 2011,, #. 2E. H

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=or Ba(iou, #olitics is one of the (istinct (omains in which true novelty, a ra(ical "reak with e)isting con(itions, is #ossi"le.E .hat (istinguishes #olitics from other areas of ra(ical ru#ture is that #olitics is collective, in(ee( #olitics is the situation 4in which the collective "ecomes intereste( in itself5.H Iiven this (efinition of #olitics, it is no sur#rise that for Ba(iou the /uintessential #hiloso#her of #olitics is 9ousseau. .hat is "oth most im#ortant an( most novel in 9ousseau +who, Ba(iou writes, 4forever esta"lishes the mo(ern conce#t of #olitics5 J, is the i(eas that #olitics is not natural or given, "ut nee(s to "e create(, or rather (e#en(s on a creation, the creation of the "o(y #olitic3 4#olitics is a creation, local an( fragile, of collective humanity5.6 .hat allows 9ousseau5s account of #olitics to inaugurate this new era is that 4it (iscerns an a"solutely novel term, calle( the general will5. B %he general will is also central to Fallwar(5s re#u"lican, or, as he calls it 4(ialectical voluntarist5, #olitics. %he (efining feature of this voluntarism is that 4what is ultimately (eterminant is not the given economic or historical constraints "ut free human action ? the a"ility of 1each single in(ivi(ual2 to #rescri"e their own en(s an( make their own history5.C $olitics, for Fallwar(, (e#en(s on (etaching the will from material con(itions. @t is true that Fallwar(5s voluntarism is (ialectical inasmuch as it recogni-es that this will is reali-e( in a worl( of material necessity, where 4the #olitical e)ercise of will (istinguishes itself from mere wish or fantasy through its ca#acity to initiate a #rocess of genuine 1realisation25.> Fowever, it is im#ortant to note that this (ialectic "etween will an( circumstances arises at the #oint of the will5s
E H J 6 B C > $olitics is one of #recisely four such (omains, the other three "eing art, science, an( love +Alain Ba(iou, Being and Event +'on(onD &ew Kork3 8ontinuum, 200J,, ##. EE>?H0, Ba(iou, #. EH0. Ba(iou, #. EHJ. Ba(iou, #. EHJ Ba(iou5s em#hasis. Ba(iou, #. EHJ. $eter Fallwar(, 4%he .ill of the $eo#le5, Radical Philosophy, 200>, #. 26. Fallwar(, #. 2J. J

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realisationD material constraint (oes not #lay a role in the will5s conce#tion or creation.10 Because #olitics is the ela"oration of a collective will, then, for Fallwar( it has at its origins a narrowing or (etachment3 #olitics is (efinitely not +even if it might later encounter, the material circumstances Fallwar( lists as 4a##etite L causality L conte)t L ha"it L tra(ition L history L #ower L the unconscious L convention L writing L (esire L (rive5.11 .hen #olitics is narrowe( to the e)ercise of will, it has a #articular name3 sovereignty. @n a theory of #o#ular will, this sovereignty must "e s#ecifically #o#ular sovereignty, a sovereignty e)ercise( "y the #eo#le rather than an e)ternal ruler. %his is the key Gaco"in moment in the i(ea of communism #ro#ose( "y !ean, a theory of 4communism as the sovereignty of the #eo#le5.12 $o#ular sovereignty is the sovereignty of 4the #eo#le as a collective "o(y5,1E an( what the naming of the #eo#le as the sovereign intro(uces is this crucial (istinction "etween the #eo#le as the sovereign ? as singular "o(y, a ruler ? an( the #eo#le as (is#erse( in(ivi(uals, the #eo#le as su":ects. !ean is e)#licit a"out em"racing this 4noni(entity "etween the #eo#le an( its sovereignty, that is to say, the ga# "etween the government an( the governe(5,1H an( it was this (istinction that was 9ousseau5s great innovation within re#u"lican theory. %he similarity with 9ousseau is interesting "ecause it "rings into focus a continuity "etween a su##ose(ly ra(ical mo(el of #olitics an( a much more general tren( in mo(ern #olitics. %he mechanism of #o#ular sovereignty, in which the #eo#le is sovereign when an( "ecause it is re#resente( as such, is a central theme of mo(ern #olitics, the general constellation of #olitical systems calle( 4li"eral5 in the
10 A genuine will is not 4a(a#te(5, to use Fallwar(5s term, to circumstances +Fallwar(, #. 1B, 11 Fallwar(, #. 21. 12 Go(i !ean, The Communist Horizon +&ew Kork3 ;erso, 2012,, l. BHE. 9eferences to this te)t are to locations in the Ain(le e(ition. 1E !ean, The Communist Horizon, l. BC2. 1H !ean, The Communist Horizon, l. C26. %im =isken 6

"roa( sense. @ will show in the final #arts of this #a#er that the criti/ue of li"eralism +an( its material infrastructure, ca#italism, which the neo6Gaco"ins are so keen to un(ertake in fact re/uires a criti/ue of the #urifie(, a"stract #olitics that they a(vocate. @n or(er to make that argument, however, @ first nee( to e)#lain in more (etail the centrality of this a"stract #olitics to mo(ern #olitical thought, which will also involve clarifying what @ mean "y calling this #olitics 4austere5.

A history of austerity One of the foun(ing moments of .estern #olitical science is an attem#t to (istinguish the #olitical from the non6#olitical. Aristotle o#ens the Politics "y telling us that there is one #articular kin( of 4association which is #olitical5 an( that 4it is an error to su##ose, as some (o, that the roles of a statesman, of a king, of a househol( manager an( of a master of slaves are the same.51J %his foun(ing moment has "een ren(ere( in mythological terms "y 7trauss, as a time of (irect access to 4#olitical things5, a (irect access now lost to us.16 .hile we are unlikely to e)#licitly acce#t this 7traussian myth to(ay, something like it (oes, @ think, continue to e)ert an influence on how we un(erstan( #olitical theory. .e are still likely to think that locating the s#ecificity of the #olitical is, historically an( #ractically, the starting #oint of #olitical theory, an( that a failure to atten( to this s#ecificity is "oth a theoretical an( #olitical (anger. @n this #a#er, @ want to #ick a#art this assum#tion that #olitical theory
1J Aristotle, The Politics, trans. "y %. A. 7inclair an( %revor G. 7aun(ers +'on(on3 $enguin Books, 1>>2,, 12J2aB. @t is, strictly, anachronistic to refer to Aristotle as 4foun(ing5 .estern #olitical science, as the relevant category of the 4.est5 was constructe( centuries after Aristotle5s (eath. 9ather the retroactive mythologisation of Ireek #hiloso#hy as a foun(ing moment was itself a moment in the #ro(uction of the i(ea of the .est. @n what follows, @ will concentrate on the tem#oral s#ecificity of a 4mo(ern5 un(erstan(ing of #olitics, "ut it is worth kee#ing in min( that this mo(ernity is also eurocentric. 16 'eo 7trauss, What Is Political Philosophy +Ilencoe, @'3 =ree $ress, 1>J>,, #. 2B. @n fact, for 7trauss, "y the time Aristotle was writing, (irect access to #olitical things was well on its way out. %hat the #olitical is always6alrea(y lost for 7trauss of course enhances its mythic allure. %im =isken B

(e#en(s on the s#ecificity of the #olitical, to historici-e the i(ea "y #aying attention to the various (ifferent ways in which we might (istinguish the #olitical, an( what it might mean that mo(ern #olitical theory has chosen a #articular mo(e of (istinction, an a"straction of the #olitical from material circumstances which @ refer to as 4austere #olitics5. itro#oulos #oints out that the (ifferent uses of Aristotle5s (istinction "etween #olitics an( 4economics5 +oi!onomia, which is the etymological root of 4economics5, (oes not mean the same thing as the mo(ern term,, from achiavelli onwar(s, at

least, say more a"out the concerns of the authors making use of Aristotle than they (o a"out some su##ose(ly foun(ational category of greek #olitical theory. 1B (raws #articular attention to the mo(ifications to the un(erstan(ing of the relationshi# "etween #olitics an( economics which coinci(e with the (evelo#ment of ca#italism an( the rise of social contract theory, 1C an( it is this early mo(ern reconfiguration of the (istinctiveness of #olitics that @ want to focus on. @n the early (evelo#ment of social contract theory from Fo""es to 9ousseau, #olitics is first (efine( through an a"straction from material circumstances, an( all the circumstances that are now 4e)ternal5 to #olitics are conceive( as an e)cess, a kin( of lu)ury which is a (istraction "rom #olitics. %he (istinctive i(ea intro(uce( into the un(erstan(ing of #olitics in the early6mo(ern #erio(, which continues to "e central to theories of the #olitical to(ay, is that the #olitical s#here is artificial. %his innovation can "e trace( "ack to Fo""es, 1> summe( u# in the o#ening lines of #eviathan, which (escri"e the stu(y of #olitics as
1B Angela itro#oulos, Contract and Contagion$ %rom Biopolitics to &i!onomia +Brooklyn, &K3 inor 8om#ositions, 2012,, #. JB, an( ch.2 more generally. 1C itro#oulos, ##. J2, 61. 1> As with any theory, Fo""es5s account of the artificiality of #olitics has #rece(ents, "ut it has a central im#ortance for Fo""es that it (oes not have for his #re(ecessors. 7ee !avi( 9unciman, Pluralism and the Personality o" the 'tate +8am"ri(ge University $ress, 1>>B,, cha#. 2. %im =isken C

itro#oulos

the stu(y of artifice, 4for "y Art is create( that great 'eviathan calle( a 8ommon6wealth, or 7tate +in latine 8ivitas, which is "ut an Artificiall an5.20 7o, the

#olitical s#here is a creation, a (istinct an( se#arate thing "rought into "eing "y human artifice. @t is worthwhile em#hasising the novelty of Fo""es5s claim that the #olitical s#here is artificial, "oth "ecause it seems so o"vious to(ay an( "ecause it was so counterintuitive in Fo""es5s time. @n working out the logic "ehin( the Fo""esian conce#t of #olitics, it is useful to think a"out why this "ecame a #ossi"le way of thinking a"out #olitics in the early mo(ern #erio( s#ecifically. .e can certainly locate reasons within the intellectual tra(ition Fo""es was working in an( against, #articularly the emerging criti/ue of scholastic meta#hysics.21 Fowever, there were also (evelo#ments outsi(e of #hiloso#hy to which Fo""es5s theory #rovi(es a res#onse. %he early mo(ern #erio( saw the (issolution of the feu(al system in which the organisation of (aily life an( material re#ro(uction was (irectly tie( u# with the organisation of rule. %his system "roke (own with what ar) calls 4#olitical

emanci#ation5 in 4On the Gewish Muestion5 an( the 4(ou"le free(om5 of the worker in Capital.22 %he social reorganisation which "egan in the early mo(ern #erio( involve( the creation of a s#ecifically economic s#here an( so, at the same time, a (istinctively #olitical s#here. As ar) #uts it, the en( of feu(alism 4unleashe( the #olitical s#irit

20 %homas Fo""es, #eviathan +8am"ri(ge University $ress, 1>>6,, #. >. 21 %homas A. 7#ragens, The Politics o" (otion$ The World o" Thomas Ho))es +'e)ington AK3 University of Aansas $ress, 1>BE,. an( Allen 7 Fance, 4$ru(ence an( $rovi(ence3 On Fo""es5s %heory of $ractical 9eason5, (an and *orld, 2H +1>>1,, 1JJ?6B. #rovi(e (ifferent accounts of Fo""es5s thought which "oth locate it in relation to Aristotelian meta#hysics. 8ees 'ei:enhorst, 4Fo""es5s %heory of 8ausality an( @ts Aristotelian Backgroun(5, The (onist, B> +1>>6,, H26?HHB. suggests ways in which some of Fo""es5s i(eas emerge( out of mo(ifications ma(e within scholasticism. =or the more general climate of anti6scholastic thought in Fo""es5s time, see Muentin 7kinner, 4Fo""es5s 'ife in $hiloso#hy5, in +isions o" politics, E vols. +8am"ri(ge3 8am"ri(ge University $ress,, @@@, 1?EB. 22 Aarl ar), 4On the Gewish Muestion5, in Early *ritings, trans. "y 9o(ney 'ivingstone an( Iregor Benton +'on(on3 $enguin, 1>>2,, ##. 211?2H2 +#. 2E2,D Aarl ar), Capital$ , Criti-ue o" Political Economy, trans. "y Ben =owkes +'on(on3 $enguin Books, 1>>2,, #. 2B2. %im =isken >

which has, as it were, "een (issolve(, (issecte( an( (is#erse( in the various cul6(e6sacs of feu(al societyD it gathere( together this s#irit from its state of (is#ersion, li"erate( it from the a(ulteration of civil life5.2E @n the early mo(ern #erio(, that is, the #olitical state as a se#arate s#here was "eing materially constructe(D thus the /uestion of how such a se#aration could )e constructe( "ecame a matter of #hiloso#hical concern, an( we can see this concern "eing worke( out in Fo""es. %he solution Fo""es (evises to this /uestion of how #olitics might "e constructe( is the conce#t of re#resentation.2H 9e#resentation is first a mo(e of se#aration, a way of se#arating some or all of a #erson5s acts from that #erson themselves. Fo""es connects the wor( 4#erson5 with the 'atin 4persona5, meaning outwar( a##earance or mask, an( this connects re#resentation with a kin( of im#ersonation, in which acts #erforme( "y one #erson are taken as "eing the acts of someone elseD 2J a re#resentative acts on "ehalf of the #erson "eing re#resente(. %his #ro(uces a meta#hysics of agency in which acts can "e (etache( from concrete in(ivi(uals an( transferre( to others. 9e#resentation is a ty#e of se#aration for Fo""es, then, "ut what makes it so im#ortant for his #olitical theory is that this se#aration is the "asis for a su"se/uent unification. Because re#resentation allows for the ar"itrary transfer of acts from one #erson to another, it also allows for the transfer of acts from many #eo#le to one #erson. %his creates the #ossi"ility of unity, "ecause 4it is the .nity of the re#resenter,
2E ar), 4On the Gewish Muestion5, #. 2EE. 2H Fo""es, cha#. 16. One of the earliest authors to (raw attention to the centrality of re#resentation for Fo""es5s theory was Fanna =enichel $itkin, The Concept o" Representation +University of 8alifornia $ress, 1>6B,, #. ch 1. %his remains one of the most e)tensive (iscussions of Fo""es5s theory of re#resentation, although it is confine( to re#resentation in #eviathan. =or a (iscussion of re#resentation throughout Fo""es5s work, see Nnica Brito ;ieira, The Elements o" Representation in Ho))es$ ,esthetics/ Theatre/ #a*/ and Theology in the Construction o" Ho))es0s Theory o" the 'tate +B9@'', 200>,. 2J Fo""es, #. 112. %im =isken 10

not the .nity of the re#resente(, that maketh the #erson &ne5.26 %his moment of re#resentation is crucial for Fo""es as it is the only way in which many #eo#le can "e un(erstoo( as a unityD an(, furthermore, they can only "e un(erstoo( as a unity "ecause, in transferring their acts to a single re#resentative, they have create( something new3 the single #erson that the re#resentative 4"ears5. 2B %his is how #olitics works through a"straction in Fo""es3 (iverse in(ivi(uals se#arate out #art of themselves, some of their actions, an( transfer these to anotherD this act of re#resentation #ro(uces an 4artificial #erson5 which su"stantiali-es the unity #ro(uce( out of #rior (iversity. %he central role of a"straction to #olitics is ma(e e)#licit in the cha#ter of #eviathan following that on re#resentation, where Fo""es (escri"es how a commonwealth, or sovereign, is create( through a universal alienation an( unification of #eo#le5s wills. @t is 4as if every man shoul( say5, Fo""es writes, that 4@ L give u# my right of Ioverning myself,5 which lea(s everyone to 4conferre all their #ower an( strength u#on one an5.2C %his theory is share( "y 9ousseau, who

(escri"es the fun(amental #rinci#le of the social contract as 4the total alienation of each associate together with all his rights5 which 4creates a cor#orate an( collective "o(y5.2> @t is "ecause this alienation, or se#aration an( unification, of #owers is the "asis of #olitics that ar) sees 9ousseau as a #articularly goo( e)am#le of 4the ar)5s

a"straction of the #olitical man5,E0 "ut the similarity to Fo""es also reinforces

"roa(er #oint that this a"straction is characteristic of mo(ern #olitics ? from the authoritarian Fo""es to the com#aratively ra(ical re#u"lican 9ousseau.
26 2B 2C 2> Fo""es, #. 11H. Fo""es, #. 11H. Fo""es, #. 120. Gean6Gac/ues 9ousseau, The 'ocial Contract and 1iscourses, trans. "y I. !. F 8ole +'on(on3 *veryman, 1>>E,, #. 1>1. E0 ar), 4On the Gewish Muestion5, #. 2EH. %im =isken 11

@t is also useful to look at 9ousseau "ecause 9ousseau is much more concerne( than Fo""es "y the am"iguities an( com#le)ities of re#resentation. Fo""es (escri"es re#resentation using the language of acting an( theatre, "ut (oes not seem concerne( "y the #ossi"ility that the similarity "etween the way a #erson is 4counterfeite( on stage5E1 an( the way they are re#resente( in #olitics might cast (ou"t on the seriousness or reality of the #olitical s#here he analyses an( constructs.E2 9ousseau, however, is alert to the #ara(o)es of re#resentation, where"y a falsehoo( +a re#resentation, stan(s in for the thing it re#resents. @t is in 9ousseau5s re#eate( insistence on the nee( to (istinguish "etween #ro#er an( im#ro#er re#resentations that we can see why the a"straction at the heart of mo(ern #olitics is also a form of austerity. One of the central features of 9ousseau5s #olitical theory is his contention that #olitics is threatene( "y lu)ury, ostentation, an( e)cess +he is of course inheriting a long tra(ition of re#u"lican theory on this #oint,. @n 9ousseau5s #resentation, this is tightly connecte( to his views of gen(er, which (ou"tless e)#lains why the "est writing on this theme comes from feminist inter#reters of 9ousseau. .hile @ think the austere mo(el of #olitics len(s itself to anti6feminist #ositions to(ay as much as it (i( in 9ousseau5s time,EE @ want here to use these (iscussions of gen(er in 9ousseau to ela"orate on how #lacing austerity at the centre of a conce#tion of the #olitical #ro(uces a more general logic of #olitics which e)ten(s "eyon( 9ousseau. @n
E1 Fo""es, #. 112. E2 Fo""es is not in general very concerne( a"out /uestions of falsity or (issimulation. Fis (iscomfort with rhetoric, which is an im#ortant motivation for much of his theory, is not that rhetoric uses wor(s in ways that are "alse, "ut in ways that are varia"le, as when one rhetorician (escri"es an act as courageous when another (escri"es it as reckless, lea(ing to (isagreement an( conflict. 7ee Muentin 7kinner, Reason and Rhetoric in the Philosophy o" Ho))es +8am"ri(ge University $ress, 1>>6,, es# ch. B. EE Although @ (on5t have s#ace to make this argument in any (etail, my contention is that austere #olitics, "y ren(ering the non6#olitical irrelevant to #olitics, is likely to ignore the kin(s of material con(itions that #articularly o##ress women. %im =isken 12

#articular, 9ousseau5s an)iety a"out gen(er makes his a #articularly clear case in which to see a more general mo(ern an)iety a"out #rotecting the #ro#er of #olitics from im#ro#er a(ulteration "y the non #olitical. .ingrove writes that 9ousseau5s 4re#u"licanism consists in the #ro#er #erformance of masculinity an( femininity5,EH an( the i(ea of 4#ro#er #erformance5 is crucial to the gen(er of re#u"lican #olitics. 4$erformance5 is an interestingly (ou"le6e(ge( wor( "ecause it can mean "oth to act an( to counterfeit actionD this is why in 9ousseau5s theory #erformance always nee(s to "e tie( to #ro#riety. $erformance in the first sense, of activity, is central to #olitics for 9ousseau +as in(ee( it was for earlier re#u"licans,. .hat is com#aratively new in 9ousseau is that what makes #olitical acts genuine acts is that they have the right relationshi# to will. $olitics involves the (irect, uninterru#te( conversion of the general will into actionD see for instance 9ousseau5s (escri#tion of the i(yllic state in which 4the first man to #ro#ose them OlawsP merely says what all have alrea(y felt, an( there is no /uestion of faction or intrigue or elo/uence in or(er to secure the #assage into law of what every one has alrea(y (eci(e( to (o, as soon as he is sure the rest will act with him.5 EJ %he cause of this i(yllic situation is that 4men who are u#right an( sim#le are (ifficult to (eceive "ecause of their sim#licityD lures an( ingenious #rete)ts fail to im#ose u#on them, an( they are not even su"tle enough to "e (u#es5.E6 %hat 9ousseau refers to 4men5 here is not at all acci(ental or conventional, "ut lies at the heart of 9ousseau5s gen(ering of #olitics3 #olitics is a masculine (omain "ecause it is (irect
EH *li-a"eth 9ose .ingrove, Rousseau0s Repu)lican Romance +$rinceton University $ress, 2000,, #. 6. EJ 9ousseau, #. 2BH. Another e)am#le of this trans#arent relation of will to action is 9ousseau5s famous assertion that 4the sovereign, merely "y virtue of what it is, is always what it shoul( "e5 +9ousseau, #. 1>H,. E6 9ousseau, #. 2BH. 7ee the (iscussion of this #assage in @ngri( akus, 4%he $olitics of 1=eminine 8oncealment2 an( 1 asculine O#enness2 in 9ousseau5, in %eminist interpretations o" 2ean32ac-ues Rousseau, e(. "y 'yn(a 'ange +University $ark, $a.3 $ennsylvania 7tate University $ress, 2002,, ##. 1CB?211 +#. 1>B,. %im =isken 1E

an( men are ca#a"le of this kin( of (irectness, at least they are if they have not "een corru#te(.EB @t is here that the o##osing sense of #erformance, as counterfeit, is relevant, "ecause this ty#e of #erformance is the threat to #olitics an( this #articular threat is resolutely #resente( "y 9ousseau as feminine. %he #rimary #laces where 9ousseau locates this feminine or feminise( #erformance are the theatre an( the salon. *ven in these circumstances, however, 4the natural man is still (iscerni"le un(er the vile ornaments of the courtier5 an( 4not content to "e #assive an( "eautiful, he also wants to "e active an( useful5.EC %he #erformance which is 4"eautiful5 rather than 4active5, that is, is a kin( of mas/uera(e or ornamentation in which an ostentatious costume conceals the #ro#erly masculine citi-en ca#a"le of of an honest an( (irect #artici#ation in the general will. As <erilli writes, to "ecome citi-ens, men must renounce the elegant (iscourse an( ela"orate (ress of the (emimon(e, those signifiers of class #rivilege an( counterfeit masculinity. %he social contract, it turns out, is a linguistic an( sartorial contract, an agreement a"out the #ro#er sym"olic forms of communication among citi-ens. 7im#le attire an( (irect s#eech are to function as outwar( signs of men5s (evotion to each other an( to the universalistic #rinci#les of the #atrie.E> At the centre of mo(ern #olitical theory, then, is a kin( of austerity, a re:ection of ostentation or ornamentation. %his (erives from this theory5s organisation aroun( the conce#ts of #o#ular sovereignty an( the general will3 will must flow (irectly an( trans#arently from the #eo#le through the sovereign into action, an( any e)cess of a##earance threatens this trans#arency. %his way of un(erstan(ing #olitics (e#en(s on a norm of re#resentation as #ro#er a##earance, in which what is a##ears as :ust

EB akus, #. 1CC. EC 'in(a <erilli, 41Une aitresse @m#erieuse23 .oman in 9ousseau5s 7emiotic 9e#u"lic5, in %eminist interpretations o" 2ean32ac-ues Rousseau, e(. "y 'yn(a 'ange +University $ark, $a.3 $ennsylvania 7tate University $ress, 2002,, ##. 2BB?E1H +#. 2BC,. E> <erilli, #. 2C0. %im =isken 1H

what it is an( nothing else, as against im#ro#er a##earances which, through lu)ury or theatricality, a##ear as something other than what they are. H0 %his austere conce#t of re#resentation is at the centre of mo(ern #olitical theory, from Fo""es through to to(ay5s ra(ical #olitical theory. %his contem#orary ra(ical theory, furthermore, insists that what makes it ra(ical is this #articular a##roach to #olitics which @ have "een calling austerityD "ut the u"i/uity of austerity to mo(ern #olitical theory might make us a little sce#tical a"out whether it can really function as a hallmark of the ra(ical. ar) e)#resse( :ust this sce#ticism in his early work, an( much of his mature

work can "e seen as an attem#t to work out an alternative to austere #olitics. @n the remain(er of this #a#er, @ will attem#t to e)#lain how austere #olitics. ar) shows us the limits of

The limits of austerity %he a(vocates of austere #olitics "ase their claim to "e #olitical ra(icals on what they see as the s#ecial role of #olitics in resisting our contem#orary late ca#italist or neoli"eral con(ition. %he #ro"lem these authors i(entify is the (omination of the economy, that is, the way our lives are controlle( "y economic structures which themselves are not su":ect to our control. 7e#arating off the #olitical as a (istinct s#here of sovereign will makes it #ossi"le to conceive of a #ro:ect in which the #olitical takes control over the economic. !ean is #articularly clear in her insistence that the weakness of the contem#orary left is (ue to giving u# on this #olitical logic of sovereignty an( control in favour of logics of com#le)ity an( consensus which are com#ati"le +or in(ee( (irectly (erive from, economic logics.H1
H0 4%o "e an( to seem "ecame two totally (ifferent thingsD an( from this (istinction s#rang insolent #om# an( cheating trickery, with all the numerous vices that go in their train.5 +9ousseau, #. >J, H1 !ean, The Communist Horizon, l. C0E, 1BB1. !ean5s claims a"out the #ro"lems of 4the left5 throughout The Communist Horizon are weakene( "y the "ook5s lack of clarity a"out who its %im =isken 1J

!oesn5t this concern with the #ower of #olitics over economics un(ermine my claim that 4austere5 #olitics is cut off from economic an( material concerns0 &o, "ecause it turns out that the attem#t to construct a #olitics which is ca#a"le of ruling over economics is self6un(erminingD this is ar)5s central criti/ue of 9ousseau an(

mo(ern #olitics more generally. %o un(erstan( how construing #olitics as sovereign over economics un(ermines itself, we can start "y looking at !ean5s attem#t to groun( her account of #olitics in an account of class struggle. One a##arent (ifference "etween !ean5s an( 9ousseau5s accounts of the #eo#le is that, for 9ousseau, the #eo#le may contain all who will to :oin it, while !ean makes the #eo#le a class conce#t in that the #eo#le e)clu(es 4the rich5 an( is ma(e u# of 4the rest of us5. H2 Fowever, although 9ousseau (oes not e)#licitly e)clu(e the rich from the #eo#le, he (oes (o so im#licitly, "y insisting on the nee( for e/uality, an( a certain economic austerity, among the #eo#le. $o#ular sovereignty is un(ermine( through 4i(leness an( money...through the hustle of commerce an( the arts, through the gree(y self6interest of #rofit, an( through softness an( love of amenities an( #ersonal service5.HE %hus 9ousseau sets u# a (istinction "etween the #eo#le #ro#er an( the rich, who are not really #art of the #eo#le an( work against it. %amQs #oints out the e)istence of a tra(ition within socialism, heavily influence( "y 9ousseau, which focuses on a /ualitative (istinction "etween rich an( #oor which is then morali-e(3
targets are. Although the "ook often seems to "e an intervention into the milleu) aroun( Occu#y .all 7treet, when s#ecific criticisms are ma(e they ten( to "e of left6li"eral aca(emics such as 'aclau an( ouffe. %he im#ression that aca(emics are the real targets an( inten(e( au(ience of the "ook is strengthene( "y the ten(ency to refer to aca(emics as 4we5 or 4us, as when !ean suggest that 4leftists5 fear the 'eninist #arty "ecause 4we fear the unsto##a"le force of the #eo#le mo"ili-e( against the system, a force that university gates are inca#a"le of "locking5 +l. J1>,. %his lack of clarity means that !ean (oesn5t engage with the (e"ates which informe( the tren(s she is ostensi"ly criticising, such as the e)tensive (iscussions among anarchist an( anti6authoritarian activists using formal consensus (ecision making a"out the a(vantages, (isa(vantages, an( a##ro#riate occasions to use consensus. One of the "est summaries of these (e"ates is 8ommon .heel 8ollective, Collective Boo! on Collective Processes Rhtt#3SSwww.geocities.comScollective"ookSintro.htmlT Oaccesse( 2H =e"ruary 201HP. H2 !ean, The Communist Horizon, l. 6>>. HE 9ousseau, #. 26J. %im =isken 16

the rich have an illegitimate concern for their economic self6interest an( this economic concern (isru#ts the #ro#er, #urely #olitical, functioning of the general will an( #o#ular sovereignty.HH As %amQs argues, however, this 9ousseauist socialism is /uite (ifferent from the theory an( #olitics of ar), which is concerne( with material

an( structural (ivisions which e)#lain the functioning of #olitical economy, the (ivision "etween those who control the means of #ro(uction an( those who (o not. !ean is firmly within the 9ousseauist tra(ition, an( this is why her suggestion of 4the #eo#le as the rest of us5 as a re#lacement for 4the #roletariat5 is so ina(e/uateD HJ she #rovi(es no account of how this (ivision o#erates, e)ce#t for a few morali-ing references to 4theft5 carrie( out "y the 4su#er rich5. H6 =urther, as %amQs #oints out, class struggle is a feature s#ecifically of the economic an( #olitical organi-ation of ca#italismD it is not , contra !ean, a timeless meta#hysical name for 4the fun(amental antagonism through which society emerges5 or 4the fact that there is not set of or(ere( relations constitutive of society as such5.HB !ean5s account of class struggle is one that avoi(s the economic an( reinter#rets class #urely in #olitical termsD an(, furthermore, in terms of a #hiloso#hical, a"stract, an( ahistorical account of #olitics. %his re(uction of class to a #olitical a"straction is a necessary conse/uence of !ean5s theoretical a##roach, which (e#en(s on (rawing a shar# (istinction "etween #olitics an( economics, an( in making this (istinction !ean is very much in the mainstream of mo(ern #olitical theory. ar) a((resses #olitical theory, inclu(ing

that of 9ousseau, in his early work, #rior to 1CHJD in(ee(, it was his growing i(entification of the #ro"lems with #olitics as (escri"e( "y mo(ern #olitical theory
HH IQs#Qr iklNs %amQs, 4%elling the %ruth A"out 8lass5, Grundrisse$ 4eitschri"t "5r lin!e Theorie 6 1e)atte, 200B Rhtt#3SSwww.grun(risse.netSgrun(risse22Stelling%he%ruthA"out8lass.htmT Oaccesse( 2H =e"ruary 201HP. 7ee also 9ousseau, #. 20E. HJ !ean, The Communist Horizon, l. 62>. H6 !ean, The Communist Horizon, l. HE>. HB !ean, The Communist Horizon, l. 6>C. %im =isken 1B

which motivate( his turn towar(s the stu(y an( criti/ue of #olitical economy which woul( occu#y the rest of his life. Although a fuller (iscussion woul( have to inclu(e ar)5s (iscussion of Fegel5s Philosophy o" Right, for the s#ecific argument @ am making here the most relevant te)t is 4On the Gewish Muestion5, which at first a##ears to "e a res#onse to Bauer on the /uestion of Gewish emanci#ation, "ut (evelo#s into a criti/ue of the conce#t of #olitical emanci#ation, an( in(ee( of 4the #olitical5 as such. ar)5s criticism turns on what @ have alrea(y i(entifie( as the central conce#tual move of the mo(ern li"eral state, the role of re#resentation in taking a #o#ulation of (iverse in(ivi(uals an( uniting them into one #olitical community. ar) notes that

this unification (oes not a"olish (ifference "ut merely claims that (ifference has no #olitical significance3 &evertheless the state allows #rivate #ro#erty, e(ucation an( occu#ation to act an( assert their particular nature in their own way, i.e., as #rivate #ro#erty, as e(ucation an( as occu#ation. =ar from a"olishing these factual (istinctions, the state #resu##oses them in or(er to e)ist, it only e)#eriences itself as a political state an( asserts its universality in o##osition to these elements.HC %hat is to say, the e)istence of the #olitical state (e#en(s on the e)istence of the #rivate, economic, s#here of civil societyD the 4#rivate interest5 of egoistic "ourgeois society is the 4#resu##osition5 of the #u"lic interest of the state, H> an( the state must thus continually re#ro(uce this s#here of civil society if it is to remain in e)istence. ar) realises that 9ousseau has correctly un(erstoo( this as#ect of mo(ern society, an( /uotes 9ousseau5s (escri#tion of the #olitical community which 4must take man5s own #owers away from him an( su"stitute for them alien ones which he can only use with the assistance of others5, an( glosses this as3 4#olitical emanci#ation is the

HC H>

ar), 4On the Gewish Muestion5, #. 21>. ar), 4On the Gewish Muestion5, #. 221. 1C

%im =isken

re(uction of man on the one han( to the mem"er of civil society, the egoistic, independent in(ivi(ual, an( on the other han( to the citizen, the moral #erson.5J0 %his #uts a (ifferent s#in on the history of the (evelo#ment of li"eralism which !ean tells, (rawing on =oucault. =oucault follows ar) in connecting the arrival of

the mo(ern li"eral state with the "ifurcation "etween economic man an( #olitical man3 4'i"eralism ac/uire( its mo(ern sha#e #recisely with the formulation of this essential incom#ati"ility "etween the non6totali-a"le multi#licity of economic su":ects of interest an( the totali-ing unity of the :uri(ical sovereign.5 J1 !ean errs, however, in inter#reting this incom#ati"ility as necessitating tem#oral succession, in which :uri(ical sovereignty is re#lace( "y economic rationality. On the contrary, as ar) an( =oucault "oth know, the incom#ati"ility of #olitical sovereignty an( economic rationality is (ue to the mutual (e#en(ence of the two se#arate s#heres into which mo(ern society carves human life, setting the market to rule over one an( the state to rule over the other. %his misun(erstan(ing lea(s !ean to mis6cite ar) to

the effect that #olitical economy lea(s to 4an inca#acitating of collective strength, a fragmenting of it into su##ositions of in(ivi(uals alrea(y com#eting an( o##ose(5, J2 forgetting that for ar) it is this fragmentation which lea(s to the #olitical form

taken "y 4collective strength5, the #olitical form of the state.JE !ean, in other wor(s, is caught in the i(eology of the li"eral ca#italist state "ecause she "elieves the conce#tual #olarity of state an( economy means that the state can (ominate the economy, when in fact the economy is the #resu##osition of the state. JH %he i(ea of #o#ular sovereignty over the economy, that is, (e#en(s on the illusory se#aration of

J0 ar), 4On the Gewish Muestion5, #. 2EH. J1 =oucault, /uote( in !ean, The Communist Horizon, l. B>6. J2 !ean, The Communist Horizon, l. C0J. JE ar), 4On the Gewish Muestion5, #. 2EE. JH ar), 4On the Gewish Muestion5, #. 222. %im =isken 1>

#olitics from economic, an illusion #ro(uce( "y an( central to the (istinctive con(itions of ca#italist society. %o #ut it another way3 austere #olitics wants to #urify #olitics of any e)tra6#olitical influence in or(er to strengthen #olitics, to make #olitics ca#a"le of asserting collective, #o#ular, control over these e)tra6#olitical forces. But austere #olitics has :ust the o##osite effect3 the se#aration of the #olitical from the non6#olitical #ro(uces the situation where we are (ominate( "y e)tra6#olitical forces over which we have no control, an( #revents our #olitical conce#ts from gaining any #urchase on these forces. As ar) writes3

%he more #owerful a state an( hence the more political a nation, the less incline( it is to e)#lain the general #rinci#le governing social ills an( to seek out their causes "y looking at the principle o" the state, i.e. at the actual organization o" society of which the state is the active, self6conscious an( official e)#ression. Political un(erstan(ing is :ust political un(erstan(ing "ecause its thought (oes not transcen( the limits of #olitics. %he shar#er an( livelier it is, the more inca#a"le is it of com#rehen(ing social #ro"lems.JJ @n a sense, this #a#er has "een an e)ten(e( attem#t to make this /uotation from ar) #lausi"le. Austere #olitics is a way of thinking a"out #olitics which intentionally cuts #olitics off from 4the actual organi-ation of society5, an( as a result it is 4inca#a"le of com#rehen(ing social #ro"lems5. %his is an a##roach to #olitics with (ee# roots in the history of #olitical thought, an( it has this e)ten(e( history "ecause it reflects something real in the history of #olitical (evelo#ment3 mo(ern li"eral6ca#italist society (oes in(ee( (e#en( on a #rocess of se#aration of #olitics from the non6#olitical. @t is im#ortant, however, that #olitical theory un(erstan(s the historical contingency of this se#aration rather taking it as a self6evi(ent conce#tual starting #oint. @t is es#ecially im#ortant that left #olitical theory, which is attem#ting
JJ Aarl ar), 48ritical &otes on the Article 1%he Aing of $russia an( 7ocial 9eform. By a $russian25, in Early *ritings, trans. "y 9o(ney 'ivingstone an( Iregor Benton +'on(on3 $enguin, 1>>2,, ##. H01?H20 +##. H12?E,. %im =isken 20

to think against li"eral ca#italism, recognises that it cannot (o so if it continues to un(erstan( #olitics an( the non6#olitical as necessarily (istinct.

Bibliography Aristotle, The Politics, trans. "y %. A. 7inclair an( %revor G. 7aun(ers +'on(on3 $enguin Books, 1>>2, Ba(iou, Alain, Being and Event +'on(onD &ew Kork3 8ontinuum, 200J, Bauman, <ygmunt, 4=uels, 7#arks an( =ires3 On %aking to the 7treets5, Thesis Eleven, 10> +2012,, 11?6 8ommon .heel 8ollective, Collective Boo! on Collective Processes Rhtt#3SSwww.geocities.comScollective"ookSintro.htmlT Oaccesse( 2H =e"ruary 201HP !ean, Go(i, 4$olitics without $olitics5, in Reading Rancire, e(. "y $aul Bowman +8ontinuum, 2011, UUU, The Communist Horizon +&ew Kork3 ;erso, 2012, Fallwar(, $eter, 4%he .ill of the $eo#le5, Radical Philosophy, 200> Fance, Allen 7, 4$ru(ence an( $rovi(ence3 On Fo""es5s %heory of $ractical 9eason5, (an and *orld, 2H +1>>1,, 1JJ?6B Fo""es, %homas, #eviathan +8am"ri(ge University $ress, 1>>6, 'ei:enhorst, 8ees, 4Fo""es5s %heory of 8ausality an( @ts Aristotelian Backgroun(5, The (onist, B> +1>>6,, H26?HHB akus, @ngri(, 4%he $olitics of 1=eminine 8oncealment2 an( 1 asculine O#enness2 in 9ousseau5, in %eminist interpretations o" 2ean32ac-ues Rousseau, e(. "y 'yn(a 'ange +University $ark, $a.3 $ennsylvania 7tate University $ress, 2002,, ##. 1CB?211 ar), Aarl, Capital$ , Criti-ue o" Political Economy, trans. "y Ben =owkes +'on(on3 $enguin Books, 1>>2, UUU, 48ritical &otes on the Article 1%he Aing of $russia an( 7ocial 9eform. By a $russian25, in Early *ritings, trans. "y 9o(ney 'ivingstone an( Iregor Benton +'on(on3 $enguin, 1>>2,, ##. H01?H20 UUU, 4On the Gewish Muestion5, in Early *ritings, trans. "y 9o(ney 'ivingstone an( Iregor Benton +'on(on3 $enguin, 1>>2,, ##. 211?2H2

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.ingrove, *li-a"eth 9ose, Rousseau0s Repu)lican Romance +$rinceton University $ress, 2000, <erilli, 'in(a, 41Une aitresse @m#erieuse23 .oman in 9ousseau5s 7emiotic 9e#u"lic5, in %eminist interpretations o" 2ean32ac-ues Rousseau, e(. "y 'yn(a 'ange +University $ark, $a.3 $ennsylvania 7tate University $ress, 2002,, ##. 2BB?E1H

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