Mathematical Modelling of Formation Heat Treatment Process

A. K. M. JAMALUDDl~ and C. T. BOWEN

Noranda Technology Centre,240 Hymus Blvd., Pointe Claire, QC H9R IGS, Canada

and

M.HASAN
Departmentof Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, University of McGill, 3450 University Street,Montreal, QC H3A 2A7, Canada
A novel matrix stimulation concept.fonnation beattreatment(FHT), wbicb involves the applicationof intensebeat arounddie near-wellboreregion for the treatmentof water blockageand clay related fonnation damage in water sensitive formations previously was developedand presented in the literature.The FHT processinvolves the applicationof intensebeat around the weUboreusing a downbolebeater.The beat is conveyedto the near-wellboreregion using an inert gas flowing through a downholebeater. To understand the beat b'anSfer and fluid-flow cbaracteristics of die FHT process,a transienttwo-dimensionalmathematicalmodel basbeendevelopedand is presented in this paper.The model is basedon coupling the momentumand energy-balance equationsfor the wellbore gaswith the surroundingporousformation. The presence of the heateracross die net pay (sandface) is1akeninto accountin die energyequation as a localizedvolumetricheatsource. A control-volume basedfinite-differenceschemeis usedto solvethe modelequations on a staggered grid. Parametric studiesindicatethat by injecting a suitablequantity of gas throughdie tube and annulus,and by adjusting the power input to the downhole heater,die temperature near the wellbore can be favourablycontrolled.

On a mil au point et presenre anrerieurement dans la litterature scientifique un nouveau modele de simulation matricielle pour Ie traitement de chaleur de fomlation (FHT), basesur I'application d'une chaleur intenseautour de la region du puits de forage pour Ie traitementdu blocagedesporeset desdornrnages a la formation lies a l'argile danslei formationssensibles a I' eau.Le procedeFHT utilise pource faire unechaudiere a orifice descendant. La chaleurestconduite a la region du puits a I'aide d'un Ccoulement de gaz inerte dansla chaudierea orifice descendant. Afin de comprendrelei caractCristiques du transfertde chaleuret de I'ecoulementdes fluides du procedeFHT, on a mis au point un modele mathematiquetransitoire bidimensionnel.Ce modele s'appuie sur Ie couplagedes equations d'Cquilibre de conservationde la quantitCde mouvement et d'energiepour Ie gaz du puits de forage avecla formation poreuse environnante. La presence de la chaudiere dansIa productionnette(cOtesable)est prise en comptedansI'equanon d'energiecomme sourcede chaleurvolum~ue localisee.On utilise un schemade differencestiDiesbasesur les volmnesde conuole a grille decalee.Les etudesparametriques indiquent qu'en injectant une quantireadequate de gaz dansIe tube et I'espaceannulaire,et en ajustantla puissance dansla chaudierea orifice descendant, on peut contr6ler favorablement la temperature pres du puits de forage. .
Keywords:wellbore damage.clay swelling. water blocking. fonnation beat treatment.simulation.temperature profile.

P etroleum engineering operations such as drilling, completion, workovers, and stimulation, expose the forma-

tion to a foreign fluid. This exposureresultsin fluid invasion into the near wellbore region. The permeability of the fluid invadedporouszone is reducedbecause of pore throat constriction causedby clay swelling, clay migration and water blocking. This fluid-invaded region with reducedpenneability is called the "damagedzone," extendingroughly 1 m into the reservoir. Clay-related formation damageduring drilling and completion has long been identified to be a major problem. Measuresto stabilize clay swelling and migrationhavebeendiscussed in the literature(Himeset al., 1991; Borchardt et aI., 1984; Theng, 1984; Reed, 1974; CoppeDet aI., 1973; Plummer, 1991). Curative methods have also been attempted and presentedin the literature (Hayatdavoudiet aI., 1992;Lund et aI., 1976;Thomasand

-Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Present address: Hycai EtIerIY Rearch Laboratooes Ud.. 1338A - 36th Avenue N.E.. Calpry. Alberta, Canada T2E 6T6. JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING,

Crowe, 1981; Garst, 1957; Sloat, 1989; Schaible, 1986; Crowe, 1986).The two most popular non-thermalstimulation processes are hydraulic fracturing andmatrix acidizing. One of the earliestreportsof in situ thermalb:eatment was that of Albaugh (1954), on a field testthat was carriedout in an oil weD in California. Since then, many other curative thermal processes havebeen describedfor a variety of purposes,including the removal of wax (Nenniger, 1992) or asphaltene (Winckler and McManus, 1990)buildups. thermal fracturing of the formation (White andMass, 1965),and the consolidation of unconsolidatedformations (Friedman et aI., 1988).More specifically relatedto clay damageare methods aimed at evaporating blocked water (Reed. 1991a.b),dehydratingbound water from clays (White and Mass. 1965;Braun, 1971).or transforminga sensitivetype of clay (e.g. smectite) into a less sensitivetype (e.g. illite) (Carroll, 1970;Nooner, 1980). A new matrix stimulation concept,called formation heat treatment (FHT), was testedin the laboratoryand in the field (Jamaluddinand Namrko, 1994; Jamaluddinet aI., 1995, 1996a). The FHT process involvesdie applicationof beatfor

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VOLUME 75, AUGUST, 1997

the treatmentof near wellbore damage. The heatingaround thewellboreis achieved usinga downhole heater(Jamaluddin et al., 1996b)locatedat the sandface. The heat is conveyed from the heaterto the near wellbore region by an inert gas (e.g. nitrogen)flowing through and aroundthe heater. To understand the heat transferand fluid flow characteristics of downhole heating,various modelling efforts have beenpresented in the literature.A one-dimensional mathematical model (Shamlaet al., 1989)was describedfor predicting the flowing temperatureprofile in a well with a downhole heater. The model was identical to Ramey's (1962) model, exceptthat the heaterwas included through the treatmentof a sourceterm in the one-dimensional heat balanceequation.Another mathematical model to calculate heat lossesto the surroundingformationsdue to the downward injection of hot fluid throughthe tubing waspresented by Hoang (1980) and referenced by Somerton(1992). The model divided the wellbore and its swroundings into two regions:tubingandformation.Hoangassumed that theheated fluid flowing through the tubing was losing heatradially to the surroundings, while in the formation heat was assumed to be conductedboth radially and vertically. The analysis did not takeinto accountany penetration of the hot fluid into the formation.Hoang's analysisshowedthat for an injection rate of 30,000 kg/h of the hot fluid, temperatureprofiles within the entire length of the tubing and swrounding formationsreacheda steadystatewithin a few hours. He concludedthat for a high injection rate of the hot fluid through the tubing, a transientanalysisof the model equationswas not necessary. None of thesestudiescoupledheattransferandfluid flow phenomena for the injection of a gasin a wellbore wherethe gas was heatedwhile passingthrough a downhole heater. All prior studies in this area were variations of Ramey's (1962) original work, where the fluid momentumequation was completelyignored. Furthermore,almost all studiesin this area have combined the steady-state heat conduction solutionfor the wellborewith the approximate andUDSteadystateheatconductionsolution for the surroundingrock. In this study,a two-dimensional mathematical model has beendeveloped for the simulationof localizedwellboreheating using nitrogengasasthe injection fluid. The presence of a downholeheaterhas beenaccounted for by incorporating a volumetricheatsource term in thetransient energyequation. The model uses two-dimensional axisymmetric turbulent Navier-Stoke'sequations andenergyequations. Specifically, the model dealswith the electrical heating of the nitrogen gasnearthe formation and predictsthe flow fields and convective andconductiveheattransfercharacteristics between the heatedgasandthe surroundingreservoir.The model can be usedto quantify the power requirementof the downhole heaterand the heat propagationin the near wellbore region during the formation heattreatmentprocess. In addition,the modelallowsfor theoptimizationof theoperating parameters. Formation beat treatment (FHT) processlogistics The formation heat treatment(PHT) processconsistsof exposingthe formation to an elevatedtemperature to cause: vaporizationof blocked water, - dehydrationof the clay structure, - partial destructionof the clay minerals,and - possibly, micro-fracture of the formation in the nearwellbore areadue to thermally inducedsttesses.

I-.DER8URDEN

FigureI - Schematic diagram of the fonnation heattreatment (FliT) process logistics. A seriesof bench scale heating testswas carried out on sandstone cores taken ftom both oil- and gas-bearingformations(Jama1uddin et aI., 1995).Samplecorestaken ftom actualformationdisplayedan 84% reductionin penneability following water exposure.Heating to a temperature around 400C re-established the baselinepenneability of the core. Furtherheatingat 600 and 800C improvedthepenneability to 500/0 and 7600/0 abovethe baselinevalue, respectively. The physical situationand field logistics of the formation heattreatment process arepresented schematically in Figure I. As seenin the figure, a downhole heateris attachedto the endof a tubing andplacedacrossthe sandface. After lowering the tool, nitrogen gasis injectedthroughboth the tubing and the casingtubing annulusftom the surface.The well is pressurizedto a pressure higher than the corresponding reservoir pressureforcing the nitrogen into the reservoir. After pressurization, the tool is poweredup to heatthe injection nitrogen while it is flowing through the downhole heaterandconveythe heatto the nearweUbore region of the reservoir. The primary objective of the FHT processis the intense beatingof the nearweUbore region extendingto I m radially in the reservoir.The duration of the total heating period is designed to be 6 to 8 hours.The heatingperiod startswith a slow powerup sequence andcontinueswith a onehour heating period to establishsteadystateconditionsafter reaching the target temperatureof the gas exiting the downhole heater. To validatethe field logisticsanddesign,a multi-chamber, multi-pass,60 kW electrical resistance type heating system was designed(Jamaluddinet aI" 1996b),constructed,and tested.Due to voltage lossesin the cable and limited space within the wellbore,the heaterwas restrictedto 60 kW. The
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current rating limited the operating power to 55 kW. Since the power was limited, the desired temperature had to be achieved by varying the total nitrogen flow rate. Based on the bench-scale results, the preferred temperature in the near-wellbore region was considered to be 800C. To achieve this temperature in the formation, a higher temperature was required at the ex.it of the downhole heater. Due to power limitations and practical concerns of the effect of high temperature on casing and cement, the target temperature of the exit gas was set at around 700 to 8000C. The purpose of this simulation study was to identify the depth of heat penetration and to determine the temperature profile in the near wellbore region given the fIXed power constraints.

r.-Tl

u - u..- (Nitrogen)

4. L

~ ~c.8Ig

..j;J- TIMIg~AM,*T'-*IQ

Model development
In this model, the vertical height of the well is divided into two segments: an upper segment and a lower segment In the upper segment, the injected gas is assumed to enter the top of the well at a fixed volumetric flow at an atmospheric temperature and at a fIXed injection pressure. A preset ftaction of the injection volume is assumed to flow down the tubing and the remaining fraction of the total volume of the gas is assumed to flow through the tubing-casing annulus. Typically, 90% by volume is pumped through the tubing and 100/0 by volume through the casing-tubing annulus. The temperature of the gas in this upper vertical segment of the well is assumed to be in thermal equilibrium with the geothermal temperature. No account is made of the heat loss or heat gain in this region from the surroundings. The pressure profiles for the tubing and tubing-casing annulus for this upper vertical segment of the well are obtained after integrating the differential mechanical-energy balance equation and assuming that an average geothermal temperature prevails in this section. Since this study is concerned with the mass, momentum and heat transfer in the near wellbore with a heater near the bottomhole, the detailed mass, momentum and heat transfer analyses for the upper segment have not been carried out It was verified through the preliminary analysis that the downstream results did not have any impact on the upstream calculations. The target reservoir and the associated overburden and underburden regions constitute the domain of the FHT model (Figure 2). The FHT model domain is set at 20 m high (XL = 20 m) and 10 m in diameter (YL = 5 m). Out of

1~1oc:dcx1~

Figure 2

Centerlne Schematic diagram of the model domain.

Yt:

..

damaged formation region. and part of the formation. The four concentric zones in the overburden are: tubing, casingtubing annulus with unperforated casing. unperforated cement region. and impervious overburden. The near-wellbore region and the formation are bounded at the bottom by an impervious underburden. Velocity, pressure, density of the injection gas and the geothermal temperature at the lowest end of the upper segment make up the input of the lower segment of the model region. In view of the complexity of the computational domain, the turbulent conditions (due to high injection rates) in the energy and momentum equations is modelled using the ad-hoc viscosity approach (ttr"jsbima and Szekely, 1989; Chao et aI., 1991), where the thermal conductivity and viscosity of the gas is increased by factors of 100.
UPPER SEOMENT OF mE WELLBORE

the 20 In, the bottom 5 m is the net pay (h

=5 m) and the

remAining 15 m is overburden. A 4 m long downhole heater is positioned across the net pay (Figure 2). The first 1 m of the heater is a cold section where junction box and cooling chamber are housed (Jamaluddin et al., 1996b). The subsequent 3 m length is the hot region and the hot gas exit at the bottom of the heater (0.3 m opening). In the model, the outer diameter of the tool and the internal diameter of the casing is set to be 0.09 and 0.11 m (dci =0.11 m), respectively. The casing and cement across the net pay are perforated. The majority of the nitrogen (900/0)is injected through the tubing and the remaLT!ing (100/0)is injected through the casing-tubing annulus. The purpose of this annular injection is to reduce heat propagation upwards through the annular space. The model domain (Figure 2) consists of five concentric zones in the radial direction across the net pay and four concentric zones in the overburden region. The five radial zones at the sandface are: tubing, casing-tubing annulus with perforated casing, perforated cement region outside the casing,
THE CANADIAN JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING,

The flowing pressuresin the tubing and tubing-casing annulusfor upper segmentwere estimatedusing Equation (1) (Beggs, 1984;Carcoana.1992),which is derived from the average pressure and temperature method.This calculation providedthe input parameters for the lower segment p2wf=P}e'+25 Ygq2TagZfH(e'-l)/sJ5 (1)

In Equation(I), Pwfis the pressure in die tubing or annulus, PIf is the pressureat die inlet of the tube or annulus,H is die total height of the tube, Tagis die average geothermal temperature, q is the total volumetric gasflow rate through the tube or annulus, d is the diameter of the tube or the equivalentdiameterof the annulus,fis the turbulentfriction factor and is calculatedusing Equation (2); parameter S is calculatedusing Equation(3).

f=

1.01[1.14 2.0 x log (eld + 21.2SIReO.~f

... (2)

In Equation(2), E is the roughness of the tubeor the tubing-casingannulus,Re is the Reynoldsnumberfor the tube or annulus.
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VOLUME 75, AUGUST, 1997

S =0.0375 Y, HITarZ.

(3)

In Equations(1) and (3), Yl.is the specific gravity of the gas,and Z is the gascompressibilityfactor evaluated at Tag'
loWER SEGMENT OF THE WEU.BORE (DOMAIN MODELLED)

The lower segment of the wellbore is considered to be the FlIT model domain. Model regions are considered to be as presented in Figure 2. The coordinate system as well as various geometrical parameters also are presented in Figure 2. The nitrogen gas with constant physical properties enters the tube and annulus at a unifonn (but not necessarily the same) velocity. Prior to the start of heating, the fluid is assumed to be stationary and in thennal equilibrium with the surroundings. The transient process starts by switching the heater on (I> 0). The gas is assumed to be incompressible, viscous, heat conducting and obedient to the ideal gas laws. The relevant physical properties of the gas are thermal conductivity (k), dynaDlic viscosity 0, and specific heat capacity (Cp). Due to the complex nature of the model domain, the actual design of the heater is not taken into account in this model's equations. The heater aspect of this simulation was simplified by considering a volwnetric heat source in the region where the downhole heater is located. With the Boussinesq approximation assumed, the fluid motion and energy ~port in the tube and annulus are governed by the axisymmetric, time-dependent turbulent Navier-Stokes equations and energy equation, respectively. Referring to a cylindrical coordinate frame (x,r) with corresponding velocity components (U,J'>, these equations are as follows, using standard notation:

In Equation(5), the secondternl on the left hand side is the buoyancyterm and the quantity Q in Equation(7) is the volumebic heatsource.The valueof Q is zero, exceptin the heater region, where a volumetric fraction of total heat is assigned. The flow of gasthroughthe perforatedcasing,perforated cement,damaged zoneand formation is assumed to be governed by the non-Darcy flow equation. Specifically, the Brinkmann extended non-Darcymodel (Chan et. al., 1991; Mishima and Szekely,1989)is usedto incorporatethe viscouseffect of the gasin the nearwellbore region wherefluid velocities are high. In modelling the flow in this region, the following assumptions are made:

the porous medium is considered as a continuum, the gas and the porous matrix are in local themla1 equi-

- the effect of natural convection is taken into account through the Boussinesq approximation.

librium,

With the above assumptions,the general macroscopic conservation equations for mass, momentum and heat transfer applicablebelow the overburdenand through the casing,cement,damaged zoneand formation can be written as follows: Continuity

~&1 ax

+ ! 5l!!!-2 -=0 r Or

(8)

Momentum Equations

Axial momentumequation(UD-momenmm equation)

Continuity
-+Ox

c3(pU) 1~
r or

=0

. (4)

~&l=_~_gppf(T-Tr) at ax
+J1

MomentumEquations Axial momentumequation(UD-momentum equation)

~
&

! l. (,. ~
,.81'

Or ~

),l_..e ~ K

(9)

Radial momentumequation(Vo-momentumequation)

~+~~+!~~= r at Ox
8P ---gPP(T-7:)+J1

Ox

,.

Or [ -;:r+-a2U 1 8 r-aU )~

&

( rBr Or

~~ at
(5)

= -~

Or

+J1 . [ ~+!.!. Ox rOr ( r~8r

Energy Equation

) -~~ ] -~ K

(lO)

Radial momentumequation(VD-momentum equation) cXpV) tJ(pUV) 1 cXrpVV) -+ +-=

( oV\ -;::1""+-Ox: r

at Ox r or 8P o2V 1 0 +Ji c3r "8;")

rOr

1--::1'" r

(6)

(pCp) f+(pCp).(l-f) at
+r &-

T+i!~~l~d Ox
)~ . Ox rar ar

1.'\r-'J,'~ J_~ [ "";:I"+-a2T I a ( r- aT Ilr(pC,),Yorl

Energy Equation

(11)

ax. r ar a2T 1 a r~ or,=k -;:,-+-+Q ar rbr ar

at

+~~ ~ +! ~rpC,m

where UD and VD are the volume-averaged (Darcian) velocities in the axial and radial directions, respectively; P D is the volume averaged pressure; (pC,)fand (pCp>,rare the volumetric heat capacities of the fluio"and solid, respectively; k is the permeability of the porous medium; k~ fkaf + k" (1- f)]
JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, VOLUME 75, AUGUST, 1997

(7)

780

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is the effective thermal conductivity; ka is the therDlalcondlM:tivity of the fluid in the porous medium;
41

is the porosity

of the porousmedium.Because of radialsymmetry,only one half of the domainshownin Figure2 hasbeenconsidered. The above generalequationsfor a porousmedium have beenmodified to accountfor the flow throughthe perforated casingand cement,damaged and formation zones.
Initial Conditions

The initial conditions are: u= V= 0 (at t = 0)

7'(1= 0, x, r) = 7'(1 = 0, x = 0, r) + a xx p( t=O
,

(12)

. (13)
(14)

x=O

=P.

where a is the geothermaltemperablregradient; x is the axial distancefrom the top of the lower segment;Pi is the averageinlet pressurein the tubing or annulus.
Boundary Conditions At T> 0, the boundary conditi"ons are:

at r=O.-=

au Y=-=O aT Or Or

(IS)

(16)

=h,(T-Tz)

solved simultaneouslyas a single domain problem. The fmite-differenceequationswere derived by integrating the differential equationsover an elementary control volume surroundinga grid node appropriate for each dependent variable(patankar,1980).A staggered grid systemwas used so that the scalarproperties,P and T, were stored midway betweenthe U and V velocity grid nodes(patankar, 1980). A power-lawscheme (patankar,1980)was usedfor the convective tenDS,and the integrated source terms were linearized.The pressure-velocity coupling of the momentum equationswas resolvedusing the popular SIMPLER algorithm (patankar, 1980). The governing finite-difference equations were solvediteratively by the tri-diagonal matrix algorithm(TDMA) andusing a bloc-correctionscheme with under-relaxation until the solutionsconverged. Simulationswere performedusing non-uniform grids in both axial andradial directions.A non-uniform matrix of 80 by 80 nodeswas usedin the simulation. In the axial direction, the first 7 metresfrom the bottom of the reservoir was dividedinto 0.1 m layers.The next 3 m distancewas divided into 0.5 m layersandthe remaining 10 m distanceat the top of the model domainwas divided into 2.5 m layers. In the radial direction,the first 0.085 m was divided into 0.005 m stepsand the remainingdistancewas divided into 0.078 m steps.The use of non-uniform grids in the radial direction was crucial because of relative dimension of the wellbore
(casing diameter

=0.11 m), which

is extremely small com-

-k.-a;=~(T-

aT

Tx>

(18) (19) (20)

at x = 0, 0 < r< dll/2, U= Vi' V= 0, T= Ti

at x

= 0, d,/l < r < dcj12.U= u" v= 0, T= T,

paredto theradial extension of the model domain (5 m). The non-uniformgrid in the axial and radial directions was suitably placedto accommodate the various interfacial boundaries. The axial grid distancewas chosento accommodate the heaterregion.The solutionswere to be converged,when the following criterionwas satisfiedsimultaneouslyby each computedvariable: Max

where hI, h~_h), and h~ are the equivalent convective heat transfer coefficients at the fonnation. overburden, underburden and top of the overburden, respectively; h is the height of the fonnation (net pay); XL and YL are the vertical height and radial depth of the computational domain; dti' dlOand dci are inner diameter of the tube, outer diameter of the tube ana inner diameter of the casing, respectively; kb is the thermal conductivity of the overburden. Numerical procedure The dimensional form of the above sets of elliptic partial differential equations was solved numerically by a control volume fmite difference scheme. The lower segment, incorporating a part of the overburden and the formation. constitutes the full computational domain. The governing transport equations for the fluid, solid and porous regions were
THE CANADIAN JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, VOLUME

~
+I
iJ

_+1
-"'i,J

",-

<

0.001

(21)

iJ where ~i. represents any dependentvariable and (n + 1) refersto ihe value of QiJ at the (n + 1)1h iteration level. To reducecomputingtime, the convergence criterion was monitored and it was identified that the relative difference betweenthe pammeter valuesof two consecutiveiterations were within 0.001 after 700 to 800 iterations. As an example. the relativechanges in temperature valuesare plotted in Figure 3. As seenin the figure. the relative changesin parametervaluesstartto fluctuateafter 800 iterations. The temperaturevaluescalculatedusing engineeringapproximation (mC~7) matchvery well with the averageof the simulated temperatures of the exit gasafter 800 iterations. Therefore. all simulationnms were tenninatedafter 800 iterations.
75, AUGUST, 1997

781

TABLEI Parameters Usedin the Simulation Runs

Parameters

Values

Reservoir.overburdenand underburden chIrICteriIticI Reservoirdepth from surface(m) ISOO Net pay (m) S pcxosity IS Damaged zone penneability (mD) S Reservoirpenncability (mD) 2S Heatlosscoefficient for over/underbW"dcn (W/m2.K) 2.5 Heatlosscoefficient for reservoir(W/m2.K) 3.0 Reservoirtemperature (DC) S2 Relevantdimensionsof well, cementand damaged ~ Inner radiusof the heater(m) 0.04 Outer radius of the heater(m) 0.045 Inner radiusof the casing(m) 0.055 Outer radiusof the casing(m) 0.065 Outer radius of cement(m) 0.085 Outer radius of damaged zone(m) 0.961 Outer radiusof formation (m) 5.0 Nitrogen characteristics Kinematicviscosity (mo.) Specificbeat(J/kgoOC) Thenna1 conductivity (W/moK)
hi: ~: h): h.:

30 x 10-" 1090 0.0516

Equivalent Conv~tive Heat Transfer Coefficients (W/m2.K) Heat transfer coeff'1Cientfor formation 3.0 Heat transfer coefficient for overburden 2.5 Hcat transfer coefficient for underburden 2.5 Heat transfer coefficient for top of domain surface 2.0

Note:Otherthermalproperties of cbereservoir, ov~ underburden aretakenfromButler(1991).

and

region was large, resulting in a high rate of conductiveand convectiveheat transfer.As a result, the temperature adjacent to the weUborerose quickly. Because the segments of the casing, cement and fonnation adjacent to the heater largely controUedthe heat transfer rate, the temperature thereforebecame constantwhen thesesegments approached thennaIequilibrium. Convectiveheattransferthrough these poroussegments played a significant role in the attainment of thennal equilibrium in a short time. Therefore, subsequent analyses concentrated on the steady-state solution of theseequations.
STEADy STATE SOUn'K)NS

The model was originally developedfor transient solutions of the transport~tions. The transientsolutionto the governingequationsusesa fully implicit scheme. Omission of transient terms from the model equations resulted in steadystatesolutions.In this paper,resultsrelatedto steady state solutions of the modelled equations are presented alongwith a brief discussionof the transientsolutions. Results and discussion
TRANSIENT ~

Transient solutions of the partial differential equations describing the mass, momentum and energy of the gas injected down the tubing and annulus were carried out. It was assumed that at every instant the gas,surroundingperforatedcasing,cementand porousformation were in a thermal equilibrium condition (i.e. therewas no thermaldispersion effect). Also, it was initially assumedthat gas in the wellbore and the formation were at a temperature given by the (constant)ambientsurfacetemperature plus the product of depthand geothermalgradient(assumed to be constant). Transient calculations at full power input to the tool revealedthat within 30 minutes, the near wellbore region reacheda thennal equilibrium condition. This short time requiredto reach a steadystate was due to heating a confined region resulting in low heat losses(about S%) to the unproductive strata above and below the fonnation. Initially, whenthe heaterwastwned on, the temperature differencebetweendie gasand die surroundingnear-wellbore
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The parameters usedin thesesimulationnms arepresented in Table 1. Simulation conditions,averagetemperatures of the exit gasand averagetemperabUes at a radial distance of 0.5 m into the reservoir are tabulatedin Table 2. The resultsare p~ted graphically in Figwa 4 through 8. To undelStand the practicalfeasibility of the FHT process and to identify the critical parameters affecting this downhole heating process,various simulation nms were carried out. During the simulation nms, the controllable critical ~ suchasnitrogel1 flow rateandtotal powerrequirement at the heaterwere varied. The effectsof thesechanges under steadystateconditions on the temperature of the gas leaving the heater,depth of heatpenetrationinto the reservoir and the temperablredistribution in the near-wellbore region were studied and the results are presentedin this paper.Basedon theseparametricstudies,conditions were selectedfor field testing of the tool and the FHr process. An example temperaturecontow' plot is presentedin Figure 4 (Run B, Table 2). As seenin this tig\R, the highcst temperatureis seento be concentrated around the hot region of the beater(1 to 4 m). As expected, the temperature gradually decleasesradially to the reservoir temperature. Thereareno apparent changes in the temperature due to permeability variation from damaged zone(5 mD ex~ing to I m) to the rest of the reservoir (25 mD). This is possibly because of low velocity of nitrogen gasin the porousmedium. Under pressure the hot nitrogen gas,exiting the heater, entersthroughthe perforatedcasingand cementand travels into die porousreservoir.Gasflow into the region below the heaterwidlin die wellbore and up the annularspaceis minimal as the only exit is through die porousformation.
JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, VOLUME 7S, AUGUST, 1997

TABLE2 Swnmary of Conditions Used in These Simulation Runs and Selective Results

A B C D E F G H (fieldtest)..

55 55 55 55 S5 80 40 34

2 4 4 6 10 4 4 S.S

90 90 80 90 90 90 90 70

1417 735 820 507 325 1045 548 446

215 262 261 294 295 346 210 201

. Engineering calculationswere carried out using mCpATrelations(flow going through the tube is assumed to pick up all heat). .. Measured temperature during field test (non steadystate): 382C

10

12

T0t8 Flow. m3(STP)/min

Figure 7 Temperatureas a function of total flow at 1.1m from die bottom of die model domain (Heaterpower: 55 kW; 90% flow throughtubing).

.0

P-

I i
0 1 2 3 RadialDIsIance. m 4 5

Figure 6 Temperature profile in dte radial direction as a function of total flow rate at 1.1 m from dte bottom of the model domain(Heaterpower: 55 kW; 900/.flow dtrough tubing).

The effect of the total volumetric flow rate, m3(STP)/min, on the vertical temperature distribution at a fixed radial distance of 0.5 m is presented in Figure 5. In these cases, the heater power was 55 kW with a tubing flow fraction of 900/0 and the heater was placed at I m from the bottom of the
THE CANADIAN JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING,

model domain. As seenin the figure, temperature increases andreaches a maxima within the flow ratesof about2 to 10 m3(STP)/min.As expected,in all situations,the maximum tempemturc is at the heateropeningsfrom wherethe hot gas exits the heater.The vertical temperature profile is also seen
783

VOLUME 75, AUGUST, 1997

to be more roundedfor a flow rateof 10 m3(STP)/minindicating a greatervertical dispersionof hot gas.Although the highesttemperature at a 0.5 m radial distanceis achievedat a flow rate of 6 m3(STP)/min, dle average temperature over the vertical distanceis seento be almost the samefor these two cases(Runs D and E in Table 2). The temperature profile in dle radial direction at a fIXed vertical location of 1.1 m from the bottom of the model domain is presented in Figure 6 as a function of total flow rate.As expected, the increase in flow rate resultsin a lower temperatureof dle gas exiting the heaterbecauseof fIXed heaterpower (55 kW). It is importantto note dIat the higher exit gastemperature will not necessarily provide higher heat penetrationinto dle near wellbore region. Fluid velocity in the porousmedium will play an important role in achieving a higher te~ture at various radial distances.At a low flow rate, 2 m3(STP)/min, the temperature in the near wellbore region (within 0.1 m) is very high (> lOOOOC). However, this temperaturequickly drops off to less than 200C at a radial distanceof 1 m. This is an indication of conductiondominatedheat transfer mechanism-Low flow rate will result in high temperature, however, the velocity related to low flow rate is so small dIat heat penetrationin the porous medium will also be small (Figure 6). On dle other hand,at a high flow rate, 10m3(STP)/min, the exit gas temperature is low (400C), but the temperatureat a radial distanceof 1 m is around 3000C.This is an indication of convection dominatedheat transfer mechanism.Since dle power is limited to 55 kW, a flow rate in the range of 4 to 10 m3(STP)/min will provide a temperaturegreater than 300C within dle targetradial distanceof 1 m. The maximumtemperature at a specific radial distanceis dependent on dle gas flow rate. If one wanted a high near wellbore temperature,a low flow rate is recommended. However, if a greaterheatpenetrationinto the formation is required,then a higher flow ratewill be needed. In this case, greaterheatpenetration will haveto be compromisedwith a lower temperature. Figure 7 presents temperatures as a function of flow rate at a fixed vertical location of 1.1 m from the bottom of the model domainfor variousradial locations.For a fIXedheater power of 5S kW (Figure 7) and at a 0.5 m radial distance, the ~~ture reaches a maximumof 4QOOC at a flow rate of 6 m (STP)/min. As expected,lower temperaturesare achievedat a radial distance of 1 m. Closeto the casingwall (O.l m), however,thehighest temperature is ~ at the lo~ flow rate,2 m3{STP)/min. This is because the hot gasis still in the tubular region. The variation in temperature profile at a fixed radial distanceof 0.5 m for threepowerratingsis presentedin Figure 8. These three runs were carried out at a 4 m3(STP)/min flow rate and 900/0 flow is flowing through the tubing. To achievea maximumtemperature of SOO+C at 0.5 m into the reservoir,a downhole heaterof at least 80 kW is required. As explained earlier, the availability of suitable power cable,voltage lossesin the cable(~1500 m long) and internal diameter of the well casing limits dle practicality of using higher power in a resistivetype heatingdevice. To studythe effect of variation in dle tubing flow fraction on the attainabletemperature at a radial distanceof 0.5 m from dle centre of dle wellbore, two caseswere studied. Variations in the tubing flow fraction of 800/0 and 900/0 did not havesignificant impacton the averagetemperature at a radial distanceof 0.5 m (Table 2).
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To evaluatethe efficiency of the stimulation process, an overall heat balancewas carried out for the near wellbore region. At a steadystate,the heat dissipatedby the heater equalsthe heatlossesin the over and underburden and heat gain in the reservoir.The heatlosscalculationsusing 55 kW power,a total flow of 4 m3(STP)/min,flow throughthe tubing indicatedthat less than 5% of the 55 kW input power was lost in the unproductivestrata(overburdenand underburden). Simulated vs measuredtemperature from field testing ofFHT
To validate the FHT concept in the field, a proprietary resistance-typeelectrical heater was developed to conduct the heating process downhole. The heater was successfully tested at the surface several times and subsequently, the heater was tested in the field (Jamaluddin et aI., 1996a). To avoid the risks of damaging the wellbore casing due to thermal shock in a producing wen, a depleted well slated for abandonment was chosen. During the field test, the heater was lowered into the target reservoir 1.5 km downhole, heated up to a temperature of 382C, and retrieved from the wellbore. The total nitrogen flow was maintained at 5.5 m3(STP)/ min, 4 m3(STP)/min in the tubing and 1.5 m3(STP)/min in the annulus. The injection pressure was stabilized at 3.7 MPa. The heater was slowly powered up to achieve a target exit gas temperature of 700C. This target temperature was designed corresponding to 5.5 m3(STP)/min and a power input of 55 kW. However, the heater failed within 1 minute of achieving an input power of 34 kW at the heater. The heater failure occurred due to an electrical short circuit caused by water leakage into the junction box. At the instant of failure, the measured temperature of the gas exiting the heater at downhole conditions was 382C. The thermocouple was located at the bottom end of the heater as shown in Figure 2. An engineering calculation based on 700/0nitrogen flowing through the heater would correspond to 446C of the exit gas at steady state conditions. Simulation results indicate that at a steady state condition corresponding to a total nitrogen flow of 5.5 m3(STP)/min and at a power input of 34 kW, the exit gas temperature would be 473C. Correspondingly, this exit. gas would have resulted in an average temperature of 200C at a radial distance of 0.5 m into the reservoir. As presented in the earlier paper (Jamaluddin et aI., 1996a), the target field test objective of raising the downhole temperature to +700oC was not satisfied due to the heater failure, but the most important aspect of the effect of heat on the reservoir characteristics was estimated using type curve matching technique. The permeability of the near wellbore reservoir was improved six fold, which has enormous potential benefits for hydrocarbon producing wells.

Concluding remarks The mathematical model presentedin this paperdemonstrates the feasibility of the formation heatUeatment process using a downholeresistance-type electrical heater.The heat is conveyedto the near-wellbore region by niuogen gas passingthrough the heater located downhole by meansof conductionandconvection.Transientsolutions of the modeled equations have shown that when initially both the gas in the wellboreand the reservoirare in equilibrium with dIe
JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, VOLUME 75, AUGUST, 1997

geothennal temperatureprofile, the time required for the near wellbore region (confmed region) to reach thennal equilibrium is lessthan 30 minutes.Resultsshow that for a volumetric gas flow rate of 6 m3(STP)/minand a heater power of 55 kW a temperature of 400C canbe attainedat a radial distanceof 0.5 m in the reservoir.Simulation results indicatethat to achievea higher temperature at 0.5 m in the reservoir, a higher-power heating system is required. Calculations have revealedthat the total heat loss to the unproductivestrata above and below the fonnation is less than 5% of the power rating of the heater. Acknowledgements The authors wish to thankNoranda Inc. and NoreenEnergy Resources Limitedfor thepennission to publish thiswork. Nomenclature

References Albaugh. F. W., "Oil Well Production Process", U.S. Patent 2,685,930(1954). Beggs,H. D., "Gas ProductionOperations",OGCI Publications, Tulsa,OK (1984), pp. 96-104. Borchardt,J. K., D. L. Roll and L. M. Rayne,"Use of a MincralFines Stabilizer in Well Completions", paper presentedat the California Regional Meeting of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, Long Beach,CA. April I 1-13 (1984). Braun, P. H., "Method for Increasing SubterraneanFormation Permeability",U.S. Patent3,603,396(1971). Butler, R. M., '"ThermalRecoveryof Oil and Bitumen", Prentice Hall, EnglewoodCliffs, NJ (1991). Carcoana, A., "Applied EnhancedOil Recovery", PrenticeHall, EnglewoodCliffs, NJ (1992), pp. 122-127. Carroll, D., "Clay Minerals:A Guideto Their X-ray Identification", The Geological Society of America, Menlo Park, CA, special issue126(1970). Cban, K. S., K. Periclcousand M. Cross,"Nwnerical Simulation of Flows Encountered During Mold Filling", Appl. Math. Modelling 15, 624-631 (1991). Coppell,C. P., H. Y. Jennings andM. G. Reed."Field Resultsfrom Wells Treated with Hydroxy-Aluminum", J. Petrol. Tech., 1108-1112(September1973). Crowe, C. W., "Precipitation of Hydrated Silica from Spent Hydrofluoric Acid - How Much of a Problemis it?", J. Petrol. Tech.(November,1986). Friedman, R. H., B. W. Surles, and D. E. Kleke, "High Temperature SandConsolidation", Soc.Petrol. Eng. Production Eng. J., 167-172,(May 1988). Garst,A. W., "Increasingthe Permeabilityof Earthy Formations", U.S. Patent2,782,859(1957). Hayatdavoudi, A., A. Bailey, R. Ehrlich and A. Ghalambor, "Applied Clay Engineering: Formation Damage Aspects of Clays", Short Course, SPE Formation Damage Symposium, Lafayette,LA (1992). Himes,R. E., E. F. Vinson and D. E. Simon,"Clay Stabilizationin Low-PermeabilityFormations",Soc. Petrol. Eng. Prod. Eng. J., 252-258 (August, 1991). Hoang, V., "Estimation of In-situ Thermal Conductivities from Temperature Gradient Measurements", Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. of California, Berkeley(1980). Jamaluddin, A. K. M. and T. W. Nazarko,"Processfor Increasing Ncar-WellborePermeabilityof PorousFormations",U.S. Patent 5,361,845(1994). Jamaluddin, A. K. M., L. M. Vandamme, T. W. Nazarkoand D. B. Bennion, "Heat Treatment for Clay-Related Near Wellbore Formation Damage", paper CIM 9~7 presentedat the 46'h Annual Technical Meeting of the PetroleumSociety of CIM in Banff,Alberta. Canada.May 14-17 (1995). Jamaluddin,A. K. M., M. Hamelin, K. Harke, H. McCaskill and S.A. Mehta, "Field Testing of the Formation Heat Treatment", paper CIM 9H8 presented at the 47dt Annual Technical Meeting of die Petrolewn Society of CIM in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, June 10-12 (l996a). Jamaluddin,A. K. M., S. A. Mehta, R. G. Moore and R. G. McGuffin, "Downhole Heating Systemwith SeparateWiring, Cooling, and Heating Chamber,and Gas Flow Through", U.S. Patent5,539,853(1996b) Lund, L., H. S. FoglerandC. C. McCune,"Predicting the Flow and Reaction ofHCVHF Acid Mixturea in PorousSandstone Cores", Soc.Petrol.Engg.J., Trans. AIME 161, 248-260 (1976). Mishima, S. and J. Szekely, "The Modelling of Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer in Mold Filling", ISIJ International19, 324-332 (1989). Nenniger,J. E., "Method and Apparatusfor Oil Well Stimulation Utilizing Electrically HeatedSolvents", U.S. Patent5,120,935 (1992). Nooner, D. W., "Reservoir Stabilization by Treating WaterSensitiveClays", U.S. Patent4,227,575(1980).
785

a
d dJi
(//0

- geothemlal temperature gradient, Clm

-

- diameter of thetubeor theequivalent diameter of the

annuIus,m innerdiameter of thetube, m outerdiameter of thetube, m

inner diameterof the casing,m

dci

D f h hi h2 h3 h. H k kb ke 1a Po Pi PMf Pd" q Q Re Tag

turbulentfriction factor height of the formation (net pay), m - equivalentconvectiveheattransfercoefficientsat the formaion, W/m2.K - equivalentconvectiveheattransfercoefficientsat overburden,W/m2.K - equivalentconvectiveheattransfercoefficients at underburden, W/m2.K

- diameterof the tube,m .

equivalent convective heat transfer coefficients at the

- thermal conductivity of theoverburden, W/m.K

top of the overburden, W/m2.K total height of the tube, m penneability of the porousmedium,mD

- effective thermalconductivity, W/m.K

-

dlennalconductivity of thefluid in theporous medium,

W/m.K volume averaged pressure, kPa average inlet pressure in the tubing or annulus,kPa pressure in the tubing annulus,kPa pressure at the inlet of the tube or annulus,kPa ~ volumetricgasflow ratethroughthe tube or annulus, m3(STP)/min

- volumetric beatsource, W/m3

-

- Reynoldsnumberfor the tube or annulus,Re =pvD/~

v
Uo V0

- velocity of fluid, m/sec

direction, m/sec

average geothermal temperature, C

- volume averaged (Darcian)velocities in the axial - volume averaged (Darcian)velocities in the radial
direction, m/sec - axial distanceftom the top of the lower segment,m

x XL YL Z

vertical height of the computationaldomain, m radial depthof the computationaldomain,m gascompressibilityfactor

Greek letters

r,
E

.u p

specific gravity of the gas roughness in the tube or the tube casingannulus - fluid viscosity, mPa.s - fluid density,kg/m3

(pC,>/- volumebic heatcapacity of thefluid. J/m3.oC

(pC'",J.r - volumebic heat capacity of the solid. J/m3.oC

- porosityof theporous medium

JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL

fJ

represents anydependent variable

ENGINEERING,

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VOLUME 7S, AUGUST, 1997

Patankar, S. V., "Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow", Hemisphere, Washington.DC (1980). Plummer, M. A., "Preventing Plugging by Insoluble Salts in a Hydrocarbon-Bearing Formation and Associated Production Wells", CanadianPatent 1,282,685 (April, 1991). Ramey, H. J. Jr., "Wellbore Heat Transmission", J. Petrol. T~hnol. 427-434 (April, 1962). Reed, M. G., "Formation Permeability Maintenance with Hydroxy-Aluminum Solutions", U.S. Patent 3,827,500(1974). Reed.M. G., "Penneability of Fines-Containing Earth Formations by Removing Liquid Water", U.S. Patent5,052,490(1991a). Reed. M. G., "Method of Improving Permeability of FinesContaining Hydrocari)onFonnationsby SteamInj~tion", U.S. Patent5,058,681(l99lb). Schaible, D. F., "Identification, Evaluation. and Treatment of Fonnation Damage,Offshore Louisiana",paperpresented at the Seventh Society of Petroleum Engineering Symposium on Formation Damage Control. Lafayette. LA, February 26-27 (1986). Sbann.. Y.. O. Shohamand J. P. Brill, "Simulation of Downhole HeaterPhenomena in the Productionof Wellbore Fluids", Soc. Petrol. Eng. ProductionEng. J., 309-312 (August, 1989).

Sloat. B. F., "Nitrogen Stimulation of a Potassium Hydroxide Wellbore T~ent", U.S. Patent4,844,169(1989). ScxneI1oo. W. H., "ThennaI Propertiesand TemperatureRelated Behaviour of Rock/FIuidSystems, Elsevier, New York (1992), pp.215-222. Theog, B. K. G., "The OIemiltl'y of Clay-Organic Reactions", HalstedPressDiv., John Wiley &:.Sons,New York (1984). Thomas,R. L. andC. W. Crowe,"Matrix TreatmentEmploys New Acid Systemfor Stimulationand Control of Fines Mi~tion in Sandstone Fmations", J. Petrol.Techno I., 1491-1SOO (August. 1981 ). White, P. D. and J. T. Mass, "High Temperature Thermal T~hniques for StimulatingOil R;overy", J. Petrol. T~hnol., 1007-1015(September, 1965). Winckler, E. and J. W. McManus, "Method and Apparatus for Removalof Oil Well Puaffin", U.S. Patent4,911,239(1990).

Manuscript ~ivcd May28, 1996; revised manuscript ~ivcd February 21,1997;accepted for publication March12,1997.

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1997