AQ Standards Report Draft 2 Dec FINAL

Ambient Air Quality Standards in Asia Survey Report
Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center November 2009
This survey is supported by the Asian Development Bank through RETA 6291: Rolling-out Air Quality in Asia [Sustainable Urban Mobility in Asia (SUMA) Program]
Table of Contents
1. 2. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 4 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES AND STANDARDS ........................................................................ 5 2.1. 2.2. 3. World Health Organization Ambient Air Quality Guidelines ........................................................ 5 Setting of National Ambient Air Quality Standards and Monitoring Compliance ........................ 6
SUMMARY OF AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS IN ASIA ................................................................ 6 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. Existence of Ambient Air Quality Standards ................................................................................. 6 Process for Development of Ambient Air Quality Standards ....................................................... 8 Summary of Ambient Air Quality Standards ............................................................................... 12 Air Quality Monitoring Systems in Asia....................................................................................... 21 Air Quality Reporting in Asia ....................................................................................................... 27
ANNEX 1. Survey Questionnaire ................................................................................................................. 29 ANNEX 2. Country Profiles .......................................................................................................................... 34 Country Profile: Bangladesh ....................................................................................................................... 35 Country Profile: Cambodia .......................................................................................................................... 44 Country Profile: Hong Kong SAR ................................................................................................................. 50 Country Profile: India .................................................................................................................................. 64 Country Profile: Indonesia .......................................................................................................................... 75 Country Profile: Republic of Korea.............................................................................................................. 85 Country Profile: Nepal................................................................................................................................. 93 Country Profile: Philippines ...................................................................................................................... 102 Country Profile: Sri Lanka.......................................................................................................................... 118 Country Profile: Thailand .......................................................................................................................... 126 Country Profile: Viet Nam ......................................................................................................................... 135
List of Tables
Table 1. Comparison of WHO Ambient Air Quality Guidelines and US EPA Ambient Air Quality Standards (g/m3) .......................................................................................................................................................... 5 Table 2. Summary of Status of Establishment and Revision of Ambient Air Quality Standards in Asia ....... 7 Table 3. Key organizations involved in Developing, Reviewing and Implementing Ambient Air Quality Standards in Asia ........................................................................................................................................... 8 Table 4 a) Short-term and Long-Term Ambient Air Quality Standards in Asia ........................................... 12 Table 4 b) Summary of Ambient Air Quality Standards in Select Asian Countries (g/m3) ........................ 13 Table 5. Comparison of PM10 standards in Asia with WHO Guidelines and US EPA Standards (g/m3) ... 14 Table 6. Comparison of PM2.5 standards in Asia with WHO Guidelines and US EPA Standards (g/m3) . 15 Table 7. Comparison of SO2 standards in Asia with WHO Guidelines and US EPA Standards (g/m3) ..... 16 Table 8. Comparison of NO2 standards in Asia with WHO Guidelines and US EPA Standards (g/m3) .... 17 Table 9. Comparison of O3 standards in Asia with WHO Guidelines and US EPA Standards (g/m3) ....... 18 Table 10. Comparison of CO standards in Asia with WHO Guidelines and US EPA Standards (g/m3) ..... 19 Table 11. Comparison of Pb standards in Asia with WHO Guidelines and US EPA Standards (g/m3) ..... 20 Table 12. Government Responsibility and Plans for Air Quality Monitoring .............................................. 21 Table 13. Summary of Air Quality Monitoring Network in Asia ................................................................. 24 Table 14. Summary of Air Quality Reporting Activities in Asia ................................................................... 27
1. INTRODUCTION
The Ministers of Environment and Health and government representatives from 14 countries in Southeast and East Asia have established a Regional Forum on Environment and Health to strengthen the cooperation of the ministries responsible for environment and health within the countries and across the region. The following countries are members of the Regional Forum: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Japan, Rep of Korea, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar, Peoples Republic of China, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam. The forum hopes to provide a mechanism for sharing knowledge and experiences, improving policy and regulatory frameworks at the national and regional level, and promoting the implementation of integrated environmental health strategies and regulations. As part of the structure of the Regional Forum, Thematic Working Groups (TWG)s were established to deal with 6 prioritized issues (see Figure 1). TWGs have work plans for tackling with their specific issues and are responsible for i) knowledge management and technical support, ii) progress reporting to the Regional Forum, iii) coordination and advocacy and iv) resource mobilization. Air quality is one of the six thematic working groups of the Regional Forum.
Figure 1. Structure of the Regional Forum
In support of the Charter of the Regional Forum, the Thematic Working Group (TWG) on Air Quality is publishing a report that provides information on the status of adoption of ambient air quality standards and their compliance in the region. The Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center is the TWG member actively leading this initiative. The adoption of ambient air quality standards and monitoring of their compliance is one of the main policy tools to protect the health of public from the adverse effects of air pollution. To complete the report, CAI-Asia Center prepared a questionnaire survey (see Annex 1). The survey was sent to the TWG representatives of countries under the Regional Forum as well as to countries where CAI-Asia has country networks.
Source: Regional Forum website - http://www.environment-health.asia/initiative.cfm#
The objective of this survey is to understand the status of adoption of ambient air quality standards in asia, understand the gaps in the linkages between Environment and Health Ministries in setting up/revising AQ standards which could be a basis for recommendations on how countries can move towards adopting the WHO guidelines.
2. AMBIENT AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES AND STANDARDS

2.1. World Health Organization Ambient Air Quality Guidelines
The World Health Organization (WHO) assists countries in reducing the health effects of air pollution by providing guidance to countries in setting their national ambient air quality standards through the WHO Ambient Air Quality Guidelines. The WHO guidelines, first published in 1987, provided a basis to develop strategies for countries in controlling air pollution. The Guidelines identify pollutant levels below which exposure to a pollutant for a given averaging time either does not constitute a health risk or the least health risk. In 2000, the WHO Guidelines did not provide values for exposure to particulate matter (PM10, or PM2.5) based on a principle that there is no threshold at which particulate matter has no health risk. In the 2005 update of the Guidelines, it now indicates that reducing levels of PM10 could decrease mortality in polluted cities by as much as 15% every year. The Guidelines also introduced interim targets which the countries can work for as they aim to reach the WHO-prescribed guideline levels. The 2005 version also lowered the recommended limits of many pollutants, including ozone and Sulphur dioxide, making them much more stringent than the national standards currently applied in many parts of the world. Similar to WHO, the United States Environmental Protection Agency also makes use of recent scientific evidence on health effects of air pollution in reviewing and revising its ambient air quality standards. For some pollutants or for some averaging time (e.g. Lead), the standards set by US EPA are now more stringent than the WHO (see Table 1).
Table 1. Comparison of WHO Ambient Air Quality Guidelines and US EPA Ambient Air Quality Standards (g/m3) c Pollutant Averaging Time WHO Guidelines US EPA NAAQS PM2.5 PM10 Ozone (O3) Nitrogen (NO2) Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Lead (Pb)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Annual mean 24-hour mean Annual mean 24-hour mean 8-hour mean 1-hour mean Annual mean 1-hour mean Annual mean 24-hour mean 10-minute mean Annual mean 3-month mean 1-hour mean 8-hour mean
10 a 25 a 20 a 50 a 100 a 40 a 200 a 20 a 500 b 0.5 b 30,000 b 10,000
15 35 150 d 147 d 235 100 e 78 e 366 1.5 40,000 10,000
PM2.5= particles less than 2.5 micrometers in aerodynamic diameter; PM10= particles of 10 micrometers or less in aerodynamic diameter; WHO=World Health Organization; EPA=Environmental Protection Agency; NAAQS=National Ambient Air Quality Standards a WHO, 2006. WHO Air Quality Guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, Nitrogen dioxide and Sulfur dioxide. Global Update 2005. Summary of Risk Assessment. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2006/WHO_SDE_PHE_OEH_06.02_eng.pdf b WHO, 2000. Guidelines for Air Quality. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_SDE_OEH_00.02_pp1-104.pdf c National Ambient Air Quality Standards http://www.epa.gov/air/criteria.html d 3 Conversion factor for ppb to g/m : 1.962 e 3 Conversion factor for ppb to g/m : 2.616
2.2. Setting of National Ambient Air Quality Standards and Monitoring Compliance
2.2.1 National Ambient Air Quality Standards
Governments whether at country or city level in Asia have adopted a range of air quality standards, most of which are based on the prevailing WHO guidelines at the time of development. Ideally, countries or cities should develop standards after considering prevailing exposure levels, meteorological and topographical conditions, socio-economic levels, natural background concentration, and population susceptibility, among others. It is then important that setting standards involve not only government agencies with mandates on environment but also agencies that are responsible for public health. Ambient air quality standards are set to protect public health and the environment from the harmful effects of air pollution. The standards come in different forms based on different factors. Short-term standards aim to protect population from acute exposure to pollutant whereas long-term standards aim to protect population from long-term exposure to the pollutant. Standards may also be categorized as primary or secondary, as in the case of the US ambient air quality guidelines. Primary standards are aimed at protecting public health while secondary standards are aimed at protecting crops or environment. 2.2.2 Air quality monitoring and reporting
To monitor compliance to standards, authorities often at the city level install air quality monitoring systems. In addition, air quality monitoring systems also aid in assessing effectiveness of air quality policies. Asia has seen improvements in capacities for air quality monitoring and reporting. More cities are now able to report on their air quality levels. However, air quality reporting remains to be widely variable in Asian cities. Some cities report actual air quality levels versus some which report with use of air quality indices. Some cities also report air quality information real-time while others continue to do this on ad hoc basis.
3. SUMMARY OF AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS IN ASIA

3.1. Existence of Ambient Air Quality Standards
All of the eleven countries and one city included in the survey have established standards, the earliest set of which were published in 1978 (Philippines and Republic of Korea). Nepal was the latest one to adopt standards in 2003. Korea has made the most revision/modification (six times) while only two of the countries/city surveyed have either not revised or currently not revising their ambient air quality standards.
Table 2. Summary of Status of Establishment and Revision of Ambient Air Quality Standards in Asia Year Years Has standards standards Countries Existing Plans to revise in the next 2 years were first revised/ Standards established modified Bangladesh yes 1997 2005 None Cambodia yes 2000 No Yes, but they have indicated that they need technical assistance and financial support for this. 2009-06-05 11:09 : http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/200906/05/content_8252783.htm 1) China Daily: Tougher rules for air quality likely soon China is mulling more stringent appraisal standards for air quality, and pilot projects are likely to start from coastal cities in the Yangtze River delta and Pearl River delta next year. Environmental authorities are planning to include particles less than 2.5 microns (PM2.5) and ozone, into the API, which currently measures concentration of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and PM10, or particles smaller than 10 microns.
China
yes
1982
1996, 2000
Hong Kong SAR India Indonesia Nepal Philippines
yes yes yes yes yes
1987 1982 1999 2003 1978
currently undergoing review 1994, 2009 No currently undergoing review 1992 1983, 1991, 1993, 2001, 2007, 2009
India only recently revised its standards No Answer The ambient air quality standards are currently undergoing review and the MoEST have indicated that the standards will be revised and updated soon. None No. However, the areas for air quality standards development includeestablishment PM2.5 standards, standardization of air quality measurement tools and cost benefit analysis of establishing ambient air quality standards. No. But there are plans to develop ambient air standards for lead (Pb). However, prior to ambient Pb standard formulation, a survey in ten major cities in Sri Lanka will first be conducted by CEA. They may need financial support to conduct this study. 1. Establish annual average standard for NO2 in 2009. 2. Ambient PM2.5 standards are currently being developed. The NAAQS are currently being revised into the National Technical Regulation on Ambient Air Quality. This will be promulgated in 2009.
Republic of Korea
yes
1978
Sri Lanka
yes
1994
2008
Thailand
yes
1981
1995, 2001, 2004, 2007 2001, 2005, 2009
Viet Nam
yes
1995
3.2.
Process for Development of Ambient Air Quality Standards
Although the types of government in Asian countries are different, most of the countries/city surveyed share some similarities in the process followed during development, implementation and revision of ambient air quality standards. In all of the countries/city surveyed, the Ministries/ Departments and or Bureaus of Environment have the lead responsibility in drafting, reviewing and approving ambient air quality standards. Not one country/city answered Ministry/Department of Health taking the lead. The Ministries/Departments and or Bureaus of Environment are also the offices taking the lead in the implementation and enforcement of the standards. In some of the countries surveyed, the Ministries/Departments of Health are identified as one of many agencies and organizations supporting the Ministries/Departments or Bureaus of Environment in drafting, reviewing and approving the standards. The lack of key role for the Ministries/Departments of Health may indicate that in Asia, air quality is regarded as an environment issue rather than a public health issue. There are also very few cities (Jakarta and some cities in RO Korea) which implement air quality standards other than the national ambient air quality standards.
Table 3. Key organizations involved in Developing, Reviewing and Implementing Ambient Air Quality Standards in Asia Cities have Lead agency in Lead agency for standards drafting, reviewing Other agencies implementation Countries Legislation other than and approving involved of standards the NAAQS standards (enforcement) Department of Department of Environment Environment (DoE), Only DoE, MoEF (DoE), Ministry Bangladesh None Ministry of based on survey of Environment Environment and answer and Forest Forest (MoEF) (MoEF) Ministry of Health, Ministry of Ministry of Cambodia None Ministry of Industry, Environment Environment Mines and Energy Law of the People's Republic of Ministry of Ministry of China on the China None Environmental Environmental Prevention and Protection Protection Control of Atmospheric Pollution The Environmental Air Pollution Protection Control Hong Kong Department under Ordinance None N/A EPD SAR the Environment (APCO) (Cap. Bureau of the HKSAR 311) Government
Countries
Legislation
Cities have standards other than the NAAQS
Lead agency in drafting, reviewing and approving standards
Other agencies involved academicians, consultants, NGOs, doctors, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), National Institute of Occupational Health (NIOH), India Meteorological Department (IMD), industry associations, State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs), Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), CPCB, and other stakeholders to provide guidance on the review of NAAQS.
Lead agency for implementation of standards (enforcement)
India
The revised NAAQS has been notified under the 1986 Environment (Protection) Act on 16 November 2009 through the Gazette of India, Extraordinary, Part II, Section 3, subsection (i) by MoEF.
None
Central Pollution Control Board under MoEF
CPCB, SPCBs
Indonesia
Government Regulation or Peraturan Pemerintah (PP) of the Republic of Indonesia No. 41 of 1999 on Air Pollution Control (PP 41/1999)
Yes-DKI Jakarta through Governor's Decree No. 551 of 2001
Ministry of Environment (MoE)
No Answer
MoE
Nepal
None
Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology (MoEST)
Philippines
Republic Act (RA) No. 8749: Philippine Clean Air Act (PCAA) of 1999
None
Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) (under DENR) has the primary role in drafting, reviewing
Nepal Bureau of Standards and Meteorology, Ministry of Health and Population, FNCCI, CNI, Traffic Police, Ministry of Labour and and Transport, Automobile Dealer's Association, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology Department of Transportation and Communication (DOTC), Department of Energy (DOE),
Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology (MoEST)
Implementation of the ambient air quality standards is mandated to the
Countries
Legislation
Lead agency in drafting, reviewing and approving standards and revising NAAQGV
Other agencies involved Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), Department of Health (DOH), academe, nongovernment organizations (NGOs) and the private sector National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER) and the local Institutes of Health and Environment.
Lead agency for implementation of standards (enforcement) EMB Regional Offices.
Republic of Korea
1990 Clean Air Conservation Act
GwangYang Bay, Gwangju City, Busan City, Ulsan City, Incheon City, Jeju Island
Ministry of Environment
Ministry of Environment and local government
Sri Lanka
None
Thailand
None
Viet Nam
TCVN 5937 2005
None
Lead - ME&NR; Central Environmental Authority (CEA), Air Resource Management Center (AirMAC), Air Quality Management and International Relations Division, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources Pollution Control Department (PCD), MONRE lead in drafting, reviewing and proposing standards for approval of National Environment Board (NEB) Prior to 2002, the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment (MOSTE) but since 2002, all tasks and duties related to
CEA, Atomic Energy Authority (AEA), National Building Research Organization (NBRO), Industrial Technology Institute (ITI)
CEA
No Answer
Pollution Control Department (PCD)
Ministry of Health, Ministry of Industry and Trade, Ministry of Construction, Ministry of Science and Technology, and Ministry of Transport
MONRE
10
Countries
Legislation
Lead agency in drafting, reviewing and approving standards environmental protection, including environmental standards have been transferred to MONRE. Directorate for Standards and Quality (STAMEQ), the National Standards Body of Viet Nam, coordinates with MONRE on establishing and reviewing the standards.
Other agencies involved
Lead agency for implementation of standards (enforcement)
11
3.3.
3.3.1.
Summary of Ambient Air Quality Standards

Short-term and Long-term standards per pollutant type
WHO prescribes short-term or long-term air quality guidelines depending on the pollutant and their health impacts. Table 4 summarizes the existence of short-term and long-term standards per pollutant type in Asia. It shows that Asian countries in general establish short-term and long-term standards according to those prescribed by WHO.
Table 4 a) Short-term and Long-Term Ambient Air Quality Standards in Asia TSP Long-term Shortterm Countries PM2.5 Long-term Shortterm PM10 Long-term Shortterm SO2 Long-term Shortterm NO2 Long-term Shortterm O3 Shortterm CO Shortterm Pb Long-term
Bangladesh Cambodia China Hong Kong SAR India Indonesia Nepal Philippines Republic of Korea Sri Lanka Thailand Viet Nam none existing, to be revised existing planned
12
Table 4 b) Summary of Ambient Air Quality Standards in Select Asian Countries (g/m ) PM2.5 Annual 24-Hr 24-Hr Countries PM10 Annual 24-Hr SO2 Annual 24-Hr NO2 Annual 1-Hr O3 8-Hr CO (000) 1-Hr 8-Hr 10 20 10 10 10.3 2 2 10 10 10.3 10 Pb Annual 0.5 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5
Bangladesh Cambodia* China: Grade I China: Grade II China: Grade III Hong Kong SAR Sri Lanka Thailand India1 India2 Indonesia* Philippines Nepal* Republic of Korea Viet Nam
65 50 60 60 -
15 25 40 40 -
150 50 150 250 180 100 120 100 100 150 150 120 100 150
50 40 100 150 55 50 50 60 60 60 50 50
3
365 300 50 150 250 350 80 300 80 80 365 180 70 131 125
80 100 20 60 100 80 100 50 20 60 80 50 52 50
100 80 120 120 150 100 80 80 150 150 80 113 -
100 40 80 80 80 40 30 100 40 56 40
235 200 160 200 200 240 200 200 180 180 235 140 196 -
157 140 100 100 60 118 120
40 40 10 10 20 30 30 34.2 4 4 30 35 28.6 30
Ozone Conversion factor for ppb to g/m : 1.962 3 Sulphur dioxide Conversion factor for ppb to g/m : 2.616
13
3.3.2. Comparison of Ambient Air Quality Standards with WHO Guidelines and US EPA Standards (Per Pollutant) a) PM10 All the surveyed Asian countries/citys standards including US EPAs PM10 standards for 24-hour and annual averaging period are more lenient than WHO guidelines with some even more lenient than WHO Interim Target 1. A large number of the countries meet WHO Interim Target 1 for both 24-hour and annual averaging periods.
Table 5. Comparison of PM10 standards in Asia with WHO Guidelines and US EPA Standards (g/m ) PM10 (g/m ) 24-Hr Mean 50 50 75 100 100 100 100 100 120 120 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 180 250 3 3
Countries WHO Guidelines China: Grade I WHO Interim Target 3 Sri Lanka Republic of Korea India India
1 2
Countries WHO Guidelines WHO Interim Target 3 China: Grade I Sri Lanka Republic of Korea Thailand Bangladesh Vietnam WHO Interim Target 2 Hong Kong SAR India India
1 2
PM10 (g/m ) Annual Mean 20 30 40 50 50 50 50 50 50 55 60 60 60 70 100 150 -
WHO Interim Target 2 Thailand Nepal Bangladesh Vietnam Philippines China: Grade II US EPA NAAQS Indonesia WHO Interim Target 1 Hong Kong SAR China: Grade III Cambodia
India 2 India
1
Philippines WHO Interim Target 1 China: Grade II China: Grade III Nepal US EPA NAAQS Indonesia Cambodia
Industrial, Residential, Rural and Other Area Ecologically Sensitive Area (notified by Central Government)
14
b) PM2.5 Only a few countries/city surveyed has PM2.5 standards and those which have US EPAs PM2.5 standards for 24-hour and annual averaging period are more lenient than WHO guidelines.
Table 6. Comparison of PM2.5 standards in Asia with WHO Guidelines and US EPA Standards (g/m3) 3 3 PM2.5 (g/m ) PM2.5 (g/m ) Countries Countries 24-Hr Mean Annual Mean WHO Guidelines US EPA NAAQS WHO Interim Target 3 Sri Lanka WHO Interim Target 2 India India
1 2
25 35 37.5 50 50 60 60 65 75 -
WHO Guidelines US EPA NAAQS Bangladesh WHO Interim Target 3 Sri Lanka WHO Interim Target 2 WHO Interim Target 1 India India
1 2
10 15 15 15 25 25 35 40 40 -
Bangladesh WHO Interim Target 1 Cambodia China: Grade I China: Grade II China: Grade III Hong Kong SAR Thailand Indonesia Philippines Nepal Republic of Korea Vietnam
Cambodia China: Grade I China: Grade II China: Grade III Hong Kong SAR Thailand Indonesia Philippines Nepal Republic of Korea Vietnam
India1 India2
15
c) SO2 All the surveyed Asian countries/citys standards including US EPAs SO2 standards for 24-hour averaging period are more lenient than WHO guidelines with a large number even more lenient than WHO Interim Target 1.
Table 7. Comparison of SO2 standards in Asia with WHO Guidelines and US EPA Standards (g/m3) 3 3 Countries SO2 (g/m ) SO2 (g/m ) Countries 24-Hr Mean Annual Mean WHO Guidelines China: Grade I WHO Interim Target 2 Nepal Sri Lanka India India
1 2
20 50 50 70 80 80 80 125 125 131 150 180 250 300 300 350 365 365 366
WHO Guidelines China: Grade I India India

2 1
(assumed lower than 20) 20 20 50 50 50 52 60 60 78 80 80 80 100 100 100 none
Nepal Vietnam Republic of Korea China: Grade II Indonesia US EPA NAAQS Bangladesh Hong Kong SAR Philippines Cambodia China: Grade III Thailand Sri Lanka
Vietnam WHO Interim Target 1 Republic of Korea China: Grade II Philippines China: Grade III Cambodia Thailand Hong Kong SAR Bangladesh Indonesia US EPA NAAQS
India 2 India
1
16
d) NO2 All the surveyed Asian countries/citys standards including US EPAs NO2 standards for 24-hour and annual averaging period are more lenient than WHO guidelines. Most of the countries/city have 24-hour NO2 standards despite WHO not having a guideline on this.
Table 8. Comparison of NO2 standards in Asia with WHO Guidelines and US EPA Standards (g/m3) 3 3 NO2 (g/m ) NO2 (g/m ) Countries Countries 24-Hr Mean Annual Mean 2 China: Grade I 80 India 30 1 India 80 WHO Guidelines 40 2 India 80 China: Grade I 40 1 80 40 Nepal India Cambodia 100 Nepal 40 Sri Lanka 100 Vietnam 40 113 56 Republic of Korea Republic of Korea China: Grade II China: Grade III Hong Kong SAR Indonesia Philippines US EPA NAAQS Bangladesh Thailand Vietnam
India 2 India
1
120 120 150 150 150 -
China: Grade II China: Grade III Hong Kong SAR US EPA NAAQS Bangladesh Indonesia Cambodia Sri Lanka Thailand Philippines
80 80 80 100 100 100 -
17
e) O3 When surveyed against WHO guidelines, all the surveyed Asian countries/citys standards including US EPAs O3 standards for 8-hour averaging period are more lenient than WHO guidelines. All of the countries/city however meet Interim Target 1 guideline of WHO.
Table 9. Comparison of O3 standards in Asia with WHO Guidelines and US EPA Standards (g/m3) 3 3 O3 (g/m ) O3 (g/m ) Countries Countries 1-Hr Mean 8-Hr Mean Philippines China: Grade I India India
1 2
140 160 180 180 196 200 200 200 200 200 235 235 235 240 none -
Philippines WHO Guidelines India India

1 2
60 100 100 100 118 120 140 147 157 160 -
Republic of Korea Cambodia China: Grade II China: Grade III Sri Lanka Thailand US EPA NAAQS Bangladesh Indonesia Hong Kong SAR WHO Guidelines Nepal Vietnam
India 2 India
1
Republic of Korea Vietnam Thailand US EPA NAAQS Bangladesh WHO Interim Target 1 Cambodia China: Grade I China: Grade II China: Grade III Hong Kong SAR Sri Lanka Indonesia Nepal
18
f)
CO
Most of the surveyed Asian countries/citys standards including US EPAs CO standards for 1-hour and 8-hour averaging period are within WHO guidelines with a few being more stringent than WHO guidelines.
Table 10. Comparison of CO standards in Asia with WHO Guidelines and US EPA Standards (g/m3) 3 3 CO (g/m ) CO (g/m ) Countries Countries 1-Hr Mean 8-Hr Mean India India
1 2
4,000 4,000 10,000 10,000 20,000 28,625 30,000 30,000 30,000 30,000 30,000 34,200 35,000 40,000 40,000 40,000 -
India India
1 2
2,000 2,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,260 10,305 20,000 -
China: Grade I China: Grade II China: Grade III Republic of Korea Hong Kong SAR Sri Lanka Indonesia Vietnam WHO Guidelines Thailand Philippines US EPA NAAQS Bangladesh Cambodia Nepal
India 2 India
1
Sri Lanka US EPA NAAQS Bangladesh Hong Kong SAR Philippines Nepal Vietnam WHO Guidelines Thailand Republic of Korea Cambodia China: Grade I China: Grade II China: Grade III Indonesia
19
g) Pb Around a third of the countries/city surveyed have Pb standards for annual averaging period similar to the prescribed WHO guideline (0.5g/m3), another third of the countries/city have more lenient standards and the last third of the countries do not have Pb standards for the annual averaging period.
Table 11. Comparison of Pb standards in Asia with WHO Guidelines and US EPA Standards (g/m3) 3 Pb (g/m ) Countries Annual Mean WHO Guidelines Bangladesh India India
1 2
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 -
Nepal Republic of Korea Vietnam China: Grade I China: Grade II China: Grade III Indonesia Philippines US EPA NAAQS Cambodia Hong Kong SAR Sri Lanka Thailand
India 2 India
1
20
3.4.
Air Quality Monitoring Systems in Asia
From the survey and from previous assessments, it is known that all countries in Asia have monitored air quality but air quality monitoring systems are widely different from each other. The air quality monitoring systems in Asia range from the simple manual monitoring equipment to sophisticated continuous monitoring stations. The survey analysed the differences of the air quality monitoring systems in Asia. 3.4.1 Establishment and Responsibilities for AQ Monitoring in Selected Asian Countries
All the countries/city surveyed indicated that air quality is monitored routinely and have already assigned responsibilities to government agencies usually within the Ministries/Departments of Environment structure. Again, from the survey, the responsibility for monitoring air quality is with the Environment Sector and not one mentioned that it is with the Health sector. This may reinforce the assessment that in Asia, air pollution is considered as an environment problem rather than a health problem. A large number of the countries/city surveyed indicated that there are plans to establish or expand air quality monitoring capacity in the next two years (Table 12). Table 13 shows the wide variety of air quality monitoring activities taking place in Asia.
Table 12. Government Responsibility and Plans for Air Quality Monitoring Routine AQ Department/ Monitoring Agency responsible Plans to establish or expand in the next 2 years Countries Network for AQ monitoring exists AQMPs Air Quality Monitoring Plan: Phase 2 involved development of five PM-based satellite air monitoring stations (SAMS) in Dhaka and basic survey work to establish SAMS in Khulna, Rajshahi, Barishal and Sylhet. SAMS are currently undergoing upgrade to be equipped with fixed low volume dichotomous sampler to enable simultaneous monitoring of PM10 and PM2.5. Phase 3 involves the expansion of air quality monitoring Bangladesh DOE network. Pending work: development of SAMS in the areas surveyed under Phase 2Khulna, Rajshahi, Barishal and Sylhet Development of air monitoring stations in Sylhet and Barisal cities are in the planning phase. In addition, DOE intends to include another urban area, Bogra city, under the monitoring network. Additional monitoring stations may also be installed in major cities such as Dhaka and Chittagong. Air Quality, Noise and Vibration Ambient air quality monitoring may be undertaken in Management Office, Siem Reap Province. MoE also intends to install additional Cambodia Environmental monitoring stations with more sophisticated monitoring Pollution Control equipment over the next couple of years. Department, MOE Ministry of China Environmental Protection
21
Countries
Department/ Agency responsible for AQ monitoring The Environmental Protection Department under the Environment Bureau of the HKSAR Government CPCB Mandated to both the national and local governments; on national levelMoE, Local-Local Environmental Management Boards Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology (MoEST) AQMS (Air Quality Management Section)-EMB MOE has overall responsibility for national air quality monitoring. Real time monitoring of ambient air quality is undertaken by NIER, local environmental management offices of MOE and the Institute of Health and Environment of each local government. CEA
Routine AQ Monitoring Network exists
Plans to establish or expand in the next 2 years
Hong Kong SAR
None
India
No answer. But according to news report, the Jakarta Local Management Environment Board will try to add a monitoring station one by one per year (The Jakarta Post, 2009a). Next year, the agency will add stations in East Jakarta and North Jakarta (The Jakarta Post, 2009a).
Indonesia
Nepal
None
Philippines
Other regions are also set to receive PM10 partisol PM10 federal reference mass (FRM) equipment this year to 2010
Republic of Korea
There are plans to expand the NAMIS in the next couple of years to include additional cities, to install additional monitoring stations and to monitor two more pollutants, i.e. benzene and mercury.
Sri Lanka
Thailand
PCD
Four automated ambient air quality stations will be installed in Colombo and Kandy cities. There are also plans to cover more pollutants (monitor all air pollutants for which standards have been established) 1. Next fiscal year, PCD intends to expand two more air quality monitoring stations in Northern Thailand. 2. Installation of additional monitoring stations equipped with PM2.5 monitoring system.
22
Countries
Department/ Agency responsible for AQ monitoring
Routine AQ Monitoring Network exists
Plans to establish or expand in the next 2 years 3. Expand air toxic monitoring network to include VOCs, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and carbonyls monitoring sites.
Viet Nam
Viet Nam EPA and the Department of Environmental Police (under MONRE) has mandate of monitoring and inspecting compliance to NAAQS. VEPA is responsible for designing and organizing the national air quality monitoring programs.
Viet Nam intends to expand the air quality monitoring system in the next couple of years bymonitoring additional cities in Viet Nam, installing more monitoring stations, measuring other pollutants and monitoring parameters with lower concentrations.
23
Table 13. Summary of Air Quality Monitoring Network in Asia Countries Number of Monitoring Stations 5 continuous air quality monitoring stations (CAMS) 4 ground level curbside monitoring stations in PHN cityToul Kork (Northwest), Monivong Bridge (Southeast), Olympic Stadium (Central) and Central Market (Northeast) 3792 EPD runs an AQ monitoring network of 14 fixed stations (11 general stations and 3 roadside stations). 342 MoE started with 33 monitoring stations in 10 cities in 1999-2000. Current status of monitoring stations provided below: (no information on Medan; Pekanbaru; Jambi; Pontianak; Palangkaraya) Indonesia Semarang--1 operational (of 3) Bandung--3 operational (of 5) Surabaya--3 operational (of 5) Jakarta--2 operational (of 5) Batam, Bogor, Balikpapan--1 each Nepal 6 stations (and 1 additional set of equipment for use of campaign 2009 LVS 24 hour sampling; automatic TSP, PM10 and PM2.5 2009 Continuous Year Type of Monitoring continuous air quality monitoring stations (CAMS) Monitored once a month using Passive Sampler Pollutants Covered PM10, PM2.5, CO, SO2, NOX, O3, and HC with meteorological parameters Areas Covered/Included in AQ monitoring Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna, Rajshahi
Bangladesh
2009
Cambodia
2009
CO, SO2 and NO2
Phnom Penh
China
2008
SO2,NO2,PM10 (O3,PM2.5,CO in some areas) Continuous TSP, PM10,SO2, CO, O3, and NOx SO2, NO2, SPM and PM10 HK SAR 128 cities/towns in 28 states and four Union Territories (UTs)
Hong Kong SAR India
2009 2009
N/A NO2, SO2, PM10, CO, and O3
Semarang Bandung Surabaya Jakarta Batam, Bogor, Balikpapan Kathmandu Valley
24
monitoring in localities and 1 station for met data) Breakdown: 2 roadside, 1 residential, 2 urban background, 1 valley background 45 monitoring stations 2009
Diffusive samplers, Radiello type, monthly sampling AAS after extraction of lead from PM10 filters Manual Continuous automatic stations with telemetry system Manual
NO2 and benzene
Pb TSP SO2, NO2, CO, O3, PM10, PM2.5 All regions
3 stations Philippines
2009
CAR, Region 7, Region 10 National Capital Region(NCR), San Fernando City (Region 3), Cebu City (Region 7), and Davao City (Region 11). Caraga Sudokwon, Nakdonggang, Geumgang, Yeongsangang, Wonju, Daegu, Jeonju Seoul City, Busan City, Daegu City, Incheon City, Gwangju City, Daejeon City, Ulsan City, Gyeonggi do, Gangwon do, Chungcheongbuk o, Chungcheongnam do, Jeollabuk do, Jeollanam do, Gyeongsangbuk do, Gyeongsangnam do, Jeju do Colombo Fort
5 stations Monitoring stations of local environmental management offices 204 Republic of Korea
2008
PM10
2008
Monitoring stations of local government - 304
2008
For city/road/suburbs criteria AQ and (VOCs) - continuous For Hazardous air pollutants - monthly (once) ambient heavy metal levels monthly (5 times) in Colombo Fortcontinuous
SO2, NOx, O3, CO, PM10, wind direction, wind speed, temperature, VOCs, PAHs, ambient heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Fe, Ni) SO2, NOx, NO2, CO, O3 and PM10 NO2, SO2 and O3 CO, SO2, nitrogen monoxide (NO), NO2, nitrogen oxides (NOx), O3,
Sri Lanka
2 stations1 continuous automated monitoring station in Colombo Fort railway station (urban,city centre) and 1 monitoring station in Anuradhapura District; Mobile monitoring activities during case studies 57 automated stations
2009 in Anuradhapurapassive samplers Anuradhapura District Bangkok: General - Bang Khunthien, Huai Khwang, Klong Chan, Bangna, Yannawa; Roadside - Din Daeng, Intrapituk, Lad Phrao
Thailand
2009
Continuous
25
tetrahydrocannabin ol (THC), methane (CH4), non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC), PM10 and PM2.5. Monitored once a month
18 stations
VOCs
Regional: Surat Thani, Phuket, Hatyai, Chiang Mai, Lampang, Ayutthaya, Khon Kaen, Nakhon Ratchasima, Chon Buri, Rayong, Sara Buri, Ratcha Buri, Samut Prakarn, Samut Sakorn, Pathum Thani, Nakorn Sawan, Nonthaburi, Chacherngsao, Yala, Narativas, Maehongson, Chiangrai, Satul, Trung, Lumpoon, Pae, Payao, Nhan
Vietnam
In 2005, 7 (five fixed stations, two mobile) automatic air quality monitoring stations. In 2007, only one station delivers partly reliable data. The remaining stations are either not operating any more or are not operating properly (SVCAP, 2007). automatic air quality monitoring system: 5 urban background/residential stations and 4 roadside stations . Semi-automatic air quality monitoring network focusing on roadside air quality: 6 stations situated at various crossroads
2007
Continuous
PM10, CO, SO2, NOx, O3, and TSP, as well as meteorological conditions. SO2, PM10, NO2, CO, and O3 TSP, CO, NO2, Pb and noise levels
Hanoi
Continuous 2008 Continuous
HCMC
HCMC
26
3.5.
Air Quality Reporting in Asia
With developments in communication media and information technology, more countries/cities are given more choices of media where they can disseminate information on air quality. Table 14 shows that countries generally use websites compared to traditional media such as newpaper, radio and television. Very few also make use of information boards to post air quality monitoring results.
Table 14. Summary of Air Quality Reporting Activities in Asia Agency Newspapers TV/ Information Countries responsible /Newsletter Radio boards for reporting s Bangladesh DOE
Websit e
Published (printed) reports
Upon request
Other http://www.aqmpbd.org/ Reported as a component of presentations and reports on environmental management http://www.epdasg.gov.hk/ http://www.cpcb.nic.in/Da ta-2006_air.php http://www.bmg.go.id/kua litasudara.bmkg. http://www.moest.gov.np/ en/ http://www.emb.gov.ph/ai r/air1.htm www.me.go.kr, www.airkorea.or.kr, www.airemiss.nier.go.kr, ekp.me.go.kr
Cambodia
MOE
Hong Kong SAR India Indonesia
Envt Bureau of the HKSAR Govt CPCB MOE and Local Envtal Mgmt Boards Ministry of Envt, Science and Tech (MoEST) EMB
Nepal
Philippines Republic of Korea
MOE
27
Countries
Agency responsible for reporting CEA PCD VEPA, Center for Envtal Monitoring (under MONRE)
Newspapers /Newsletter s
TV/ Radio
Information boards
Websit e
Published (printed) reports
Upon request
Other www.airmacsl.org, http://www.cea.lk/lab_air _quality_monitoring.php http://aqnis.pcd.go.th/mai neng.php www.hepa.gov.vn, www,nea.gov.vn
Sri Lanka Thailand
Vietnam
28
ANNEX 1. Survey Questionnaire
Ambient Air Quality Standards and Compliance Survey

CAI-Asia Center, a member of the Thematic Working Group on Air for the Regional Forum on Environment and Health is compiling a survey on the existence of air quality standards in countries covered by the forum as well as other countries in Asia2. A report will be published in time for the Ministerial Meeting on Environment and Health in August 2010 in Korea to inform the Ministers of the status of adoption of ambient air quality standards and compliance to it by the participating countries. Please submit the completed questionnaire on or before 15 June 2009 to May Ajero, may.ajero@cai-asia.org (Fax: +632-395-2846). For questions and clarifications, please contact May Ajero by email or phone (Tel: +632-395-2843). Name : Organization: Email Website : : Title/Position: Country : Telephone : Fax :
A. Table of Air Quality Standards 1. Does your country have existing ambient air quality standards for the following pollutants?: (Please fill-out the table with the latest standards. Please do not forget to include units. Alternatively, you can also send a weblink or a scanned copy of a table of standards in your country)
Pollutant TSP PM10 Total suspended particulates Particulate matter with diameter 10 g/m3 Particulate matter with diameter 2.5 g/m3 Nitrogen dioxide Yes No Averaging Time 24-hrs Annual 1-hr 24-hrs Annual 1-hr 24-hrs Annual 1-hr 24-hrs Limit/ Standard Unit
PM2.5 NO2
The Regional Forum includes the following countries: PR China, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Japan, Rep of Korea, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. Aside from the countries where CAI-Asia has country networks (PR China, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam), CAI-Asia also covers Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Mongolia, Singapore and Thailand.
Page 29 of 147
SO2
Sulphur dioxide
Annual 10 min 1-hr 24-hrs Annual
Continued below
Pollutant Yes No Averaging Time 1-hr 8-hrs 24-hrs Annual 15 min 30 min 1 hr 8 hrs 24 hrs Annual 24 hrs 1 month 3 months Annual Limit/ Standard Unit
O3
Ozone
CO
Carbon monoxide
Pb
Lead
Others Others Others
(e.g. VOCs, please indicate) (please indicate) (please indicate)
2. Aside from ambient air quality standards for the country, do any of the cities in your country have standards other than above? If yes, then please also provide details similar to table above. 3. If your country HAS NOT adopted ambient air quality standards for all of the criteria pollutants (i.e. one or all the answers to Table above are NO), are there plans to develop these? (Yes/No). If yes, please describe and please identify if you need technical assistance?
B. Process for Setting Ambient Air Quality Standards (Answer only #4 if you have established standards) 4. a) The first set of ambient air quality standards was established in _________________ (insert year/ or date). b) The standards were revised. Yes /No. Please indicate years when standards were revised _____________________ c) There are plans to revise the standards. Yes/No. Page 30 of 147
Please indicate when (year) it is planned to revise the standards _____________________ 5. Please describe the process for setting ambient air quality standards in the country and the roles of the Ministry of Environment and Ministry of Health. a) Which organization takes the lead in the process of drafting, reviewing and approving the standards? Is it the Ministry of Environment or the Ministry of Health? If not, what are the roles of these two ministries? Which other organizations are/were involved?
b) Which organization has the mandate to implement the ambient air quality standards? c) Are the standards already included as part of a bigger policy/law? Please write full name of law. (e.g. in the Philippines, the air quality standards were already included in the Clean Air Act)
C. Compliance with Ambient Air Quality Standards 6. Does your country/city have routine AQ monitoring programs in place? (Yes/No) a) Which organization is responsible for the program? b) Please describe the monitoring program. (pollutants covered, sources, type of monitoring, etc)
c) Which organization in government are the results of monitoring reported to?
d) Are the monitoring results correlated with disease surveillance programs?
7. Are there plans to establish or expand routine AQ monitoring system in the country in the next 2 years? Please tick option and describe. More cities More stations More pollutants Shifting to sophisticated equipment others 8. Please provide in excel, word or pdf data (preferably in g/m3) related to compliance with Air Quality Standards. Annex includes table templates that you can follow. At a minimum, please make sure you provide data using Table A format. Page 31 of 147
Alternatively, you can provide us a web link or document that contains such data
D. References Please include a list of websites, documents and contact details relevant for Air Quality Management in your country.
Page 32 of 147
Table Templates for AQ Data Table A. Annual Average Ambient Air Quality Trends in Cities
Pollutant: PM10 Averaging Time: Annual Units: g/m3 City Name 1993 1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Please repeat the same table format for other pollutants. Table B. Ambient Air Quality Compliance of City Per Year
City Name: Year : Pollutant TSP PM10 CO CO O3 SO2 SO2 NO2
Averaging Time 24 hr 24 hr 1 hr 8-hr 1-hr 1-hr 24-hr 1 hr
Units mg/m3 g/m3 mg/m3 mg/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3
Range (Min-Max) 0.02 - 0.32
Annual Average 0.11
Exceeding Standards (%) 0/436 (0)
Please repeat the same table format for other cities and for other years.
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ANNEX 2. Country Profiles
Country Profile: Bangladesh
Establishment of Air Quality Standards

The first set of national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) for Bangladesh was promulgated in 1997. Setting of environmental standards was defined in the Environment Conservation Rules of 1997, under the Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act of 1995. The 1997 air quality standards were modified in July 2005 based on the proposal with the World Bank-funded Air Quality Management Project3 (AQMP) wherein the 1997 standards underwent review and were subsequently revised. The Department of Environment (DOE), under the Ministry of Environment and Forest (MOEF) leads in the drafting, reviewing and approval of the ambient air quality standards. The DOE is the key institution primarily responsible for air quality management in Bangladesh. Other functions of the DOE include policy analysis, control and analysis of ambient air quality, identification of polluting industries, and providing support for the implementation of pollution prevention and control (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006).
Current Air Quality Standards vs. WHO Guidelines

Bangladesh currently has NAAQS for suspended particulate matter (SPM), PM104, PM2.55, Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Sulfur dioxide (SO2), ozone (O3), Carbon monoxide (CO) and lead (Pb). Bangladesh is one of the first countries in South Asia to establish PM2.5 in its NAAQS (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). Table 1 lists the 2005 NAAQS compared with the World Health Organization (WHO) air quality guideline (AQG) values.
Table 1 Bangladesh Ambient Air Quality Standards vs. 3 WHO Guidelines (g/m )
Pollutant
PM10
Average Time
2005 NAAQS
WHO Guidelines
a
The Air Quality Management Project, approved in 25 July 2000, aims at reducing vehicular emissions in the metropolitan areas of Bangladesh, setting standards, enforcing pilot programs towards cleaner technologies, as well as implementing air quality monitoring and evaluation. The first project component includes enforcement of emissions regulations for in-use vehicles, development of vehicular emissions and fuel standards, lubricant regulations, and pilots for vehicular pollution control. The second component, essential air quality information and evaluation of pilot activities, will include air quality monitoring in Dhaka, air quality laboratory upgrade, and four studies examining key issues affecting public health. (World Bank, 1992)
24-Hrs 150 50 a Annual 50 20 a PM2.5 24-Hrs 65 25 a Annual 15 10 a NO2 1-Hr 200 24-Hrs a Annual 100 40 a SO2 10-min 500 1-Hr a 24-Hrs 365 20 Annual 80 O3 1-Hr 235 a 8-Hr 157 100 24-Hr b CO 1-Hr 40,000 30,000 b 8-Hr 10,000 10,000 Pb Annual 0.5 0.5 SPM 8-Hr 200 Guidelines refer to the safe level of a pollutant, for a given average time, to protect the public from acute health effects. 3 g/m =micrograms per cubic meter a b Source: WHO, 2006, WHO 2000
4
PM10 is used to describe particles of 10 micrometers or less in aerodynamic diameter. The concentration is 3 measured in g/m . 5 PM2.5 is used to describe particles less than 2.5 micrometers in an aerodynamic diameter. The 3 concentration is measured in g/m .
Page 36 of 147
The NAAQS are generally more lenient relative to the guideline values recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO). The NAAQS sets higher limit values for ambient PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2 and O3 levels (Table 1). On the other hand, the NAAQS for annual Pb and 8-Hr CO levels are similar with the corresponding WHO Guideline value.
Some meteorological sensors are also connected in line with the system to acquire real-time information on local meteorological conditions that can influence the pollutant dispersion. Phase 2 involved the development of five PMbased satellite air monitoring stations (SAMS) in Dhaka and basic survey work to establish SAMS in Khulna, Rajshahi, Barishal and Sylhet. In 2006, CAMS was installed in Chittagong City. Scope of work under Phase 2 has been completed. The SAMS had low volume portable particulate matter sampler for PM10 and PM2.5 monitoring. However, the SAMS are undergoing upgrade. These will be equipped with fixed low volume dichotomous sampler which enables simultaneous monitoring of PM10 and PM2.5. Phase 3 involves the expansion of air quality monitoring network. This includes the installation of a second CAMS in Dhaka air pollution hotspot; development of SAMS in the areas surveyed under Phase 2Khulna, Rajshahi, Barishal and Sylhet; and complete installation of the CAMS in Khulna and Rajshahi City. The SAMA and CAMS equipment have already been procured. The second CAMS in Dhaka have already been installed and CAMS has been successfully installed in Khulna and Rajshahi City. Development of air monitoring stations in Sylhet and Barisal cities are in the planning phase. In addition, the DOE intends to include another urban area, Bogra city, under the monitoring network. Additional monitoring stations may also be installed in major cities such as Dhaka and Chittagong. Throughout the planning and implementation process, the AQMP considered population densities in developing the type of monitoring network to be established in the major cities in Bangladesh (AQMP [undated]). The DOE is primarily responsible for the air quality monitoring programme. Details of the AQMP monitoring programme are presented in Table 2. Page 37 of 147
Compliance with Air Quality Standards and WHO Guidelines

Air Quality Monitoring Network Under the World Band-funded AQMP, air quality monitoring in Bangladesh was further developed and strengthened. Prior to AQMP, air quality monitoring was primarily undertaken in Dhaka, were intermittent and on a project-basis (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). Further, no systematic compilation, analysis and publication of results were done (World Bank, 2006). In addition, although monitoring is within the mandate of the DOE, much of its efforts have been focused on environmental clearance process and activities that limited capacity is left to systematically monitor and analyze air quality (World Bank, 2006). The DOE has previously set up four monitoring stations in Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna and Borga (Mal Declaration, 2000). From time to time, DOE measures SPM, sulphur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and CO levels at these stations to assess the ambient air quality. The AQMPs air quality monitoring plan (AQMP [undated]) has been developed in three phases: Phase 1 was the establishment of first continuous air quality monitoring station (CAMS) at the premises of the national Parliament Building, the Jatiyo Sangsad, located at the center of the Dhaka. This was completed in 2002. The CAMS was equipped with continuous automated monitors and active particulate matter sampler.
Table 2 Bangladesh National Monitoring Program
City Dhaka
No. of CAMS 2
Chittagon g Khulna
Rajshahi
Monitoring Capacity PM10, PM2.5, CO, SO2, NOX, O3, and HC with meteorological parameters PM10, PM2.5, CO, SO2, NOX, O3, and HC with meteorological parameters PM10, PM2.5, CO, SO2, NOX, O3, and HC with meteorological parameters PM10, PM2.5, CO, SO2, NOX, O3, and HC with meteorological parameters
Existing Activity CAMS-1 at Sangsad Bhaban and CAMS-2 at Farmgate are operational CAMS is operational at the TV center of Chittagong CAMS is operational
CAMS is operational
*CAMS-Continuous Air Monitoring Station
Aside from DOE, other institutions, such as the Department of Civil Engineering and the Department of Chemical Engineering of Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (BAEC) and the Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (BCSIR), also conduct ambient air quality monitoring for research purposes. Monitoring results are published in the form of thesis or publications in international and national journals. In addition, some results are published in leading newspapers and magazines to generate awareness among the citizens (Mal Declaration 2000). Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Data Reporting The DoE has the main responsibility of reporting air quality monitoring results. Bangladesh has adopted an air quality index (AQI) system used for raising public awareness of local air quality and its implications to their health. The AQ index for Bangladesh is primarily based on United States Environmental Protection Agencys (US EPAs) system. Ideally, AQI should be made public on a daily manner, however, due to lack of infrastructure and equipment, DOE will initially present the AQI three times a week (Islam 2003).
The AQMP reviewed US EPAs AQI system and has recommended this for adoption in Dhaka with some modifications. The number of categories has been reduced from six to four to make the AQI simpler and easily understandable. In addition, appropriate Bengali terms were used to describe the AQI categories (AQMP 2003). Aside from the daily AQI, the DoE also prepares monthly and annual air quality reports.
Table 3 Proposed AQI for Bangladesh
AQI Range
0 to 100 101 to 200 201 to 300 >301
Category
Good Unhealthy Very Unhealthy Extremely Unhealthy
Color
Green Orange Purple Red
SOURCE: AQMP, 2003.
Adopting and reporting of the AQI is one initiative in establishing the relationship between local air quality and health conditions. Severe air pollution has been shown to be threatening human health in Dhaka (DoE and UNEP RCC.AP, 2001). Acute respiratory infection (ARI) reportedly accounts for about 145,000 deaths annually in children under five years old (WHO South-East Asia Region, 2002). In 1996 even, Dhaka experienced elevated ambient Pb levels. A 17-month survey study by BAEC recorded a 0.46 g/m3 of Pb in air over Page 38 of 147
Dhaka in November 1995January 1996 (Khaliquzzaman et al., 1997). However, even though AQI values are reported, the air quality monitoring data are not correlated with health surveillance data. Annual Ambient Air Quality Trends Although AQMP has initiated monitoring in a number of urban areas, monitoring data in other cities is still scarce. Most of the air quality monitoring data available is for the Dhaka. Furthermore, as air quality data has only been consistently monitored at constant locations for five years in Dhaka, it is insufficient to indicate long-term air quality trends in the city, but can only provide indications of tendencies. Nonetheless, there is enough data available to determine seasonal variations in local air quality. PM Annual ambient PM10 and PM2.5 levels in Dhaka and Chittagong are illustrated in Figure 1 and Figure 2, respectively. The measured annual PM levels (as PM10 and PM2.5) in Dhaka have been fluctuating in the 2002-2007 monitoring period. Annual ambient PM levels have an indication of a slightly increasing tendency; however additional monitoring data is still needed.
Figure 1 Annual Average Ambient PM10 levels in 3 Dhaka and Chittagong in 2002-2007 (g/m )
180 150 120 90 60 30 0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Dhaka NAAQS (Annual) Chittagong WHO AQG (Annual)
Figure 2 Annual Average Ambient PM2.5 levels in 3 Dhaka and Chittagong in 2002-2007 (g/m )
105 90 75 60 45 30 15 0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Dhaka NAAQS (Annual)
Chittagong WHO AQG (Annual)
Source: Data from DOE, AQMP.
High concentrations of PM generally occur from November to February when the country experiences mild winters. On the other hand, concentrations are generally lower from May to September, when most rainfall is received (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). Throughout the monitoring period, annual ambient PM10 and PM2.5 levels in Dhaka exceed both the corresponding national standards and WHO Guideline values. Particulate matter (PM) has already been highlighted as a major pollutant of concern in Dhaka (Uddin et al., 2008). In the 2002-2006 monitoring in Dkaha, PM was the responsible pollutant for high AQI 98% of the time (Uddin et al., 2008). Limited monitoring data is available for Chittagong to evaluate the air quality situation in this area; however, annual average ambient PM10 and PM2.5 levels for Chittagong in 2007 are higher than the corresponding NAAQS and WHO Guideline value.
Source: Data from DOE, AQMP.
Page 39 of 147
Figure 3 Monthly Average Ambient PM in Dhaka (2002 to 2006) (g/m ) 300 250 200 150 100 50 0
December
December
December
December
August
August
August
August
April
April
April
April
February
February
February
2002
Source: Uddin et al., 2008
2003
PM10
2004 PM2.5
2005
2006
NO2 Figure 4 presents the seasonal variations in ambient NO2 levels in Dhaka in 2002 to 2005. The 2003 annual average NO2 level of 27.6 parts per billion (ppb) satisfies the annual ambient NO2 standards of 53 ppb. Comparable with PM results, among monitoring months, ambient NO2 levels are highest from November to February. There is still a limited data set available to determine the long-term annual trend of ambient NO2 levels.
Figure 4 Seasonal Variations in NO2 Concentrations in Dhaka (ppb)
SOURCE: Nasiruddin, 2006.
Page 40 of 147
February
October
October
October
October
April
June
June
June
June
SO2 Figure 5 illustrates the seasonal variations in ambient SO2 levels in Dhaka in 2002 to 2005. The annual average ambient SO2 levels in 2003 (i.e., 6.67 ppb) comply with the NAAQS for SO2 (i.e., 20 ppb), however, data set is still limited and it does not allow for long-term analysis of annual ambient SO2 trends. Similar with observations with ambient PM and NO2 data, ambient SO2 measurements are elevated in November to February.
Figure 5 Monthly SO2 Concentrations in Dhaka (ppb)
Table 4 Results of Ambient Air Quality Analysis at 3 Various Areas in Chittagong (g/m )
Place
Chandgaon residential area Khulshi residential area
Date
25/02/2003 02/09/2002
TSP
208.4 172.6
SO2
20.2 18.9
NOx
28.3 20.2
Nasirabad industrial area Agrabad 09/04/2003 commercial area SOURCE: ADB, 2005.
12/03/2003 14/02/2002 16/01/2003 19/11/2002 10/10/2002 11/03/2003
308.4 213.1 312.5 282.8 317.8 904.0
42.2 51.3 81.6 46.7 58.5 120.0
54.8 60.2 92.4 54.4 61.9 128.0
804.0
111.0
115.0
Table 5 TSP Concentrations in Some Major Cities in Bangladesh
District Bogra Rajshahi Sirajganj

SOURCE: Nasiruddin, 2006.
TSP Range (g/m3) 170-531 329-680 400-420 500-829
Monitoring Year/Period 2003-2004 2004 2003 2004
Pabna
Monitoring Results in Other Urban Areas The air quality monitoring results for some urban areas in Bangladesh are presented in Table 4 and Table 5. It may be premature and difficult to accurately construe the air quality situation in these cities because the monitoring data is available is only for a limited data set. Nonetheless, there is an indication of relatively high PM levels (in total suspended particulates [TSP]) in other cities as well, suggesting that the high ambient PM measurements in Dhaka may not be an isolated event.
SOURCE: ADB, 2005.
Page 41 of 147
References
Asian Development Bank (ADB), 2005. Final Report: South Asian Subregional Economic Cooperation (SASEC) Countries for Regional Air Quality Management. www.cleanairnet.org/caiasia/1412/article70581.html. As Cited in ADB and Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center, 2006 Country Synthesis Report on Urban Air Quality Management: Bangladesh. Discussion Draft. ADB, 2006. ADB and CAI-Asia Center, 2006 Country Synthesis Report on Urban Air Quality Management: Bangladesh. Discussion Draft. ADB, 2006. AQMP, undated. Air Quality Monitoring http://www.aqmpbd.org/Monitoring_Strategy.ph p accessed August 2009. AQMP, 2003. Inter-Ministerial Committee Meeting. Working Paper 3 Proposed Air Quality Index (AQI) for Dhaka. Department of Environment. August. Bangladesh. As cited in ADB and CAI-Asia Center, 2006 Country Synthesis Report on Urban Air Quality Management: Bangladesh. Discussion Draft. ADB, 2006. DoE and United National Environment Programme (UNEP) Regional Resource Centre for Asia and the Pacific (RCC.AP), 2001. Bangladesh State of the Environment Report 2001. http://www.rrcap.unep.org/pub/soe/bangladeshs oe.cfm accessed August 2009. Khaliquzzaman, M., Biswas, S. K., Tarafdar, S. A., Islam, A., and Khan, A.H., 1997. Trace Element Composition of Size Fractionated Airborne Particulate Matter in Urban and Rural Areas in Bangladesh Report AECD/AFD-CH/6-4 as cited in Air Pollution in Mega Cities of Asia (APMA), 2002.
Benchmarking Urban Air Quality Management and Practice in Major and Mega Cities of Asia: Stage I. Korea Environment Institute, 613-2 Bulgwang-dong, Eunpyeong-gu 122-706, Seoul, Republic of Korea http://www.unep.org/PDF/APMA_Benchmarking_ report.pdf accessed August 2009. Mal Declaration, 2000. Baseline Information and Action Plan. United Nations Environment Programme Regional Resource Centre for Asia and Pacific. http://www.rrcap.unep.org/male/baseline/Baseli ne/Bang/BANGCH2.htm accessed July 2009. Nasiruddin, M., 2006. Setting Ambient Air Quality and Vehicular Emission Standards: Dhakas Experience. Presented during the Pakistan Development Partners Meeting on Clean Air. 14 September. Karachi. As cited in ADB and CAI-Asia Center, 2006 Country Synthesis Report on Urban Air Quality Management: Bangladesh. Discussion Draft. ADB, 2006. Uddin, AMM N., Chowdhuri, T.I. and Shahjahan, Md., 2008. Bangladesh Country Paper Presentation. Third Environmentally Sustainable Transport (EST) Forum. Singapore. http://www.uncrd.or.jp/env/3rd-regional-estforum/doc/13_Bangladesh.pdf. accessed August 2009. World Health Organization (WHO), 2006. WHO Air Quality Guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Global Update 2005. Summary of Risk Assessment. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2006/WHO_SDE_PH E_OEH_06.02_eng.pdf accessed July 2009.
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WHO Regional Office for Europe, 2000 Air Quality Guidelines for Europe,2nd Ed., Copenhagen, WHO Regional Publications European series; No 91. WHO South-East Asia Region, 2002. Bangladesh Country Health Profile. http://www.searo.who.int/LinkFiles/Bangladesh_ CountryHealthSystemProfile-BangladeshJan2002.pdf accessed August 2009. World Bank, 1992. Air Quality Management Project. http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main ?pagePK=64312881&piPK=64302848&theSitePK= 40941&Projectid=P057833 accessed August 2009.
World Bank, 2006. Bangladesh Country Environmental Analysis: Bangladesh Development Series Paper No: 12. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/BANGLADESH EXTN/Resources/2957591173922647418/complete.pdf accessed October 2009. Islam, S., 2003. Dhaka gets AQI. In Th e Daily Star. Vol. 4, No. 55, 20 July. http://www.thedailystar.net/2003/07/20/d30720 250278.htm accessed August 2009.
Page 43 of 147
Country Profile: Cambodia

Cambodias first set of ambient air quality standards was established in 10 July 2000 under the Sub-Decree on Air Pollution Control and Noise Disturbance. The sub-decree also stipulates emission limits for stationary and mobile sources, as well as limits for hazardous substances in the air. The Ministry of Environment (MoE) is the lead agency with the mandate of drafting, reviewing and approving the standards. The MoE, established in 1993 and whose mandate was approved in 1997, is the primary executing agency for environmental management in Cambodia (ADB, 2004). The technical departments of MoE address the following: (i) development of policies to ensure sustainable development; (ii) development and implementation of legal instruments and the environmental impact assessment (EIA) process; (iii) development of inspection procedures, (iv) provide advice to other sectors on aspects related to natural resources and environmental management; (v) administration and management of national protected areas; (vi) implementation of environmental education; (vii) environmental data compilation, analysis and management; (viii) ensure Cambodias compliance with international environmental treaties and conventions; and (ix) provide pollutant inventories. Other ministries, including the Ministry of Health (MoH) and Ministry of Industry, Mine and Energy (MIME), also provided input during the drafting of the air quality standards. Article 6, Chapter 2 of the Sub-Decree on Air Pollution Control and Noise Disturbance specifies that in necessary cases, the standards may be changed every five years, based on the proposal of the MOE. However, since its promulgation in 2000, the ambient air quality standards have not yet undergone revisions. There are plans to review the current ambient air quality standards; however, the timeline for this has not yet been determined. The MoE has indicated that
they will need technical assistance and financial support in reviewing and revising the ambient air quality standards.

National ambient air quality standards exist for total suspended particulates (TSP), Sulfur dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3) and lead (Pb). Table 6 presents Cambodias ambient air quality standards compared with the World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines.
Table 6 Current Standards vs. WHO Guidelines (g/m )
3
Pollutant
TSP
Average Time
National Standards
WHO Guidelines
24-Hrs 330 Annual 100 a NO2 1-Hr 300 200 24-Hrs 100 a Annual 40 a SO2 10-min 500 1-Hr 500 a 24-Hrs 300 20 Annual 100 O3 1-Hr 200 a 8-Hr 100 24-Hr b CO 1-Hr 40,000 30,000 b 8-Hr 20,000 10,000 Pb 24-Hrs 5 Annual 0.5 Guidelines refer to the safe level of a pollutant, for a given average time, to protect the public from acute health effects. 3 g/m =micrograms per cubic meter a b Source: WHO, 2006, WHO 2000
Overall, the national ambient air quality standards are more lenient relative to the WHO Guideline values.

Air Quality Monitoring Network In Cambodia, ambient air quality monitoring is only conducted in major cities or in target locations. In 2000-2002, the Air Quality, Noise and Vibration Management Office of the Environmental Pollution Control Department in cooperation with Yokohama University, conducted a case study in Phnom Penh (PHN) city wherein ambient concentrations of CO, NO2, SO2, TSP and PM10 was measured every two months (Long, 2006). Since then, ambient CO, NO2 and SO2 levels in PHN city have been regularly monitored. The MoE has four ground level curbside monitoring stations through PHN cityToul Kork (Northwest), Monivong Bridge (Southeast), Olympic Stadium (Central) and Central Market (Northeast) (Sothea, 2008). Ambient CO, NO2 and SO2 levels are monitored monthly and are measured using passive samplers. Ambient TSP, PM10 and Pb are not routinely monitored. The Air Quality, Noise and Vibration Management Office of the Environmental Pollution Control Department under MoE is primarily responsible for Urban Air Quality Management and monitoring of mobile, stationary, and area sources of air pollution (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). Aside from monitoring conducted by MoE, several research studies have been conducted measuring ambient air quality in PHN city. There are plans to expand the Cambodia current air quality monitoring system. Ambient air quality monitoring may be undertaken in Siem Reap Province. The MoE also intends to install additional monitoring stations with more sophisticated monitoring equipment over the next couple of years.
Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Data Reporting Ambient air quality monitoring results are reported to the MoE. Monitoring results are not easily available and can be accessed only through requests or as a component of presentations and reports on environmental management (Lindsay, 2009; ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). The monitoring results are also not reported to the public on regular basis nor are they routinely shared among the different government agencies and local environment units (Chin, 2006). One of the recommendations of WHO in the 2004 Cambodia Environmental Health Profile was the collaboration between MoH and MoE particularly in air and water quality monitoring (WHO, 2004). Outdoor air pollution in Cambodia, particularly in urban areas, is a significant public concern as respiratory diseases, such as cough, tuberculosis and acute respiratory infections are included in the list of leading causes of morbidity and mortality in Cambodia (WHO, 2004). However, ambient air quality monitoring results are not yet being correlated with health surveillance programs. Annual Ambient Air Quality Trends Available ambient air quality monitoring data for Cambodia is generally limited to PHN city. In addition, frequency of monitoring and the number of monitoring stations are limited, as such; available data may be insufficient to indicate long-term air quality trends. In addition, as monitoring results in Phnom Penh are roadside measurements and not ambient data, results obtained do not allow comparison to the WHO guidelines. NO2 Figure 6 shows the annual average NO2 levels in PHN city and Siem Reap in the 2000-2008 monitoring period. Annual NO2 levels are generally fluctuating throughout the monitoring period. Monitoring data set is still limited to establish long-term NO2 trends. Other available monitoring data for NO2 in PHN city are provided in Table 7 and Table 8. Page 46 of 147
CO Figure 7 presents the annual average CO levels in PHN city and Siem Reap in the 2000-2008 monitoring period. As with the NO2 levels, available CO monitoring data is limited to establish long-term CO trends in PHN and Siem Reap. Other available monitoring data for CO in PHN city are provided in Figure 8, Table 7 and Table 8. SO2 and TSP Table 7 presents roadside monitoring data of annual average SO2 levels, among others, in PHN City in 2001 to 2004. On the other hand, Table 8 lists annual average ambient SO2 and TSP levels in PHN city in 2001 to 2003. Relatively low roadside and ambient SO2 levels were measured in PHN city in this monitoring period. However, monitoring data set is limited to establish long-term SO2 and TSP situation in PHN city.
Figure 6 Annual NO2 levels in Phnom Penh City and Siem 3 Reap (2000-2008) (g/m )
Figure 7 Annual CO levels in Phnom Penh City and Siem 3 Reap (2000-2008) (g/m )
10500 9000 7500 6000 4500 3000 1500 0 2000 2002 Phnom Penh
Source: Data from MOE.
2004
2006
2008
Siem Reap
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2000 2002 2004 2006 Siem Reap 2008
Phnom Penh
Source: Data from MOE.
Page 47 of 147
Figure 8 Measured Pollutant Concentrations in PHN, 2005

NOx & SOx Concentration (g/m3)
6
CO Concentration (mg/m3)
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun CO Jul NOx SOx Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
5 4 3 2 1 0
SOURCE: MoE, 2006. Table 7 Results of Roadside Air Quality Monitoring in Phnom Penh City
2001 Mean
CO (mg/m ) NO2 (g/m ) SO2 (g/m )
3 3 3
2002 Max
289 304 227
2003 Max
240 310 385
2004 Max
187 190 157
Mean
76 85 81
Mean
57 54 46
Mean
48 40 32
Max
174 139 81
83 83 77
SOURCE: MoE and MoH, 2006. Country Report: Cambodia. Hang Dara, Chin Chamroeun, Sourn Pun Lork and Chim Sopharo. Paper presented at the Clean Air for Asia Training Course for Less Developing Countries, Bangkok, Thailand, 24 May 02 June. Table 8 Ambient Air Pollution in Phnom Penh City
2001 Mean
CO (mg/m ) NO2 (g/m ) SO2 (g/m ) TSP (mg/m )
3 3 3 3
2002 Max
7.12 47.17
2003 Max
2.42 3.77 7.80 0.84
Mean
1.98 2.45 2.60 0.63
Mean
3.50 30.19 7.80 0.41
Max
5.71 56.60 13.00 1.00
3.06 32.08
SOURCE: Research collaboration with Yokohama University from 20002002. Quoted in MOE and Ministry of MoH (2006). Country Report: Cambodia. Hang Dara, Chin Chamroeun, Sourn Pun Lork, and Chim Sopharo. Paper presented at the Clean Air for Asia Training Course for Less Developing Countries, Bangkok, Thailand, 24 May02 June.
References
Asian Development Bank (ADB), 2004. Cambodia: Country Environmental Analysis. Manila: Philippines. May. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Reports/CEA/cammay-2004.pdf accessed August 2009. and Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAIAsia) Center, 2006 Country Synthesis Report on Urban Air Quality Management: Nepal. Discussion Draft. ADB, 2006. Chin, Chamroeun, 2006. Personal communications of Aurora Ables with CHamroeun Chin of MoE. 14 November. As cited in ADB and CAI-Asia Center, 2006 Country Synthesis Report on Urban Air Quality Management: Nepal. Discussion Draft. ADB, 2006. Lindsay, Bethany, 2009. Phnom Penh Air Dangerously Polluted: Study. The Cambodia Daily: Volume 42 Issue 4. http://mekong.ge.kanazawau.ac.jp/Social/Newspaper/Cdaily090403.pdf accessed August 2009. Long, Rithirak, 2006. Challenges in Monitoring Air Pollution. Presented in Space Tools for Monitoring Air Pollution and Energy Use for Sustainable Development, Graz, Austria. http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/SAP/act2006/graz/pres entations.html accessed August 2009. MoE, 2006. Measured Pollutant Concentration in PHN, 2005. As cited in Long, Rithirak, 2006. Challenges in Monitoring Air Pollution. Presented in Space Tools for Monitoring Air Pollution and Energy Use for Sustainable Development, Graz, Austria. http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/SAP/act2006/graz/pres entations.html accessed August 2009. and MoH. 2006. Country Report: Cambodia. Hang Dara, Chin Chamroeun, Sourn Pun Lork and Chim Sopharo. Paper presented at the Clean Air for Asia Training, Course for Less Developing Countries, Bangkok, Thailand. 24 May2 June. As cited in ADB
and CAI-Asia Center, 2006 Country Synthesis Report on Urban Air Quality Management: Nepal. Discussion Draft. ADB, 2006. Sothea, Kok, 2008. Status of Air Quality Management in Phnom Penh City, Cambodia. Presented during the Launch Meeting on Cambodia and Laos Initiative for Building Human Resources for the Environment (CALIBRE) Project. http://www.calibre.manchester.ac.uk/images/downlo ads/3_airqual_man_phnompenh.ppt. accessed August 2009. World Health Organization (WHO), 2000. Guidelines for Air Quality. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_SDE_OEH_0 0.02_pp1-104.pdf accessed August 2009. , 2004. Cambodia Environmental Health Country Profile. http://www.wpro.who.int/NR/rdonlyres/934F19D49FD8-4EC0-A15DA7757C6316A7/0/cambodia_ehcp_03Dec2004.pdf accessed August 2009. , 2006. WHO Air Quality Guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Global Update 2005. Summary of Risk Assessment. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2006/WHO_SDE_PHE_O EH_06.02_eng.pdf accessed July 2009.
Country Profile: Hong Kong SAR

Hong Kong was a British colony from 1841 until 30 June 1997 before it became a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) under the Sino-British Joint Declaration of 1984 (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). Most components of this declaration were adopted and implemented pursuant to the Basic Lawthe basis of Hong Kong SARs (HKSAR) legal system that espouses the principle of one country, two systems. In this regard, HKSAR has a separate environmental department, and in turn, separate ambient air quality standards/objectives, from the PRC. Hong Kong SARs first set of ambient air quality objectives (AQO) was established in 1987 under the Air Pollution Control Ordinance (APCO) (Cap. 311) with the primary objective of protecting public health. The APCO is the principal legislation for managing air quality. It provides the statutory framework which enabled the establishment of the AQO6 and subsidiary regulations to address emissions control from vehicle exhausts, construction dust, and major stationary sources (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). Through the APCO, AQO was developed for seven widespread air pollutants with reference to the health protection criteria established by the United Stated (US) Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) at that time (Ove Arup & Partners Hong Kong Ltd, 2009). The Environmental Protection Department7 (EPD) under the Environment Bureau of the Hong Kong SAR
Government is currently the lead government agency responsible for formulation and implementation of environmental laws and policies. Under their Air Quality Programme, the EPD develops objective air quality standards and guidelines, drafts and implements programmes to control air pollution, enforces the ACPO and the Ozone Layer Protection Ordinance (OLPO), operates the air quality monitoring network and laboratories, provides air quality information and an air pollution index to the public; and participates in the development of initiatives concerning global warming and related energy matters (EPD, 2006a). When the AQOs were developed in 1987, these were mainly referenced to researches conducted in the US at that time. However, several new research findings on the health risks and impacts of air pollution have emerged since then. In 2006, in lieu of recent findings, the World Health Organization (WHO) released the 2005 Global Update: Air Quality Guidelines for Particulate Matter, Ozone (O3), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and Sulfur dioxide (SO2)8. In addition, a number of countries, including US and member states of the European Union (EU) have also updated or been updating their air quality standards (EPD, 2006b).
Under section 7 of the APCO, the Secretary of Environment is empowered to promulgate AQO with a Technical Memorandum. SOURCE: Ove Arup & Partners Hong Kong Ltd, 2009.
7
The Hong Kong SAR EPD, created in 1986, replaced the Environmental Protection Agency (which had been created in 1981 to replace the Environmental Protection Unit, created in 1977) as the main government body tackling pollution. Between 1986 and 31 March 2005 it functioned mainly as an executive department enforcing environmental laws and implementing environmental policies developed by the Environment, Transport and Works Bureau (ETWB).
On 1 April 2005, however, the environmental policy-making function of the ETWB was subsumed within EPD and the head of the Environment Branch of ETWB took up the dual role of Permanent Secretary for the Environment and Director of Environmental Protection. This has placed EPD in the position of both determining and implementing environmental policy. SOURCE: EPD, 2007. 8 This document presents the WHO Air Quality Guidelines for PM, NO2, O3 and SO2. In addition to the guideline values, interim targets (IT) are given for each pollutant. These are proposed as incremental steps in a progressive reduction of air pollution and are intended for use in areas where pollution is high. These targets aim to promote a shift from high air pollutant concentrations, which have acute and serious health consequences, to lower air pollutant concentrations. Progress towards the air quality guideline values should, however, be the ultimate objective of air quality management and health risk reduction in all areas. SOURCE: WHO, 2006.
The EPD recognized that the updated WHO Air Quality Guidelines (AQG) is much more stringent than HKSARs existing AQO (EPD, 2006b). And in turn, have acknowledged the need to update the AQOs (EPD, 2009a). Resulting from these developments, the EPD commissioned a comprehensive study in mid-2007 to review the AQO and develop a long-term air quality management strategy for HKSAR. The study assessed the need for and the implications of revising the AQO, as well as identified options and proposed alternative strategies and plans needed for achieving the revised AQO (Ove Arup & Partners Hong Kong Ltd, 2009). This study represents the first milestone in the goal of revising and updating HKSARs AQO. Table 9 presents a general timeline of the planned and finished activities/milestones for the AQO revision process.
Table 9 Timeline of Activities/Milestones for AQO Revision Process Date June 2007 15 October 2008 Event/Activity Consultancy for establishing New AQOs commences Chief Executive announces adoption of Interim Target-1 (IT-1) of the WHO Air Quality Guidelines before consultancy releases its draft findings The EPDs consultant conducts Public Forum on the draft AQOs Launch of four-month formal consultation on draft AQOs Completion of the AQO review study Preparation and Government Review of new AQOs New AQOs announced
Public consultations and consultations with concerned parties on new laws and guidelines related to AQ are normally held before these laws and guidelines are finalized (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). The government will continue the public engagement programmes until the second half of 2009 prior to deciding on how to take forward with the proposed AQOs revisions and the required long-term strategy on air quality management for achieving the proposed revisions.

Air quality objectives are a set of target ambient levels for seven air pollutantstotal suspended particulates (TSP), respirable suspended particles (RSP), NO2, SO2, O3, Carbon monoxide (CO) and lead (Pb). Table 10 presents the HKSARs AQO compared with the WHO Guidelines. The proposed AQO revisions are also included in Table 10. The AQO are based on different averaging times that are locally specific. The AQOs are applicable to open areas where people can gain access and normally stay for a period comparable with the averaging time of AQO (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). However, since air monitoring data collected at the roadside may reflect the air pollution source strength only (i.e., road traffic emissions), it can hardly be used to represent the general ambient air quality. Nonetheless, as roadside is an air quality hot spot, short-term AQOs (1-hour to 24-hour) are relevant to roadside air quality as some people may stay near the street during daytime (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). Generally, the HKSARs existing AQO are more lenient compared with the corresponding WHO Guideline values. This has already been recognized by the EPD (EPD, 2009a). In addition, the EPD has even highlighted that the updated WHO AQG is not satisfied even at the background air quality monitoring station of Tap Mun (EPD, 2006b). Nonetheless, the proposed AQOs provide much more stringent limits compared with the existing AQOs. The recently completed AQO review proposes AQO revisions based on the updated WHO AQG.
20 March 2009 23 June 2009 July 2009 Late 2009 Early 2010
SOURCE: Civic Exchange, 2009; EPD, 2009a
The review has recently been completed. The proposed new AQO will be discussed in the succeeding chapter. Last 23 July 2009, the HKSAR government launched a four-month public consultation on the AQO review.
Table 10 HKSARs AQO vs. WHO Guidelines (g/m ) Pollutant Respirable Suspended a Particulate (PM10) NO2 Average Time 24-Hrs Annual 1-Hr 24-Hrs Annual 10-min 1-Hr 24-Hrs Annual 1-Hr 8-Hr 1-Hr 8-Hr 1-Hr 3-Mon Annual 24-Hr Annual 24-Hr Annual HKSARs AQO 180 55
d
Proposed New AQO 100 (WHO IT-2) 50 (WHO IT-2) 200 40 500 125 (WHO IT-1)
WHO AQG 50 (IT-1:150, IT-2:100, IT-3:75) e 20 (IT-1:70, IT-2: 50, IT-3:30)

e e
300 d 150 80 800 d 350 80 c 240 30,000 d 10,000 1.5 d 260 80 c c
SO2
O3 CO Pb
160 (WHO IT) 30,000 10,000
0.5
Total Suspended Particulates (TSP)
Fine Suspended 75 (WHO IT-1) Particulate 35 (WHO IT-1) b (PM2.5) Guidelines refer to the safe level of a pollutant, for a given average time, to protect the public from acute health effects. 3 g/m =micrograms per cubic meter; AQG = Air Quality Guidelines; AQO = air quality objectives; IT = Interim Targets a Respirable suspended particulates mean suspended particles in air with nominal aerodynamic diameter of 10 micrometers 3 or less. The concentration is measured in g/m . b Fine suspended particulates mean suspended particles in air with nominal aerodynamic diameter of 10 micrometer or less. 3 The concentration is measured in g/m . c Not to be exceeded more than thrice per year. d Not to be exceeded more than once per year. e f Source: WHO 2006, WHO 2000
200 e 40 e 500 e 20 (IT-1:125, IT-2:50) e 100 (IT:160) f 30,000 f 10,000 f 0.5 e 25 (IT-1:75, IT-2: 50, IT-3: 37.5) e 10 (IT-1:35, IT-2: 25, IT-3:15)
The proposed revisions in HKSARs current AQO include the following: (I) Adopting the WHO air quality guidelines' concentration targets for SO2 (10-minute), NO2 (1-hour and annual), CO (1-hour and 8hour) and Pb (annual); (II) adopting WHO IT-2 concentration targets for respirable suspended particulates (PM 10) (24hour and annual); and (III) adopting WHO IT-1 concentration targets for SO2 (24-hour) and fine suspended particulates (PM2.5) (24-hour and annual), and the IT for O3 (8-hour) (EPD, 2009a).
The ITs are proposed by WHO as incremental steps in a progressive reduction of air pollution and are intended for use in areas where pollution is high (WHO, 2006). Nonetheless, with the main objective of air quality management and health risk reduction, there should be a continuing development towards achieving the AQGs. Correspondingly, the comprehensive AQO review has also recommended the implementation of a regular AQO review alongside the proposed new AQO. The review will ascertain the extent to which the new AQO have been achieved, the progress of the air management strategy, as well as the need and
practicality of further tightening of AQO (Ove Arup & Partners Hong Kong Ltd, 2009).

Air Quality Monitoring Network Hong Kong SAR has an air quality monitoring network composed of 14 fixed stations that continuously monitor major air pollutants including TSP, RSP, Nitric oxide (NO), Nitrogen oxides (NOx), SO2, NO2, O3 and CO. Eleven stations monitor ambient air quality and three roadside stations monitor street level air quality. Figure 9 shows the location of EPDs monitoring stations whilst details of HKSARs monitoring network are presented in Table 11. As of 2009, there are eight contracted out monitoring stations whilst the remaining six stations are operated, maintained and managed by the Air Science Group of the EPD.
Figure 9 Location of EPDs Monitoring Stations-2008
Aside from criteria pollutants, the Air Science Group also regularly monitoring toxic air pollutants (TAPs) volatile organic compounds (e.g., benzene, perchloroethylene and 1,3-butadiene), dioxins and furans (e.g., 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-furan (2,3,7,8- TCDF), and 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-pdioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD), carbonyl compounds (e.g., formaldehyde), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g. benzo(a)pyrene), and Hexavalent chromium (Cr+6) (EPD, 2008). Since 1997, the Tsuen Wan and Central/Western monitoring stations have been equipped with additional monitoring facilities designed to collect TAP samples. In addition to monitoring criteria pollutants and TAPs, the EPD also measures reduced visibility9 as another measure of air quality. Apart from EPDs network, the Hongkong Electric Co. Ltd. (HEC) and the CLP Power Hong Kong Limited (CLP) also operate a number of monitoring stations to assess the ambient levels of SO2 and NO2 in the vicinity of their power generating stations (EPD, 2008). Since 30 November 2005, Hong Kong SAR and Guangdong province launched a regional monitoring network to monitor air quality in the Pearl River Delta Region. Monitoring stations at Tung Chung, Tap Mun, and Tsuen Wan are included in both local and regional monitoring activities (Guangdong Provincial Environmental Protection Monitoring Centre and EPD, HKSAR, 2005). Local and regional air quality monitoring activities undergo regular quality control and quality assurance (QA/QC) checks to ensure accuracy and precision. The QA/QC system was established in accordance to the Hong Kong Laboratory Accreditation Scheme (HOKLAS) criteria (EPD, 2008).
SOURCE: EPD, 2009b
The location of the monitoring stations was selected based on USEPAs guidelines with practical consideration to HKSARs local conditions (EPD, 2008).
Percentage of reduced visibility refers to the percentage of time in a year with visibility less than 8 km and relative humidity not exceeding 80% based on observations taken at the Hong Kong Observatory Headquarters. SOURCE: EPD, 2009c.
Table 11 Details of HKSARs Air Quality Monitoring Network Monitoring Station Area Type Sampling a Height 78m 28m 19m 34m Above Ground Parameters Measured
Central/Western: Upper Level Police Station Eastern: Sai Wan Ho Fire Station Kwai Chung: Kwai Chung Police Station Kwun Tong: City District Office Sham Shui Po: Police Station Tsuen Wan: Princess Alexandra Community Centre Sha Tin: Sha Tin Govt. Secondary School Tai Po: Tai Po Govt. Office Bldg. Tung Chung: Tung Chung Health Centre Yuen Long: Yuen Long District Branch Offices Bldg. Tap Mun: Tap Mun Police Station Causeway Bay
Urban: Mixed residential/commercial Urban: Residential Urban: Mixed residential/ commercial/industrial Urban: Mixed residential/ commercial/industrial Urban: Mixed residential/commercial Urban: Mixed residential/ commercial/industrial New Town: Residential New Town: Residential New Town: Residential
18m (4 floors) 15m (4 floors) 13m (2 floors) 25m (6 floors) 25m (6 floors) 17m (4 floors) 25m (6 floors) 25m (6 floors) 27.5m (4 floors) 25m (6 floors) 11m (3 floors) 3m
SO2, NOx, NO, NO2, O3, RSPCont, RSP-Hi-Vol, TSP, Met SO2, NO2, O3, RSP-Cont, Met SO2, NOx, NO, NO2, O3, RSPCont, TSP, Met SO2, NOx, NO, NO2, O3, RSPCont, RSP-Hi-Vol, TSP, Met SO2, NOx, NO, NO2, O3, RSPCont, RSP-Hi-Vol, TSP, Met SO2, NOx, NO, NO2, CO, O3, RSP-Cont, RSP-Hi-Vol, TSP, Met SO2, NOx, NO, NO2, O3, RSPCont, TSP, Met SO2, NO2, O3, RSP-Cont, TSP, Met SO2, NOx, NO, NO2, CO, O3, RSP-Cont, RSP-Hi-Vol, TSP, Met SO2, NOx, NO, NO2, CO, O3, RSP-Cont, RSP-Hi-Vol, TSP, Met SO2, NOx, NO, NO2, CO, O3, RSP-Cont SO2, NOx, NO, NO2, CO, RSPCont
34m 21m
31m 31m 34.5m
New Town: Residential
31m
Background: Rural Roadside: Busy commercial/residential area surrounded by many tall buildings Roadside: Busy commercial/residential area surrounded by many tall buildings Roadside: Busy commercial/residential area surrounded by many tall buildings
26m 6.5m
Central
8.5m
4.5m
SO2, NOx, NO, NO2, CO, RSPCont
Mong Kok
8.5m
3m
SO2, NOx, NO, NO2, CO, RSPCont, RSP-Hi-Vol, TSP, Met
(Above Principal Datum H.K.) Cont = denotes continuous monitoring; Hi-Vol = denotes high-volume sampling; MET denotes meteorological parameters SOURCE: EPD, 2008
Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Data Reporting Monitoring results from the continuous analyzers are stored in data loggers and subsequently sent to the data processing unit of the Air Science Group for further processing and validation (EPD, 2008). The EPD reports the air quality monitoring data to the Environment Bureau of HKSAR government. Air quality monitoring results are reported through various forms, as listed in Table 12. The APIs and annual reports are available in the EPD website (http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/eindex.html). Aside from the EPD website, historical hourly air quality monitoring data can also be downloaded from the Environmental Protection Interactive Centre (EPIC) website (http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/epic/english/data_air.ht ml). The HKSARs API converts hourly air quality monitoring data of several pollutants from the 14 fixed stations into a value ranging from 0 to 500 (EPD, 2006c). The APIs are reported alongside corresponding healthrelated advisory. This helps the public easily
Table 12 Air Quality Reporting Form of Reporting Hourly API reporting for each station
understand the implications of local air quality to their health. Table 13 shows the HKSARs API. Reporting of the API is one initiative in establishing the relationship between local air quality and health issues. Air quality is a major public health concern in HKSAR. In 2002, the Department of Community Medicine in the University of Hong Kong conducted a study for EPD on the short term health impacts and costs due to road traffic-related air pollution (University of Hong Kong, 2002). The study showed that based on the excess risk of each pollutant estimated from the database for the period 19952000, a 10 g/m3 change in SO2 levels can be attributed to 243 deaths a year due to cardiorespiratory illness. The fraction of deaths due to cardiorespiratory causes based on a 10 g/m3 change in NO2 would be 83 deaths. Although health implications of air quality have been reported through a number of researches, correlation of air quality monitoring data with disease surveillance programs is not undertaken by EPD or by the Department of Health.
Conducted Since Reported since 1 July 1999 Reported from 6 June 1995 to 14 June 1998 Reported from 15 June 1998 to 30 June 1999 Reported since June 1998 Reported since July 1998
Daily API reporting and forecast for three categories of land-use areas Daily API reporting and forecast for each monitoring station Monthly release of data recorded at the Mong Kok, Kwai Chung and Central/Western stations Monthly reporting of the Air Pollution Index (API) summary for all stations Published annual reports (i.e., Air Quality in Hong Kong and Environment Hong Kong) SOURCE: EPD, 2008
Table 13 HKSARs Air Pollution Index Air Pollution Level Severe Black API 201-500 General API The general public are advised to reduce physical exertion and outdoor activities Roadside API The general public is advised to avoid prolonged stay in areas with heavy traffic. If it is necessary to stay in streets or roads with heavy traffic, they are advised to reduce physical exertion as far as possible. Persons with existing heart or respiratory illnesses (such as coronary heart and cardiovascular diseases, asthma, chronic bronchitis, and chronic obstructive airway diseases) are advised to avoid prolonged stay in areas with heavy traffic. If it is necessary to stay in streets or roads with heavy traffic, they are advised to reduce physical exertion as far as possible.
Very High
101-200
SOURCE: EPD, 2006d.
Aside from the API, there is another unofficial index available in HKSARthe Hedley Environmental Index (HEI). The HEI, developed by the Department of Community Medicine and School of Public Health in the University of Hong Kong, has two functions: (1) to monitor and publish number of public health impacts (such as premature deaths, hospital bed-days, doctor visits and asthma hospitalization) and associated economic loss due to the current changes of the Hong Kong's air quality; and (2) to publish real-time air quality levels (measured by the EPD) and plot this against WHO Guidelines (University of Hong Kong, [undated]). In addition to the API, a regional air quality index (RAQI) is also reported daily for each station covered in the PRD Regional Monitoring Network. The RAQI is a composite indicator of the aggregate level of four major regional pollutantsPM10, SO2, NO2, and O3. Daily RAQI can be accessed in the Guangdong
Green
Low
Turquoise
Meduim
Yellow
High
51-100
Persons with existing heart or respiratory illnesses (i.e., coronary heart and cardiovascular diseases, asthma, chronic bronchitis and chronic obstructive airways diseases) are advised to reduce physical exertion and outdoor activities. No immediate response action is suggested -Long-term effects may, however, be observed if exposed at this level persistently for months or years No response action is required.
Red 26-50 0-25
No response action is required.
Environmental Protection Bureau website (http://www-app.gdepb.gov.cn/raqi3/RAQI_en.htm). Air quality monitoring reports are also available through their website.
Annual Ambient Air Quality Trends TSP and RSP (PM10) Total suspended particulates and RSP (PM10) are major contributors to air pollution in HKSAR. Major sources of TSP and RSP include power stations, construction activities and vehicle emissions (EPD, 2008). Figure 10 and Figure 11 show annual average TSP levels in HKSAR whilst Figure 12 and Figure 13 illustrate the yearly PM10 levels for the 1996-2008 monitoring period. The TSP levels recorded from the monitoring stations, apart from Mong Kok and Yuen Long, were generally within a fairly narrow range. Highest annual TSP levels among monitoring stations was consistently recorded at Mong Kok roadside station. Both Mong Kok and Yuen Long stations had TSP levels above the annual AQO in 1996 to 2008. The annual TSP levels showed a generally downward tendency from 1996 to 2002, but increased in the following couple of years. And recently, annual TSP levels show a slightly decreasing tendency. However, non-compliance with the annual AQO is still recorded in some monitoring stations.
Figure 10 Annual Average TSP Levels in HKSAR 3 (1996-2008) (g/m ) 150 120 90 60 30 0 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008
Annual mean PM10 levels from the most urban and new town (residential) monitoring stations have remained within a fairly narrow range throughout the 1996-2008 monitoring period. Most urban and new town stations satisfy the annual RSP AQO, except for a few years. Recent monitoring results in Tap Mun rural station illustrate a slightly increasing tendency in annual PM10 levels, almost within the range of annual PM10 levels reported in urban and new town stations (Figure 13). In 2008, the three roadside monitoring stations (i.e., Causebay, Central and Mong Kok) and a residential station (i.e., Yuen Long) exceeded the annual RSP AQO. Roadside stations consistently reported the highest annual PM10 levels among monitoring stations and have exceeded the PM10 annual AQO since 1999. Nonetheless, taking the average PM10 monitoring data from roadside monitoring stations, a slightly decreasing trend is observed (Figure 13). This may be attributed to the implementation of vehicle emission control measures in the recent years. In 1996 to 2008, all monitoring stations had annual mean PM10 levels above the WHO Guideline value.
Figure 11 3 (g/m ) 100 80 60 40 20 0 1996 1998 New Town 2000 2002 Urban 2004 2006 2008 Long-Term TSP Trends (1996-2008)
Central/Western Kwun Tong Tsuen Wan Tai Po Yuen Long TSP AQO
Kwai Chung Sham Shui Po Sha Tin Tung Chung Mong Kok
TSP AQO
SOURCE: Annual Air Quality Report, various years
Figure 12 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1996
Annual Average PM10 Levels in HKSAR (1996-2008) (g/m )
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Central/Western Sham Shui Po Tung Chung Central
Eastern Tsuen Wan Yuen Long Mong Kok
Kwai Chung Sha Tin Tap Mun RSP AQO
Kwun Tong Tai Po Causeway Bay WHO Guideline
SOURCE: Annual Air Quality Report, various years Figure 13 3 (g/m ) 100 80 60 40 20 0 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Long-Term PM10 Trends (1996-2008)
SO2 Primary sources of SO2 in HKSAR include power stations, marine vessels and motor vehicles (EPD, 2008). Figure 14 illustrates the annual average SO2 levels throughout the 1996-2008 monitoring period. Overall, relatively low annual SO2 concentrations, well below the annual AQO, have been continuously measured since 1990. Implementation of a number of policiesAir Pollution Control Regulations in 1990, Air Pollution Control Regulations in 1995 and introduction of ultra low sulfur diesel in 2000, contributed to the low annual SO2 measurements.
Urban Rural RSP AQO
New Town Roadside WHO Guideline
Figure 14 3 (g/m ) 90 75 60 45 30 15 0 1996
Long-Term
SO2
Trends
(1996-2008)
NO2 Air quality monitoring stations have been reporting annual average NO2 levels within a fairly narrow range since 1996 (Figure 15and Figure 16). The roadside monitoring stations have consistently exceeded the yearly NO2 AQO since 1999 whilst the contrary is observed with the general stations (i.e., urban, rural and new town). Only the rural monitoring station (i.e., Tap Mun) reported annual NO2 levels within the WHO Guidelines.
1998
2000
2002
2004
Roadside Urban
Rural SO2 AQO
The patterns of diurnal and monthly variations of NO2 levels have been extensively recorded through routine 2006 2008 monitoring. Based on the Air Quality in Hong Kong 2007 report (EPD, 2008), daily NO2 levels are higher during morning and evening rush hours due to more New Town traffic and human activities. In addition, monthly NO2 levels have been observed to be substantially lower in summer months (June to August).

3
Figure 15 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1996
Annual Average NO2 Levels in HKSAR (1996-2008) (g/m )
1998
2000 Eastern Tsuen Wan Yuen Long Mong Kok
2002
2004 Kwai Chung Sha Tin Tap Mun NO2 AQO
2006
2008 Kwun Tong Tai Po Causeway Bay WHO Guideline
Central/Western Sham Shui Po Tung Chung Central
Figure 16 3 (g/m ) 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1996
Long-Term NO2 Trends (1996-2008)
O3 The annual average of 1-Hr O3 levels in HKSAR throughout the 1996-2008 monitoring period are illustrated in Figure 18. The O3 levels have slightly been increasing over the years. Individual 1-Hr O3 concentrations may exceed the standard, but are masked by the average. The Tap Mun rural station steadily reported higher O3 levels compared with the other monitoring stations in the monitoring period.
1998
2000
2002
2004 Rural
2006
2008
Roadside New Town NO2 AQO
Urban WHO Guideline
Areas with heavy traffic usually have lower O3 levels than areas with light traffic because of the reaction of NOx emissions from vehicles with O3 in the air (EPD, 2008). Ozone is a regional air pollution issue. The rising trend of O3 generally reflects deterioration in air quality on a regional scale over the past years (EPD, 2008). The governments of HKSAR and Guangdong Province are jointly working together to improving the air quality in the PRD Region.
Figure 18 3 (g/m ) 100 Long-Term O3 Trends (1996-2008)
CO The CO levels in HKSAR have remained generally low throughout the monitoring year (Figure 17). In the Air Quality in Hong Kong 2007 (EPD, 2008), it was reported that even at roadside, the CO levels were well within the 1-Hr and 8-Hr AQO levels.
Figure 17 3 (g/m ) 1500 Long-Term CO Trends (1996-2008)
80 60
1200 40 900 20 600 0 300 0 1996 Roadside 1998 2000 Rural 2002 2004 2006 2008 SOURCE: Annual Air Quality Report, various years New Town Urban 1996 1998 Rural 2000 2002 New Town 2004 2006 Urban 2008
References
Asian Development Bank (ADB) and Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center, 2006. Country Synthesis Report on Urban Air Quality Management: Bangladesh. Discussion Draft. ADB, 2006. Civic Exchange, 2009. New Air Quality Objectives: Air your Views at 20th March Public Forum. Jockey Club, Civic Exchange. http://air.dialogue.org.hk/web/eng/news/top.php ?news_id=24 Accessed August 2009. Environmental Protection Department (EPD), 2006a. About Us: EPDs Work-Air Programme. http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/about_epd/e pd_work/epd_work11.html Accessed August 2009. , 2006b. A Proposal for Reviewing the Air Quality Objectives and Developing a Long Term Air Quality Strategy. Wan Chai, Hong Kong. http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/boards/advis ory_council/files/ACE_Paper_14-2006.pdf Accessed August 2009. , 2006c. API: API and You: What is the Air Pollution Index? http://www.epdasg.gov.hk/english/api_you/whatapi.php Accessed August 2009. , 2006d. API: Advice to Public. http://www.epdasg.gov.hk/english/advice/advice.php Accessed August 2009. , 2007. About Us: History and Structure. http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/about_epd/h istory/history.html Accessed August 2009. , 2008. Air Quality in Hong Kong 2007. Air Science Group, EPD. http://www.epdasg.gov.hk/english/report/files/aqr07e.pdf Accessed August 2009. , 2009a. Public Consultation on Air Quality Objectives Review Launched.
http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/200907/23/P 200907230082.htm Accessed August 2009. , 2009b. Annual Air Quality Statistics 2008 (Preliminary). Air Science Group, EPD. http://www.epdasg.gov.hk/english/report/files/aqr08e.pdf Accessed August 2009. , 2009c. AIR: Problems and Solutions: Air Pollution Control Strategies. http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environment inhk/air/prob_solutions/strategies_apc.html Accessed August 2009. Guangdong Provincial Environmental Protection Monitoring Centre and EPD, HKSAR, 2005. Pearl River Delta (PRD) Regional Air Quality Monitoring Network Operational Report for the Second Half of 2005. http://www.gdepb.gov.cn/gsgg/200710/P020081 125574169183159.pdf Accessed August 2009. Ove Arup & Partners Hong Kong Ltd, 2009. Agreement No. CE 57/2006 (EP) Review of Air Quality Objectives and Development of a Long Term Air Quality Strategy for Hong Kong Feasibility Study. Final Report. Environmental Protection Department. http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environment inhk/air/studyrpts/aqor_report.html. Accessed August 2009. University of Hong Kong, 2002. Final Report for the Provision of Service for Study of Short Term Health Impact and Costs due to Road TrafficRelated Air Pollution. EPD. Tender Ref. AS 00378. Department of Community Medicine, University of Hong Kong. http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environment inhk/air/studyrpts/files/ap_health_impact_02.pdf Accessed August 2009.
University of Hong Kong, [undated]. Hedley Environmental Index. http://hedleyindex.sph.hku.hk/home.php Accessed August 2009.
World Health Organization (WHO), 2000. Guidelines for Air Quality. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_SDE_OE H_00.02_pp1-104.pdf accessed August 2009. , 2006. WHO Air Quality Guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Global Update 2005. Summary of Risk Assessment. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2006/WHO_SDE_PH E_OEH_06.02_eng.pdf accessed July 2009.
Country Profile: India

Indias first set of ambient air quality standards was adopted in 1982 under the 1981 Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (No. 14 of 1981 [29/3/2981]; amended in 1987). The 1981 act also provided for the creation of the central and state boards for the prevention and control of air pollution. Section 16, Chapter 3 of the 1981 Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act confers the Central Board the mandate to lay down standards for the quality of air. The Central Government also has power to specify standards for the quality of quality of air, water or soil for various areas and purposes, as indicated in Section 6, Chapter 2 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 [No. 29 of 1986]. Following review of the 1982 standards, in 11th April 1994, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) notified the national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) (G.S.R. 384 (E), [11/4/1994]) for six major pollutants (i.e., Sulfur dioxide [SO2], oxides of Nitrogen as NO2, suspended particulate matter [SPM], respirable suspended particulate matter [RSPM], lead [Pb], and Carbon monoxide [CO]). The 1994 NAAQS were (a) land-use baseddifferent set of standards were prescribed for (i) industrial areas; (ii) residential, rural and other areas; and (iii) sensitive areas and (b) based on duration and extent of exposure/effect among the population and level of control in industries (Gargava, 2007). In establishing the 1994 NAAQS, the limiting concentration values for various pollutants were determined considering an adequate margin of safety (Gargava, 2007). Standards development was primarily based on adequate studies/data undertaken in India on the effects of air pollution on human health. If such studies were not available, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) health criteria was used (Gargava, 2007). There were, however, some issues concerning the 1994 NAAQS (Gargava, 2007).. Among these issues
include whether the existing parameters are enough or do standards need to be developed for additional parameters (i.e., hazardous air pollutants [HAPs], PM10, PM2.5, secondary pollutants, etc.). There has also been discussion regarding the existing land-use classification of standards. There seems to be no clear demarcation with city which, in turn, influences enforceability of standards. These questions, along with recent international and local scientific studies which have brought better understanding on the health impacts of air pollution, became the premise for the review of the 1994 NAAQS. In 2003, review of ambient air quality standards project was awarded to Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur (IIT-Kanpur) (Sengupta, 2008). Subsequently, a steering committee was also formed composed of academicians, consultants, non-government organizations (NGOs), doctors, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), National Institute of Occupational Health (NIOH), India Meteorological Department (IMD), industry associations, State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs), Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), CPCB, and other stakeholders to provide guidance on the review of NAAQS. In reviewing the 1994 NAAQS, the following items were considered (Sengupta, 2008): general description of the pollutant; dose-response relationship based health risk evaluation developed by international and local organizations; current air quality levels in the country; current NAAQS; associated risk with revised standards; pollutants having long-term effects should also have 24-hour standards along with the annual standard; cost of implementation of the standards; implication to development projects; and that the primary criterion for revised standards will be protection of human health.
The revised NAAQS has been notified under the 1986 Environment (Protection) Act on 16 November 2009 through the Gazette of India, Extraordinary, Part II, Section 3, subsection (i) by MoEF. The NAAQS revised the standards for Sulfur dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), PM1010, Carbon monoxide (CO), lead (Pb) and ammonia (NH3) and included standards for six additional pollutantsPM2.511, ozone, benzene, benzo(a)pyrene, arsenic (As) and nickel (Ni). A major development in the 2009 NAAQS is that the MoEF placed uniform standards for residential and industrial areas.
PM10 is used to describe particles of 10 micrometers or less in aerodynamic diameter. The concentration is 3 measured in g/m . 11 PM2.5 represents particles less than 2.5 micrometers in an aerodynamic diameter. The concentration is measured 3 in g/m .
10

National ambient air quality standards for India are presented in Table 6.
Table 14 Current Standards vs. WHO Guidelines (g/m ) Time weighted average Annual* 24-Hr** 1-Hr Annual* 24-Hr** Annual* 24-Hr** Annual* 24-Hr** 8-Hr** 1-Hr* Annual* 24-Hr** 8-Hr**
3 3
Concentration in Ambient Air Industrial, Residential, Rural and Other Area 50* 80** 40* 80** 60* 100** 40* 60** 100** 180* 0.5* 1** 2,000** 4,000** 100* 400** 5* 1* 6* 20* Ecologically Sensitive Area (notified by Central Government) 20* 80** 30* 80** 60* 100** 40* 60** 100** 180* 0.5* 1** 2,000** 4,000** 100* 400** 5* 1* 6* 20* WHO Guidelines a 20 a 200 a 40 a 20 a 50 a 10 a 25 a 100 b 0.5 b 10,000 30,000
b
Pollutant
SO2 (g/m ) NO2 (g/m ) PM10 (g/m ) PM2.5 (g/m ) Ozone (g/m ) Lead (g/m ) CO (g/m ) Ammonia (g/m ) Benzene (g/m ) Benzo(a)pyrene, particulate phase 3 only, ng/m 3 Arsenic, ng/m Nickel, ng/m
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
1-Hr** Annual* 24-Hr** Annual* Annual* Annual* Annual*
c c
Guidelines refer to the safe level of a pollutant, for a given average time, to protect the public from acute health effects. 3 g/m =micrograms per cubic meter a b Source: WHO, 2006, WHO 2000 *Annual arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year at a particular site taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform intervals. **24, 8 or 1 hourly monitored values, as applicable, shall be complied with 98% of the time in a year, 2% of the time, they may exceed the limits but not on two consecutive days of monitoring. c Unit risk available in WHO 2000.

National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP) The countrys air quality monitoring network, originally called the National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring (NAAQM)12, was initiated in 1984 with seven stations in Agra and Ampara (Rangarajan, 2009). The network was established by CPCB in coordination with the SPCBs under the 1981 Air (Pollution and Control) of Pollution Act (APA) to collect, compile and disseminate information on air quality (ADB and CAIAsia, 2006). The nationwide air quality monitoring network, now called National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP), has been established to: to determine status and trends of ambient air quality; to ascertain whether the prescribed ambient air quality standards are being complied; to identify non-attainment cities; to obtain knowledge and understanding necessary for developing preventive and corrective measures; and to understand the natural cleansing process undergoing in the environment through pollution dilution, dispersion, wind based movement, dry deposition, precipitation and chemical transformation of pollutants generated. (CPCB, [undated]). Since then, the network has been progressively expanded and developed. As of 2009, the NAMP consists of 342 operational stations monitoring SO2, NO2, SPM and PM10 in 128 cities/towns in 28 states and four Union Territories (UTs) (Figure 19) (MoEF, 2009). Monitoring is conducted for 24 hours (i.e., 4-hourly sampling for gaseous pollutants and 8hourly sampling for particulate matter) with a frequency of twice a week, to have at least 104 observations in a year.
Additional parameters, such as CO, NH3, Respirable Pb, Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds (PAHs), are also being monitored in selected cities (Rangarajan, 2009). Meteorological parameters, such as wind speed and wind direction, relative humidity (RH) and temperature, are also monitored and integrated in the monitoring programme (CPCB, [undated]).
Figure 19 Location and Distribution of air quality monitoring stations (2008)
Source: CPCB website:
http://www.cpcb.nic.in/Locations_namp.php. Monitoring activities is carried out through cooperation between various institutions, including the CPCB, SPCBs, Pollution Control Committees (PCCs), Universities and Research Institutes, including NEERI, Nagpur: CPCB in the city of Delhi; SPCBs in the respective states; PCCs in the respective UTs; and NEERI, Nagpur in six metro cities of the country. CPCB coordinates with these agencies to ensure the uniformity, consistency of air quality data and provides technical and financial support to them for operating the monitoring stations (CPCB, [undated]).
12
Now National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP).
The CPCB conducts several quality control/quality assurance (QA/QC) activities to maintain acceptable data quality. Some of the QA/QC activities being done by CPCB include Monitoring station visits (CPCB zonal office staff inspects monitoring stations and laboratories. Inspection reports are submitted to respective monitoring agencies for implementation); Regular review meetings between CPCB and other monitoring agencies; Analytical quality control (CPCB uses Ring Test Facility to evaluate the performance of different laboratories); Training program on ambient air quality monitoring; Guidelines for ambient air quality monitoring (developed by CPCB to provide guidance on: (1) site selection criteria; (2) QA/QC; (3) pollutants to be monitored in a city; (4) monitoring frequency and duration; (5) data reporting and compilation procedures; (6) measurement methods, others); and Calibration, repair of instruments and evaluation of monitoring stations (under CPCBs project: calibration and evaluation of ambient air quality monitoring stations in India). (CPCB, [undated]). In the 192nd report of the Department-related Parliamentary Standing Committee on Science and Technology, Environment and Forests, which primarily reviewed the functioning of the CPCB, also evaluated the current status of NAMP. In the 192nd report, the committee highlighted the need to strengthen and expand the air quality monitoring network to at least 1000 stations (Department-related Parliamentary Standing Committee on science and technology, environment and forests, 2008). The committee proposes to expand to about 15 cities per year to cover 76 non-compliant cities over a five-year period (Department-related Parliamentary Standing Committee on science and technology, environment and forests, 2008). In addition, there are reports which observe several continuous ambient air quality monitoring stations (CAAQMS) are not yet online. This was observed in a
Centre for Development Finance (CDF) briefing note (Rangarajan, 2009) which highlighted that the Haryana Pollution Control Board has only recently invited tenders for CAAQMS and the Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board is expected to install a third station at Manali industrial area shortly13. The CDF briefing note also emphasized concern on the availability of standard gases used for instrument calibration. The MoEF has indicated plans to progressively expand and develop the NAMP. The 2008-2009 Annual Report of the MoEF states that installation of CAAQMS is proposed for 16 cities; and to date, 33 CAAQMS have already been installed across the country (MoEF, 2009). Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Data Reporting Air quality data generated at the monitoring stations are transmitted to CPCB where these are checked, scrutinized, compiled, processed and analyzed to get the information on the annual mean, standard deviation etc. of the pollutants (CPCB, 2009). The CPCB provides necessary guidance to the officials of Gujarat Pollution Control Board (GPCB), Gujarat Environmental Management Institute (GEMI), Pollution Control Committee of Daman-Diu & Dadra Nagar Haveli (DDPCC), Maharashtra Pollution Control Board (MPCB) and other institutes and universities operating NAMP stations regarding on-line entry of monitoring data to Environmental Data Bank (MoEF, 2009). Annual air quality data for 2004 to 2006, as collected at the stations under NAMP, can be accessed through CPCBs website (http://www.cpcb.nic.in/Data2006_air.php). Air quality data can also be acquired from the environment data bank link in CPCBs website (http://cpcbedb.nic.in/). The analyzed data is presented in annual national ambient air quality status reports (NAAQSR). Air
The CAAQM to be installed in Manali was recommended by the Local Area Environment Committee in its July 2005 report pertaining to pollution and hazardous waste management issues in Manali Industrial Area in north Chennai. Source: Rangarajan, 2009
13
pollution status of various pollutants is reported in terms of low, moderate, high, and critical in relation to the NAAQS. The 2008 NAAQSR included annual air quality trends for 16 cities and four mega cities (i.e., Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai) (Source: CPCB, 2009). It also reported on government initiatives to control air pollution, including the Action Plan for the control of air pollution in 16 cities by the Honorable Supreme Court of India. Aside from NAAQSRs, air quality information is also presented in annual state of the environment reports. Real time air quality monitoring data for Delhi can be accessed in the CPCB website (http://www.cpcb.nic.in/Data-2006_air.php). Several SPCBs also publish monitoring data on their respective websites, although form and depth of data presented varies. Links to the SPCB websites can be accessed through http://www.cpcb.nic.in/links.php. Annual Ambient Air Quality Trends The CPCB has established the following criteria in analyzing the data: (a) since the sampling for 24 hours in a day could not be fulfilled at all the locations due to reasons like power failure, rainfall etc, and the values monitored for 16 hours and more are considered as the representative values for assessing the ambient air quality for that day; (b) in case no data is available in a particular month with respect to all the three parameters, the month has been excluded; (c) in case, no data is reported for a particular station with respect to all the three parameters, during entire year, that station has been excluded; and (d) frequency of monitoring twice a week, 104 days in a year could not be met in some of the locations. In such cases, 50 days of monitoring in a year is considered adequate for the purpose of data analysis (CPCB, 2009). In the 2008 NAAQR (CPCB, 2009), monitoring was conducted in 346 stations. For the 2008 monitoring period, adequate data for annual mean concentration (with 50 and more day of monitoring) for SO2 was
achieved in 317 stations, 316 stations for NO2 whilst adequate data for RSPM/PM10 and SPM was achieved in 309 stations and 297 stations, respectively. Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM/PM10) The 2009 State of the Environment highlighted PM10 as the main air pollutant of public health concern as it had the highest percentage of exceedance among monitored pollutants (MoEF, 2009). It has been estimated that the annual economic cost of damage to public health from increased air pollution, based on PM10 measurements for 50 cities with the total population of 110 million, reached USD 3 billion in 2004 (MoEF, 2009). As illustrated in Figure 20, in 2008 the average of annual PM10 levels of residential monitoring stations in most cities exceeded the annual PM10 NAAQS of 60 g/m3. Roughly 14% of the cities monitored had annual average PM10 levels in residential areas within the annual NAAQS. None of the Indian cities had annual mean PM10 levels within the WHO air quality guideline (AQG). In 2008, residential areas in Indian cities exceeded the WHO AQG for PM10 (annual) by a factor ranging from 1.9 to 12.5. Figure 21 shows the average of annual mean PM10 levels for residential monitoring stations in 16 Metro cities from 2006 to 2008. Very few metro cities (i.e. Chennai and Kochi) had average annual PM10 levels in residential areas within NAAQS (annual) for 2006 to 2008. As indicated in the 2008 NAAQSR, no definite trend has been observed in ambient PM10 levels in residential areas of these metro cities (CPCB, 2009). Contributors for high PM10 levels in cities include vehicle, engine gensets, small scale industries, biomass incineration, re-suspension of traffic dust, commercial and domestic use of fuels, and others (CPCB, 2009).
100
150
200
250
300
50
100
150
200
250
Figure 21
Figure 20
50
Source: CPCB, 2009. Annual average PM10 levels in for Indian cities (Residential areas) 2008 data Annual average PM10 in 16 Metro Cities (Residential areas) 2006 to 2008 data
NAAQS (Annual)
Source: Data from CPCB, 2009.
2006 NAAQS (Annual) WHO AQG (Annual)
2007
2008
WHO AQG (Annual)
Agra Aizawl Alwar Angul Aurangabad(MS) Bangalore BhilaiNagar Bhubaneshwar Chandigarh Chennai Cuttack Damtal Delhi Dhanbad Dimapur Faridabad Gobindgarh Guwahati Hailakandi Hisar Hubli-Dharwad Imphal Jabalpur Jalandhar Jamnagar Jodhpur Khanna Kolhapur Korba Kottayam Kurnool Lucknow Madurai Mumbai Nagda Nahan Nashik NayaNangal Panaji Parwanoo Patna Pune Rajkot Ranchi Rourkela Salem Satna Shimla Silvasa Solapur Tezpur Thoothukudi Udaipur Vadodara Varanasi Visakhapatnam
NO2 Figure 22 shows the average of annual mean NO2 levels for residential monitoring stations in 16 Metro cities from 2006 to 2008. Most of these metro cities have annual average NO2 levels within the WHO AQG (annual) and NAAQS (annual). In the past few years, a decreasing tendency for NO2 levels has been observed (CPCB, 2009). The 2008 NAAQSR lists various measures undertaken for vehicular pollution control as a possible reason for this decreasing tendency (CPCB, 2009).
SO2 Figure 23 shows the average of annual mean SO2 levels for residential monitoring stations in 16 Metro cities from 2006 to 2008. All of 16 metro cities have annual average SO2 levels compliant with the NAAQS (annual). Among these metro cities, Nashik had the highest annual average SO2 levels in residential areas in the 2006 to 2008 period. Reports by CPCB contribute relatively high SO2 levels from industrial sources (CPCB, 2009).
Figure 22
70
Annual average NO2 in 16 Metro Cities (Residential areas) 2006 to 2008 data
NAAQS (Annual) 60 WHO AQG (Annual) 50 40 30 20 10 0
2006
2007
2008
Source: CPCB, 2009.
Figure 23
50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
Annual average SO2 in 16 Metro Cities (Residential areas) 2006 to 2008 data
NAAQS (Annual)
2006
2007
2008
Source: CPCB, 2009.
References
Asian Development Bank (ADB) and Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center, 2006 Country Synthesis Report on Urban Air Quality Management: India. Discussion Draft. ADB, 2006. CPCB, [undated]. National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP). http://www.cpcb.nic.in/air.php accessed November 2009. CPCB, 2009. National Ambient Air Quality Status Report (NAAQRS): 2008. Released August, 2009. http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/AirReport-2008.pdf accessed November 2009. Department-related Parliamentary Standing Committee on science and technology, environment and forests, 2008. 192nd Report on the Functioning of the Central Pollution Control Board. Chapter 3 of the report. Gargava, P., 2007. Some opinions emerging on revision of national ambient air quality criteria/standards. CPCB. Presented at the Workshop on Recent Advances in the Field of Air Quality Management. New Delhi, India. 23 September 2007. http://www.cleanairnet.org/caiasia/1412/articles72163_Gargava.ppt MoEF, 2009. Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) Annual Report 2008-2009. http://moef.gov.in/report/report.html accessed November 2009. Rangarajan, R., 2009. Air quality monitoring regime in India: An Overview. Pollution Monitoring Series: Briefing Note 1. Centre for Development Finance (CDF). http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/Air% 20pollution%20note_final.pdf accessed: November 2009. Sengupta, B., 2008. Proposed new ambient air quality standard for improvement of air quality in India. CPCB, presented at Better Air Quality (BAQ); Bangkok, Thailand; 12-14 November 2008.
World Health Organization (WHO), 2000. Guidelines for Air Quality. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_SDE_OEH_0 0.02_pp1-104.pdf accessed August 2009. , 2006. WHO Air Quality Guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Global Update 2005. Summary of Risk Assessment. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2006/WHO_SDE_PHE_O EH_06.02_eng.pdf accessed July 2009.
Country Profile: Indonesia

Government Regulation or Peraturan Pemerintah (PP) of the Republic of Indonesia No. 41 of 1999 on Air Pollution Control (PP 41/1999) established the national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS). However, basis for setting of the NAAQS was not clearly stated. Further, no written document is found regarding how the standard was established (Pelangi, 2003). The Ministry of Environment (MoE) and provincial and regency/city environmental management institutions are the main government institutions responsible for environmental management in Indonesia (USAID et al., 2008). The 1997 Act mandates MoE to regulate all aspects of pollution control (including air pollution) and the 1999 Act details the mandate of MOE to set up standards, guidelines and acceptable practices in air pollution control efforts both for stationary and mobile sources (ADB, 2002). In addition, there are other sector institutions working on environmental compliance and enforcement, including the Department of Industry, Department of Forestry, Department of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Police Force, National Attorney and Judiciary (USAID et al., 2008). Regional administrations can also establish local regulations to implement the autonomy and the assistance assignment (USAID et al., 2008). Jakarta, for instance, has established its own ambient air quality standards through DKI Jakarta Governors Decree No. 551 of 2001. The Government Regulation No. 41/1999 concerning Air Pollution Control and MoE Decree on emission standards allows provincial governments to set regional vehicle emission standards, industrial emission standards, and ambient air quality standards that are more stringent than or at least equivalent to the national standards (CAI-Asia, 2009). More stringent regional ambient air quality standards (RAAQS) may be established to protect (i) the air quality of region that is still clean or (ii) the
uniqueness of a region, including flora, fauna and historical sites (Pelangi, 2003).

National ambient air quality standards exist for total suspended particulates (TSP), PM1014, Sulfur dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3) and lead (Pb). Aside from the NAAQS, Jakarta also has its own ambient air quality standards for the same set of pollutants (except for Pb). Table 6 presents the ambient air quality standards at the national level and for Jakarta compared with the World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines.
Table 15 Current Standards vs. WHO Guidelines (g/m ) Average Jakarta NAAQS WHO Time AAQS Guidelines TSP 24-Hrs 230 230 Annual 90 90 PM10 24-Hrs 150 150 50 Annual 20 a NO2 1-Hr 400 400 200 24-Hrs 92.5 150 a Annual 60 100 40 a SO2 10-min 500 1-Hr 900 900 a 24-Hrs 260 365 20 Annual 60 60 O3 1-Hr 200 235 a 8-Hr 100 24-Hr 30 50 b CO 1-Hr 26,000 30,000 30,000 b 8-Hr 10,000 24-Hr 9,000 10,000 Pb 24-Hrs b Annual 1 0.5 Guidelines refer to the safe level of a pollutant, for a given average time, to protect the public from acute health effects. 3 g/m =micrograms per cubic meter a b Source: WHO, 2006, WHO, 2000. Pollutant
3
PM10 is used to describe particles of 10 micrometers or less in aerodynamic diameter. The concentration is 3 measured in g/m .
14
Comparing Jakartas ambient air quality standards with the NAAQS, it is observed that Jakarta has more stringent standards for annual and 24-Hr averaging time NO2, 24-Hr averaging time SO2, CO and O3. However, both the NAAQS and Jakartas standards are more lenient (except for 1-Hr averaging time CO) relative to the WHO Guidelines.
speed, humidity, solar radiation, and temperature are also measured. Air quality monitoring results from each station in the city are sent electronically to the Regional Air Quality Monitoring Center (RAQMC) in the city where data is verified, backed up, and reported (CAI-Asia, 2009). From the city RAQMC, the data is sent through frame relay to the Main Center at the Ministry of Environment. The online data are used to calculate the pollutant standard index (PSI) values at each regional center, which are subsequently published on data displays to the public. In addition, each RC compiles monthly and annual reports to evaluate air quality status using statistical methods (ADB, 2002). In the beginning (2001-2003), all stations were still operating well, but after a few years some stations degraded due to maintenance problems and/or some exceeded their useful life (Table 16) (CAI-Asia, 2009)16. Local government agencies are also mandated to monitor ambient air quality within their jurisdiction. In Jakarta, for instance, local government has been mandated through Government Regulation No. 25 to implement environmental management at the local level. The Environmental Management Board DKI Jakarta (BPHLD DKI) is responsible for monitoring ambient and roadside air quality (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). Jakarta City Administration currently owns one air quality monitor station to be launched in November this year (Berita Jakarta, 2009). The station will be placed in front of Grand Indonesia Hotel (Berita Jakarta, 2009). According to Peni Susanti for Jakarta Local Management Environment Board, the city administration will try to add a monitoring station one by one per year (Berita Jakarta, 2009). Next year, the agency will add stations in East Jakarta and North Jakarta (Berita Jakarta, 2009).
Indicated by Mr. Andono Warih, Division Head of Laboratory, Badan Pengelola Lingkungan Hidup Daerah (Environment Agency), the Province of Jakarta during an th interview on 10 May 2009.
16

Air Quality Monitoring Network Based on Regulation No. 41 (1999), ambient air quality monitoring is the mandated to both the national and local governments. On the national level, the MoE is the main agency responsible for air quality monitoring. The national air quality monitoring network was established between 1999 and 2000 through a financial support from the Austrian Government. This established an online network of ambient air quality monitoring stations in ten cities15 (AQMS network) (ADB, 2002). The Environment Management Center (EMC), under the MoE, is the main center for ambient air quality monitoring network (Farhani, 2002). The network consisted of 33 ambient air quality monitoring stations, nine mobile stations, eight regional calibration centers, 1 main center and 1 main calibration center. The distribution of air quality monitoring stations are as followsJakarta (5), Medan (4), Bandung (5), Surabaya (5), Semarang (3), Pekanbaru (3), Palangkaraya (3), Denpasar (3), Jambi (1) and Pontianak (1) (CAI-Asia, 2009). The AQMS network in each city consists of a monitoring station, meteorology station, a regional center (RC) and a data display. The RCs operate and maintain the monitoring stations, and function as data centers. Monitoring stations are equipped in measuring ambient NO2, SO2, PM10, CO, and O3. Meteorological data, including wind direction and
DKI Jakarta, Bandung, Semarang, Surabaya, Denpasar, Medan, Pekanbaru, Palangkaraya, Jambi, and Pontianak.
15
Table 16 Status of Air Quality Monitoring in Selected Cities in Indonesia City Semarang
a
Status of Air Quality Monitoring One out of three stations is still operating In 2008, monitoring data from the single remaining station could not be verified Air quality monitoring is done manually (using passive sampler) in all subdistricts Results indicate that air quality tends to decline in some locations Monitoring has been discontinued since 2003 The monitoring equipment has been returned to the Ministry of Environment (MoE) for a variety of reasons including city priorities and budget Three out of five monitoring stations are still operating Three parameters were measured instead of five parameters because the air pollutant analyzers for two other parameters were damaged Results from the AQMS indicate that air quality is relatively stable during the period of 20062008. However, results from the manual monitoring show that air quality has worsened in several locations in Bandung Three out of five monitoring stations are still operating even though the PM10 analyzer in two stations is not functioning Results of monitoring using the Pollutant Standard Index (PSI) indicate improved air quality in Surabaya as shown by the increasing number of good days in the last two to three years
e f
Denpasar
Bandung
Surabaya
Jakarta
From 2005 to 2008, the number of good days tends to increase Of the five stations, only two stations are now operating in Jakarta
Batam, Bogor, Balikpapan

a
Smaller cities such as Batam, Bogor and Balikpapan have already owned an automatic air quality monitoring station since 2007 The air quality in these cities is still acceptable; pollutant concentrations meet the national ambient air quality standard values
Sources: Personal interview with Mrs. Indah Wahyutrimurindah, Subdivision Head of Laboratory, Badan Lingkungan Hidup b (Environmental Agency), City of Semarang on 23 April 2009; Environmental Management Center of MoE (Pusarpedal), 2009 c (Personal interview with Mr. Esrom Hamonangan); Interview with Mrs. Ayu Sukenjah, Division Head of Environmental d Rehabilitation, Badan Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup (Environmental Agency), City of Bandung on 23 April 2009; Personal interview with Mr. Togar Arifin Silaban, Head of Badan Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup (Environmental Agency), City of e f Surabaya on 23 April 2009, Air Quality Laboratory, Jakarta Environment Board, 2009; The Jakarta Post, 2009.
Apart from the air quality monitoring conducted by MoE, other local and national government agencies also conduct their own air quality monitoring. The Bureau of Meteorology, Climatology and Geophysics (BMKG) has undertaken ambient air quality monitoring activities in Indonesia since 1976 (Syahril et al., 2002). Currently, BKMG has an air quality monitoring network composed of 43 stations wherein 41 stations can monitor suspended particulate matter (SPM) and 29 stations measuring rain water chemistry (BKMG, [undated]).
Five stations of BKMG in DKI Jakarta measure SO2, NO2, surface aerosol and O3 aside from SPM and rain water chemistry monitoring. On the other hand, the Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) Station situated in Bukit Kototabang, Western Sumatra monitors PM10, PM2.517, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, methane (CH4), Carbon dioxide (CO2), Nitrous oxide (N2O), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) and UV-B radiation. Method of analysis and
17
PM2.5 represents particles less than 2.5 micrometers in an aerodynamic diameter. The concentration is measured 3 in g/m .
monitoring equipment used by BKMG is presented in Table 17.

Table 17 Method of analysis used Parameter Rain Water Method of Analysis Wet deposition Wet and dry deposition SPM Aerosol SO2 NO2 Surface ozone CO CO2 PM10 High volume Low volume Passive gas Passive gas UV photometry UV photometry Infrared photometry Beta attenuation monitoring (BAM) Light scattering Thermo couple Monitoring Instrument Automatic Rain Gauge type ARS 721 Automatic Rain Gauge type ARS 1000 High volume sampler Aerosol sampler / low volume sampler Filter whatman Filter whatman Automatic ozone Analyzer UV photometry CO Infrared CO2 analyzer BAM 1020 analyzer
Air quality data in Indonesia are available in two formats, as PSI18 and as ambient air concentration, with the latter being the least available (ADB and CAIAsia, 2006). Air quality monitoring data collected from the AQMS is analyzed by the MoE (CAI-Asia, 2009). The MoE takes the previous days results and converts these into PSI making use of the twenty-four hour data needed in order for the PSI to be calculated. While the PSI may not be a very effective tool to inform the public of the current state of the air, an analysis of PSI over several years could provide air quality trends (CAI-Asia, 2009). These are both reported in Indonesias annual State of the Environment Reports (SoER) (Status Lingkungan Hidup IndonesiaSLHI). Aside from the national SoER, air quality information is also reported in the provincial and regency/city SoERs (Hanum and Murwani, 2008). The PSI is also displayed on the monitors installed in several locations in the city. However, most of these monitors are currently not working (CAI-Asia, 2009). Some cities (e.g. Jakarta) attempt to report the PSI through their website even though not frequently (CAI-Asia, 2009). The general public can also access air quality monitoring data from the BKMG website http://www.bmg.go.id/kualitasudara.bmkg. Several reports (World Bank, 2003; Syahril et al., 2002 and ADB, 2002) also highlight estimated health impacts and costs of air pollution in Indonesia alongside air quality information and these reports illustrate how Indonesias air pollution is increasingly becoming a health hazard. In the 2003 Indonesia Environment Monitor: Special Focus-Reducing
18
PM2.5 Solar radiation
Nephelometer M9003 Solar radiation monitoring
SOURCE: BKMG, [undated]
Aside from BMKG, other agencies also conducting air quality monitoring include the Environmental Health Laboratories (BTKL), the National Atomic Board (BATAN), the National Aeronautical Board (LAPAN), Ministry of Health, Ministry of Transport, and the Road Development and Research Authority. The data collected is currently not being shared among these different agencies. Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Data Reporting The government is obligated to disseminate environmental information to the public, as indicated in paragraph 10 of the Environmental Management Act No. 23 of 1997 and reinforced with the newly enacted Act No. 32 of 2009 on Environmental Conservation and Management.
Air monitoring data are aggregated into a PSI (WHO, 2003). The PSI, implemented concurrent with the AQMS project provided information on the air quality condition with the following index good (1-50), moderate (51-100), unhealthy (101-199), very unhealthy (200-299), and dangerous (300 and above) (ADB, 2002). The PSI is calculated based on 24-hour averages for PM10 and SO2, 8-hour averages for CO, 1-hour averages for O3 and NO2 based on the Head of Bapedal Decree No. 107 (1997).
Pollution (World Bank, 2003), statistics showed that upper respiratory tract conditions was one of the leading causes of morbidity, responsible for 45 percent of all reported morbidity cases at that time. However, ambient air quality monitoring results are not yet being correlated with health surveillance programs.
Figure 25 Annual average PM10 in Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung, Palangkaraya, Pekanbaru and Medan 3 in 2008 (g/m ) 120 100 80 60 40
Annual Ambient Air Quality Trends PM10 Fine particulates in the air constitute a major health threat in Indonesia (World Bank, 2003). Figure 24 illustrates the average annual PM10 levels in three cities in Indonesia from 2001 to 2008. The average annual PM10 tendency is slightly. However, PM10 levels are still well above the WHO annual AQG.
Figure 24 Annual average PM10 levels in Jakarta, 3 Surabaya and Bandung (2001-2008) (g/m ) 90 75 60 45 30 15 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
20 0
WHO AQG (Annual) Source: Data from Environment Laboratory, Environmental Board (Jakarta) and Environmental Agencies of Surabaya, Palangkarayu, Pekanbaru, Medan, Semarang, Pontianak and Bandung.
NO2 Figure 26 shows the annual ambient NO2 levels in Jakarta, Surabaya, and Bandung in the 2001-2008 monitoring period.
Figure 26 Annual average NO2 levels in Jakarta, Surabaya, and Bandung (2001-2008) (g/m3) 100 80 60 40 Jakarta Bandung Surabaya WHO AQG (Annual) 20 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Jakarta Bandung WHO Surabaya NAAQS (Annual)
Source: Data from Environment Laboratory, Environmental Board (Jakarta) and Environmental Agencies of Surabaya and Bandung.
In 2008, annual average of PM10 levels in six cities was about 50 g/m3 (i.e., this was based on data taken from 12 stations). This illustrates that PM10 levels of four out of six cities exceeded the WHO annual AQG of 20g/m3 (Figure 25).
Overall, relatively low NO2 values have been recorded in the three cities, with levels well within the NAAQS as well as Jakartas standards. Annual NO2 levels also satisfy the WHO air quality guideline value, except for Jakarta in 2002 and 2005. SO2 Figure 27 presents the annual average SO2 levels in Jakarta, Surabaya, and Bandung in the 2001-2008 monitoring period. Annual average SO2 levels in Surabaya show an increasing tendency, with values above the NAAQS since the 2005 monitoring year. Similarly, monitoring activities in Jakarta show that annual average SO2 levels are also in a slightly increasing tendency. Among these cities, Surabaya usually had the highest SO2 average concentration; which corresponds to Surabayas being one of the major industrial areas in the country.
Figure 27 Annual average SO2 levels in Jakarta, 3 Surabaya, and Bandung (2001-2008) (g/m ) 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Jakarta Bandung Surabaya NAAQS (Annual)
Pb Reports have highlighted that Pb emissions from gasoline pose environmental danger to Indonesians (World Bank, 2003). From 1998 to 2003, Pb levels in Jakarta more than tripled resulting from the increasing vehicle numbers following Indonesias economic recovery (BAPPENAS, 2007) (Figure 28).
Figure 28 Annual Ambient Pb levels in Jakarta 3 (1995-2000) (g/m ) 1.4 1.2 NAAQS (Annual) 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 2000 WHO AQG (Annual)
SOURCE: World Bank, 2003.
Nonetheless, with the nationwide phase-out of Pb in 1 July 2006 (as indicated when PERTAMINA, the Stateowned oil company, ceased adding Pb in its gasoline production), atmospheric Pb levels have been decreasing (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). In Jakarta, lead pollution has already dropped by 90% (BAPPENAS, 2007). In the same manner, nationwide Pb levels are also decreasing.
O3 Annual average O3 levels in Jakarta from 2001 to 2008 have an increasing tendency (Figure 29). Ozone levels in Jakarta from 2002 to 2007 are higher than the annual NAAQS and Jakartas 1-year O3 standard.
Figure 29 Annual average O3 levels in Jakarta 3 (2001-2008) (g/m ) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Jakarta AAQS (Annual) NAAQS (Annual)
Source: Data from Environment Laboratory, Environmental Board (Jakarta)
References
Asian Development Bank (ADB), 2002. Action Plan: Integrated Vehicle Emission Reduction Strategy for Greater Jakarta, Indonesia. Prepared by Indonesian Multi-Sectoral Action Plan Group on Vehicle Emissions Reduction. Prepared for ADB Regional Technical Assistance 5937: Reducing Vehicle Emissions in Asia. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Others/Vehicle_ Emission_Strategy_INO/action_plan_VES.pdf. accessed September 2009. Berita Jakarta, 2009. Air quality station to be launched in November. http://www.beritajakarta.com/2008/en/newsvie w.aspx?idwil=0&id=12798 accessed October 2009. ADB and Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAIAsia) Center, 2006 Country Synthesis Report on Urban Air Quality Management: Indonesia. Discussion Draft. ADB, 2006. CAI-Asia, 2009. Clean Air for Smaller Cities in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Region Indonesia Country Profile. CAI-Asia, 2009. National Development Planning Agency of Indonesia (BAPPENAS), 2007. Driving out Lead from Indonesia. Urban Air Quality Improvement Program Newsletter. Issue 1. http://www.dunais.org/ma/download/udarakota1_en_final_PRINT.pdf. accessed September 2009. Badan Meteorologi Klimatologi dan Geofisika (BMKG), [undated]. Kualitas Udara. http://www.bmg.go.id/kualitasudara.bmkg accessed September 2009. Farhani, N., 2002. The Air Quality Monitoring in Indonesia. Presented at the Project Committee Meeting and Conference of Project Participants and End Users for International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)/Regional Cooperative Agreement (RCA) ProjectIsotopic and Related Techniques to
Assess Air Pollution (RAS/8/082). Beijing, China. 11-15 November 2002. http://www.rca.iaea.org/members/Meeting_Conf erence/RAS/RAS8082/2002Beijing/Annex%2041%20Conference%20report/End%20User%20repo rt-Indonesia.pdf. accessed September 2002. Hanum, S.A. and Murwani, S.N., 2008. Experience of City SoE Process in Indonesia. Presented at the Regional Workshop on GEO/IEA Methodologies. Chiang Mai, Thailand. 8-11 September 2008. http://geodata.rrcap.unep.org/Workshop2008090 8/Indonesian%20Presentation.ppt. accessed September 2009. The Jakarta Post, 2009. Rp 17 billion for new airquality monitoring stations. http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/10/2 0/rp-17-billion-new-airquality-monitoringstations.html accessed October 2009. Loedin, L., 2001. Pemantauan Kualitas Udara di Propinsi DKI Jakarta. Paper Presented in Integrated Vehicle Emission Reduction Strategy Workshop. Jakarta, Indonesia. 16-18 October 2001. As cited in Syahril, S., Resosudarmo, B., and Tomo, H.S., 2002. Study on Air Quality, Future Trends, Health Impacts, Economic Value and Policy Options, Jakarta, Indonesia. Prepared for ADB. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Studies/Air_Qual ity_INO/air_quality.pdf accessed September 2009. Pelangi, 2003. Study of Air Quality Management Regulations in Indonesia. Executive Summary. http://www.pelangi.or.id/progress.php?pid=11 accessed September 2009. Supalal, Y.A., 2001. Air Quality in Jakarta Indonesia. Unpublished Masters Thesis, TU-Graz. As cited in Syahril, S., Resosudarmo, B., and Tomo, H.S., 2002. Study on Air Quality, Future Trends, Health Impacts, Economic Value and Policy Options, Jakarta, Indonesia. Prepared for ADB. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Studies/Air_Qual ity_INO/air_quality.pdf accessed September 2009.
Syahril, S., Resosudarmo, B., and Tomo, H.S., 2002. Study on Air Quality, Future Trends, Health Impacts, Economic Value and Policy Options, Jakarta, Indonesia. Prepared for ADB. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Studies/Air_Qual ity_INO/air_quality.pdf accessed September 2009. United States Agency for International Development (USAID), Indonesian Center for Environmental Law (ICEL), State Ministry of Environment (MoE) and the Secretariat of Asian Environmental Compliance and Enforcement Network (AECEN), 2008. Environmental Compliance and Enforcement in Indonesia. Rapid Assessment. http://www.aecen.org/download/ID_Assessment. pdf accessed September 2009. World Bank, 2003. Indonesia Environment Monitor 2003: Special Focus: Reducing Pollution. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESI A/Resources/Publication/03Publication/indo_monitor.pdf accessed September 2009. World Health Organization (WHO), 2000. Guidelines for Air Quality. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_SDE_OE H_00.02_pp1-104.pdf accessed August 2009. , 2006. WHO Air Quality Guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Global Update 2005. Summary of Risk Assessment. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2006/WHO_SDE_PH E_OEH_06.02_eng.pdf accessed July 2009.
Country Profile: Republic of Korea
86
REPUBLIC OF KOREA

The 1977 Environmental Preservation Act formed basis for a number of environmental laws enacted on 1 August 1990the Basic Environmental Policy Act, Air Quality Preservation Act, Water Quality Preservation Act and Noise and Vibration Control Act. The Air Quality Preservation Act, now referred to as the 1990 Clean Air Conservation Act, stipulates, among others, permissible emission standards for air pollutants. The standards established were in accordance to Article 10 of the Framework Act on Environmental Policy for the purposes of protecting the health of citizens and promoting a clean atmosphere. National ambient air quality standards for Republic of Korea were first established in 1978. These standards underwent a series of revisions in 1983, 1991, 1993, 2001, 2007 and 2009. The Ministry of Environment (MOE), mandated by the 1990 Clean Air Conservation Act, led in the process of drafting, reviewing and approving these standards. Other agencies involved in the review and revisions of the air standards include the National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER) and the local Institutes of Health and Environment. In addition, the local governments of Metropolitan Cities or Special Metropolitan Cities have the authority to enforce their own municipal ordinances for environmental quality standards due to the variation in regional characteristics. In terms of implementation, aside from the MOE, the local environmental offices of different municipalities are mandated to implement ambient air quality standards in their respective areas of jurisdiction.

National ambient air quality standards exist for PM1019, Sulfur dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), lead (Pb) and benzene. Ambient air quality standards for PM10 and NO2 have been developed for a number of provinces in South Korea, including Seoul, Gwang-Yang Bay, Gwangju City, Busan City, Ulsan City, Incheon City and Jeju Island. In addition, Seoul also has ambient air quality standards for SO2, CO, O3 and Pb. Table 10 presents ambient air quality standards at the national level and for several metropolitan cities and special metropolitan cities in the region compared with the World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines. National ambient air quality standards for ozone, CO and Pb are generally similar with the WHO guidelines. The national and city-specific PM10, NO2 and SO2 standards however are more lenient than WHO guidelines. Noticeably, apart from Seoul, ambient air quality standards for the cities are concentrated on only PM10 and NO2. For both pollutants, much lenient limits have been established at the city level relative to the standards at the national level. The areas for air quality standards development includeestablishment of standards for PM2.520, standardization of air quality measurement tools and cost benefit analysis of establishing ambient air quality standards.
19 19
PM10 is used to describe particles of 10 micrometers or less in aerodynamic diameter. The concentration is 3 measured in g/m . 20 PM2.5 represents particles less than 2.5 micrometers in an aerodynamic diameter. The concentration is measured 3 in g/m .
Table 18 Current Standards vs. WHO Guidelines (g/m ) Gwang Gwangju Busan Ulsan Incheon Jeju WHO c c c c c -Yang City City City City Island c Bay h PM10 24-Hrs 100 120 120 120 120 120 120 50 h Annual 50 60 60 60 60 60 60 20 d h NO2 1-Hr 188 263 226 263 263 226 263 200 24-Hrs 113 132 120 132 132 120 132 h Annual 56 75 75 75 75 75 75 40 e h SO2 10-min 500 1-Hr 392 314 h 24-Hrs 131 105 20 Annual 52 26 f O3 1-Hr 196 200 h 8-Hr 118 120 100 g i CO 1-Hr 28,625 28,625 30,000 i 8-Hr 10,305 10,305 10,000 Pb 1-Hr 3-Mon 1.0 i Annual 0.5 0.5 0.5 Benzene Annual 5 Guidelines refer to the safe level of a pollutant, for a given average time, to protect the public from acute health effects. 3 g/m =micrograms per cubic meter a b c 2007 Standards, 1998 Standards, 2008 Standards d 3 e 3 f Conversion factor for ppb to g/m :1.880, Conversion factor for ppb to g/m :2.616, Conversion factor for ppb to 3 g 3 g/m :1.962, Conversion factor for ppb to g/m :1.145 h i Source: WHO 2006, WHO 2000 Pollutant Average Time Republic a of Korea Seoul
b

National Air Monitoring Information System (NAMIS) The Republic of Korea has a National Ambient Air Monitoring Information System (NAMIS). Establishment of regular air quality monitoring network to understand variations in air pollution, weather and ecosystem, was stipulated in Article: 3 of the Clean Air Conservation Act (CACL). The MOE has the overall responsibility for national air quality monitoring. Real time monitoring of ambient air quality is undertaken by NIER, local environmental management offices of MOE and the Institute of Health and Environment of each local government. The scheme of the national air quality monitoring system is illustrated in Figure 30.
Figure 30 Quality
Schemes of Monitoring System for Air Ministry of Environment
NIER, MOE
Local Env. Management Office, MOE
Local Government (cities and provinces)
SOURCE: Kim and Kim, 2003.
The local environmental management offices have set up air quality monitoring stations in their respective jurisdictions (Table 19). The local governments are also expected to establish and operate their own monitoring facilities. Mayors and Provincial Governors have been instructed in the CACL to install
air quality observation networks, according to Ministry of Environment regulations, to understand local air quality through regular monitoring. Table 20 presents the number of air quality monitoring stations of different cities/provinces. The ambient air quality monitoring details, i.e. pollutants and parameters measured and monitoring frequency, under the NAMIS are presented in Table 21. There are plans to expand the NAMIS in the next couple of years to include additional cities, to install additional monitoring stations and to monitor two more pollutants, i.e. benzene and mercury.
Table 19 Air Quality Monitoring Environmental Management Office Environmental Management Office Sudokwon Nakdonggang Geumgang Yeongsangang Wonju Daegu Jeonju Total SOURCE: MOE, 2008. Stations of Local
Table 20 Air Quality Government Local Government Seoul city Busan city Daegu city Incheon city Gwangju city Daejeon city Ulsan city Gyeonggi do Gangwon do Chungcheongbuk do Chungcheongnam do Jeollabuk do Jeollanam do Gyeongsangbuk do Gyeongsangnam do Jeju do TOTAL SOURCE: MOE, 2008.
Monitoring
Stations
of
Local
No. of Air Quality Monitoring Stations 41 26 17 22 13 13 19 66 11 9 10 12 13 14 15 3 304
No. of Air Quality Monitoring Stations 27 18 11 14 14 12 6 102
Table 21 Real Time Monitoring of Ambient Air Quality by Ten Station Types Stations AQ of city AQ of road Acidic deposition National ambient AQ gradient AQ of suburbs area Ambient heavy metal levels Hazardous air pollutants Photochemical pollutants Visual Range Global Atmosphere Parameters Measured SO2, NOx, O3, CO, PM10, wind direction, wind speed, temperature, humidity SO2, NOx, O3, CO, PM10, wind direction, wind speed, temperature pH, amount of precipitation, electrical conductivity, ion concentration SO2, NOx, O3, CO, PM10, wind direction, wind speed, temperature SO2, NOx, O3, CO, PM10, wind direction, wind speed, temperature Pb, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Fe, Ni 13 kinds of VOCs, 7 kinds of PAHs 56 kinds of VOCs Scattering coefficient CO2, CH4, N2O, CFCs Monitoring Frequency Continuous / 1hr Continuous / 1hr When raining Continuous / 1hr Continuous / 1hr Monthly / 5 times Monthly / 1 times Continuous / 1hr Continuous / 1hr Continuous / 1hr
Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Data Reporting The data collected from the various air quality monitoring stations across the country, both stationary and mobile stations, are electronically transmitted via a telemetry system (TMS)21 to the Regional Environmental Management Offices and to the MOE to consolidate real time ambient air quality information (APMA, 2002). The general public can access the ambient air quality data from www.airkorea.or.kr. Since the launch of the website in December 2005, the public has been provided an overall presentation of real time air quality data of the whole nation. The website presents real time levels of a range of pollutants-PM10, O3, CO, SO2 and NO2. In addition to the air pollutant levels, a comprehensive air quality index (CAI) is also reported in the website. The CAI is one method of describing ambient air quality based on health risk of air pollution. It aims to help the public easily understand local air quality levels and its implications to their health (MOE, [undated]). The CAI categories and corresponding description and health effects are listed in Table 22. Aside from reporting in the AIRKOREA website, the ambient air quality monitoring data are reported by the MOE in various publications, including annual Environmental Statistics Yearbooks, Green Korea and Ecorea publications. Ambient air quality monitoring results are also used in the analysis of environmental health statistics. For instance, as reported in the Green Korea 2006 Report (MOE, 2006), out of 10,000 persons, there are 9.5 additional deaths due to air pollution. The interconnection of environmental health and air quality monitoring data was further verified and strengthened through the 2006-2015 Environmental Health Plan (MOE and KEI, 2006). This comprehensive ten year plan initiated a shift in the development of environmental policy from environmental media21
oriented (i.e. air) to receptor-oriented environmental policy (i.e. humans and ecosystem). As indicated in the 2006-2015 Plan, major projects for outdoor/indoor air quality include, among others, development of the standards of outdoor and indoor air quality based on exposure and risk assessment and long/short term monitoring of exposure to hazardous air contaminants (MOE and KEI, 2006).
Table 22 Understanding the CAI Category A Description Good Health Effects A level that will not impact patients suffering from diseases related to air pollution A level which may have a meager impact on patients in case of chronic exposure A level that may have harmful impacts on patients and members of sensitive groups A level that may have harmful impacts on patients and members of sensitive groups (children, aged or weak people), and also cause the general public unpleasant feelings A level which may have a serious impact on patients and members of sensitive groups in case of acute exposure A level which may need to take emergency measures for patients and members of sensitive groups and have harmful impacts on the general public
Moderate
Unhealthy for sensitive groups Unhealthy
Very unhealthy
Hazardous
SOURCE: AIRKOREA website (http://www.airkorea.or.kr/airkorea/eng/cai/main.jsp)
The TMS is an information system which links every monitoring station with the computer centre of each Regional Environmental Management Office and the MOE computer centre (APMA, 2002).
Annual Ambient Air Quality Trends PM10 Figure 31 illustrates the annual average PM10 levels in South Korea from 1995 to 2007. Monitoring results in the recent years are relatively lower compared with
Figure 31 100 80 60 40 20 0 1995
Seoul Incheon Ulsan
the results in the mid-1990s, showing a decreasing tendency. However, the ambient PM10 levels recorded still do not meet the WHO guidelines. The ambient PM10 levels in Seoul, Busan, Daegu and Incheon did not satisfy the national standard throughout this monitoring period.
Annual Average PM10Concentrations in Republic of Korea (g/m )
1997
1999
2001
Busan Gwangju NAAQS (Annual)
2003
2005
Daegu Daejon
2007
WHO AQG (Annual)
Source: Data from Seoul National University. Figure 32 3 Korea (g/m ) 80 60 40 20 0 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007
Seoul Daegu Gwangju Ulsan WHO AQG (Annual) Busan Incheon Daejon NAAQS (Annual)
Annual Average NO2 levels in Republic of
NO2 Annual average NO2 monitoring results from 1989 to 2007 show a slightly increasing tendency for most cities (Figure 32). For certain years, annual NO2 levels in Gwangju, Ulsan and Daejon satisfied WHO guidelines and Ulsan and Daejon continue to show slightly decreasing tendency. Overall, monitoring locations maintain the observed range of fluctuation in NO2 values throughout the monitoring period. Although the cities, apart from Seoul, generally comply with the national NO2 limits, most cities have annual average NO2 levels above the WHO annual AQG.
Source: Data from Seoul National University.
SO2 Ambient SO2 monitoring results in the Republic of Korea present a steadily decreasing trend from 1989 to 2007. At the onset on 1997, annual average ambient SO2 levels have consistently met the national standards. Figure 33 shows yearly mean SO2 values in South Korea.
Figure 33 3 Korea (g/m )
180 150 120 90 60 30 0 1989 1992
Seoul Daegu Gwangju Ulsan
Figure 34 3 Korea (g/m ) 4200 3500 2800 2100 Annual Average SO2 levels in Republic of 1400 700 0 1989
Seoul Gwangju
Annual Average CO levels in Republic of
1992
1995
Busan Daejon
1998
2001
Daegu Ulsan
2004
2007
Incheon
O3 Annual average O3 levels illustrate a generally increasing trend in Republic of Korea (Figure 35). Monitoring results in 1989 to 2007 show fluctuating, 2007 but rising, ambient O3 values. Among the monitoring locations, Busan frequently reported an annual mean ambient O3 value within the upper range.
Figure 35 3 Korea (g/m ) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 Daegu Daejon 2007 Seoul Busan Incheon Gwangju Ulsan Source: Data from Seoul National University. Annual Average O3 levels in Republic of
1995
1998
2001
2004
Busan Incheon Daejon NAAQS (Annual)
CO Comparable to SO2 results, yearly ambient CO concentrations have declined from 1989 to 2007 (Figure 34). Initially, a relatively wide range in ambient CO values was measured between monitoring locations. As illustrated in Figure 34, in 1989, annual ambient CO levels in Busan, Daegu, Gwangju, Daejon and Ulsan fall within a relatively close range whilst CO levels in Incheon and Seoul belong to the upper CO range. However, in the 1990s and well into year 2000, narrow variations in ambient CO values between cities are observed.
References
Air Pollution in Mega Cities of Asia (APMA), 2002. Benchmarking Urban Air Quality Management and Practice in Major and Mega Cities of Asia: Stage I. Korea Environment Institute, 613-2 Bulgwang-dong, Eunpyeong-gu 122-706, Seoul, Republic of Korea. http://www.unep.org/PDF/APMA_Benchmarking_ rep ort.pdf accessed August 2009. Kim, S.S. and Kim, H.K., 2003. National Monitoring Systems on Marine, River and Atmosphere in Korea. National Fisheries Research and Development Institute (NFRDI), Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries (MOMAF), Republic of Korea. ftp://pomrac.dvo.ru/Final1/KorRep.pdf accessed August 2009. Ministry of Environment (MOE), 2006. Green Korea: 2006: A Beautiful Environment and a Healthy Future. http://eng.me.go.kr/docs/publication/publication _detail.html?idx=23&mcode=A&topmenu=E&cat= 310 accessed August 2009. , 2008. 2008 Environmental Statistics Yearbook. http://eng.me.go.kr/docs/publication/publication. html?topmenu=E&cat=340&mcode=D accessed August 2009. , [undated]. Whats CAI. Gyeonggi-do, Korea. http://www.airkorea.or.kr/airkorea/eng/cai/main. jsp accessed August 2009. and Korea Environment Institute (KEI), 2006. Environmental Health Plan 2006~2015. Korea Environmental Policy Bulletin, Issue 2,
Volume: IV, 2006. http://eng.me.go.kr/docs/publication/filedown.ht ml?filename=Health%20Plan(06).pdf&mcode=B accessed August 2009.
World Health Organization (WHO), 2000. Guidelines for Air Quality. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_SDE_OE H_00.02_pp1-104.pdf accessed August 2009. , 2006. WHO Air Quality Guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Global Update 2005. Summary of Risk Assessment. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2006/WHO_SDE_PH E_OEH_06.02_eng.pdf accessed July 2009.
Country Profile: Nepal

The authority to establish environmental quality standards by His Majestys Government (HMG) has been outlined in the Environment Protection Act, 2053 (1997 A.D.). However, Nepals national ambient air quality standards were established in June 2003. The promulgation of ambient air standards was included in the countrys Tenth Five-Year Plan (20022007). One of the adopted working policies in the Tenth Plan was determination of air, water, and sound pollution standards and implementation of programs that give emphasis to an effective monitoring system (ADB and ICIMOD, 2006). The Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology (MoEST) lead in the development of the national ambient air quality standards. The overall process for the establishment of the standards is illustrated in Figure 36.
Figure 36 Process for Establishment of Ambient Air Quality Standards Draft Process
was the key government body in environment in Nepal (ADB and ICIMOD, 2006). In April 2005, however, MoPE was dissolved, and its Environment Division was transferred to Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST), establishing MoEST as a new Ministry with main mandate to carry out environmental activities (ADB and Cai-Asia, 2006). Other agencies also assist and provide input during the standards development process. These include the Nepal Bureau of Standards and Metrology, Ministry of Health and Population, Federation of Nepalese Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FNCCI), Confederation of Nepalese Industries (CNI), Traffic Police, Ministry of Labor and Transport, Automobile Dealers' Association and Nepal Academy of Science and Technology. The national ambient air quality standards are not explicitly incorporated as part of any environmental legislation as there is currently no specific law in Nepal that seeks to address the countrys urban air pollution problem. The Environment Protection Act (EPA) 1997 and the Environment Protection Rules (EPR) 1997 and 1999 update are the umbrella legislation for environmental protection. The Act covers environment conservation; pollution control and prevention; conservation of natural heritage sites; operation of environmental funds; additional incentives to minimize pollution; and compensation for environmental damage (ADB and Cai-Asia, 2006).
Technical Committee
Stakeholder Consultation
Public Circulation

Nepal has ambient air quality standards for seven air pollutants, i.e. PM1022, total suspended particulates (TSP), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Sulfur dioxide (SO2), Carbon monoxide (CO), lead (Pb) and benzene. Table 23 lists the 2003 national ambient air quality standards compared with the World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines.
22
Technical Committee
Approval Process
Recently established in April 2005, MoEST has the mandate for formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies, plans and programs pertaining to environment, science and technology (MoEST, 2006). Prior to formation of MoEST in 2005, the Ministry of Population and Environment (MoPE)
Table 23 Nepal Ambient Air Quality Standards vs. WHO 3 Guidelines (g/m )
Pollutant
PM10
Average Time
National Standards
WHO Guidelines
a
24-Hrs 120 50 a Annual 20 TSP 24-Hrs 230 Annual a NO2 1-Hr 200 24-Hrs 80 a Annual 40 40 a SO2 10-min 500 1-Hr a 24-Hrs 70 20 Annual 50 CO 15-Min 100,000 b 1-Hr 30,000 b 8-Hr 10,000 10,000 b Pb Annual 0.5 0.5 Benzene Annual 20 Guidelines refer to the safe level of a pollutant, for a given average time, to protect the public from acute health effects. 3 g/m =micrograms per cubic meter a b Source: WHO, 2006, WHO 2000
Before 1995, monitoring was conducted on an ad hoc or project basis (ADB and Cai-Asia, 2006). Some of the previous air quality monitoring projects were conducted by the following institutionsEnvironment and Public Health Organisation (ENPHO), Society for Legal and Environmental Analysis and Development Research (LEADERS Nepal), Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM), Nepal Environment and Scientific Services P.Ltd. (NESS), International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and Kathmandu Valley Vehicular Exhaust Control Program (KVVECP)) through HMG and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (Mal Declaration, 2000 and ADB and Cai-Asia, 2006). To date, routine AQ monitoring is only available for the Kathmandu Valley area. Air quality monitoring outside the Kathmandu Valley is still conducted only on project basis (ADB and Cai-Asia, 2006). In March 2001, HMG and the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) formally initiated air quality management of Kathmandu Valley as the 5th component of the Environment Sector Programme Support (ESPS) (ADB and ICIMOD, 2006). The ambient air monitoring system was designed as per European standard and came into full operation in November 2002 under the management of MoPE (MoEST, 2007). Six monitoring stations were installed throughout the Kathmandu Valley. Location of the monitoring stations was selected to represent pollutant levels in urban traffic and residential areas, urban and valley background. In addition to the six stations, another set of monitoring equipment is available for use of campaign monitoring in localities. Ambient TSP, PM10, PM2.523, benzene, NO2 and Pb levels are measured at the monitoring stations. Table 24 provides details on the monitoring stations whilst Table 25 presents methodology used in measuring pollutant concentrations.
Observably, the Nepalese ambient standards for PM10 and SO2 are much lenient relative to the WHO Guideline values. National ambient standards for the remaining pollutants (i.e. annual NO2, 8-Hr CO and annual benzene standards) are comparable with the WHO Guideline values. The ambient air quality standards are currently undergoing review and the MoEST have indicated that the standards will be revised and updated soon.

Air Quality Monitoring Network Prior to the creation of the MoPE, there was no particular agency mandated to monitor the air quality in Nepal.
23
PM2.5 is used to describe particles less than 2.5 micrometers in an aerodynamic diameter. The 3 concentration is measured in g/m .
Table 24 Details of Monitoring Stations
Station Name
Putalisadak
Classificatio n
Roadside
Description
Height above ground: 3.5 m. Description: close to roadside at heavy traffic area in one of the busiest streets of Kathmandu; represents exposure at heavily trafficked areas. Height above ground: 15 m. Description: represents residential area in city center; located at ward rooftop in the residential area of Thamel. Height above ground: 3.5 m. Description: close to roadside at heavy traffic area; located outside Patan Hospital; represents exposure at heavy traffic areas. Height above ground: 6 m Description: represents sub-urban area in the east part of Kathmandu; located at rooftop of library in Bhaktapur, close to Bhaktapur Durbar Square. Height above ground: 15 m. Description: represents sub-urban area in the south west part of Kathmandu; located at rooftop of TU in Kirtipur. Height above ground: 10 m. Description: located on a rooftop of the public school in the village of Matsyagaon, situated in the south west of the valley, in an altitude of about 1500 m (150 m above the valley floor).
Thamel
Residential
Patan
Roadside
Bhaktapur
Urban background Urban background Valley background
Tribhuvan University (TU) Matsyagaon
Source: MoEST, 2007 Table 25 Methodology for Measuring Pollutant Levels
Parameter
PM10 PM2.5
Methodology
LVS 24 hour sampling at all stations, automatic, unattended operation. LVS 24 hour sampling at residential stations, automatic, unattended operation. Diffusive samplers, Radiello type, monthly sampling. Diffusive samplers, Radiello type, monthly sampling. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry after extraction of lead from PM10 filters.
June 2006 under the management of DHM. Meteorological conditions measured include hourly averages of wind speed, wind direction, temperature and relative humidity (MoEST, 2007). Following the dissolution of MoPE in April 2005, management of the air quality monitoring program was mandated to MoEST. Currently, there are no immediate plans to expand the air quality monitoring program in Nepal.
NO2 Benzene Pb
Source: MoEST, 2007
There is a separate station located in the Royal Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (RONAST) premises which monitors the meteorological conditions in the valley. This was constructed in December 2004 under the ESPS programme. Operation of the meteorological station started in
Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Data Reporting The air quality data monitored by the six monitoring stations in the Kathmandu Valley are reported electronically in MoESTs websitehttp://www.moest.gov.np/en/. The monitoring data is reported on a weekly basis with health-related descriptors. Table 26 presents the air pollution (PM10) descriptors used to describe human health impacts from daily air pollution levels in Kathmandu.
Table 26 Nepal Air Quality Descriptors for PM10
although the health impacts of air pollution is recognized, air quality monitoring results are not correlated with health surveillance programs. Aside from weekly reporting, the monitoring data are also presented in the ambient air quality reports published by MoEST. Annual Ambient Air Quality Trends Although duration of air quality monitoring is still limited to allow long-term analysis of air quality in Kathmandu, available data already shows that fine particulate matter (PM2.5), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and benzene are air pollutants of concern in Kathmandu Valley (Schwela, 2009). High levels of suspended particulate matter, particularly PM10 and PM2.5 have been observed to be associated with serious health conditions and mortality rates in Nepal (MoEST, 2007). PM10 Figure 37 illustrates the annual average PM10 levels from different monitoring stations in Kathmandu from 2003 to 2008.
Descriptor
Good Moderate Unhealthy Very Unhealthy Hazardous
Color
Green Yellow Orange Red Purple
PM10 (g/m3)
<60 60-119 120-349 350-425 <425
Source: MoEST, 2007
Environmental health impacts have been initially highlighted by HMG through the formulation of the Nepal Environmental Policy and Action Plan (NEPAP) in 1993 and subsequently, with the Nepal Environment Health Initiative (NEHI). However,
Figure 37
Annual Average Ambient PM10Concentrations in Kathmandu Valley 2003-2008 (g/m )
300 250 200 150 100 50 0 2003

Putalisadak Kirtipur (TU) Source: Data from MoEST.
2004
2005
Patan Matsyagaon
2006
2007
2008
Bhaktapur
Thamel WHO AQG (Annual)
Generally, in the2003-2008 monitoring period, annual PM10 levels in all monitoring stations continually exceed the WHO annual Guideline value for PM10. In 2007, Matsyagaon station, which represents valley background levels, exceeded the WHO annual PM10 guideline by a factor of 2.2. Highest average annual PM10 levels among monitoring stations was consistently recorded at the roadside stations (i.e., Putalisadak and Patan). Average annual PM10 levels in these stations were eight to 13 times higher than the WHO guideline.
Roadside stations also had the highest percentage of standard exceedance among Kathmandu stations in 2003 to 2005 (Table 27). Percent of standard exceedance in Kathmandu monitoring stations has slightly decreased from 2003 to 2005; however, the reported values are still high (Table 27). The PM10 levels in urban areas outside the valley are also high (Table 28), emphasizing that PM10 levels is indeed a major contributor to air pollution, not only in Kathmandu Valley, but also in other urban areas in Nepal.
a
Table 27 Number of Days and Percent of Standard Exceedance in Kathmandu (2003-2005)
Putalisadak % days
2003 2004 2005
a
Patan % days
76 85 81 240 310 385
Thamel % days
57 54 46 187 190 157
Bhaktapur % days
48 40 32 174 139 81
Kirtipur % days
20 20 9 71 72 30
Matsyagaon % days
5 7 3 16 22 10
83 83 77
289 304 227
Note: As NAAQS for PM10 is a 95-percentile for 24 hr averages, up to 18 days per year with exceedances of NAAQS is allowed. Source: MoEST, 2005 Table 28 PM10 Concentrations in Nine Urban Areas outside 3 Kathmandu Valley (g/m ) City Pokhara Birgunj Biratnagar Janakpur Narayanghat Butwal Bhairahawa Nepalgunj Mahendra Nagar PM10 839.9 664.5 661.46 1,298.06 572.93 1,066.89 776.59 1,448.20 687.5
a
PM2.5 The Thamel monitoring station has been measuring PM10 and PM2.5 since November 2004 (MoEST, 2007). In the 2007 Ambient Air Quality of Kathmandu Valley Report (MoEST, 2007), it was highlighted that the2007 PM2.5 monthly averages for December to May are lower relative to the corresponding monthly averages in 2005 and 2006. It was also observed that during wet season (i.e., from June to November), monthly PM2.5 levels in 2007 are comparable with the values measured in 2005 and 2006. Figure 38 shows the yearly mean PM2.5 levels in Thamel in 2005 to 2007. The annual average PM2.5 levels show a decreasing tendency from 2005 to 2007; however, the annual PM2.5 measurements are still above the WHO guideline value. In 2007, annual PM2.5 level in Thamel station exceeded the WHO guideline by a factor of 5.4.
The values of monitoring in urban areas outside Kathmandu are 8-Hr average concentrations. Source: IUCN, 2004
Figure 38 Annual Average PM2.5 levels in Thamel in 3 2005 to 2007 (g/m ) 80 60 40 20 0 2005 Thamel 2006 2007
(roadside) whilst low benzene levels were measured in Matsyagaon (valley background) (ADB and ICIMOD, 2006). Other high traffic zones at Chabahil, Paknajol, and Patan had weekly average ambient benzene levels of 44 g/m3, 30.3 g/m3 and 23.3 g/m3, respectively. NO2 Figure 40 shows the annual average NO2 levels in monitoring stations in Kathmandu Valley in 2007. Results show that the annual NO2 levels satisfy both the national standards and the WHO Guideline value.
Figure 40 Annual Average NO2 levels in 3 Kathmandu Valley in 2007 (g/m ) 50 40 30 20 10 0
a
WHO AQG (Annual)
Source: MoEST, 2007. Benzene As previously discussed, benzene is one the major air pollutants of concern in Kathmandu (Schwela, 2009). Annual average benzene levels in Kathmandu monitoring stations are in 2007 are illustrated in Figure 39.
Figure 39 3 (g/m ) 25 20 15 Annual Average benzene levels in 2007
Annual NO2 Level WHO AQG (Annual)
NAAQS (Annual)
10 5 0
Note: Monthly averages from January and February 2007 are missing. Source: MoEST, 2007.
SO2 Ambient SO2 monitoring was conducted in November, December 2003 and January 2004 (ADB and ICIMOD, 2006). The highest ambient SO2 level among monitoring stations was recorded in Bhaktapur (i.e., 70 g/m3). Most of the brick kilns in Kathmandu are located in Bhaktapur. This may have contributed to the elevated ambient SO2 measurements (ADB and ICIMOD, 2006).
Annual benzene levels
NAAQS (Annual)
Source: MoEST, 2007. In January and February 2002, ESPS and MOPE conducted a three-week ambient air quality monitoring in seven stations in Kathmandu Valley. Results showed that the weekly averages of ambient benzene were as high as 77 g/m3 in Putalisadak
CO and Pb Ambient concentrations of CO and Pb in urban areas, based on an 8-hour averaging time, are presented in Table 29. The ambient 8-Hr CO levels satisfy the national standard of 10,000 g/m3.
Table 29 8-Hr Average CO and Pb Concentrations in Urban 3 Areas in Nepal (g/m )
City
Pokhara Birgunj Biratnagar Janakpur Narayanghat Butwal Bhairahawa Nepalgunj Mahendra Nagar
CO
1097.75 1,494.85 620.466 427.6333 1,050.02 515.4633 849.56 801.86 85.90
Pb
0.14 0.32 0.22 0.81 0.11 0.26 0.16 0.35 0.13
Source: LEADERS Nepal, 2000.
References
Asian Development Bank (ADB) and Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center, 2006 Country Synthesis Report on Urban Air Quality Management: Nepal. Discussion Draft. ADB, 2006. ADB and International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) 2006. Environment Assessment of Nepal Emerging Issues and Challenges Kathmandu, Nepal. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/emergingissues-challenge/ accessed July 2009. LEADERS Nepal 2000. Transport Sector Air Pollution Survey in Nine Major Urban Cities of Nepal. A report submitted to IUCN/Nepal, Kathmandu. As cited in ADB and CAI-Asia Center, 2006 Country Synthesis Report on Urban Air Quality Management: Nepal. Discussion Draft. ADB, 2006. Mal Declaration, 2000. Baseline Information and Action Plan. United Nations Environment Programme Regional Resource Centre for Asia and Pacific. http://www.rrcap.unep.org/male/baseline/Baseline/N epal/NEPCH2.htm accessed July 2009.
Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology (MoEST), 2006. About Ministry: Functions. http://www.most.gov.np/en/functions.php accessed July 2009. , 2007. Ambient Air Quality of Kathmandu Valley 2007. Singh Durbar, Kathmandu. http://www.most.gov.np/uploads/updates/files/2008 0814095924.pdf accessed July 2009. Schwela, D. 2009. A strategic approach for air pollution reduction in Kathmandu Valley. Policy Brief. Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI). http://seiinternational.org/?p=publications&task=view&pid=12 58 World Health Organization (WHO), 2000. Guidelines for Air Quality. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_SDE_OEH_0 0.02_pp1-104.pdf accessed August 2009. , 2006. WHO Air Quality Guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Global Update 2005. Summary of Risk Assessment. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2006/WHO_SDE_PHE_O EH_06.02_eng.pdf accessed July 2009.
Country Profile: Philippines

The first set of ambient air quality standards in the Philippines was established in 5 June 1978. The establishment of ambient air quality standards was stipulated in the Presidential Decree (PD) No. 1152: Philippine Environment Code. Based on PD No. 1152, factors such as local atmospheric conditions, location and land use, and available technology, among others, should be considered in setting ambient air quality standards. The standards were subsequently revised in 1992 with the promulgation of the Department of Natural Resources (DENR) Administrative Order (DAO) No.14 and No.14a:Revised Air Quality Standards of 1992, Revising and Amending the Air Quality Standards of 1978. This specifies the national air quality guidelines values (NAAQGV) for criteria pollutants, which are divided into short-term and long-term guidelines. The NAAQGV forms part of the primary Philippine legislation specifically for air quality managementRepublic Act (RA) No. 8749: Philippine Clean Air Act (PCAA) of 1999. The DENR is the lead government agency responsible for environmental matters of the country. The DENRs core functions include 1. Formulate and implement policies, guidelines, rules and regulations relating to environmental management, pollution prevention and control; 2. Formulate, implement and supervise the governments policies, plans and programs pertaining to the management, conservation, development, use and replenishment of the countrys natural resources and ecological diversity; and 3. Promulgate and implement rules and regulations governing the exploration, development, extraction, disposition, and use of the forests, lands, minerals, wildlife and other natural resources. (DENR, 2006)
The Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) has the primary role in drafting, reviewing and revising NAAQGV. The EMB, one of the six staff sectoral bureaus under DENR, functions as the policy-making and standard-setting body and provides technical services related to air quality management (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). The Research and Development Division (RDD) under the EMB plays a major role in developing environmental standards. The RDD has the function of generating quality scientific data to be used in the formulation of environmental criteria, standards and policies; assessment of the quality of the countrys environment; adjudication of pollution cases; and in the assessment of the implementation of environmental standards and policies (RDD, [undated]). The Pollution Research Section (PRS) of RDD conceptualizes, develops, and implements research studies related to air, water, land pollution and other environmental disturbances and its effect on the ecosystem and human population (DENR and UNDP, [undated]). Essentially, PRS takes the lead in setting the criteria for the promulgation of new or updated environmental standards (DENR and UNDP, [undated]). Other government agencies and various stakeholders also provide input in the formulation of the standards. These include the Department of Transportation and Communication (DOTC), Department of Energy (DOE), Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), Department of Health (DOH), academe, non-government organizations (NGOs) and the private sector. Implementation of the ambient air quality standards is mandated to the EMB Regional Offices. The regional offices, established in each of the 15 administrative regions, perform regulatory functions and implement mandates of the EMB Central Office in their respective jurisdictions. The local government units (LGUs) also share the responsibility of air quality management within their territorial jurisdiction, as stipulated under the PCAA. The DENR is expected to provide LGUs with technical assistance, training, and continuing capability-building to prepare them to undertake full administration of air quality management and regulation.

National ambient air quality standards exist for PM1024, total suspended particulates (TSP), Sulfur dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3),and lead (Pb). Table 10 presents NAAQGV compared with the World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines. The NAAQGV for PM10 (24-Hr and annual) and SO2 (24Hr) are more lenient relative to the corresponding WHO Guideline value. On the other hand, the 8-Hr NAAQGV for O3 is relatively more stringent than the WHO Guideline whilst the CO and Pb NAAQGVs are generally comparable with the WHO Guidelines. There are currently no plans to revise the standards.
Table 30 NAAQGV vs. WHO Guidelines (g/m )
3

Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Network Ambient air quality monitoring in the Philippines began in the 1971 in Metro Manila by the then National Water and Air Pollution Control Commission (World Bank, 1997). Currently, air quality monitoring is mandated to the EMB. Air quality monitoring is conducted nationwide; however, the scope of monitoring is limited, mostly measuring roadside TSP levels. Based on reports of EMB regional offices in 2008, at least 37 air quality monitoring stations measure TSP levels and only a few stations measure PM10, PM2.525, and gaseous pollutants (Figure 41).
Figure 41 Monitoring stations in Philippines (2008)
Pollutant
PM10
Average Time
NAAQGV
WHO Guidelines
a
24-Hrs 150 50 a Annual 60 20 TSP 24-Hrs 230 Annual 90 a NO2 1-Hr 200 24-Hrs 150 a Annual 40 a SO2 10-min 500 1-Hr a 24-Hrs 180 20 Annual 80 O3 1-Hr 140 a 8-Hr 60 100 24-Hr b CO 1-Hr 35,000 30,000 b 8-Hr 10,000 10,000 Pb 3-months 1.5 Annual 1.0 0.5 Guidelines refer to the safe level of a pollutant, for a given average time, to protect the public from acute health effects. 3 g/m =micrograms per cubic meter a b Source: WHO, 2006, WHO 2000
Source: CAI-Asia, 2009.
24
25
PM2.5 represents particles less than 2.5 micrometers in an aerodynamic diameter. The concentration is measured 3 in g/m .
Table 31 EMB Monitoring Stations per Region (as of 2008) Region NCR Monitoring Stations a NCR-Makati, NCR- Valenzuela, NCR-East Ave., NCR-EDSA NPO Q.C, NCR-ADMU, NCRMandaluyong, NCR-Manila, NCR-Pasig, NCRPasay, NCR-EDSA MRT
d
Pollutant TSP
Remarks Method: Gravimetric method (high-vol.);
5 Monitoring Stations Km O Plaza Garden Lower Session Road
CAR
a,
SO2, NO2, CO, O3, PM10, PM2.5 PM10, SO2, NO2, O3, CO, TSP TSP TSP TSP
Conventional Technology Continuous automatic ambient air quality monitoring nd station with telemetry system was established on the 2 quarter of 2007. Method: Gravimetric method (high-vol.);24-hour sampling once a week; TSP measurement since 2003
Region 1: Ilocos Region
Region 2: Cagayan Valley
Alaminos City: Central Business District, Pangasinan a San Fernando City (beside Francisco I. Ortega Monument Plaza), La Union b Petromar gasoline station, Buntun highway, Barangay Buntun, Tuguegarao City
Method: High-vol. ;24-Hr sampling every 6 days; TSP measurement since 1999 Monitoring station was relocated several times since 1999, hence, annual TSP trend cannot be established Method: High-Vol for Saluysoy and Intercity stations 24-hr sampling, once per week
Region 3: Central Luzon
San Fernando, Pampanga: open parking lot in front of Mel-Vi Building, OG road, Dolores (roadside) Saluysoy Station, Bulacan: Jess Floro's residence, Meycauayan (industrial/commercial/residential) Intercity Station, Bulacan: Wakes, Bocaue (industrial)
d a a
TSP
TSP
TSP
1 Monitoring Station (San Fernando City)
PM10 TSP TSP TSP
Manual monitoring station 24-hr sampling, since 2000 24-hr sampling (2000-2006) 24-hr sampling, since 2007
Region 4-A: CALABARZON
PG-PENRO, Capitol Site, Batangas City PENRO, Trece, Martirez, Cavite PG-PENRO, Lucena City, Quezon
Region Region 4-B: MIMAROPA Region 5: Bicol Region Region 6: Western Visayas Region 7: Central Visayas *Several monitoring stations were moved to Cebu in 2008.
Monitoring Stations a Oriental Mindoro

a a
Pollutant TSP TSP TSP TSP TSP TSP TSP
Remarks Gravimetric (24-hr) Method: Gravimetric method (high-vol.) 24-hour sampling once a week; elevation of at least three meters above ground level Gravimetric (24-hr) Gravimetric (24-hr) Gravimetric (24-hr)
Barriada, Legaspi City, San Nicolas, Iriga City a Panganiban Drive, Diversion road, Naga City
a a
Jaro Police Station Compound., Lapaz Plaza
DENR-7 Compound, Greenplains, Sudb., Banilad, Mandaue City (commercial/residential)

e
Cornella Lao Residence, Langtad, Naga City (industrial)

e
TSP
Gravimetric (24-hr)
Citom, N. Bacalso Ave, Cebu City (commercial/residential)

e
TSP and PM10
Gravimetric (24-hr)
Mabolo Police Station, Mabolo, Cebu City
PM10 PM10, SO2, NO2, O3, CO, benzene, pxylene, toluene
Gravimetric (24-hr) 24-hr average (SO2, NO2); 8hr-(O3) Operation temporarily stopped in May, Jul-Oct, 2008 due to equipment breakdown
Opsis Telemetry system, University of San Carlos (USC-TC), Talamban, Cebu City
Region 8: Eastern Visayas Region 9: Zamboanga Peninsula
P&M Bldg., DENR Compound. Sto. Nino Extension, Tacloban City

a
TSP TSP Method: Gravimetric (High volume sampler); 24-Hr sampling every 6 days
Station 1, ZCMC, Dr. Evangelista St. Cor. Veterans Ave. & Gov. Lim Ave., Zamboanga City, (commercial)
a
Station 2, Brgy. Sto., Nino San Jose Road, Zamboanga City (residential)
a
TSP
Station 3 PHIDCO, Baliwasan Seaside, Zamboanga City (industrial)
TSP
Region Region 10: Northern Mindanao Region 11: Davao Region
Monitoring Stations d Xavier University, CDO

f
Pollutant PM10, SO2, NO2, O3, CO TSP, SO3, NO2 and O3
Remarks Automatic Ambient Air Quality Monitoring System with Telemetry The monitoring started in Jan 2007 and end in Dec 2009; monitors TSP, SO2, NO2 on a semi-weekly frequency and O3 on a monthly frequency.
Sampling site 1: located at Doa Consuelo Village, Malagamot, Brgy. Panacan, Davao City
f
Sampling site 2: located at Purok 5-A, Amparo Subdivision, Bugac, Brgy. Ilang, Davao City;
f
TSP, SO3, NO2 and O3
Sampling site 3: located at TESDA XI Compound, Brgy. Tibungco, Davao City; and
f
TSP, SO3, NO2 and O3
Sampling site 4: located at Purok 4, Piatos Street, San Isidro, Brgy. Bunawan, Davao City
d
TSP, SO3, NO2 and O3 Manual monitoring station
1 Monitoring Station (Davao City)
PM10 TSP TSP TSP TSP PM10 24 hourly averaging time
Region 12: SOCCSKSARGEN
a a
Station 1 Tupi, South Cotabato Station 2 Cotabato City a Station 3 Midsayap, Cotabato Province
a
Region 13: Caraga
New Asia, Butuan city (industrial)
1 Monitoring Station (Davao City)
Method: Gravimetric (High volume sampler); 24-Hr average, sampling every six days Region XIII recently received the monitoring equipment in the latter part of 2008, as such, PM10 monitoring data is not yet available.
NCR = National Capital Region; EDSA = Epifanio delos Santos Avenue; ADMU = Ateneo de Manila University; NPO = National Printing Office; MRT = Metro Rail Transit; CAR = Cordillera Autonomous Region; CALABARZON = Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Rizal and Quezon; PENRO = Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Office; MIMAROPA = Occidental & Oriental Mindoro, Marinduque, Romblon & Palawan; USC-TC = University of San Carlos; SOCCSKSARGEN = South Cotabato, Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat, Saranggani and General Santos City; CDO = Cagayan de Oro; TESDA = Technical Education and Skills Development Authority; PHICDO = Philippine Industrial Development Corporation; ZCMC = Zamboanga City Medical Center a b c d e f g SOURCE: EMB, 2009, EMB Region 2, 2009, EMB Region 4-A, 2009, Rosete, 2009, EMB Region 7, 2009, EMB Region 11, 2009, EMB Region 13, 2009.
There are four PM10 manual stations installed nationwide, located in each of these regions National Capital Region (NCR), San Fernando City (Region 3), Cebu City (Region 7), and Davao City (Region 11) (Rosete, 2009). Caraga has also recently received one PM10 manual monitoring station in late 2008. Other regions are also set to receive partisol PM10 federal reference mass (FRM) equipment this year to 2010 (AQMS-EMB, 2009). Only three regions are equipped with a continuous automatic ambient air quality monitoring station with telemetry system (open-path technology) for measuring SO2, NO2, CO, O3, PM10, PM2.5). On the other hand, Region 4-A, Region 3 and NCR are equipped with automatic ambient air quality monitoring station (using conventional technology) capable of measuring SO2, NO2, CO, O3, PM10 and PM2.5 (Rosete, 2009). Davao City Airshed also has a monitoring station capable of measuring TSP, SO3, NO2 and O3 following the establishment of the Bunawan District Air Monitoring Network. Table 31 presents some details on monitoring stations per region across the country. There are also large industries conducting independent ambient air quality monitoring as part of their requirements specified in their environmental compliance certificates (ECC). Monitoring results are submitted to corresponding EMB regional offices as another section in their self-monitoring reports (SMR). Compilation of monitoring data from these stations is unknown. Aside from the EMB, other institutions, such as the Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI) (under the Department of Science and Technology [DOST]) and the Manila Observatory (MO), also conduct independent air quality sampling and monitoring, although their research generally focuses in the NCR. The MO and PNRI both conduct independent air quality monitoring. Manila Observatory has three existing ambient air quality monitoring stations that measure PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations (Table 32). The monitoring station in MO is also equipped with a Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy (DOAS) capable of measuring, among others, NO2, O3, SO2 levels (Lorenzo, 2007).
Table 32 MO PM Monitoring Sites Monitoring Stations 2000-2004 GS, Antipolo MO, Quezon City NPO, Quezon City PGH, Manila PS, Pasig Monitoring Stations 2004-present MO, Quezon City CB, Cebu City GB, Gabaldon, Nueva Ecija SOURCE: Lorenzo, 2007. Classification Background Mixed Mixed Commercial Industrial Classification Mixed Mixed Background
On the other hand, PNRI monitors PM10 and PM2.2 using the Gent sampler at three sites in Metro ManilaAteneo de Manila University (ADMU), Poveda Learning Center and Valenzuela, two of which are co-located with those being monitored by EMB (EMB, 2009). The PNRI also has an ongoing particulate monitoring program, the Metro Manila Air Pollutant Characterization and Source Identification, which measured particulate matter (PM) levels from seven stations in Metro Manila (Santos et al., [undated]). The program started in 1996, with occasional interruptions, but with enough length to allow calculations of annual average concentrations from 24-hour readings. Sampling dates of the monitoring stations is specified in Table 33. Data is collected using Gent dichotomous samplers that simultaneously measure PM10 and PM2.2, which may be taken to be equivalent to PM2.5. (ECAP, 2006).
Table 33 PNRI Monitoring Stations PNRI Monitoring Stations Valenzuela NAMRIA ADMU Poveda Learning Center University of Santo Tomas La Mesa Dam Vista Verde Homes, Cainta Sampling Dates February 2004 current March 2004 current July 1996-October 1997; October 1998 current October 2001 current March 1999 January 2000; April October 2000; February September 2002; November 1996 February 1998 January July 1997
Through cooperation between EMB, PNRI and MO, a monitoring network with ten automated continuous stations was installed within the Metro Manila Airshed capable of measuring criteria pollutants (i.e., PM10, SO2, NO2, CO and O3) and meteorological data (i.e., wind direction, vertical wind speed, wind speed, temperature, relative humidity, net radiation, barometric pressure, solar [400-1100 nm] and UV radiation [295-385 nm]) (EMB, 2006; EEID, [undated]). Two stations can also measure non-criteria pollutants (PM2.5, methane, non-methane hydrocarbon, benzene, toluene, and xylene) (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). Table 34 presents the monitoring stations and method of analysis used. Operation of these stations was progressively initiated from 2004 to 2005. Contractual disputes between the DENR and the private operator of the network in November 2004 led to a halt in operations (ADB, 2008). This was resolved in December 2006. In following year, DENR and the contractor signed an agreement which provides that the contractor will refurbish the closed stations, making them operational prior to handing them over to DENR (ADB, 2008). The monitoring stations were supposed to be handed over to the DENR by September 2008 but were delayed (ADB, 2008). Currently, the monitoring stations have been turned over to EMB and are undergoing rehabilitation (AQMS-EMB, 2009).
Table 34 Monitoring Stations under MMAAAQMN Monitoring Stations Valenzuela City Taguig City Manila MO, Quezon City Muntinlupa City Pasig City (mobile van) Batangas City Indang, Cavite Angeles City Los Baos, Laguna Pollutants and Method of Sampling and Measurement O3 UV photometric SO2 pulsed florescence SO2 CO gas filter correlation NOx chemiluminescence PM10, PM2.5 BAM a BTX DOAS HC cross-flow modulated selective combustion with hydrogen ion detection
NAMRIA = National Mapping and Resource Information Authority; Source: Santos et al., [undated]
In addition to monitoring activities by PNRI and MO, several projects, particularly those geared towards air quality management; include air quality monitoring as one of the project components. For instance, in the Metro Manila Air Quality Improvement Sector Development Program (MMAQISDP), strengthening of the ambient air quality monitoring was one of the projects major components. This program led to the establishment of the Metro Manila Airshed26 Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Network (MMAAAQMN)27.
26
The PCAA divides the entire country into airsheds to facilitate monitoring of air quality. Airsheds refer to areas with similar climate, meteorology and topology or areas which share common interest or face similar development programs, prospects or challenges. Each airshed has a governing board (GB) which will function as a policy and planning organization to complement the regulatory functions provided by DENR-EMB. To date, 14 airsheds have been designated Metro Manila, Metro Cebu, geothermal areas (Leyte, Southern Negros and BaconManito), Davao City, Cordillera Autonomous Region, Agusan del Norte, Naga City, Cagayan de Oro City, Zamboanga City, Northeastern Pangasinan, Metro Tuguegarao and North Cotabato SOURCE: EMB, 2004. 27 The contract for the rehabilitation, upgrading, and 4-year operation and maintenance of ten ambient air quality monitoring stations (including one mobile station) commenced in 26 November 2002. SOURCE: ADB, 2008
BTX = benzene, toluene, and xylene; HC = hydrocarbon a Only in Quezon City and Valenzuela City stations. SOURCE: ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006.
There are plans to expand the national air quality monitoring system by monitoring more cities and additional pollutants and by installing monitoring stations with more sophisticated equipment; however, the timeline for these plans has not yet been finalized. Improvement of the air quality monitoring network is an ongoing process. On a national level, only TSP28 concentrations have been consistently monitored. Recent research has shown that finer species of particles (PM10 and PM2.5) have more serious health impacts (World Bank, 2002). However, the majority of monitoring conducted in the Philippines still focus on TSP. Monitoring of PM10 and gaseous pollutants (i.e., NO2, SO2, CO and O3) in Metro Manila and in some major cities has been intermittently conducted. In addition, the required minimum TSP sampling29 of 16 hours a day (for daily average) and 48 days a year (for annual average) has not been fully complied with in some monitoring stations due to problems such as power failure, inclement weather, and equipment breakdown (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). This is further aggravated by inadequate financing for operation and maintenance of monitoring instruments, as well as inadequate infrastructure for supporting analytical work (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). This, in turn, results to weakness in areas such as systematic estimation of uncertainty or error in the data. Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Data Reporting Air quality monitoring results are compiled and reported by the EMB. On a regional level, the pollutant concentrations are reported as hourly and daily concentrations, along with the corresponding air quality indices (AQI). The DENR, through EMB, and in conjunction with the Department of Health (DOH) has formulated a pollution standard index of air quality for the purposes of protecting public health, safety and general welfare. Table 35 presents the Philippine AQI
28
as stipulated in Annex A of the implementing rules and regulations (IRR) of RA 8749. Recommended pollutant-specific cautionary stations for the general public are also included in the IRR. Quarterly and annual reports are submitted by the various EMB regional offices to the EMB central office. In addition, the Governing Board of each airshed is also expected to publish an annual air quality status report for each airshed. The public can access (1) TSP monitoring results from 2005 to current data and (2) graphs of regional TSP levels from 1998 to 2005 through the EMB website (http://www.emb.gov.ph/air/air1.htm). The air quality monitoring results are also published in national air quality status reports. These reports cover, among others, sources of air quality, air quality management programs, civil society and international development projects, public awareness initiatives, best practices and lessons learned. However, release of the reports is delayed. The most recent national air quality status report released was for 2005-2007. Data interpretation and impact analysis of various interventions on air quality are also not being carried out in detail (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). The air quality status reports also highlight health impacts of air pollution. The National Air Quality Status Report (2003-2004) (EMB, 2006) presented the key results of the 2004 study by the DOH on Public Health Monitoring: A Study under the MMAQISDP. The study reported that in 2002, considerable morbidity and mortality due to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases could have been prevented with better air quality in Metro Manila. Consistent with these conclusions, the Philippines Environmental Health Report (World Bank, 2007) highlighted that Metro Manila is estimated to have the largest disease burden from outdoor air pollution, with an estimated 5,000 premature deaths yearly due to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases from exposure to poor air quality. However, although several studies have already shown the serious health implications caused by air quality in the country, air quality monitoring data are not correlated with health and disease surveillance programs.
Total suspended particulates are composed of particles of different sizes. SOURCE: World Bank, 2002.
The values monitored for more than 16 hours (daily average) and 48 days (annual) are considered as a representative value for assessing air quality. SOURCE: ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006.
29
Table 35 Philippine Air Quality Index Pollutant Index g/m g/m ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm
3
Good 0-80 0 54 0.000-0.034 0.0 4.4 0.000-0.064 See Note

3
Fair 81-230 55 154 0.035-0.144 4.5 9.4 0.065-0.084 See Note

3
TSP (24-Hr Ave) PM10 (24-Hr Ave) SO2 (24-Hr Ave) CO (8-Hr Ave) O3 (8-Hr Ave) O3 2 (1-Hr Ave) NO2 (1-Hr Ave)
Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups 231-349 155 - 254 0.145-0.224 9.5 12.4 0.085-0.104 0.125 0.164 See Note
3
Very Unhealthy 350-599 255 354 0.225-0.304 12.5 15.4 0.105-0.124 0.165 0.204 See Note
3
Acutely Unhealthy 600-899 355 424 0.305-0.604 15.5 30.4 0.125-0.374 0.205 0.404 0.65 1.24
Emergency 900-above 425 504 0.605-0.804 30.5 40.4 See Note

1
0.405 0.504 1.25 1.64
Note: 1 When 8-hour O3 concentrations exceed 0.374 ppm, AQI values of 301 or higher must be calculated with 1-hour O3 concentrations 2 Areas are generally required to report the AQI based on 8-hour ozone values. However, there are a smaller number of areas where an AQI based on 1-hour ozone values would be more precautionary. In these cases, in addition to calculating the 8-hour ozone index value, the 1-hour index value may be calculated and the maximum of the two values is reported. 3 NO2 has no 1-hour term NAAQG. SOURCE: RA 8749 Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR)
Annual Ambient Air Quality Trends Particulate MatterTSP, PM10 and PM2.5 Particulates are major contributors to air pollution in the country, particularly in urban areas. Recent reports has identified that the main single pollutant contributing to the high mortality and morbidity rates in Metro Manila is fine particulate matter (Bower et al., 2006). Particulate emissions in Manila are largely from motor vehicles (84 percent), solid waste burning (10 percent), and industries (5.5 percent) (World Bank, 2007). TSP
Figure 42 Annual 24-Hr Average TSP Levels in NCR 3 (2004-2008) (g/m )
200 160 120 80 40 0 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

NAAGV (Annual) SOURCE: EMB, 2009.
Figure 42 shows the annual 24-Hr average TSP levels in NCR from 2004 to 2008. Overall, although a generally decreasing annual TSP tendency is observed in NCR stations, monitoring results still exceed the prescribed 1-year NAAQGV.
Relatively high annual TSP levels are not only reported in NCR but in other regions as well; although, as illustrated in Figure 43, the characteristics vary region to region.
Region 3 reported the highest annual TSP level from 2005 to 2007. Generally increasing annual TSP levels is reported in this region. In 2007, intercity station had the highest annual 24-Hr mean TSP level among monitoring stations in Region 3 with 457 g/m3. Rice mill operations are a significant source of TSP emissions in this station; nonetheless, air control devices and dust controls has already been progressively installed in the rice mills in the area as part of the regions ambient air quality management programs (EMB Region 3, 2009). Regions 4-A, 6 and 9 have shown slightly decreasing annual TSP levels from 2004 to 2007. On the other hand, regions 5, 11, 12 and 13 have maintained fairly stable annual TSP levels throughout the monitoring period. Several regions exceeded the annual TSP NAAQGV. In 2007, only three regions (i.e., region 11, 4-A and 13) had annual average 24-Hr TSP values within the yearly TSP NAAQGV. On a national level, the annual 24-Hr average TSP concentrations indicate a generally decreasing tendency, which slightly stabilized towards the end of the 2003-2007 monitoring period (Error! Reference source not found.). Nonetheless, the annual 24-Hr average is still higher relative to the annual TSP NAAQGV. The EMB has already highlighted that further efforts from different stakeholders, including the LGUs, are needed to comply with the annual TSP NAAQGV by 2010, as provided in the General Plan of Action for Air Quality Management (EMB, 2009).
Figure 43 300 250 200 150 100 50 0
Annual 24-Hr Average TSP Levels per Region (2003-2007) (g/m )
2003
NCR Region 4-B Region 9 CAR
2004
2005
Region 1 Region 6 Region 12
2006
Region 3 Region 7 Region 13
2007
Region 4-A Region 8 TSP Limit (DENR)
Region 5 Region 11
Note: In Region 2, the monitoring stations were relocated several times since 1999, hence, annual TSP trend cannot be established. SOURCE: EMB, 2009
Figure 44 National Annual 24-Hr Average TSP Levels 3 (2003-2007) (g/m ) 180 150 120 90 60 30 0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
be established. SOURCE: EMB, 2009.
PM10 and PM2.5 Figure 45 and
Annual Average TSP
TSP Limit (DENR)
Note: In Region 2, the monitoring stations were relocated several times since 1999, hence, annual TSP trend cannot
Figure 46 show the annual PM10 and PM2.5 levels for PNRI monitoring stations in Metro Manila for the 2001 to 2007 monitoring period, respectively. Annual PM2.5 levels of PNRI stations have been generally fluctuating within a narrow range in 2001 to 2007. Annual PM2.5 measurements from all PNRI exceed the WHO annual AQG. The annual average PM10 levels in PNRI stations did not exceed the NAAQGV of 60 g/m3 except for one site (i.e., Valenzuela) in 2006. The PM10 annual mean levels show relatively lower in 2007 compared to 2006. As with PM2.5 levels, annual PM10 levels in Metro Manila exceed the WHO annual AQG for PM10. This is also evident in the PM10 monitoring results from other regions. Figure 47 illustrates the annual PM10 levels from CAR, Region 3, 7, 10 and 11 from 2004 to 2008. Annual mean PM10 levels from all stations exceed the WHO Guideline during this period.
Figure 45 Annual Average PM2.5 levels at PNRI 3 stations (2001-2007) (g/m )
Figure 46 Annual Average PM10 levels at PNRI 3 stations (2001-2007) (g/m )
SOURCE: EMB, 2009.
120 100 80 60 40 20 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
200 160 120 80 40 0 avg WHO AQG (24-Hr) WHO AQG (Annual) 2001 avg NAAQGV (24 hr) 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
NAAQGV (1yr) WHO AQG (Annual)
SOURCE: EMB, 2009.
Figure 47 100
Annual Average PM10 levels at CAR, Region 3, 7, 10 and 11 (2004-2008) (g/m )
80
NAAQGV
60
40
WHO Guideline
20
0 CAR-Km O Plaza Region 3-San Garden Fernando City Region 7Region 7- Region 7-CITOM Region 10Mandaue City Mabolo Police Xavier Station University, CDO 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Region 11Davao City
SOURCE: For CAR results - EMB CAR, 2009; for Region 7 (Mabolo Police Station and CITOM results) - EMB Region 7, 2009; Region 3, Region 7 (Mandaue City), Region 10 and 11 results - Rosete, 2009.
SO2 Based on the National Air Quality Status Report (20032004) (EMB, 2006), from June to December 2004, the 24-hr guideline value for SO2 was satisfied in the Metro Manila Airshed. In 2003, monitoring data from the Manila Observatory also showed that annual mean SO2 concentrations in Metro Manila were below the NAAQ guideline value (EMB, 2006). Decline in ambient SO2 levels in Metro Manila began at the onset of the 1980s with the closure of the Sucat, Rockwell and Manila power plants (ADB, 2003; DENR and UNDP, [undated]). For CAR, Cebu city and Cagayan de Oro (CDO), recent
80 Annual NAAQGV 60 40 20 0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 CAR 2008
(Figure 48).
Figure 48 Annual Average SO2 levels at CAR, Cebu 3 and CDO (2003-2008) (g/m )
SOURCE: Rosete, 2009.
NO2 In 2003, the MO monitoring station reported 24-Hr concentrations well below the NAAQGV (ADB and CAIAsia, 2006). Cebu and CDO has maintained relatively low annual NO2 levels (Figure 49). The contrary is observed in
monitoring records show relatively low annual mean SO2 levels, well within the annual SO2 NAAQGV
Cebu City
Cagayan de Oro
CAR. In 2007 and 2008, monitoring activities report annual NO2 levels exceeding the WHO Guidelines.
Figure 49 Annual Average NO2 levels at CAR, Cebu 3 and CDO (2003-2008) (g/m )
SOURCE: Rosete, 2009.
80 60 40 20 0 2003 2004 Cebu City SOURCE: Rosete, 2009. 2005 2006 2007 CAR 2008 Cagayan de Oro WHO Guideline
O3 The 2007 Philippine Environmental Health Monitor indicated that O3 levels present a potential health risk (World Bank, 2007). Monitoring results at the Ateneo station report that O3 levels are higher than the onehour guideline of 140 g/m3 in seven out of eight months monitored between 2001 and 2002 (World Bank, 2002). In other regions, relatively low annual mean O3 have been recorded (Figure 50). In CAR, only 0.96 % of samples exceeded the 8-Hr O3 NAAQGV (EMB CAR, 2009).
Figure 50 Annual Average O3 levels at CAR, Cebu 3 and CDO (2003-2008) (g/m ) 50 40 30 20 10 0 2004 2005 Cebu 2006 CDO 2007 CAR 2008
References
Asian Development Bank (ADB) and Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center, 2006. Country Synthesis Report on Urban Air Quality Management: Philippines. Discussion Draft. ADB, 2006. , 2008. Philippines: Metro Manila Air Quality Improvement Sector Development Program. Completion Report. http://www.adb.org/Documents/PCRs/PHI/30480PHI-PCR.pdf Accessed August 2009. ,2003. Manila Breathing Easier as ADB Releases Last Tranche for Clean Air Project. News Release. http://www.adb.org/Media/Articles/2003/3917_Phili ppines_Clean_Air_Project/ Accessed August 2009. Air Quality Management Section Environment Management Bureau (AQMS-EMB), 2009a. Personal Communication of Teresa Fung with AQMS-EMB staff during a meeting in EMB office. 9 July 2009. CAI-Asia, 2009. Clean Air for Smaller Cities in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Region Philippines Country Profile. CAI-Asia, 2009. Bower, J., Sivertsen, B., and Larssen, S., 2006. Impacts, Outputs and Effects from Side-funded Air Quality Management Projects in Thailand and the Philippines. Sida Evaluation 06/14. Department for Infrastructure and Economic Cooperation. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/24/50/38080557.pdf Accessed August 2009. Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), 2006. About Us. http://www.denr.gov.ph/about Accessed August 2009. and United National Development Programme (UNDP), [undated]. ENR Framework: Sector Sub-plans Environmental Management Volume VII. http://calabarzon.denr.gov.ph/pdf%20files/info%20re sources/Volume_VII_-
_Environmental_Management.pdf Accessed August 2009. Environmental Education and Information Division (EEID), [undated]. Air Quality. http://www.emb.gov.ph/eeid/www.emb.gov.ph/air.h tm Accessed August 2009. Energy and Clean Air Project (ECAP), 2006. Inventory of Air Quality in Metro Manila. A report for review by the USAID. As cited in ADB and CAI-Asia Center, 2006. Country Synthesis Report on Urban Air Quality Management: Philippines. Discussion Draft. ADB, 2006. EMB, 2004. Mobilizing for Cleaner Air: Milestones in Implementing the Clean Air Act. http://www.emb.gov.ph/eeid/publicationfiles/mobil% 20final.pdf Accessed August 2009. , 2006. National Air Quality Status Report 2003-2004. , 2009. National Air Quality Status Report (2005-2007). EMB Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR), 2009. CAR State of the Brown Environment Report. EMB Region 2, 2009. 2008 Region II Air Quality Status Report. EMB Region 3, 2009. Region III State of the Brown Environment Report. EMB Region 4-A, 2009. Second State of the Brown Environment Report 2008. EMB Region 7, 2009. Annual State of the Regional Brown Environment-2008. EMB Region 11, 2009. Annual Air Quality Assessment Report of the Davao City Airshed 2008. EMB Region 13, 2009. Regional State of the Brown Environment CY 2008.
Lorenzo, G., 2007. Urban Air Quality Monitoring Activities in Metro Manila. Presented at the Space Tools and Solutions for Monitoring the Atmosphere in Support of Sustainable Development in Graz, Austria. 11-14 September 2007. http://www.oosa.unvienna.org/pdf/sap/2007/graz/pr esentations/06_06.pdf Accessed August 2009. Research and Development Division (RDD), [undated]. Quality Policy Statement. http://www.emb.gov.ph/rdd/index.htm Accessed August 2009. Rosete, J., 2009. Ten Years of Clean Air Act Implementation. Presented during the Clean Air 10: Celebrating the 10th Anniversary of the Philippine Clean Air Act. Marikina. 23-24 June 2009. Santos, F., Pabroa, P., Esguerra, L., Almoneda, R. and Sucgang, R., [undated]. Air Pollution Monitoring: Issues, Trends and Challenges in the Philippines. http://tc.iaea.org/tcweb/abouttc/strategy/Thematic/p df/presentations/pollution/AirPollutionStudiesinthePh illipines.pdf. Accessed August 2009. World Bank, 1997. Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia: Metro Manila Report. World Bank Technical Paper No. 380. The World Bank, Washington, D.C. , 2002. Philippines Environment Monitor: Air Quality. The World Bank, Washington, D.C. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNT
RIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/EXTEAPREGTOPENVIRONM ENT/0,,contentMDK:20209700~isCURL:Y~pagePK:340 04173~piPK:34003707~theSitePK:502886,00.html Accessed August 2009. , 2007. Philippines Environment Monitor: Environmental Health. The World Bank, Washington, D.C. http://www.worldbank.org.ph/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/CO UNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/PHILIPPINESEXTN/0,,co ntentMDK:20544920~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~t heSitePK:332982,00.html Accessed August 2009. World Health Organization (WHO), 2000. Guidelines for Air Quality. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_SDE_OEH_0 0.02_pp1-104.pdf accessed August 2009. , 2006. WHO Air Quality Guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Global Update 2005. Summary of Risk Assessment. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2006/WHO_SDE_PHE_O EH_06.02_eng.pdf accessed July 2009.
Country Profile: Sri Lanka

Sri Lankas first set of national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) were established in December 20, 1994 and published through Gazette Extraordinary No. 850/04. Specification of ambient air quality standards have been outlined in the 1980 National Environmental Act (NEA) No. 47 and in the 1988 NEA Amendment No. 56. Environmental management and protection in Sri Lanka was initiated through the promulgation of the 1980 NEA No. 47. Subsequently, the Central Environmental Authority (CEA) was established in 1981 as the implementing agency of the Act. The CEA has since been instrumental in developing and implementing relevant standards for air quality management in Sri Lanka. In 2001, the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (ME&NR) was established to oversee the affairs of the CEA with the objective of integrating environmental considerations in the development process of the country (CEA, 2008). The ambient air quality standards were recently revised in 15 August 2008 and circulated through Gazette Extraordinary No. 1562/22. The ME&NR led in the standard revisions; however, several agencies were also involved in the process of drafting, reviewing and approving of standards. This includes the CEA, Air Resource Management Center (AirMAC) and the Air Quality Management and International Relations Division. The Atomic Energy Authority (AEA), National Building Research Organization (NBRO) and the Industrial Technology Institute (ITI) were also engaged in the standards development.

Sri Lanka has national ambient air quality standards for PM1030, PM2.531, Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Sulfur dioxide (SO2), ozone (O3) and Carbon monoxide (CO). Table 36 lists the 2008 national ambient air quality standards compared with the World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines The national ambient standards for PM10, PM2.5 and NO2 are more lenient relative to the WHO Guideline values. On the other hand, Sri Lankas ambient standard for CO is comparable with the WHO Guideline value.
Table 36 Sri Lanka Ambient Air Quality Standards vs. WHO 3 Guidelines (g/m )
Pollutant
PM10
Average Time
National Standards
WHO Guidelines
a
24-Hrs 100 50 a Annual 50 20 a PM2.5 24-Hrs 50 25 a Annual 25 10 a NO2 1-Hr 250 200 24-Hrs 100 a Annual 40 a SO2 10-min 500 1-Hr 200 a 24-Hrs 80 20 Annual O3 1-Hr 200 a 8-Hr 100 24-Hr b CO 1-Hr 30,000 30,000 b 8-Hr 10,000 10,000 Guidelines refer to the safe level of a pollutant, for a given average time, to protect the public from acute health effects. 3 g/m =micrograms per cubic meter a b Source: WHO, 2006, WHO 2000 PM10 is used to describe particles of 10 micrometers or less in aerodynamic diameter. The concentration is 3 measured in g/m . 31 PM2.5 represents particles less than 2.5 micrometers in an aerodynamic diameter. The concentration is measured 3 in g/m .
30
Revision in the national ambient air standards is not foreseen for the next two years. There are plans to develop ambient air standards for lead (Pb). However, prior to ambient Pb standard formulation, a survey in ten major cities in Sri Lanka will first be conducted by CEA.

Air Quality Monitoring Network The CEA is primarily responsible with air quality monitoring in Sri Lanka; however, there are other organizations also involved in the monitoring. Earliest record of air quality monitoring was in 1983 wherein the Chemistry Department of the University of Colombo conducted monitoring of ambient Pb levels in Colombo City (Mal Declaration, 2000). In the following years, from 1989 to 1992, three organizations (i.e., NBRO, CEA and Ceylon Institute for Scientific and Industrial Research (CISIR, now ITI) undertook short-term monitoring and analysis of air quality in Colombo (Mal Declaration, 2000). Continuous ambient air monitoring in Colombo City, Sri Lankas capital, began in December 1996 with three monitoring stations. This was composed of one mobile and two fixed stations (Air Resource Management Center, 2005). The monitoring stations are equipped with air quality samplers-capable of monitoring SO2, Nitrogen oxides (NOx), NO2, CO, O3 and PM10, and meteorological instruments-capable of
Table 37 Specifications of the Fixed Monitoring Stations
generating data on wind direction, wind speed, ambient temperature, precipitation, and solar radiation. For data quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC), the fixed monitoring stations are automatically set for self-calibration using standard gases certified by the United States Environment Protection Agency (USEPA) at a daily pre-identified time whilst the mobile station is run parallel to the fixed stations to cross check data (Mal Declaration, 2000). The two fixed stations were originally located at (1) Colombo Fort Railway Station premises in the central business district of Colombo and (2) at the Meteorological Department premises located at Bauddhaloka Mawatha, within a residential area in Colombo. The specifications of the fixed monitoring stations are provided in Table 37. The Meteorological Department monitoring station was in operation from 1997 to 2000 whilst the Fort Railway Station monitoring station is still in operation since 1997. In 1999, NBRO and CEA launched a monitoring programme wherein air quality in areas outside Colombo Metropolitan Region (CMR) will be monitored using a mobile station. Areas to be monitored include, Hambantota in the south, Ambewela in the central hill region, Katugastota in the central region, Anuradhapura in the north central region and Puttalam in the north western region of Sri Lanka (Mal Declaration, 2000). Details of these monitoring stations are presented in Table 38.
Monitoring Station
Fort Railway Station, Colombo Meteorological Station, Colombo
Location
Latitude: 6.933 N o Longitude: 79.833 E Height from MSL: 3 m Latitude: 6.900 N o Longitude: 79.867 E Height from MSL: 7.3 m
o o
Area Description
Urban, city centre Average building height: approx. 1215 m Urban, residential area, situated within the main meteorological site Average building height: approx. 6-10 m
Monitoring Frequency
Continuous using fixed station (data is logged in five minutes intervals) Continuous using fixed station (data is logged in five minutes intervals)
SOURCE: Mal Declaration, 2000
Table 38 Monitoring Stations Using Mobile Stations
Monitoring Station
Ambewela Town Hambantota Meteorological site Katugastota Meteorological Station Anuradhapura Meteorological Station Puttalam Meteorological Station
Location
Latitude: 6.884 N o Longitude: 80.800 E Height from MSL: 1828.4m Latitude: 6.117 N o Longitude: 81.133 E Height from MSL: 15.5m Latitude: 7.333 N o Longitude: 80.633 E Height from MSL: 477.1m Latitude: 8.333 N o Longitude: 80.383 E Height from MSL: 92.5m Latitude: 8.033 N o Longitude: 79.834 E Height from MSL: 2.13m
o o o o o
Area Description
Rural, situated in the hill station, surrounded by a plateau Semi-urban area, south side open to sea, 1-km away from the town Residential, trees around the site Semi-urban area
Monitoring Frequency
Continuous for one week every three months using mobile station Continuous for one week every three months using mobile station Continuous for one week every three months using mobile station Continuous for one week every three months using mobile station Continuous for one week every three months using mobile station
Semi-urban area
SOURCE: Mal Declaration, 2000
From 1996 to 2001, NBRO carried out operation of the monitoring stations. The CEA initially contracted out the operation of the stations because of lack in technical staff. In April 2001, CEA took over operation of the monitoring stations (Air Resource Management Center, 2005). Currently, operational monitoring stations include (1) continuous automated monitoring station in Colombo Fort railway station (for measuring local air quality) and (2) monitoring station in Doramadalawa, Mihintale, Anuradhapura District (for measuring transboundary air quality)32 (CEA, [undated], Weerasinghe, C., 2009). Mobile monitoring activities are also being undertaken using mobile air quality monitoring laboratory in selected cities on the basis of case studies (CEA, [undated]).
There are plans to expand the current air quality monitoring system in Sri Lanka over the next couple of years. Four automated ambient air quality stations will be installed in Colombo and Kandy cities. There are also plans to cover more pollutants (monitor all air pollutants for which standards have been established). There have also been reports that Sri Lanka will receive three to four air quality monitoring instruments from the Indian government resulting from a signed agreement regarding air quality monitoring last year (Weerasinghe, C., 2009). Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Data Reporting The CEA has sole responsibility for air quality monitoring data reporting and dissemination. Currently, weekly air quality reports are drafted by CEA and are distributed to the media and made available online through the AirMAC website (http://www.airmacsl.org/). A bi-annual trend report on air quality is presented to the AirMAC for information dissemination and for any policy decisions. Air quality data are also released in the CEA website (http://www.cea.lk/lab_air_quality_monitoring.php)
CEA is carrying out the study of trans-boundary air pollution monitoring program under Male Declaration on Control and Prevention of Air Pollution and its likely Transboundary Effects for South Asia in parallel to other South Asian countries. Included in the program is ambient air quality monitoring of NO2, SO2 and O3 in Doramadalawa, Mihintale, in Anuradhapura District with the use of passive samplers (CEA, [undated]).
32
on weekly basis and maximum one hour average during the whole week is reported. Sri Lankas air quality index (AQI) values (Table 39) have been formulated and are made available online, also through the AirMAC website, to help the public understand the implications of local air quality to their health.
Table 39 Sri Lanka Air Quality Index
89 g/m3. Although these levels comply with the recently established PM10 standards, annual PM10 levels in Colombo persistently exceed the WHO annual PM10 Guideline level.
Figure 51 3 2007 (g/m ) Ambient PM10 levels in Colombo 1998-
100 90
Sri Lanka AQI

0-50 51-100 101-150 151-200 201-300 301-500
Interpretation
Good Moderate Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups Unhealthy Very Unhealthy Hazardous
Color Code
Green Yellow Pink Red Dark Red Maroon
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 NAAQS (Annual) WHO AQG (Annual)
Source: Data from AirMAC.
SOURCE: AirMAC website: www.airmacsl.org.
From 1996 to 2006, respiratory diseases have consistently been ranked as the 2nd leading cause of hospitalization in Sri Lanka. In the Annual Health Bulletin 2006, respiratory diseases ranked 5th in the list of leading causes of deaths in hospitals in 2006 (Ministry of Healthcare and Nutrition, 2006). Although the impact of local air quality to public health is apparent, the air quality monitoring data are not correlated with health surveillance programs. Annual Ambient Air Quality Trends Air quality monitoring is a key component of the air pollution management. Recent air quality monitoring data shows that there is an increasing trend of air pollution in Colombo, which may also be reflected in other urban areas in Sri Lanka (Air Resource Management Center, 2005). However, there is scarce information regarding air quality of cities other than Colombo (Ileperuma, 2000). PM10 Fine particulates are a major contributor to air pollution in Sri Lanka. As observed in Figure 51, from 1998 to 2006, the annual ambient PM10 concentrations in Colombo have remained fairly stable, with annual measurements ranging from 69 to
O3 Monitoring data for annual ambient O3 levels are sporadic (Figure 52). The data set of annual ambient O3 levels is too limited to establish the annual O3 trend in Colombo.
Figure 52
40
Ambient O3 Levels in Colombo (g/m )
30
20
10
0 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
Source: Data from AirMAC.
SO2 Figure 53 illustrates the annual average of 1-hr average ambient SO2 levels in Colombo from the 1997 to 2007 monitoring period. The SO2 monitoring data still doesnt show a definitive trend in SO2 levels in Colombo. Nonetheless, there have been instances where the SO2 levels exceeded the 1-Hr NAAQS (Figure 53). In 2000, monitoring data on 1-Hr SO2 levels in Colombo show that the 1-Hr SO2 levels in the city exceeded the standards by 83 instances.
Figure 53
A separate study (Ileperuma, 2000) showed that the 1996 SO2 levels in Colombo exceeded the WHO Guideline value on about 25% of instances whilst the O3 levels exceeded the WHO Guideline value on about 75% of instances.
Ambient SO2 Levels in Colombo 1997-2007 (g/m )
900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Min (1-Hr) average
Max (1-Hr) average
NAAQS (1-Hr)
Source: Data from AirMac.
NO2
Relatively low ambient NO2 levels have been measured in Colombo (Figure 54). ). In 1997 1997-2007, ambient 1-hr average NO2 levels satisfy the NO2 NAAQS (except in 2001) and the WHO 1 1-Hr AQG (except in 1997, 1998 and 2001). Also, annual averages of 1-hr average NO2 levels are within the WHO annual AQG.
Figure 54
CO Relatively low ambient CO levels have been recorded in Colombo in 1997-2007 (Figure Figure 55). In the 19972007 monitoring g period, the maximum 1-hr 1 average CO levels are within the 1-hr hr NAAQS and 1-Hr 1 WHO AQG.
Ambient NO2 levels in Colombo 1997 1997-2007 (g/m ) Max (1-Hr) average
300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 NAAQS (1-Hr)
Source: Data from AirMAC. Figure 55 35000 30000 25000 20000 15000 Max (1-Hr) average 10000 5000 0 1997 Min (1-Hr) average Source: Data from AirMAC. 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Ambient CO levels in Colombo 1997-2007 (g/m )
3
Min (1-Hr) average
WHO AQG (1-Hr)
WHO AQG (Annual)
NAAQS (1-Hr)
WHO AQG (1-Hr)
References
Air Resource Management Center, 2005. Air Monitoring. Air Resource Management Center, Sri Lanka. http://www.airmacsl.org/airmonitoring.html accessed July 2009. Asian Development Bank (ADB) and Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center, 2006 Country Synthesis Report on Urban Air Quality Management: Sri Lanka. Discussion Draft. ADB, 2006. Central Environmental Authority (CEA), 2008. Mission and Vision of CEA. Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka. http://www.cea.lk/mission_vision.php accessed July 2009. CEA, [undated]. Air Quality Monitoring. Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka. http://www.cea.lk/lab_air_quality_monitoring.php accessed October 2009. Ileperuma, O.A., 2000. Environmental Pollution in Sri Lanka: A Review.Journal of National Science Foundation, Sri Lanka. 2000 28(4): 301-325. http://thakshana.nsf.ac.lk/pdf/JNSF2634/JNSF28_4/JNSF28_4_301.pdf accessed July 2009.
Mal Declaration, 2000. Baseline Information and Action Plan. United Nations Environment Programme Regional Resource Centre for Asia and Pacific. http://www.rrcap.unep.org/male/baseline/Baseline /SriLanka/SRICH2.htm accessed July 2009. Ministry of Healthcare and Nutrition, 2006. Annual Health Statistics: 2006. Ministry of Healthcare and Nutrition, Ven. Baddegama Wimalawansa Thero Mawatha, Colombo. http://203.94.76.60/AHB2006/AHS2006(PDF%20FILES)%20for%20WEB/Annual%20Hea lth%20Statistics%202006.htm accessed July 2009. Weerasinghe, C., 2009. Our air quality monitoring stations old, dilapidated. Daily News Online. August 13, 2009. http://www.dailynews.lk/2009/08/13/news03.asp accessed October 2009.
World Health Organization (WHO), 2000. Guidelines for Air Quality. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_SDE_OEH _00.02_pp1-104.pdf accessed August 2009. , 2006. WHO Air Quality Guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Global Update 2005. Summary of Risk Assessment. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2006/WHO_SDE_PHE _OEH_06.02_eng.pdf accessed July 2009.
Country Profile: Thailand

The first set of national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) of Thailand was promulgated in 1981, covering Carbon monoxide (CO), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Sulfur dioxide (SO2), total suspended particulates (TSP), ozone (O3) and lead (Pb). The establishment of environmental quality standards, including the NAAQS, has been outlined in the Enhancement and Conservation of the National Environmental Quality Act (NEQA) B.E. 2535 (1992) under Chapter III, Part 1, Section 32. This section also gave authority to the National Environment Board (NEB) to issue standards and subsequent modifications through notifications published in the Government Gazette. Various factors to be considered in developing and prescribing NAAQS, such as relevant scientific knowledge, principles, criteria and evidence as well as practicability of such standards from the viewpoint of economic, social and technological considerations (NEQA, 1992), were also specified in the act.
Figure 56
The 1992 NEQA also led to the establishment of the Pollution Control Department (PCD). The PCD is responsible for recommending pollution prevention/rehabilitation plans, proposing amendments or improvements of laws concerning pollution control, prevention and reduction, coordinating with various stakeholders on pollution prevention/mitigation actions, and advising on ambient air quality and emission standards. The PCD, in coordination with the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MNRE), takes the lead in drafting, reviewing and proposing of ambient air quality standards for approval of the NEB. In 1995, the 1981 NAAQS underwent revisions in the light of scientific and technological progresses and changes in environmental and socioeconomic conditions of the country. illustrates the overall review and development process of the 1995 NAAQS. Recent developments in the NAAQS include the promulgation of the 8-Hr average standard for O3 and the annual average standards for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in 2007.
Review and Development Process of 1995 National Ambient Air Quality Standard
National Review Determine Priorities Information Needs
Review Existing Standards Adopt Existing Modify/Revise New Standards Proposed National Ambient Air Quality Standards National Review and Discussion, Public Hearing Prepare Criteria Document and Regulatory Impact Assessment for Standards Information Needs
Approval by National Environment Board
Source: PCD
Promulgation of National Standards

Thailand has NAAQS for TSP, O3, CO, Pb, NO2, SO2 and PM1033. Table 40 presents the 1981 and current NAAQS compared with the World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines whilst Table 41 lists the annual average national standards for VOCs.
Table 40 1981 Standards vs. 1995 Standards vs. WHO 3 Guidelines (g/m ) Average 1981 Current WHO Time NAAQS NAAQS Guidelines g PM10 24-Hrs 120 50 g Annual 50 20 c g NO2 1-Hr 320 319.6 200 24-Hrs g Annual 40 d g SO2 10-min 500 b 1-Hr 784.8 g 24-Hrs 300 313.92 20 a Annual 100 104.64 e O3 1-Hr 200 196.2 g 8-Hr 137.34 100 f h CO 1-Hr 50,000 34,350 30,000 h 8-Hr 20,000 10,305 10,000 TSP 24-Hr 330 330 a Annual 100 100 Pb 24-Hr 10 1-month 1.5 h Annual 0.5 Guidelines refer to the safe level of a pollutant, for a given average time, to protect the public from acute health effects. 3 g/m =micrograms per cubic meter a b 3 Geometric Mean, 1,300 g/m for Mae Moh area, 780 3 c g/m for elsewhere, Conversion factor for ppb to 3 d 3 g/m :1.880, Conversion factor for ppb to g/m :2.616, e 3 f Conversion factor for ppb to g/m :1.962, Conversion 3 factor for ppb to g/m :1.145 Source: WHO, 2006; WHO 2000; Notification of NEB No. 10, B.E. 2538 (1995) under 1992 NEQA, published in the PM10 is used to describe particles of 10 micrometers or less in aerodynamic diameter. The concentration is 3 measured in g/m .
33 g h
Royal Government Gazette No. 112 Part 52 dated May 25, B.E.2538 (1995); Notification of NEB No. 10, B.E. 2547 (2004) under 1992 NEQA, published in the Royal Government Gazette No. 121 Special Part 104 D dated September 22, B.E.2547 (2004); Notification of NEB No. 10, B.E. 2550 (2007) under 1992 NEQA, published in the Royal Government Gazette No. 124 Part 58 dated May 14, B.E.2550 (2007)
Table 41 2007 Annual Average National Standards for 3 VOCs (g/m ) VOCs Ambient Annual Ave Standard 1.7 0.33 0.43 0.4 22 4 200 23 10 Ambient 24-Hr Ave Guideline Value 860 10 7.6 12 5.3 190 150 57 370 1100 48 210 82 860 0.55 400 83 130 20
Pollutant
Acetaldehyde Acrylonitrile Benzene Benzyl Chloride 1,3-Butadiene Bromomethane Carbon Tetrachloride Chloroform 1,2-Dibromoethane 1,4-Dichlorobenzene 1,2-Dichloroethane Dichloromethane 1,2-Dichloropropane 1,4-Dioxane 2-Propenal/acrolein Tetrachloroethylene 1,1,2,2Tetrachloroethane Trichloroethylene Vinyl Chloride
3
g/m =micrograms per cubic meter Source: Notification of NEB No. 30, B.E 2550 (2007) under 1992 NEQA, published in the Royal Government Gazette No. 124 Part 143 dated September 14, B.E.2550 (2007)
The NAAQS has undergone a number of revisions since its establishment in 1981; however, Thailands NAAQS are relatively more lenient compared with the WHO Guidelines. The countrys national ambient air quality standards are continually developed and modified taking into account Thailands local conditions. Later this year, annual average ambient NO2 standards may be established. In addition, PM2.534 standards are currently being developed.
Continuous monitoring is conducted for several pollutantsCO, SO2, nitrogen monoxide (NO), NO2, nitrogen oxides (NOx), O3, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), methane (CH4), non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC), PM10 and PM2.5. Air pollutant concentrations are measured, collected, and analyzed by a data acquisition system in each station and are subsequently transmitted daily to the central data processing system at PCD through a dial-up telemetric communication system (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). Meteorological data are also gathered along with pollutant concentrations. In addition, there are 18 ambient VOCs monitoring stations nationwide. Ambient air samples are monitored once a month since August 2006. Samples are taken for 241 hours from the start of sampling time until the end of sampling time the following day. Monitoring schedule are set up randomly covering both weekday and weekend. At least twelve datasets are collected and are utilized for calculation of annual average concentration. In the next fiscal year, PCD intends to expand two more air quality monitoring stations in Northern Thailand. As PCD is also in the process of establishing ambient air quality standard for PM2.5, this will lead to installation of additional monitoring stations equipped with PM2.5 monitoring system. The expanding of air toxic monitoring network including VOCs, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and carbonyls monitoring sites is probable. Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Data Reporting Ambient air quality monitoring data are published in PCD Air and Noise newsletters. In addition, the data are presented in the PCD Annual Report and are subsequently reported to the NEB. Aside from publication in PCDs Annual Report, air quality data are displayed instantaneously for public information through nine digital display boards throughout the country. Daily air quality data can also be accessed through www.aqnis.pcd.go.th. Occasionally, the monitoring data is reported to relevant agencies, local organization and international organization upon request.

Air Quality Monitoring Network Monitoring is central to implementing an effective air quality management program in any country (World Bank, 2002). The primary responsibility for the air quality monitoring system in Thailand lies with PCD. Air quality monitoring commenced in 1983 with the installation of eight monitoring stations in Bangkok. In 1987, with Japan International Cooperation Agencys (JICA) assistance, the countrys first on-line and realtime continuous air quality monitoring system was established with the installation of five stations in Samut Prakarn. Several expansions were undertaken to further improve the air quality monitoring system in the country. In 1991, four stations with on-line and realtime continuous monitoring systems were established along the curb-sides streets in Bangkok. The following year, PCD, with technical assistance from the Swedish Government, began preparing the design of a nationwide ambient air quality and meteorological monitoring network. The networks were gradually implemented in a series of phases in 1996 through the upgrade of existing monitoring stations and the installations of new ones. As of 2009, there are 57 automated ambient air quality monitoring stations operating nationwide.
34
PM2.5 is used to describe particles less than 2.5 micrometers in an aerodynamic diameter. The 3 concentration is measured in g/m .
Ambient air quality monitoring data are also included in countrys health profile, which is issued by the Ministry of Public Health (MoPH). The Thailand Health Profile 2001-2004 (MoPH, 2004) highlighted that PM10 levels triggered a number of respiratory diseases including chronic bronchitis among residents in Bangkok and other major cities. The profile also drew attention to the high healthcare expenditure in major cities in Thailand caused by current air quality in the cities. Although the ambient air quality monitoring data are reported in Thailands national health profile, the air quality monitoring data are not correlated with disease surveillance programs. Annual Ambient Air Quality Trends PM10 According to the Thailand Health Profile 2005-2007 (MoPH, 2007), particulate matter is still a major contributor to the air pollution situation in the country. Figure 51 presents the ambient PM10 levels
Figure 57
in 21 provinces in 2008. Last year, the annual average PM10 level from 53 stations was around 41 g/m3. The average annual PM10 levels in most provinces, apart from Saraburi and Samut Prakarn in the Central region satisfied the national annual standard; however, average annual PM10 levels in all provinces were above the WHO annual air quality guideline (AQG). In 2008, among the provinces, Saraburi had the highest percentage of days when the PM10 level exceeded the 24-Hr standard (i.e., 8.1%). This was followed by Ratchaburi and Samut Prakarn with 5.6 % and 4.98 %, respectively. These provinces belong to the Central region. As illustrated in Figure 58, the annual average PM10 levels in Thailand has been generally decreasing from 1997 to 2008. Control measures and the Asian economic crisis of 1997 contributed to the decline of average ambient PM10 since 1997 (CAI-Asia, 2006). In 2008, the annual average PM10 levels in the four regions satisfied the annual PM10 NAAQS but were still above the WHO annual PM10 AQG.
Ambient PM10 Concentrations in 21 Provinces in 2008 (g/m3)
125 100 75 50 25 0 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Chiang Mai Bangkok - Ambient
KhonKaen Bangkok - Roadside
Rayong NAAQS (1-year)
Songkhla
Source: Data from PCD
Figure 58 Average of 24-Hr average of PM10 levels in Four Regions (1997-2008) (g/m3)
O3 Aside from particulate matter, ambient CO and O3 levels have also been highlighted in the Thailand Health Profile 2005-2007 (MoPH, 2007) as monitored levels are occasionally above the maximum permissible levels. According to published data for 2006 and 2007, more than 20 hours per year exceeded the 1-hour O3 standard at PCDs monitoring stations in Bangkok suburbs as well as in smaller cities such as Ayutthaya, Saraburi, Chonburi and Rayong (CAI-Asia, 2009). In 2008, the maximum of the average 1-hour O3 exceeded the 1-hour NAAQS in Bangkok (ambient), Rayong and Chiang Mai (Figure 59).
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1997 1999 2001 Central Northern NAAQS (Annual) 2003 2005 2007 Northeastern Southern WHO (annual)
In general, annual average O3 levels in Bangkok, Chiang Mai, Songkhla and Rayong indicate an increasing tendency based on 1996 to 2008 monitoring data (Figure 60). Monitoring results suggest that O3 is a potential pollutant of concern, even though most stations are situated in the areas which are not downwind of the O3 precursors transport (CAI-Asia, 2009).
Figure 59 350
Ambient O3 Concentrations in Five Provinces in 2008 (g/m3)
300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Bangkok Ambient Central Bangkok Roadside Rayong KhonKaen
Max. of 1-hr average Annual average Min. of 1-hr average
Chiang Mai
Songkhla
Northeastern Annual Average NAAQS (1-Hr)
Northern
Southern
Figure 60 Average of 1-Hr average of O3 levels in Five Provinces (1996-2008) (g/m3)
45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
NO2 Transport (i.e., from diesel-powered vehicles), power generation and industry emissions are significant sources of NOx, including NO2, in Thailand (World Bank, 2002). Observed tendencies of NO2 levels vary per province. Although still below the WHO annual NO2 AQG, the annual average NO2 levels in Chiang Mai and Rayong show a slightly increasing tendency based on 1996 to 2008 monitoring data (CO Relatively low ambient CO levels have been recorded in Colombo in 1997-2007 (Figure 55). In the 19972008 2007 monitoring period, the maximum 1-hr average CO levels are within the 1-hr NAAQS and 1-Hr WHO AQG.
Chiang Mai Rayong Bangkok - Ambient

Figure 54 3 2007 (g/m )
KhonKaen Songkhla Bangkok - Roadside
Ambient NO2 levels in Colombo 1997-
Source: Data from AirMAC. ).
The contrary is observed in Songkhla and Bangkok (roadside). Songkhla province maintains low annual average NO2 levels well within the WHO AQG. Although the annual average of roadside NO2 levels in Bangkok still exceed the WHO AQG, 1996 to 2008 monitoring results have a generally decreasing trend. In 2008, Bangkok (roadside) had 0.01% days when the NO2 level exceeded the 1-Hr standard (i.e., 1 out of 8,248 data sets).
Figure 61 Average of 1-Hr average of NO2 Concentrations in Five Provinces (1996-2008) (g/m3)
SO2
CO
Figure 62 illustrates the annual mean ambient SO2
levels from 1996 to 2008 monitoring period are well within the national standards. The SO2 levels have considerably declined since the early 1990s. Fuel combustion from lignite power plants accounts for most of the total SO2 emissions in Thailand (World Bank, 2002). In Mae Moh, Lampang Province, for instance, 13 lignite power plants contributed to elevated SO2 levels (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). Implementation of comprehensive policy for environmental protection and installation of desulphurization technologies in power plants gradually led to SO2 level reduction.
In general, the annual average CO levels in the five provinces have been decreasing from 1996 to 2008 (Error! Reference source not found.). In 2008, none of the 1-hour average CO results from the five provinces exceeded the 1-hour NAAQS.
Figure 63 Average of 1-Hr Average of CO Levels in Five Provinces (1996-2008) (g/m3)
4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Chiang Mai Rayong Bangkok - Ambient
Figure 62 Average of 1-Hr Average of SO2 Levels in Five Provinces (1996-2008) (g/m3)
KhonKaen Songkhla Bangkok - Roadside
120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1996 1998 2000 Chiang Mai Rayong Bangkok - Ambient NAAQS (Annual) Source: Data from PCD 2002 2004 2006 2008 KhonKaen Songkhla Bangkok - Roadside
References
Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act (NEQA) B.E. 2535 (1992). http://infofile.pcd.go.th/law/1_En_NEQA1992.pdf?CFI D=247182&CFTOKEN=60618113 accessed in October 2009. Asian Development Bank (ADB) and Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center, 2006. Country Synthesis Report on Urban Air Quality Management: Thailand. Discussion Draft. ADB, 2006. CAI-Asia, 2009. Clean Air for Smaller Cities in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Region - Thailand Country Profile. CAI-Asia, 2009. Ministry of Public Health, 2004. Thailand Health Profile 2001-2004. http://www.moph.go.th/ops/health_48/index_eng.ht m accessed in July 2009.
Ministry of Public Health, 2007. Thailand Health Profile 2005-2007. http://www.moph.go.th/ops/thp/index.php?option=c om_content&task=view&id=6&Itemid=2&lang=en accessed in July 2009. World Bank, 2002. Thailand Environment Monitor 2002 for Air Quality. Washington DC, World Bank, http://go.worldbank.org/4BLL6QYH60 accessed in July 2009. World Health Organization (WHO), 2000. Guidelines for Air Quality. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_SDE_OEH_0 0.02_pp1-104.pdf accessed August 2009.
, 2006. WHO Air Quality Guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Global Update 2005. Summary of Risk Assessment. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2006/WHO_SDE_PHE_O EH_06.02_eng.pdf accessed July 2009.
Country Profile: Viet Nam

The first set of national ambient air quality standards was established in 1995. The 1995 Tieu Chuan35 Viet Nam (TCVN) 5937 outlined national ambient air quality standards for six key pollutants (i.e., Carbon monoxide (CO), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Sulphur dioxide (SO2), lead particulate, ozone (O3) and suspended particulate matter (SPM)). Additional standards to control other hazardous air pollutants were also established in the same year through TCVN 5938. Viet Nams 1993 Law on Environmental Protection (LEP) provided the basic framework for the countrys environmental policy. The 1993 LEP government decree provided guidance on the implementation of LEP and mandated the establishment of the National Environmental Protection Agency (NEA) (Tan, 2002). The NEA was established under the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Environment (MOSTE) in order to implement nationwide environmental protection on its behalf (Swisscontact, 2005). In addition, the Environmental Management Division under the Provincial Departments of Science, Technology and Environment (DOSTE) was established in each province/city (Swisscontact, 2005). During this time, MOSTE was mandated with the focal responsibility of developing and issuing standards relating to environmental issues. The Directorate for Standards and Quality (STAMEQ), the National Standards Body of Viet Nam, coordinates with
MOSTE36 on establishment and review of air quality standards, among others. The STAMEQ is responsible for organizing technical committees for developing environmental standards, providing technical-legislative expertise and submitting TCVN drafts to the Minister of MOSTE for approval (US-AEP, 2002). These agencies lead in the promulgation of revisions in the 1995 TCVN 5937 in 2001. In August 2002, MOSTE was divided into two separate ministriesthe Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) and the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST), to improve the institutional framework of the Government. Following this division, MONRE was given responsibility for state management of environmental protection activities in terms of policy-making and the development of related legislations (i.e. establishment of environmental standards), strategies, and planning (Swisscontact, 2005). Subsequently, the former DOSTEs were also divided into DOST and DONRE (Department of Natural Resources and Environment). In 2005, the national ambient air quality standards underwent another round of revisions. In addition, three other standards relating air quality were revised and promulgated in 2005TCVN 5938-2005 thresholds of some toxic substances in ambient air, TCVN 5939-2005 industry emission standards for dust and inorganic substances and TCVN 5940-2005 industry emission standards for selected organic substances. Other ministries are also involved in air quality protection-related activities. These include the Ministry of Health, Ministry of Industry and Trade, Ministry of Construction, Ministry of Science and Technology and Ministry of Transport. Only recently, the national ambient air quality standards were revised into national technical regulations. In October 7, 2009, the Minister of MONRE signed and approved the revision of the TCVN
36
Tieu chuan (Standard): This is a regulation on technical property and management used to classify and assess products, services, processing and environment for social and economic improvement. A standard can be established by organizations, individual companies or government ministries to be managed by STAMEQ. Standards are not mandatory. Source: Luat Tieu Chuan Va Quy Chuan Ky Thuat (Law of Standard and National Technical Regulation in Viet Nam) Included in Resolution No 51/2001/QH10; th Date 25 December, 2001.
35
Now Bo Tai Nguyen Va Moi Truong BTNMT (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment MONRE).
5937:2005 and TCVN 5938:2005 into Quy Chuan Ky Thuat37 Quoc Gia Ve Chat Luong Khong Khi Xung Quanh (National Technical Regulation on Ambient Air Quality) QCVN 05:2009/BTNMT and Quy Chuan Ky Thuat Quoc Gia Ve Mot So Chat Doc Hai Trong Khong Khi Xung Quanh (National Technical Regulation on Hazardous Substances in Ambient Air) QCVN 06:2009/BTNMT, respectively. Both QCVNs will be effective in January 1, 2010.
Table 42 National Technical Regulation on Ambient Air of 3 Viet Nam vs. WHO AQG (g/m ) Average QCVN 05:2009/ WHO AQG Time BTNMT a PM10 24-Hrs 150 50 a Annual 50 20 a NO2 1-Hr 200 200 24-Hrs 100 a Annual 40 40 a SO2 10-min 500 1-Hr 350 a 24-Hrs 125 20 Annual 50 O3 1-Hr 180 a 8-Hr 120 100 24-Hr 80 b CO 1-Hr 30,000 30,000 b 8-Hr 10,000 10,000 24-Hr 5,000 TSP 1-Hr 300 24-Hr 200 Annual 140 Pb 24-Hr 1.5 1-month b Annual 0.5 0.5 Guidelines refer to the safe level of a pollutant, for a given average time, to protect the public from acute health effects. 3 g/m =micrograms per cubic meter a b Source: WHO, 2006, WHO 2000 Pollutant

Viet Nam has national technical regulations for PM1038, Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Sulfur dioxide (SO2), ozone (O3), Carbon monoxide (CO), total suspended particulates (TSP) and lead (Pb). Table 42 presents the QCVN 05:2009/BTNMT compared with the World Health Organization (WHO) air quality guidelines (AQG) whilst Table 43 lists the QCVN 06:2009/BTNMT. National technical regulations for CO, NO2 and Pb (annual average) are comparable with the WHO Guideline values. The contrary is observed with PM10, SO2 and O3 national standards as these limits are less stringent relative to the WHO AQG.
Quy Chuan Ky Thuat (National Technical Regulation): This is a mandatory regulation on technical property enforced on products, services, processing and environment to ensure socio-economic improvement, safety, sanitation, protection of human health, flora, fauna, environment, national security and consumer rights, and other requirements. A national technical regulation is established and enforced by government ministries, in coordination with STAMEQ. Source: Luat Tieu Chuan Va Quy Chuan Ky th Thuat (Resolution No 51/2001/QH10; Date 25 December, 2001). 38 PM10 is used to describe particles of 10 micrometers or less in aerodynamic diameter. The concentration is 3 measured in g/m .
37
Table 43 National Technical Regulation on Hazardous Substances in Ambient Air (QCVN 06:2009/BTNMT) (g/m ) Parameters Arsenic (As) Hydrogen Chloride (HCl)l Dust containing silicone oxyde > 50% Chlorine (Cl2) Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) Averaging Time 1-hr Annual 24-hr 1-hr 24-hr 1-hr 24-hr 1-hr 24-hr Annual 1-hr 24-hr Limit/ Standard 0,03 0,005 60 150 50 100 30 300 50 3 50 20 3 1 si/m Chloroform (CHCl3) Cd (smoke containing cadimi oxyde and cadimi metal) Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) C2H3COOH Hydrogen Fluoride (HF) 24-hr Annual 1-hr 8-hr Annual 1-hr Annual 16 0,04 0,4 0,2 0,005 10 54 Parameters Arsine (AsH3) Nitric Acid (HNO3) CH3CH2COOH Averaging Time 1-hr Annual 1-hr 24-hr 8-hr Limit/ Standard 0,3 0,05 400 150 300
CH3SH Dust containing Chrysotile [Mg3Si2O3(OH)] Hexavalent chromium (Cr )

+6
Mercury (Hg) CH2=CHCN Manganese (Mn)/Manganese Dioxide (MnO2) Nickel (Ni) Hydrocarbon (CnHm) Vinyl clorua (ClCH=CH2) Naphthalene (C10H8) Acetaldehyde (CH3CHO) Tetrachloroethylene (C2Cl4) Xylene (C6H4(CH3)2) Benzidine (NH2C6H4C6H4NH2)
3
1-hr 24-hr Annual 24-hr 24-hr Annual 1-hr 24-hr Annual 24-hr 1-hr 24-hr 24-hr 8-hr 24-hr 1-hr Annual 24-hr 1-hr 1-hr
0,007 0,003 0,002 0,3 45 22,5 10 8 0,15 1 5000 1500 26 500 120 45 30 100 1000 KPHT
Aniline (C6H5NH2) Benzene (C6H6) Toluene (C6H5CH3)
CH2=CHCHO HCHO Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) Phenol (C6H5OH) Styrene (C6H5CH=CH2) Ammonia (NH3)
1-hr 24-hr Annual 1-hr 24-hr 1-hr Annual 30 - min 1-hr Annual 1-hr 1-hr 1-hr 1-hr 1 week Annual 1-hr
20 5 1 50 30 22 10 1000 500 190 50 20 42 10 260 190 200
g/m =micrograms per cubic meter

Coupled with the responsibility of establishing and reviewing environmental standards is MONREs mandate to provide a roadmap of application and implementation of the standards. The Vietnam Environmental Administration (VEA) and the DONREs in the local governments are mandated to monitor and inspect compliance to ambient air quality standards. The current organizational arrangement of VEA is illustrated in Figure 64. Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Network The VEA, under the MONRE, is responsible for designing and organizing the national air quality monitoring programs. These programs are designed based on certain data objectives. Air quality monitoring in Viet Nam is conducted by the central government (through MONRE) and the local governments (Figure 65). Under the national environmental monitoring network, there are 21 regional stations responsible for monitoring water, air and soil quality, acid rain, radiation and occupational environment with over 250 monitoring sites spread over 45 provinces and cities (Center for Environmental Monitoring, Data and Information, 2008). This includes five fixed, two mobile automatic and three manual monitoring stations. Manual stations cover 80 air monitoring sites distributed from north to south and are monitored four to 12 times a year. Routine air quality monitoring is conducted by the local environmental protection agencies of the provinces (i.e. DONRE), which are managed under the provincial peoples committee with technical supervision from MONRE. However, most air quality monitoring activities is concentrated in Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) and Hanoi. Although MONRE conducts air quality monitoring in cities outside HCMC and Hanoi for varying periods and frequency, data is not readily available (ADB and CAIAsia, 2006).
For Hanoi, there were seven (five fixed stations, two mobile) automatic air quality monitoring stations in 2005. Six of these units were procured within 1999 2002 by MONRE. One unit was purchased by the Ministry of Construction (MOC) in 2004. These stations can measure PM10, CO, SO2, NOx, O3, and TSP, as well as meteorological conditions. The stations are managed and operated separately by different organizations where the stations are located (Table 44) (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). Reports in 2006 have indicated that one of the mobile stations have not been in operation, while the mobile station of MOC is used only on a contract basis to assess large construction projects (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). Passive sampling is also being conducted at least a minimum of four times a year in various locations (Swisscontact 2005). In 2007, of the seven automatic air quality monitoring stations in Hanoi, only one station delivers partly reliable data (SVCAP, 2007). The remaining stations (i.e., five stationary and one mobile station) are either not operating any more or are not operating properly respectively delivering in reliable data (SVCAP, 2007). At that time, continuous reliable measurements showing the air pollution levels in Hanoi are not available.
Figure 64
Organizational Chart of VEA
Figure 65 Network
Current Status of Air Quality Monitoring Viet Nam Air Monitoring Network
Central Government (MONRE)
Local Government, Other
National HydroMeteorological Service
National Environmental Monitoring Network
DONREs Project, research..
Source: Center for Environmental Monitoring, Data and Information, 2008. Table 44 Overview of Air Quality Monitoring Facility in Hanoi Type Fixed Stations Automatic continuous monitoring Automatic continuous monitoring Automatic continuous monitoring Automatic continuous monitoring Automatic continuous monitoring Mobile Stations Continuous monitoring Continuous monitoring 2000 Oct 2004 MONRE MOC SO2, NO, NO2, NOx, O3, CO, and dust SO2, NO, NO2, NH3, O3, CO, NMHC, CH4, TSP & PM10 CEETIA Centre for Tropical Architecture Start of Operation 1999 2000 2001 2002 19992000 Sep 2002 Location Investor Parameter Operator
55 Giai Phong Str. 285 Lac Long Quan Str. 334 Nguyen Trai Str. Pham Van Dong Str. 62 Nguyen Chi Thanh
MONRE MONRE MONRE MONRE MONRE
SO2, NO, NO2, NOx, O3, CO SO2, NO, NO2, NOx, O3, CO, and dust SO2, NO, NO2, NOx, O3, CO, and dust SO2, NO, NO2, NOx, O3, CO, and dust SO2, NO, NO2, NOx, O3, CO, TSP, PM10, CH4, NMHC, and NH3
CEETIA CTET DONREH DONREH National Centre for Meteo-Hydrology
MONRE = Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment; CEETIA = Center for Environmental Engineering of Towns and Industrial Areas; CTET = Center for Environmental Technology Treatment; DONREH =Department of Natural Resources, Environment and Housing; MOC = Ministry of Construction; SO2 = Sulfur dioxide; NO = Nitrogen monoxide; NO2 = Nitrogen dioxide; NOx = Nitrogen oxides; O3 = Ozone; CO =Carbon monoxide; TSP = total suspended particulates; PM10 = particles of 10 micrometers or less in aerodynamic diameter; CH4 = Methane; NMHC = non-methane hydrocarbons; and NH3 = Ammonia; Source: Swisscontact, 2005.
The Swiss-Vietnamese Clean Air Program (SVCAP)39, a program of the Swisscontact in Hanoi, is currently contributing in developing air quality monitoring in Hanoi, among others. One of the components of the first phase of the includes improvement of air quality and emission database including an emission inventory for Hanoi, passive sampling campaigns, air quality monitoring system and modeling of air pollution in Hanoi (SVCAP, 2007). As of 2008, there are two operational automatic monitoring stations (i.e., one for roadside and one for residential area). In addition, nine urban sites within Hanoi are currently included under the manual air monitoring sites of the national environmental monitoring network. In HCMC, on the other hand, the existing air quality monitoring network is fairly well-established (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). The stations, which were formerly managed and maintained by the former MOSTE (at the national level) and by the Provincial Peoples Committees (at the local city or municipal level), have undergone improvements since 1992. The monitoring stations are now operated and maintained by the Ho Chi Minh City Environmental Protection Agency (HEPA), under the Peoples Committees Department of Natural Resources and Environment of HCMC (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). By the end of 1992, the citys network was composed of the manual monitoring network that consisted of four ambient air monitoring stations (PM, SO2 and NO2) and three stations for roadside monitoring (PM, NO2, Pb and noise) (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006).
In June 2000, an automatic air quality monitoring system was installed in HCMC, with support from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Danish International Development Assistance (Danida) (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). This system includes two urban background stations (to monitor PM10, SO2, NO2, and O3), and two roadside stations (to monitor PM10, NO2, CO, and O3). In November 2002, three new automatic ambient and two new automatic roadside stations were also installed, with support from the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD), bringing the total number of automatic stations to nine. The location and description of these nine stations are presented in Table 45. All nine monitoring stations are currently operational. In addition to these automatic air quality monitoring stations, a semi-automatic air quality monitoring network focusing on roadside air quality in HCMC has also been in operation since 2005 (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). The monitoring network is composed of six stations situated at various crossroads (i.e., HX-Hang Xanh; DTH-DBP; PL-Phu Lam; AS-An Suong; GV-Go Vap and; NVL-HTP) monitoring TSP, CO, NO2, Pb and noise levels (Nguyen, 2009). The quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) measures implemented in the citys air quality monitoring system are quite comprehensive, covering measures before monitoring, actual monitoring, and data processing, with procedures following international standards (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). The QA/QC protocol for air quality monitoring in HCMC include- Site selection and establishment procedures, calibration techniques, weekly checks of monitoring stations, scheduled maintenance, data validation procedures, and routine inspection of data collection facilities (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006).
39
The Swiss-Vietnamese Clean Air Program (SVCAP) is a joint project under a bilateral agreement signed in Hanoi on the 1st March, 2006 between the Government of Vietnam, represented by MONRE and the Government of Switzerland, represented by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) under the framework agreement on Development Cooperation between Switzerland and Vietnam. SDC assigned SWISSCONTACT (SC) to carry out the project. The goal of SVCAP is to contribute to the prevention of a possible further degradation of the air quality in Hanoi and its surrounding. The purpose of the first phase is to support the creation of favorable conditions for the reduction of air pollution by means of the definition and implementation of an integral air quality management system, focusing on Hanoi and surrounding areas (SVCAP, 2007).
Table 45 Location and Description of Automatic Air Quality Monitoring Station System Station 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Code DO HB TD TSH TN BC ZO D2 QT Name DOSTE Hong Bang Thu Duc Tan Son Hoa Thong Nhat Binh Chanh Zoo/Sou Thuu/Thao Cam Vien District 2/Quaan 2 Quang Trung Total Instruments 5 PM10 NO2 9 6 6 5 1 SO2 O3 CO Met Classification Traffic Traffic Residential/Industrial Urban Background Traffic Traffic Urban Background Residential/Industrial Urban Background
DOSTE = Department of Science, Technology, and Environment; PM10 = particles of 10 micrometers or less in aerodynamic diameter; NO2 = Nitrogen dioxide; SO2 = Sulfur dioxide; O3 = Ozone; CO = Carbon monoxide; Met = meteorological parameters Source: Sivertsen et al., 2005. Figure 66 Location of Monitoring Stations in HCMC
Source: Nguyen, 2009
Aside from Hanoi and HCMC, air quality has also been monitored at seven locations in Hai Phong since 1998, but with limited frequency. The monitoring involves measurement of the quality of pollutants SO2, NO2, CO, and TSP. There is also a national hydro-meteorological service network comprised of six automatic monitoring stations in Phu Lien, Lang, Pleiku, Da Nang, Nha Be, Cuc Phuong. The Government of Viet Nam intends to expand the air quality monitoring system in the next couple of years bymonitoring additional cities in Viet Nam, installing more monitoring stations, measuring other pollutants and monitoring parameters with lower concentrations. Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Data Reporting The VEA is mandated to direct the uniform collection and management of environment monitoring data and reports. Ultimately, monitoring reports are reported to Center for Environment Monitoring/VEA. Process flow of monitoring data is illustrated in Figure 67.
Figure 67 Mainland 1 Mainland 3 Coastanzon 1 CEM/VEA Process Flow of Monitoring Data DONRE
in Hanoi. Unfortunately, it has no free access to data reports produced by most of the other monitoring stations that are managed by other institutions and ministries (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). Monitoring stations operated by Center for Environmental Engineering of Towns and Industrial Areas (CEETIA) and by the Center for Environmental Technology Treatment (CTET) report according to the requirements of MONRE (Swisscontact 2005). They need to request from MONRE or from CEETIA/ CTET to acquire the air quality data (Swisscontact 2005). There is no nationally legislated air quality index system in Viet Nam (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). Except for HCMC, air quality monitoring results are not reported to the public on real-time. HCMC uses an Air Quality Index (AQI) based on US Federal Register guidelines (ADB and CAI-Asia, 2006). The AQI values are automatically calculated on a daily basis using PM10, SO2, NO2, O3 and CO data (Nguyen, 2009). The AQI values are divided into two components-AQI for residential areas and AQI for roadside areas. Air quality indices, as well as monitoring data, are available to the residents and the general public via the HEPA website (www.hepa.gov.vn). Ambient air quality monitoring results are presented and evaluated in State of Environment (SOE) Reports. In SOEs, current air pollution trends are also associated with health issues in Viet Nam. Recent statistics from the Ministry of Health indicate that respiratory diseases are common in Viet Nam. In the 2007 National State of Environment Report, air pollution was reportedly responsible for the increasing number of people with respiratory diseases, including respiratory inflammation, asthma, tuberculosis, allergies and chronic bronchitis. (Bao Anh, 2008). Recent statistics from the Ministry of Heath have indicated that the percentage of incidence of chronic bronchitis in urban and industrial areas is 2.29 times greater than in rural areas.
Phu Lien
Hydro-Met Service
Nha Be
Lang
Cuc Phuong
Da Nang
Pleiku
Source: Center for Environmental Monitoring, Data and Information, 2008.
In Hanoi, the monitoring data obtained are reported to three offices: the Hanoi Peoples Committee, MONRE, and MOC. The Hanoi Department of Natural Resources and Environment (DONRE) is the lead agency mandated to regulate and manage air quality
Annual Ambient Air Quality Trends PM10 In the 2001 Viet Nam SOE Report, particulate matter was highlighted as a major contributor to air pollution, particularly in urban areas (MONRE, 2001). The PM10 levels remain a main concern in Viet Nam. As illustrated in Figure 51, PM10 levels in HCMC and Hanoi from 2003 to 2006, albeit slightly declining, are still above the national technical regulations and WHO guideline values. The highest concentrations of particulate matter were found in big cities on congested roadways and at construction sites (Viet Nam Clean Air Partnership, 2008).
Figure 68 Annual Average PM10Concentrations 3 (2003-2006) (g/m ) 100 80 60 40 20 0 2003 2004 Ho Chi Minh city Hanoi Hai Phong Da Nang QCVN 05:2009/BTNMT (Annual) WHO AQG (Annual) Source: Data from Center for Environmental Monitoring. 2005 2006
In 2008, the Binh Chanh and Thong Nhat stations (i.e., roadside monitoring stations in HCMC) had average annual PM10 levels of 77.5 and 54 g/m3, respectively (Nguyen, 2009). These exceed the WHO annual AQG by a factor of 3.88 and 2.7, respectively. In terms of the 24-hour average PM10 levels, Thong Nhat station had 0.54% of the data exceed the national technical regulation (24-Hr) whilst at the Binh Chanh station, 1.69% of the data were above the national technical regulation (24-Hr) (Nguyen, 2009). Residential areas also report average annual PM10 values higher than then national technical regulation. In 2008, residential areas in HCMC had an average annual PM10 level 73.8 g/m3 (Nguyen, 2009). This is above the PM10 annual national technical regulation and WHO annual AQG by a factor of 1.48 and 3.69, respectively. NO2 The 2001 Viet Nam SOE Report states that NO2 levels are not a main contributor to air pollution in Viet Nam cities, although NO2 levels exceed the national limits in some large crossroads in major cities (UNEP, 2001). This analysis is still evident in the recent ambient NO2 data. CO Relatively low ambient CO levels have been recorded in Colombo in 1997-2007 (Figure 55). In the 19972007 monitoring period, the maximum 1-hr average CO levels are within the 1-hr NAAQS and 1-Hr WHO AQG.
Figure 54 3 2007 (g/m )
Ambient NO2 levels in Colombo 1997-
Source: Data from AirMAC. illustrates the annual average NO2 levels in various cities in Viet Nam from 2003 to 2006. Only ambient NO2 levels along traffic routes in HCMC in 2004 and 2005 exceed the national technical regulation (annual) and WHO annual AQG.
Source: Data from Center for Environmental Monitoring.
In 2008, annual average NO2 levels in roadside stations ranged from 14.21-25.34 g/m3, well within the national technical regulation and WHO AQG (Nguyen, 2009).
SO2 The SO2 monitoring reports in Viet Nam from 19951999 showed that the 1-Hr and 24-Hr average SO2 levels in most urban centers are below or are approximates of the national standards (MONRE, 2001 and World Bank, 2002). As discussed in the 2001 Viet Nam SOE Report, occasional exceedances were reported in residential areas proximate to industrial areas (UNEP, 2001). CO In 2001, ambient CO levels was not considered as a serious issue as the daily mean ambient CO levels in major cities, such as Hanoi, HCMC, Hai Phong and Da Nang, during the 1995 to 1999 monitoring period generally satisfy the national standards (UNEP, 2001). In 2008, the 1-hour averages CO levels in roadside monitoring stations in HCMC were well within the national technical regulation (1-Hr) (Nguyen, 2009).
Figure 69 (g/m3) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2003
Annual Average NO2 levels (2003-2006)
Pb Figure 70 presents the monthly average ambient Pb levels in HCMC from 2000 to 2007. Ambient Pb levels in HCMC notably dropped in July 2001. At this period, nationwide Pb levels declined significantly because of the successful implementation of Directive No. 24/2000/CT-TTg on switching to unleaded gasoline (Viet Nam Clean Air Partnership, 2008).
Figure 70 Monthly Mean Ambient Pb Levels in Ho Chi Minh City (2000-2007)
2004
2005
2006
Residential areas in Ho Chi Minh city Traffic routes in Ho Chi Minh city Hanoi Hai Phong Da Nang QCVN 05:2009/BTNMT (Annual) WHO AQG (Annual)
Source: MONRE, 2007 adapted from Viet Nam Clean Air Partnership, 2008.
References:
Asian Development Bank (ADB) and Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center, 2006. Country Synthesis Report on Urban Air Quality Management: Viet Nam. Discussion Draft. ADB, 2006. Bao Anh, 2008. Viet Nams Air Pollution has Gloomy Outlook: Report. Thanh Nien News, http://www.thanhniennews.com/healthy/?catid=8&n ewsid=41103 accessed July 2009. Center for Environmental Monitoring, Data and Information, 2008. Current status of air quality monitoring network in Viet Nam. December 2008. MONRE, 2007. National Environmental Report 2007: Vietnam Urban Air Environment Hanoi, http://www.nea.gov.vn/ONKK/Thuctrang.html accessed July 2009. Nguyen, D.T., 2009. A status of urban air quality management and the need to develop an air quality improvement program in HCMC. Presented at workshop on improvement of urban air quality management in HCMC city on 14 April 2009. Swisscontact, 2005. Concepts for an Improved Air Quality Monitoring System and Emission Inventory for Hanoi, Viet Nam. Hanoi, Viet Nam. www.cleanairnet.org/caiasia/1412/article-59548.html accessed in July 2009. Sivertsen, B., T.N. Thanh, V.K. Le, and T.D. Vo., 2005. The Air Quality Monitoring and Management System for HCMC, Viet Nam. Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU OR 1/2005). Kjeller, Norway. Swiss-Vietnamese Clean Air Program (SVCAP), 2007. Report on the first Air Quality Measuring Campaign in Hanoi using the Passive Sampling Method. SVCAP
Phase I: Database Component Subcomponent 1.3: Passive Sampling. Tan, Alan K.J. 2002. Preliminary Assessment of Viet Nams Environmental Law. Asia Pacific Centre for Environmental Law. http://law.nus.edu.sg/apcel/dbase/Viet Nam/reportv.html accessed in July 2009. United States-Asia Environmental Partnership (USAEP), 2002. Before the Clouds Gather: Protecting Clean Air in Viet Nam http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADC618.pdf Accessed July 2009. United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), 2001. Viet Nam State of the Environment 2001 Report: Air Pollution http://www.rrcap.unep.org/reports/soe/vietnam/sum ary.htm Accessed July 2009. Viet Nam Clean Air Partnership, 2008. Clean Air in Viet Nam: Summary of Progress on Improving Air Quality. Country Network Viet Nam, http://www.cleanairnet.org/caiasia/1412/articles70822_Vietnam.pdf accessed in July 2009. World Health Organization (WHO), 2000. Guidelines for Air Quality. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_SDE_OEH_0 0.02_pp1-104.pdf accessed August 2009. , 2006. WHO Air Quality Guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Global Update 2005. Summary of Risk Assessment. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2006/WHO_SDE_PHE_O EH_06.02_eng.pdf accessed July 2009.

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Ambient Air Quality Standards in Asia Survey Report

Figure 1. Structure of the Regional Forum

Source: Regional Forum website - http://www.environment-health.asia/initiative.cfm#

2. AMBIENT AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES AND STANDARDS

10 a 25 a 20 a 50 a 100 a 40 a 200 a 20 a 500 b 0.5 b 30,000 b 10,000

15 35 150 d 147 d 235 100 e 78 e 366 1.5 40,000 10,000

3. SUMMARY OF AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS IN ASIA

Hong Kong SAR India Indonesia Nepal Philippines

yes yes yes yes yes

1987 1982 1999 2003 1978

1995, 2001, 2004, 2007 2001, 2005, 2009

Process for Development of Ambient Air Quality Standards

Cities have standards other than the NAAQS

Lead agency in drafting, reviewing and approving standards

Lead agency for implementation of standards (enforcement)

Central Pollution Control Board under MoEF

Yes-DKI Jakarta through Governor's Decree No. 551 of 2001

Ministry of Environment (MoE)

Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology (MoEST)

Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology (MoEST)

Implementation of the ambient air quality standards is mandated to the

Cities have standards other than the NAAQS

Lead agency for implementation of standards (enforcement) EMB Regional Offices.

1990 Clean Air Conservation Act

Ministry of Environment and local government

TCVN 5937 2005

Pollution Control Department (PCD)

Cities have standards other than the NAAQS

Other agencies involved

Lead agency for implementation of standards (enforcement)

Summary of Ambient Air Quality Standards

80 100 20 60 100 80 100 50 20 60 80 50 52 50

100 80 120 120 150 100 80 80 150 150 80 113 -

157 140 100 100 60 118 120

PM10 (g/m ) Annual Mean 20 30 40 50 50 50 50 50 50 55 60 60 60 70 100 150 -

WHO Guidelines China: Grade I India India

(assumed lower than 20) 20 20 50 50 50 52 60 60 78 80 80 80 100 100 100 none

120 120 150 150 150 -

80 80 80 100 100 100 -

Philippines WHO Guidelines India India

60 100 100 100 118 120 140 147 157 160 -

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 -

Air Quality Monitoring Systems in Asia

Routine AQ Monitoring Network exists

Plans to establish or expand in the next 2 years

Hong Kong SAR

Department/ Agency responsible for AQ monitoring

Routine AQ Monitoring Network exists

CO, SO2 and NO2

Hong Kong SAR India

N/A NO2, SO2, PM10, CO, and O3

Semarang Bandung Surabaya Jakarta Batam, Bogor, Balikpapan Kathmandu Valley

NO2 and benzene

Pb TSP SO2, NO2, CO, O3, PM10, PM2.5 All regions

Monitoring stations of local government - 304

Continuous 2008 Continuous

Air Quality Reporting in Asia

Published (printed) reports

Hong Kong SAR India Indonesia

Philippines Republic of Korea

Published (printed) reports

Other www.airmacsl.org, http://www.cea.lk/lab_air _quality_monitoring.php http://aqnis.pcd.go.th/mai neng.php www.hepa.gov.vn, www,nea.gov.vn

Sri Lanka Thailand

ANNEX 1. Survey Questionnaire