Co Engleza

Dunarea de Jos University of Galati Faculty of Letters
MODALIZATION
As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s
# A $ra%&atic A roac' #
(An )lective *ourse in )n%lis' Lan%ua%e for +nd ,ear -tudents.
Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan/ $'D
*ONT)NT*'a ter 0 1 As ects of Modality in )n%lis' 2 *'a ter + 1 *onte3t and Modality 4
+505 *onte3t and Modality 4 +5+5 )3 ressions of Modality5 -o&e e3a& les 6
*'a ter 7 1 Modals !er"s 08
7505 -yntactic 9e'aviour 08 75+5 Modals and Tenses 00
*'a ter 2 1 Meanin%s and Uses of t'e )n%lis' Modal !er"s 07

2505 CAN 250505 A"ility CAN 07 2505+5 $er&ission:Deontic CAN 04 250575 $ossi"ility:) iste&ic CAN 0; 250525 <ecurrence CAN 25+5 General Notes on t'e -econdary Modals 0= 2575 COULD 257505 -u"stitutes for CAN/COULD +0 2575+5 CAN/COULD 1 <oundu +0 257575 )3ercises 1 Meanin%s and Uses of CAN/COULD +7 2525 MAY 252505 $er&ission MAY 2525+5 ) iste&ic MAY +4 252575 A"ility:*a a"ility MAY 25>5 MIGHT 25>505 ) iste&ic MIGHT +; 25>5+5 Deontic MIGHT 25>575 A"ility MIGHT +6 25>525 )3ercises 1 Meanin%s and Uses of MAY/MIGHT +6 2545 MUST 254505 ) iste&ic MUST 2545+5 Deontic MUST 7+ 254575 MUST 1 <oundu
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254525 )3ercises 1 Meanin%s and Uses of MUST 74 25;5 SHALL 25;505 ) iste&ic SHALL 25;5+5 Deontic SHALL 76 2565 SHOULD 7= 256505 ) iste&ic SHOULD 28 2565+5 Deontic SHOULD 256575 SHOULD in Indirect - eec' Acts 20 256525 )3ercises 1 Meanin%s and Uses of SHALL/SHOULD 20 25=5 WILL 25=505 !olition:Deontic WILL 25=5+5 $o?er WILL 2> 25=575 ) iste&ic WILL 25085 WOULD 24 2508505 WOULD for $ast Ti&e <eference 2; 25085+5 WOULD for $resent Ti&e - 'ere 2; 2508575 WOULD as an @IrrealisA MarBer 26 2508525 WOULD in Indirect - eec' Acts 26 25085>5 WILL/WOULD 1 <oundu 2=
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Final Tests >0
*'a ter 0 1 As ects of Modality in )n%lis'
Pragmatics studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on the linguistic knowledge (e.g. grammar, lexicon etc.) of the speaker and listener, but also on the context of the utterance, knowledge about the status of those involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and so on. In this respect, pragmatics explains how language users are able to overcome apparent ambiguity, since meaning relies on the manner, place, time etc. of an utterance. The ability to understand another speaker s intended meaning is called pragmatic competence. !entral to discussions on modality are the notions of possibility, necessity and impossibility" logicians and philosophers, ever since #ristotle, have defined these notions together with the relations which may be perceived to 2 !er"s As ects of Modality and Modal
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exist between them" such investigations provide the basis of modal logic, which today is one of the most pursued branches of logic. The problem is that different disciplines have each approached the notion from different starting points, asking different $uestions on the basis of different theoretical assumptions" in each case, the nature of the $uestion posed and of the goals set have led to different answers, i.e. different descriptions. # first attempt may be to consider the type of mental attitude and experience that involves the notions of possibility, necessity and impossibility. %ichael Perkins says in Modal Expressions in English& To put it quite simply, it would appear that such notions are conceptually grounded on the fact that human beings often think and behave as though things might be or might have been other than they actually are (or were . !uch a worldview appears to constitute an essential part of the fabric of our everyday lives. "or example, the fact that it is raining, that the car has broken down and that # am late for work does not prevent me from imagining myself arriving at work on time $%& in a quietly purring car in brilliant sunshine. ('()*) To talk about things being otherwise than they actually are is to talk about #+T,-.#TI/,, about conceivable though not actual states of affairs" such talk is known in logical studies as talk about other possible states of affairs or other possible worlds. It has been shown that the principles governing the use of modal expressions in ordinary language differ from those on which the use of their logical counterparts is based. #lthough the modal systems used by logicians cannot ade$uately explain the behaviour of modal expressions in the language, they can, nevertheless, serve as a basis for understanding how modality works in natural languages. 0o, in Perkins1s example above, the fact that it is raining, that the car has broken down and that the speaker is late for work pertain to the actual state off affairs. # possible alternative course of events is a 2world3 in which the speaker conceives himself arriving in time, in brilliant sunshine, in a perfectly functioning car. 4e can say that to conceive of something being otherwise is to conceive its being real in some non5actual world or in some state of the actual world at a point in time other than the present. %. Perkins remarks that broadly speaking, the actual world is itself 'ust one of an infinite set of possible worlds and, as such, it is not exclusively significant. Talk about possible worlds is noteworthy in so far as they are contrasted with and relative to the current, actual world. To say that (Mary ought to be a loyal friend to )nn* is to say that there is a state of affairs in which, according to the principles of morality, when a person interacts with other people, she is loyal. .o need to stress the fact that what ought to happen is not exactly what actually happens, which means that moral statements do not derive from examples, rather they are grounded on a system of duties which reside in human reason. As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s >
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Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan rinci les
Perkins shows that there are t'ree %eneral syste&s of that can be involved when one studies the modalities&
1. 6irstly, there are the modalities which conform to the rational laws of deduction. They are concerned with the interpretation of the world via the laws of human reason. They are known as )$I-T)MI* MODALIT,5 The term epistemic derives from 2episteme3, the 7reek word for 2knowledge3. Perkins aptly points out that, in fact, 2the key concept which underlies modality is the state of lack of knowledge3. 2To know3 that something is the case means that it, actually, is the case" of course, there are cases when one can 2know3 something and be mistaken, but then, one1s knowledge is no longer knowledge. 8ut to be certain (an epistemic modality) that something is the case does not mean that it really is the case. 2. The second set of principles concerning modalities is defined in terms of social/institutional laws. These are of two general kinds& a) 9n the one hand, are those laws explicitly involving some legal authority or institution b) 9n the other hand, are the usually less formal laws relating to social status, according to which one person may be said to have personal authority over another" in fact, there is no absolute dividing line between the two. The modalities that conform to social laws regard the sphere of duty, compulsion, order, command, instruction, appropriateness, and are known as D)ONTI* MODALIT,5 3. The third set of principles concerning modalities has in view the relationship between actual (empirical) circumstances or states of affairs, and the states of affairs that follow from them in accordance with natural laws (the laws of physics, chemistry, biology, anatomy etc.) These modalities define the notion of capacity (physical or intellectual) and are known as A9ILIT,:D,NAMI* MODALIT,. The three general systems of principles (rational/t e laws of reason! social/t e laws of societ"! natural/t e laws of nature) define three different types of states of affairs:worlds. There are three envisageable courses of events conceived as alternatives to the actual world" they form the theoretical background against which the nature of the ,nglish modal expressions will be determined.
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*'a ter + 1 *onte3t and Modality +505 *onte3t and Modality

+anguage production starts from an extra5linguistic real5world situation. 4hen the situation eliciting language appears, the speaker performs a s eec' act which involves a series of logical hierarchical choices of the linguistic elements at his disposal, which will best suit his co&&unicative intentions. !ommunication and language production being organically bound to human beings and extra5linguistic situations, any ade$uate description of utterances should account for the relationships between the real5world extra5linguistic context the linguistic choices made by the participants in the discourse. The proper interpretation of utterances can be a very complicated matter, to determine their appropriate use and to provide ade$uate descriptions and explanations, one must refer to many levels of language" not only the superficial (surface) syntactic environment and the logical semantic structure, but also the social context in which the discourse occurs must be brought into consideration. %any linguists have lately felt a real need for a theory of pragmatics in addition to syntax and semantics, to maintain a proper balance between the syntactic, the semantic and the pragmatic factors involved in the use of utterances in natural languages. In his study, 2Pragmatics and the ;escription of ;iscourse3, !harles 6illmore has defined syntax, semantics and pragmatics and their interrelation as follows& -,NTAC as for& characteri<es the grammatical forms that occur in a language& the structural organi<ation of sentences and the co5 occurrence possibilities among lexical items in particular kinds of grammatical constructions. -)MANTI*- as for&Dfunction relates the grammatical forms with their potential communicative functions, that is with what users of a language can do with these forms, in terms of the propositional content they can be used to express, as well as the speech acts they can be used to perform. $<AGMATI*- as for&DfunctionDconte3t is concerned with the relation between linguistic forms, their communicative functions and the contexts:settings in which given linguistic forms have given functions. 6illmore has emphasi<ed an idea which is old in anthropology and philology, namely the necessity to contextuali+e, to 2anchor3 utterances in some social system as a condition for understanding how they can be used, under what circumstances, the role they can play in on5going conversations, etc. It is in the discourse context that one can best see what the participants are doing and what they are experiencing. The discourse rules, a As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s ;
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subset of which is referred to as conversation rules, govern the conditions under which it is appropriate to perform one type of illocutionary act" also, they determine what answers $ualify as appropriate responses to a certain act. Therefore, the concepts of pragmatics and contextuali+ation have great relevance for the applied linguist, for the contrastive analyst, for second language teaching:learning and also for translation and interpretation. If one is to teach:learn second language use successfully, he must& '. identify the situation in which certain forms and syntactic configuration are usable in his language. =. determine the means by which the target language makes these distinctions, and *. pair the two, although in terms of surface syntax the two languages might appear very different. 0imilarly, a translator1s task is compound& in addition to merely translating words and ideas, he must >transpose1 contextual social and cultural concepts, contexts that are strictly speaking extra5linguistic. To be more specific, besides syntactic and semantic elements, pragmatic factors are clearly involved in the use and choice of modal expressions. The rules that enable one to define and classify them, to account for their often peculiar behaviour, to tell whether they are appropriately used and determine that use, are also to be found in the area of pragmatics, in the real5world context of the utterance. !onse$uently, one has to know& the syntactic features and semantic values the social position assumed by the participants in the discourse the relationships between ? the speaker and the addressee:surface sub@ect 5 the source and the goal of modality the contextual assumptions shared by the participants in the discourse the impression the speaker wants to make on the hearer etc.
The problem of the e$uivalence or synonymy between two modals, between a modal and a lexical:cognate verb or between a modal and an idiom:apparent paraphrase is a good example to consider. M,!T and !-.,/0 in their epistemic sense are often taken together under the label probably1likely and are assumed to be semantic e$uivalents" yet, the parallelism is not complete and the explanation is pragmatic, not syntactic or semantic" although the concept of probability is present in both, there are environments in which only one is possible or appropriate. .otice that in the following sentences only one -omanian modal corresponds to the two ,nglish verbs& 2ou must13should4 be out of your mind5 Trebuie sa fii scrantit1ca nu esti intreg la minte5 6e should13must get there before dark. )r trebui sa a'ungem la cabana inainte de a se intuneca.
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8oth 7)8 and M)2 partake of the notion of possibility, yet what is described as possible by the former is different from what is described as possible by the latter. They are not exact, interchangeable e$uivalents and there are contexts where the use of one is appropriate, while the other1s is not. 7an is closer to logical possibility and is paraphrasable in ,nglish by it is possible for% to, while may is closer to epistemic possibility corresponding to may& a avea posibilitatea, a9ti fi posibil and a fi posibil1cu putinta, poate (ca , respectively& # can be there in time : #t is possible for me to% # may be there in time : #t is possible that% ;ot sa fiu acolo la timp : )m posibilitatea1#mi este posibil sa% 9 Este posibil sa1;oate ca% #nother intriguing relationship is that between ,nglish modals and their paraphrases. Antil recently, they were regarded as perfect synonyms, the paraphrases existing only to fill the syntactic gaps where the simple modals were not available. 8ut, if we consider the following sentences, we shall easily notice that there are semantic distinctions and differences in distribution and use between them. a 2ou may smoke. b 2ou are allowed to smoke. a4 ;oti fuma1#ti dau voie sa fume+i. b4 #ti este permis sa fume+i. c4 Ti se da voie sa fume+i1)i voie sa fume+i. In a) the speaker himself is giving permission or indicates his approval of it" in b) he merely reports that the sub@ect has permission, but the speaker may be opposed to the idea. In -omanian the modal a putea does not make the performative1non9 performative distinction" the phrase, a da voie, a9ti fi permis, is chiefly used to report the existence of permission" it can also be used to give permission, as in a'), or to report permission, as in c')" the other paraphrase, a avea voie, may also be used both performatively, ai voie (de la mine sa fume+i and non5performatively, ai voie (de la tatal tau sa fume+i. !onsider also& a) 2ou must go now. Trebuie sa pleci acum. b) 2ou have to go now. Trebuie sa pleci acum c) 2ou<ve got to go now. Trebuie sa pleci acum 0entence a) may be used when the speaker himself sets the obligation" b) is apt to be used when, say, the addressee needs to catch a train" c) seems closer to b). -omanian uses one modal, a trebui, for all the modal expressions used in the above ,nglish sentences, and does not make the distinction between obligation imposed by the speaker and obligation derived from other constraints. In conclusion, from the modal expressions available to him, a speaker will choose what will best suit his communicative intentions in a particular As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s =
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contextual situation. Bence the importance of pragmatic elements, in addition to the syntactic and semantic ones, for an ade$uate interpretation of modal expressions.
+5+5 )3 ressions of Modality5 -o&e )3a& les

#t the level of linguistic manifestation, one can identify a set of modal expressions on the basis of their shared semantic characteristics previously discussed" in point of their syntax, the different modal expressions belong to different syntactic classes and have widely different syntactic properties& nouns& allegation, hypothesis, prophecy, proposal, command, instruction, invitation, re$uest, assumption, certainty, doubt, expectation etc. ad@ectives& sure, certain, possible, necessary, probable, compulsory, imperative, lawful, legal, permissible etc. adverbs& allegedly, apparently, certainly, evidently, hopefully, likely, necessarily, obviously, perhaps, possibly, presumably, probably, seemingly, supposedly etc. verbs& assume, believe, fancy, fear, feel, guess, hope, imagine, presume, suspect, think, trust etc. modal verbs& can, may, must, will, shall, could, might, ought to, would, should, need, dare. #ll these lexical items have been termed modal expressions in virtue of the fact that they appear to express the same type of meaning, reali<ing the conceptual sphere of the three systems of law discussed above& rational, social and natural.
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*'a ter 7 1 Modals !er"s 7505 -yntactic 9e'aviour

6rom the point of view of their surface syntactic behaviour, the ,nglish modals do not constitute a uniform class" a sub5class of what might be called pure1syntactic modals includes such items as CAN! COULD! MAY! MIGHT! WILL! WOULD! SHALL! SHOULD and MUST# 0ome grammarians also consider a class of modal candidates involving such verbs as seem, tend, happen and, possibly, believe, know, insist, advise, as well as cause and make. The subcategory of modals that is intermediate between the pure modals and the modal candidates is generally referred to as quasi91semi9modals1modal paraphrases and traditionally includes items as dare, need, ought to, have to, be to, be going to, be about to, be able to, used to. The syntactic modals exhibit the following idiosyncratic features or, very often called, >unverblike properties1, which has been used as an argument to characteri<e them as auxiliaries or semi91quasi9auxiliaries. It has been assumed, among other things, that the ,nglish modals are main verbs in the deep structure and this >unverblike behaviour1 is due to what ,. 8ara calls 2history5specific development of the ,nglish language3 (8ara '(C(). These features are& 1. they do not take the concord morpheme :s on the *rd person, singular, present tense (do not participate in number agreement)" 2. they do not have non5finite forms (infinitives, participles)" 3. they occupy the leftmost position in the verb phrase (may leave, must be reading, will have been told)" 4. they do not co5occur in constructions like 3must can, 3will may, 3shall must Bowever, the grammaticality of the following examples shows that concepts such as possibility, obligation, permission, ability are not necessarily mutually exclusive& 2ou may need to1have to call again, where may signals epistemic possibility and need1have to deontic necessity. It is possible, therefore, to have a combination of modalities in a sentence, but they cannot, in general, be both expressed by syntactic modals. 5. they do not allow do5support" 45 they invert with the sub@ect in interrogation" 7. they can be directly negated by not" 65 they are complemented by a verb in its infinitive form. The treatment of ought to, be to, have to, used to, dare and need varies from author to author" however, here are some of their most important features& 1. OUGET TO is considered not to belong to the true verb category in the surface structure because it cannot pass the test for verbs, being a syntactic modal with idiosyncratic surface behaviour. In present5day (#merican) ,nglish, ought to is very often reduced to otta, mainly but not exclusively, in the spoken language. As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s 00
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2. 9) TO, in almost all respects, behaves like the syntactic modals. Anlike them, it exhibits person and number agreement (am, is, are, was, were), has past tense syntax and may appear in the infinitive and not occupy the leftmost position in the /P& 6orse still may be to come. 3. EA!) TO agrees in person and number (have, has) and has past tense syntax. In interrogation, it may both invert with the sub@ect, like the syntactic modals, or allow do5support, like >true1 verbs& -ave you (got to leave right now= 0o you have to leave= In negation also, have to is either directly negated by not or allows do5 support& -adn<t you got to do it= 0idn<t you have to do it= 4. U-)D TO is in present5day ,nglish a very defective verb, having one past form for all persons, two possible negative forms (usedn:t to, didn1t use to), two possible interrogative forms (used you toD, did you use toD). .ote that the forms with do5support seem to be more common. 5. DA<), as well as N))D, displays a formal behaviour that is characteristic of both syntactic modals and ordinary verbs, without any significant difference in meaning. The most common terms used for them are pseudo91quasi9modals. Their use as syntactic modals is relatively rare in 8ritish ,nglish and even more restricted in #merican ,nglish. a. dare behaves like a regular verb in the affirmative ( dare1dares in the present, dared in the past). It should be pointed out that it is not much used in the affirmative except, perhaps, in the expression # daresay, only with the 'st person singular. In the negative and interrogative it may appear either as an ordinary verb or a syntactic modal& 0o you1does he dare= 0are you1he= .egative and interrogative forms with do1does1did are in theory followed by the to9infinitive, but in practice the to is often omitted& -e doesn<t dare (to say it right (in to my face. E.ote that when it is used with the meaning to challenge, dare is an ordinary transitive verb& # dare you to fill in for me and see how hard it is. ". need may also occur either as an uninflected syntactic modal or as an inflected regular verb& in positive statements the >true1 verb is commonly used, while in negations and $uestions both forms are possible& # need1needed to go. They need not go1don<t need to go. 8eed you go=1 0o10id you need to go= E.otice that the complement verb following need may be used either in the long or the short infinitive, except after the inflected forms needs and needed, when the to9infinitive is always used. 4hen need is used with the meaning to require, it is a perfectly regular transitive verb& -e needs all the support he can get. -e doesn<t need our pity.
75+5 Modals and Tenses

The distinction between the sometimes called >primary modals1 (can, may, must, will, shall) and the >secondary modals1 (could, might, would, should) as seen by such grammarians as 9. Fespersen, 7. +eech, 6.-. Palmer is based 0+ As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s
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on a semantic dimension of meaning present in the secondary modals and possessed only to a minimal degree by the primary ones. 0ome grammarians speak of a common hypothetical meaning shared by the secondary modals (+eech), others of a formal1tentative meaning (Palmer), while most traditional ones view it simply as a problem of past time reference (Fespersen). 8ut s eaBers of )n%lis' seldo& reco%niFe t'e& as an indication of ast ti&e5 They are rather felt as markers of some kind of >remoteness1 from the reality immediately perceptible at the moment of encoding. Tentativeness, for example, is understood as a more remote possibility, a more tentative probability, a lower degree of certainty& They might be telling the truth (although # very much doubt that . # special type of >remoteness1 is >unreality1 or >counterfactuality1& # told you time and time again not to drive so fast> you might have had an accident. E.otice that, taken out of the context, might have had is ambiguous" it can express both tentative possibility and counterfactuality (contrary5to5 reality). .evertheless, there are cases when these forms may be used to express >earlierness1 in time. This happens when the time sphere is past and is indicated by a deictic marker or an introductory verb in the past tense, in which case the se$uence of tenses occurs. 4e shall not insist on this aspect, though a very important one, because it will be furthered in the chapters dedicated to each modal. T'e erfect &arBer a$e%en can also indicate counterfactual possibility& The car is in such a bad condition that you might have got into trouble but for the safety belt. It is generally claimed that forms like could, would, might, should, ought to, needn<t ? have9en never occur as deontic and ability modalities" they can only appear with epistemic meanings. This is because e iste&ic &odality is related to s eaBer#no? and does not 'ave tense itself5 9ne exception may be deontic must which has no corresponding past:obli$ue forms& )pplicants for this position must have obtained a diploma in the past five years. E.ote that the construction expresses a present re$uirement (must) concerning a past process (have obtained). In conclusion, when simple epistemic modals combine with the perfect marker on the complement verb (perfect infinitive) it is the latter which signals >past1. Things are different with simple deontic or ability modals. 4e can1t say& !he can have smoked and mean !he was able to smoke. 4hen have9en co5occurs with past:obli$ue forms of the modals, it indicates past time, thus permitting the modals to signal >tentativeness1 or >unreality:non5fulfillment1. E.ote that neither dare not nor used to can occur with this construction, whereas need can& # needn<t have invited him over> he<s such a bore.
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T'e ro%ressive &arBer &e%in' can combine with modals, but with certain restrictions referring to those verbs that cannot be usually used in the progressive aspect (know, resemble, understand etc.) 0ometimes the be9ing morpheme may distinguish between possible and permissive %#G& # think they may be visiting some relatives in @ucharest> that<s why we couldn<t find them home. (Apossibility . # think they may travel abroad since they have their passports on them. (permission There are, however, contexts which allow deontic uses of modals to occur with the be9ing marker& # shouldn<t be talking to you. # don<t even know you. To conclude, the preferred or dominant interpretation in this combination is the e(iste)ic readin', but it is by no means the only possible.
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*'a ter 2 1 Meanin%s and Uses of t'e )n%lis' Modal !er"s

8efore dealing with each of the modal verbs previously mentioned, we feel bound to sum up the basic meanings they occur with& a. lo%ical:e iste&ic &odalities ? expressing possibility, probability, virtual certainty" b. deontic &odalities ? signaling permission, obligation, necessity" c. a"ility:dyna&ic &odalities ? expressing potentiality, capability. In actual use, however, the modals appear with many overtones, shades of meaning and degrees of intensity that can only be identified in the discourse context. The meanings of the modals will be distinguished from the speech acts they may be used to perform. Thus, with the literal meanings mentioned above they may appear in direct speech acts such as statements, $uestions, negations of possibility, probability, certainty, obligation, etc. In addition, they often participate in indirect speech acts whose illocutionary force differs from that of the direct act suggested by their surface structure& offers, invitations, re$uests, orders, suggestions etc.
2505 CAN
+ike all the other modal verbs, can is considered by traditional studies a polysemous word having three different senses& the ability sense (both physical and mental), the permission sense (replacing may in everyday, collo$uial language) and the possibility sense. 9ther grammarians consider that the polysemy of can is, in fact, a function of the contexts in which it occurs. Thus we come to distinguish between ability can (dynamic modality), possibility can (epistemic modality), and permission can (deontic modality). 250505 A9ILIT, CAN -e doesn<t trust too many people, but he cannot resist his little grandson. 7an you feel the tension between them= The present study is meant to show evidence that infants can and do solve problems at a relatively simple perceptual level. They can<t speak a word of English but they can make themselves understood. The sub@ect of all these sentences is animate, as $uestions of ability rise only in connection with animate creatures. In all these examples, can may be replaced by be able to. There is no such perfect e$uivalence between the two, but it has been claimed that there are conditions that favour the use of be able to rather than can. #s given by 6.-. Palmer, these conditions are& As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s 0>
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1. 0ince can has no non5finite forms, only be able to is available after other modal verbs& might be1should be1has got to be1must be able to etc." 2. @e able to is a little more formal than can, and its occurrence is much greater in written texts" 3. @e able to is preferred if the T- (time reference) of the sentence is present, to indicate that the sub@ect accomplishes the task& #n this way we are able to carry out our research. If the T- is past and if the situation is a single accomplished occurrence, only be able to is used& # ran and was able to catch (not could) the train. E.ote that in the negative, the sentence # ran fast but couldn<t catch the bus is correct. #s the examples indicate, can and be able to are not always freely interchangeable. 4hat it should also be remembered is that if there is an intention to specify that the task is accomplished, be able to is used. !onsider also the following examples& Ben is driving. Ben can drive. In the first one, a process is going on" it can be rephrased as /ook5 Ben is able to drive. 0o, according to Palmer, is able to says can and does. In the second sentence, no process is going on" the speaker merely assumes some circumstances, a previous occasion on which Hen demonstrated his ability to drive, and that a similar occurrence may happen again. 0o, again according to Palmer, can says can and will do. Taking some more examples as& !he can tell awful things sometimes. -e can lift that huge suitcase. .ur local team can beat yours. Coan of )rc can hear voices telling her to save "rance, we can conclude that, instead of different senses of the modal can, we can speak about different possible environments of it. The contribution of can to the meaning of the sentence seems to be to relate the event referred to to some external circumstance which is not explicitly identified, but the existence of which is assumed, and which is such as not to preclude the event from occurring. #t the pragmatic level, we shall remark that can may be used to indicate different s eec' acts. !onsider some examples in which can is used contextually to indicate that action should be taken& 1. with 'st person pronouns, # or exclusive we, can is used to make an offer& 6e can also give you a copy of the document if you wish. # can tell you the truth if you will hear it. 2. with *rd person pronouns, where the speaker speaks on behalf of someone else, but it is not clear if the initiative is his or not& #<ll send him to see what he can do and then he can call you. 3. with a =nd person pronoun it suggests that action be taken by the person addressed& 2ou can certainly give me a call back tonight. If the context is an interrogative one, then can with you does not function as a $uestion about the addressee1s capacity to carry out the action, but as a reGuest that he do so& 7an you hold on= 7an you give me a hand with this= 4. if we is used inclusively, it combines offer and su%%estion& 0o come early and we can have a drink. 04 !er"s As ects of Modality and Modal
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5. can occurs with verbs of mental cognition like understand, remember, think, stand, bear, be bothered& -e can never really believe that when somebody takes a drug it is actually going to harm him. 6hat you can remember out of his speech is what really matters. 7an you see me wearing something like that= 0uch examples represent contextual extensions of 2ability can3, possible environments of it. -yntactic "e'aviour a. ne%ation Asually only the modal verb is negated" with be able to either the auxiliary be is negated or unable is used instead& 6e have to take into consideration the fact that they weren<t able1were unable to elaborate on the matter at stake. 8ut Palmer shows that it is also possible to negate the event by using emphatic not& 6e can1can<t not go. 0uch forms are a little more natural with always, 'ust, simply& 6e can always1simply1'ust not go, can<t we= b) interro%ation ? both can and be able to occur in interrogative sentences. c) ast ti&e reference # #s already stated, the affirmative past tense form for accomplished tasks is was1were able to. .evertheless, Palmer discusses some cases in which could is used instead& when an accomplishment is a matter of potentiality, not of reali<ed task& #n the state she was she could actually kill someone. in contexts in which a habitual, recurrent event is intended, could is the rule& # could stand up and tell them my opinion whenever # wanted to. couldn<t occurs in all types of negative contexts to indicate that an event was not accomplished& .nly when he died, his wife reali+ed she could not live without him. # negative meaning of the entire context favours could with the same interpretation of non5accomplished task& -e could hardly breathe, let alone speak. .ne moment she seemed to be everything to him, and then all he could think of was his career. 7ould is also used with negative items like hardly, scarcely,little, nearly which create an overall negative context& /ittle could he make out of the text he was given for analysis. the past time reference of can with sensation verbs is formed by using could& "rom where # stood, # could see the moon. # could understand all he said.
d. future ti&e reference 7an, as shown above, does not indicate an event that takes place now" it merely indicates that circumstances are such as not to preclude such an eventuality& 2ou<ll go to #reland any time you like as long as you can get a good 'ob there. Therefore, the temporal sphere of can is resent and e3tended resent. The modal verb can be marked as future by As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s 0;
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will1shall be able to& 6hen you<re in your eighties you<ll be able to say that you are old and wise. 6e<ll be able to save an awful lot of money by living there. Provided the possibility is timeless, can may relate to a specific future event. In sum, the distinction between resent a"ility and future a"ility can be clearly seen in the following examples& -e will be able to run faster next year (future ability). -e can run faster next year (inappropriate). Their team can win the 7up next year (present ability to be actuali<ed in the future). In conclusion, the differences between can and be able to are& o in the present tense, be able to indicates an accomplished task, unlike can" o be able to is mandatory for past time reference to indicate the accomplishment of an event" o there where the ability is with the sub@ect rather than the circumstances, be able to is preferred" o a distinction is to be drawn between present ability that can accomplish something in the future (can), and future accomplishment (be able to)" o be able to is more common in writing than in speech. 2505+5 $)<MI--ION:D)ONTI* CAN 0ince about the ')th century, it has been possible to use can in the sense of permission. !onsider the following examples& 2ou can go now. 7an # borrow your car> mine is broken. #f you don<t eat your meal, you can<t have any cake. Desidents can use the car9park without a ticket. In all these examples, the system of laws relative to which the statements are made represent the laws of society:social laws:institutional laws, and involve either a person:an institution which creates permission. This use of can is relatively recent and it is a case when can encroaches upon may1s deontic territory. Antil $uite recently it has been fashionable for popular grammar books to state that it is incorrect to use can in contexts in which permission is given. Perkins gives the following example in this respect& CackE 7an # go out= MumE 8ot can, May. CackE .k, may # go out= MumE !ure you can. %any an ,nglish schoolchild has been rebuked for saying 7an #= instead of May #=. Get, in fact, can is more widely used than may as an auxiliary of permission in collo$uial ,nglish, having the less specific meaning you have permission rather than # give you permission. 9n the other hand, can tends to be avoided in formal and polite usage in both written and spoken ,nglish, where may is felt to be the more respectable form. .owadays can is no longer regarded as incorrect, but 06 As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s
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merely as a less polite version of may. This use of can may be extended from permission to strong recommendation as in& 2ou can forget about your pocket money this week. 6ell, if he doesn<t like it he can always lump it. Bere the speaker is being ironical, offering somebody the choice of doing something that cannot be avoided, or of something no one would choose to do. If the context is such as to give rise to a sarcastic attitude in the speaker, then permission can is extended to mean $uite the reverse of permission, approaching a brus$ue and somehow impolite command& 2ou can leave me out of that silly list of yours, thank you very much. -yntactic "e'aviour a) ne%ation ? when in the negative, can refuses permission, in the same manner as may not. -emark that mustn<t and shan<t negate the situation i.e. they lay an obligation that a situation will not take place. There is also a possibility of negating the situation i.e. of giving permission not to act, as in Gou can 8.T come, but this can be ambiguous unless cleared up by the context& 2ou can come or you can not come, as you wish. b) interro%ation ? in interrogative sentences, can is used to ask if the person addressed gives permission, being in some cases simply a matter of courtesy& 7an # get you a drink= 7an # ring you back= # further contextual extension of permission is one in which the person addressed should act in order for the event to take place& 7an # have the salt, please= ast ti&e and future ti&e reference ? as a past form, could may occur in reported speech since it is evident that one cannot give permission in relation to past events& -e said # could leave the next day. 7ould in the following examples is not a past form but a more polite way of asking for or granting permission& 7ould we go on to talk about modernist novels= 6or similar reasons, there can be no future expression of permission. Palmer shows that we can indicate that permission will be given by using the verb to permit& # shall permit you to. c) 250575 $O--I9ILIT,:)$I-T)MI* CAN 7an is said to have a possibility interpretation when it indicates that, according to the laws of reason:rational laws, circumstances are such as not to preclude the truth of the asserted sentence& There can be only one outcome of nuclear war. 7igarettes can seriously damage your health. -e can<t be working at this late hour. -emark that can would not be used to refer to a sentence in the present which is known to be untrue& This can be a Toyota. 3This can be a Toyota, but it is a Mercedes.
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;ossibility can is more fre$uent in non5assertions i.e. negative and interrogative sentences, while in affirmative ones may is preferred& This may be true. 7an this be true= This can<t be true. +eech points out that 2it is not always easy to distinguish between possibility can and ability can since ability implies possibility. There are however some syntactic markers present in the context which lead to one interpretation rather than the other& o 7)8 in the ability interpretation re$uires a human or at least an animate sub@ect" the possibility interpretation is also available in those contexts in which the sub@ect is inanimate& /ightning can be dangerous (the possibility is stated positively). /ightning may be dangerous (or not (both possibilities are open)" o Passive sentences constitute another context that favours the interpretation towards a possibility sense" contrast the following sentences& This game can be played by young children. (a clear possibility interpretation due to the passive construction) 2oung children can play this game (ambiguous between a possibility and an ability interpretation) o !onstructions with impersonal sub@ects favour an epistemic reading for can& 2ou can get quite lost in that metropolis. o The interpretation of circumstantial possibility is more appropriate if there is a clear indication of the circumstances in which an event is possible& 2ou can only get a 'ob if you<re good at it and you really want it. #f they give you the sack, you can always come and work for me. o The progressive aspectual form is a marker for epistemic interpretation& !he<s pulling your leg> she can<t be working at this hour. #t<s such a fishy situation that you can be standing on a bomb> so, handle it with care. Palmer distinguishes between !he can<t come (ability) and !he can<t be coming (possibility). 4ith =nd and *rd person sub@ects, it is familiar though tactful imperative& Cack and Cill, you can be standing over there> and you, dear, can sit right beside me. It can be contrasted with the undemocratic, coercive shall. o The perfect infinitive form is another marker of epistemic interpretation& 7an # have made such a mistake= -e can have been hiding from you at that time. o The interpretation of possibility for can may be further extended in collo$uial language to express a suggestion for future action& 6e can see about that tomorrow. -yntactic "e'aviour a) ne%ation ? can<t negates the modality (Iit is not possible that), while may not negates the complement verb (Iit is possible thatJ notJ)& -e can<t be at home (Ait is not possible that he is% . -e may not be at home (Ait is possible that he is not% . #f you saw a woman in front of the house, it can<t have been Cennifer (it is not possible that it was Cennifer . +8 As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s
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They came back so quickly from their honeymoon that they can<t have been too happy there. b) interro%ation ? the epistemic interpretation is fre$uent, indicating uncertainty, bewilderment& 7an it have been love that she was talking so excitedly about= 6ho can it be that bosses everybody around= c) ast ti&e reference ? can K perfect infinitive. .ote that the perfect infinitive does not generally co5occur with deontic or ability modals& -e 'ust can<t have made such a fool of himself.
250525 <)*U<<)N*) CAN 7an is often used to denote recurrence, the fact that a tendency in a person or thing is apt to manifest itself occasionally. !onsider the sentences& 7uriosity can kill. !he can be so obliging when she chooses to. The examples above can have indicative paraphrases with adverbials like at times, sometimes, etc. !losest in meaning to the occasional can is characteristic will and customary, habitual would& !he can1will1would spend hours on the internet. .one of them refers to a specific time" however, while will and would imply regular:habitual activity, can suggests occasional "e'aviour. .ote that can also occurs in certain adverbial clauses of degree which have the value of a superlative& !he is as happy as can be (A very happy). The duty of a president is to serve the people as best he can. *ON*LU-IONIn sum, the above analysis shows that the $uestion about whether particular instances of can should be interpreted as 2ability3, 2permission3 or 2possibility3 can be resolved by postulating an invariant core sense which may contextually interact with one or more of the three different systems of laws in which the circumstances are such as not to preclude an event (in the ability and permission interpretation) or the truth of a sentence (in the possibility interpretation).
25+5 G)N)<AL NOT)- ON TE) -)*ONDA<, MODAL#s briefly mentioned before, some grammarians speak of a common hypothetical meaning shared by the secondary modals, others of a formal:tentative one, while others view it simply as a problem of past time reference& 9. Fespersen remarks that the modals could, might, would, should, ought to are identical in formal reali<ation with the past tense counterparts of the primary modals, can, may, must, will, shall. Bis position is that the secondary modals do not indicate past time" instead, they indicate, what he calls, unreality, impossibility, improbability which, in his opinion, constitute an 2imaginative use of As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s +0
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the past unreal, hypothetical tense which is thus devoid of temporal connotations3 ('(*'& ''=, ''L)" 7. +eech discusses the secondary modals as sharing a hypothetical meaning not present in the same degree in the primary ones. #ccording to him, this meaning extends over three different areas& 'y ot'etical er&ission (could/ &i%'t.:volition (?ould.: ossi"ility (could/ &i%'t.5 Be also establishes a connection between this hypothetical sense and the for&al/ olite use of the secondary modals ('(C'& ''C). 6.-. Palmer characteri<es the common, unifying semantic feature of the secondary modals as tentativeness, saying that 2the secondary modals have a more tentative epistemic or deontic interpretation than their primary modal correlates3 ('(CL& '=C, '(C(& L))" %. Perkins ob@ects to all the above mentioned proposals and offers a unifying denominator for 2hypothetical3, 2imaginative past3, 2formal:polite3, 2tentative3, under the term 2conditional, which, he thinks, subsumes all these distinctions and points out the fact that the secondary modals presuppose the existence of a conditioning environment overtly marked, i.e. conditional clauses, indirect speech, past time reference. In his own words& !ometimes the condition will be reali+ed formally as a conditional clause and sometimes it will be merely left implicit in the context of utterance> but no matter what its formal status might be, such a condition must always be present in some way or another. ('()*& M')
2575 COULD
The interpretations of could are essentially the same as those of can, the difference being one of conditionality& - a"ility could. 7ould may have an ability interpretation if it is the system of natural laws that is taken into consideration and, under a conditional reserve, the circumstances are such as not to preclude the occurrence of the event& # couldn<t endure such behaviour. -e could do it with the right moral support. #f she tried harder, she could certainly do it. .ote that the present conditional of a putea is the usual form in -omanian for these weakened modalities. In all examples, can may be substituted for could, the difference residing in the conditionality sense of could. #s already stated, could can be used to indicate habitual ability, general possibility that resulted in a single occurrence, when be able to is preferred in statements while the rule is more relaxed in the negative or with verbs of perception& # could stand up and tell them my opinion whenever # wanted. -e read the message but could not understand it. er&ission could5 It is fre$uent in 'st person re$uests as& 7ould # see your driving license= # wonder if # could borrow some money= 7ould we have something to drink= ++ !er"s As ects of Modality and Modal
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0ometimes could is used instead of could?perfect infinitive for past time reference, as in& !he made a compromise. -ow could she do1have done otherwise= In all the examples but the last one, could may be replaced by can with a difference that +eech characteri<es in the following manner& 2with could the speaker does not expect his plan to be granted, the negative inference being >but I don1t suppose I may13. 0ometimes this negative assumption is overtly expressed in re$uests where the conditionality sense is explicit as in& # don<t suppose # could talk to her. 8y extension, could will be used out of habit of politeness even in cases in which the speaker does expect his re$uest to be complied with. .otice that could may report both can and could used in direct speech& -e said # could go can be the reported form of both 2ou can go and 2ou could go. # past time sphere and the rules of the se$uence of tenses are the most common reasons for past5marking& -e asked if he could use my phone. - e iste&ic couldH 2ou could not be put to prison for speaking against industry, but you can be sent to an asylum for speaking like a fool. 6hat could have turned him so angry= +eech remarks that it is difficult to see any difference in the use of could and might in the epistemic interpretation, except in the negative form where couldn<t is an instance of e3ternal ne%ation and mightn<t an instance of internal ne%ationH -e couldn<t have said that. (It1s not possible that he said that). -e mightn<t have said that (It1s @ust possible that he did not say that) E-emark that the time sphere of epistemic could is the present:extended present and the future (polite suggestion for future action)& There could be trouble at the 0inamo9!teaua match tomorrow. Gou could answer these messages for me. 6or past time reference, could?perfect infinitive is used& 7ould you have left your umbrella on the train= This construction can also lead to a 2contrary5to5fact3 interpretation or, also, complaint& They could have come when expected. 2ou could have told me in advance. It should be pointed out that such statements can be ambiguous lest cleared by larger contexts as to the type of counter5factuality and the time reference. 257505 -U9-TITUT)- FO< CAN/COULD 1. 9) A9L) TO ? its use is compulsory in the following cases& to supply non5finite forms (infinitive, participles). .ote that it almost never has progressive and past forms, and it cannot be doubled by can1could since it would be pleonastic" to form compound tenses" to avoid ambiguity for past time reference& -e could have a picnic on "riday last (permission). -emember that for past continuous ability only could is available& !he could speak English and so was able to direct the stranger to his hotel., while be able to is used to express an achievement, the result of an effort" compare& -e went up onto As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s +7
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2. 3. 4.
5.
the roof and was able to see the lake in the distance with "rom the window of his motel room, he could see as far as the bridge (possibility, no effort) MANAG) TO ? is often used to stress more effectively than be able to the notion of overcome difficulty" U-)D TO 1 is preferred to could1was able to for habitual, fre$uent past action:state which no longer exists at the moment of speaking. It is more collo$uial than be able to" Z)<O CAN/COULD ? when followed by verbs of physical:mental perception:activity or emotions, they often lose the notional content becoming mere auxiliaries which should not be translated in -omanian& # can<t understand what you<re getting at. (.u intelegJ) 9) -U$$O-)D TO ? can be one of the most subtle ways of expressing interdiction in ,nglish& 2ou are not supposed to enter this club if you are not its member.
2575+5 CAN I COULD # <OUNDU$ *AN e3 ressesH resent tense of modal can& ability ? c'aracteristic capacity, competence, skill (exception ? recurrence can I sometimes it can be:happen thatJ)" possibility, supposition, logical deduction (I%#G)" permission (I %#G)& # am told you can tame any animal. ;eople can often be very unfeeling. 7an he belong to our group and me not having met him yet5 6hy can<t you take your pills in time for a change= 7an # use your phone= ast tense of modal can I can K perfect infinitive (true for any modal) (Ipast time K doubt, uncertainty, contrary5to5factness)& # don<t think he can have been so thoughtful. 2ou can have met him some time ago> he<s quite your age, isn<t he= They can<t have seen us in that pub, can they= near future (as to the present, for ferm, precise statement or categorical re$uest" with could, the speaker is more hesitant, polite, diffident)& 7an17ould you come to1and have lunch with us, say tomorrow= 7an17ould you repeat, please= 6hen can1could you bring the articles to be reviewed= They can1can<t come to the meeting tomorrow. J .ote that when the future moment is more remote, there is an adverb of definite future time in the sentence (next week:month:year, whenJ) and the future possibility depends on the ability, not on the circumstances (the ability has not yet been ac$uired), shall1will1<ll be able to are the only choices, can expressing permission& !he<ll be able to speak (not 7)8) several foreign languages when she has finished the interpreters< course. 0on<t worry about her5 6hen she has been coached long enough, she<ll be able ( not 7)8 to pass the entrance examination. future (as to the past ? should1would be able to) +2 As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s
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# knew # should1would be able to meet them again. *OULD e3 resses& ast tense of modal can only when it expresses& o general past permission (informal alternative for may) ? !he knew she could do whatever she liked. o unfulfilled past possibility ? -e said he couldn<t believe it when he was told the news. o past occasional ability ? !he could be a charming person, in spite of the moments when she lost her temper. The drug can be very effective in the treatment of pneumonia. o past general physical:intellectual ability ? 6hen young, he could speak )rabic like an )rab. 2ears ago, she could 'og four miles in the morning, before going to work. o present indicative (the se$uence of tenses, especially in indirect style) ? )t his party, he said we could make as much noise as we wanted to, and we did. o could (not for all negative:interrogative:negative5 interrogative sentences with a past main verb. future in t'e ast of modal can& They said they could help us move in on Monday. conditional:su"Kunctive &oodsH # could have told that myself. -e<s put on weight, so he could take more exercise. #f you could draw, you could have your name entered for the coming competition. # wish # could have had the chance to meet her. couldD erfect infinitive is used to express past ability not necessarily used, or a possibility not put to the test& 2ou could have finished the text but insisted to leave. 6e could have offended them if we had omitted to send an invitation. J Note t'atH if there is no indication in the context as to the meaning of could, it can only express permission> if there is no indication of mood, it is considered to be a conditional" the pattern # can do it has the past form # was able to do it" # couldn<t do it covers both the affirmative and the negative and can be interpreted as both a negative conditional (future reference) and a past tense (past reference)" a larger context will clear the ambiguity" when there is a specific past time adverbial (yesterday, two days ago, last week, at five o<clock, then, when she saw them ), be able to is preferred& Cohn was able to have a picnic on "riday last. (could would signal permission)
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257575 )C)<*I-)- 1 M)ANING- AND U-)- OF CAN/COULD I5 Identify t'e &eanin%s of can in t'e follo?in% sentencesL c'oose "et?eenH a) physical : mental ability" b) theoretical possibility" c) permission : prohibition" d) re$uest, invitation, offer, suggestion (indirect speech acts). E 0upport your choices with explanations" add examples of your own. Gou can1t take these books home with you. 0he knows I cannot refuse her so she always asks for favours. !an it be trueD It (simply) can1t be trueN 4hat is done cannot be undone. There can be only one possible and terrifying outcome of this imminent war. Be can1t have meant to hurt her feelings as I know they are the best of friends. 4ho can be ringing so late at nightD !an it be Fim, who1s @ust got back from the 0tatesD 4hat can she mean by thatD .ow I can understand what you mean to do. 4e can send you a confirmation of receipt, if you wish. The bus station is not very far" you can walk there" it takes you about five minutes. !an I have a look at those photosD Gou can call on me every time you feel like it. I1m sorry I can1t help you with your mathematics" I have no head for algebra. Gou can certainly give me a ring back to tell me when you come by. 0he can spend day after day in the library searching more data for her research paper. !an you pass me the sugar, pleaseD 4e already know she can be unfriendly when she wants to. Be can1t not answer their polite re$uest to forward the necessary details. 4e can try to solve that now or we can put it off for later. Gou can1t have re@ected such an attractive proposal if you know where your interest lies. II5 Give reasons for usin% can/&e a&le to in t'e follo?in% sentencesL refer to t'e course ?'enever you needH If he still is the person I have known him to be, I1m sure he will J to provide $uite decently for him and his family. I J see her standing there alone, and I J say that she felt embarrassed, J to say a word. 4hen she saw the bus, she ran as fast as she J, but J to get on. Be made me so mad that in the state I was, I J actually say things I knew I would regret later. Bowever harsh they were, they still wanted their son to always be honest and speak up his mind" he J stand up and tell them his opinion whenever he wanted to. +4 !er"s As ects of Modality and Modal
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There was very little I J say or do about the whole situation. 4hat had been done J be undone. They were so shocked, they J hardly utter a word. I J understand what he meant, but that did not necessarily mean that I J agree with him. +ookN #s I have told you I don1t know how many times, I J do it on my own. 4hen you are in your sixties, you1ll J to say that you have had enough. E 0upply some more examples to highlight the differences in use between the two. III5 MaBe sentences to illustrate t'e follo?in% &eanin%s and uses of can%could/&e a&le toH present physical:mental ability" past physical:mental ability" present ability to be actuali<ed in future" accomplished task in the present" single accomplished past occurrence" single potential (not reali<ed) task" habitual, recurrent past event" not accomplished past event" timeless future physical:mental ability" physical:mental ability to be actuali<ed at a specific future moment" description of present:past characteristic features of people:events" possible event:situation" asking for:granting present:past:future permission" strong recommendation" circumstantial possibility (ifJ, you canJ):(Jso that O can:couldJ)" present:past occasional, recurrent, habitual behaviour (the same 4I++:49A+;)" past possibility not put to the test:unfulfilled past possibility" reproach for past actions" offers, re$uests, suggestions, invitations. I!5 Translate into )n%lis' and %ive reasons for your c'oicesH %P tem cP nu QnReleg prea mult din ce spune" ori nu sunt Qn stare sP urmPresc nimic pentru cP sunt obosit, ori vorbitorul nu Si5a structurat prea bine discursul. 0unt nou Qn oraS. !redeRi cP m5aRi putea a@uta sP gPsesc sediul Institutului de cercetPriD 0ugerPm sP ne oprim deocamdatP, dar am putea continua mTine la aceeaSi orP. !redeRi cP vom putea termina suficient de repede pentru a trimite la timp documenteleD Umi amintesc cP era o vreme cTnd puteam petrece <ile Qntregi fPrP sP obosim. 0P fie oare vTrstaD .u se poateN #m sP fiu Qn stare sP5l bat la table cTnd voi avea mai multP experienRP. Putem sP gP<duim urmPtoarea conferinRP la 7alaRi, vara viitoare. #m putea sP trimitem invitaRiile chiar sPptPmTna viitoare. ;in fericire, mi5am fPcut mulRi prieteni de cTnd m5am mutat Qn acest oraS. Vtii cTt de greu poate fi la Qnceput. As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s +;
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;acP te concedia<P, poRi oricTnd sP vii la firma noastrP. Vtiu cTt de Qncredere poRi fi Si chiar aS dori sP ni te poRi alPtura. Un ce priveSte medicamentul acesta, se Stie cP poate fi foarte folositor Qn tratamentul pneumoniei" nu se poate sP fi refu<at administrarea lui. IarPSi vorbeSte la telefonN !u cine o mai fi vorbind Si de data astaD #S putea sP parie< cP e vreuna din prietenele ei cu care poate vorbi ore Qntregi fPrP sP se plictiseascP. .u se poate sP fi venit la Qntrunire" aS fi observat5o Si sigur m5aS fid us sP vorbesc cu ea. Vtiu cTt de @ignitP se poate simRi cTnd nu este bPgatP Qn seamP. 0pune cP ar putea termina lucrarea de QndatP ce intrP Qn posesia tuturor articolelor de specialitate care s5au publicat Qn ultimii doi ani. # spus cP ar putea termina lucrarea de QndatP ce intrP Qn posesia tuturor articolelor de specialitate care s5au publicat Qn ultimii doi ani. .u5mi dau seama ce urmPreSte" s5ar putea sP intenRione<e sP QnfiinRe<e o societate de asigurPri. ;eSi poate fi nesuferit uneori, Si5a cerut scu<e cP n5a putut a@unge la timp din cau<a unui bloca@ Qn traffic. #i fi putut sP5mi spui Si mie despre broSurile pe care le5ai luat de la agenRia de voia@" mi5aS fi fPcut o idee mai clarP despre condiRiile pe care le oferP. /e<i silueta acea care se apropieD ;acP reuSeSti sP recunoSti persoana, poRi sP5mi spui Si mie cine este, pentru cP nu vPd nimic cu ochelarii PStia noi" aS fi putut la fel de bine sP mP lipsesc de ei. PoRi sP cre<i cP parlamentul ar fi putut vota o asemenea lege care sP afecte<e interesele bolnavilorD ;acP au reuSit sP5i convingP sP intre Qn proiect, este pentru cP ei chiar sunt Qn stare sP5l ducP la bun sfTrSit. !ercetPtorii din domeniu s5au strPduit sP obRinP un nou medicament care sP fie cTt mai eficient, astfel QncTt bolnavii sP poatP spera Qntr5o QnsPnPtoSire rapidP.
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2525 MAY
Traditional studies of modal )a" recogni<e that it can be used in two different senses, a permission1deontic sense and a possibility1epistemic sense. 252505 $)<MI--ION MAY !onsider the following examples for the permission use of mayE 2ou may leave the table when everyone has finished. May # have a quick word with you= If a sentence like Gou may go is uttered by someone in a position of authority to someone of lower authority, would be probably understood as a command. This explains why permission may can occur in rules and regulations. Perkins shows that the command interpretation of may is entirely due to the circumstances peculiar to the situation described. If the same person had said 2ou may smoke, it would have been understood not as a command but as a giving of permission. #ll in all, the interpretation is& relative to the system of social laws, a deontic source ? an institution or a person in position of authority ? does not preclude an event to take place. 4hen compared to can, may is regarded as more polite while might carries an indication of greater uncertainty about the answer and also of modesty, diffidence. 2525+5 )$I-T)MI* MAY In its possibility interpretation, may indicates that evidence available to the speaker is such that the sentence cannot be assumed to be true, but nor can it be assumed to be false. 4hile possibility can focuses primarily on the current state of circumstances, may focuses primarily on the current verifiability of the truth of the sentence. # sentence like& Cohn may run a mile in F minutes, but he never will because he<s too la+y is unacceptable because it cites evidence that the sentence Cohn may run a mile in F minutes is currently falsifiable. .otice that with epistemic can the sentence is fine, whereas with can it is irrelevant whether" Fohn actually will run a L minute5mile or not, as long as circumstances are not such as to preclude it. !onsider the following pair of sentences& ) friend can betray you. ) friend may betray you. The first one is an observation between friends in general, i.e. the circumstances include at least an instance of a friend committing a betrayal, while the second sentence is more likely to be a warning about a particular friend, i.e. the truth of the sentence can be currently verified. May is often attended by well (as an intensifier of the possibility) to express the speaker1s opinion that something being the case rather than the reverse is possible& #t may well be that his wife did not know. (0e prea poateJ0e poate foarte bine sPJ ,ste foarte posibil sPJ) 252575 A9ILIT, : *A$A9ILIT, MAY
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In this sense may is rarely mentioned by grammarians. It seems to be more fre$uent in passive constructions where it alternates with can& ;roblems may be solved over a luncheon. 6hich have baffled scientists for years. The book can be had in hard cover for 4GH and it may be had in paper back for IH. Perkins remarks that while can relates to natural and social laws (ability and permission interpretation), may most typically relates to rational and social laws (the epistemic and deontic interpretation, i.e. possibility and permission). In the same time, may in the ability interpretation carries either something of its hypothetical interpretation or of its permission interpretation, being more used in written texts while can is expected in collo$uial ,nglish. #ccording to Palmer, an important difference between ability1permission can and permission1possibility may is that the former is su"Kect#oriented, i.e. it relates semantically to some kind of activity, $uality, status of the sub@ect of the sentence, whereas may is never sub@ect5 oriented, the state of affairs being always external to the sub@ect of the sentence. -e can speak 4F languages.(Poate:Vtie sPJ) 6hat can you contribute to the discussion= -e may speak 4F languages.(05ar putea:#r puteaJ) -yntactic "e'aviour a) ne%ationH 4hile can<t is a case of external negation, the modal being negated& ;igs can<t fly (IIt1s not possible that pigs fly), may not is an instance of internal negation, the sentence being negated& ;igs may not fly.(IIt is possible that pigs don1t fly). The forms mayn<t and mightn<t are felt as awkward and unnatural in expressions of permissions, can<t and couldn<t being regarded as the natural forms. b) interro%ationH ,pistemic:possibility can occurs mainly in interrogative and negative contexts, while in affirmative sentences may is preferred& #t may rain today. 7an it be cold up there= #t can<t be that cold. In #, there is an apparent tendency to prefer might to may for present possibility. The effect is to make the expression of possibility more tentative, the paraphrase being& #t is barely possible that% #t is possible, though unlikely, that% c) ast ti&e reference The deontic senses have past tense counterparts with could and might, respectively, while the epistemic senses form the past time reference by the perfect infinitive forms& #t<s likely that he may have been there.
25>5 MIGHT
25>505 )$I-T)MI* MIGHT The epistemic interpretation of might is by far more fre$uent than its deontic one. #lthough often regarded as a past tense form, might rarely points to the 78 As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s
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past. Bowever, when the time sphere of the potential situation is past, it is employed regardless of whether may1might are used when the time sphere of the utterance is present& # think # may1might be late for the ceremony. -e thought he might% Might can also indicate a special type of unreality, namely counter9 factuality. In such cases might followed by the perfect infinitive implies non? performance of a past potential action. The perfect marker signals past time while might carries only counter5factuality& 2ou might have turned down the invitation (but you didn<t . Might K perfect infinitive may also indicate a past possibility not put to the test& ;erhaps we should have taken the other road> it might have been shorter. 0eldom used in the interrogative to express possibility:probability, may and might do occur in wh5$uestions to express wonder, doubt, uncertainty, approximation, or a more polite $uestion& !he looks so young> how old may 1 might she be= 25>5+5 D)ONTI* MIGHT 4ith its deontic interpretation, might carries an indication of greater uncertainty about the answer, and also of tentativeness, modesty, diffidence. The use of might for permission in the past does not seem to be very common and it is generally avoided in collo$uial ,nglish and replaced by be allowed1permitted, but not in the passive& # asked him if # might go1-e would allow me to go. #t was an unwritten rule in their club that no questions might be asked about the members private lives. 25>575 A9ILIT, MIGHT Might is regularly used to express tentative, doubtful (cap)ability either of the present or of the past, depending on the fulfillment of a condition expressed:understood (remember Perkins1s conditionality of the secondary modals)& #f # had a writer<s pen, # might describe the beauty of this place properly. 25>525 )C)<*I-)- 1 M)ANING- AND U-)- OF MAY/MIGHT I. )3 lain t'e &eanin% in ?'ic' t'e &odal MA, is usedH - permission or prohibition" - re$uest (sometimes ironical)" - doubt about the present, past or future" - possibility, probability.
Gou might have tried to arrive on time. Be might be still angry with you if he hasn1t called on you for such a long time. 0he may not have known that she was supposed to attend this meeting. 9ne may come across unusual experiences while hunting in #frica. %ay I advise you to be more careful with your thingsD If I may say so, you were rather rash. As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s 70
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0he may have heard your proposal for greater efficiency in your department. Be thought he might not go, but finally had to. %y friends may be right this time, but I still think it1s a good thing to have a talk with him. %ay I break into what seems to be an endless speech and give you a word of adviceD %ay I have another helping of this delicious cakeD The train might be late today on account of the heavy snow falls, or they might as well missed it altogether. 0he might have sent me a postcard" after all, I1ve done so much for her. Be asked the captain of the team if he might play that match as a midfield. 4ho may you beD (cf. 4ho are youD) Be may be still living in that tiny little house, but, frankly speaking, I wish he didn1t. ;on1t be so mad" he asked if he might wait here and I said yes. I might go out tonight if I can find someone to babysit. II5 MaBe four MA,:MIGETH sentences for eac' of t'e follo?in% uses of
formal permission asked for or granted (cf. !#. in similar examples and give explanations to highlight the difference between the two)" past:present:future possibility (cf. !#. in similar examples and give explanations)" (external) ability (especially in passive constructions)" counterfactuality:vs:past unreali<ed possibility" other speech acts (mild:casual commands, persuasive:irritated re$uests, expressions of reproach, offers)" in if5clauses" as part of an analytic sub@unctive (for wishes, after .D0ED, DEJ,E!T, 0E!#DE, etc., after expressions of fear, in adverbial clauses of purpose:concession).
III5 TranslateH %a intreb daca isi da seama de consecinte" s5ar putea sa fie constient de responsabilitatea pe care si5a asumat5o, desi, sincer sa fiu, nu pare. Poti sa5ti iei adio de la vacanta pe care ti5am promis5o, atat timp cat nu te5ai achitat de partea ta de intelegere. !opiii sub saispre<ece ani nu pot participa la curse de masini atat de periculoase. #i fi putut sa5i anunti ca plecati ca sa nu faca tot drumul acela numai ca sa gaseasca usa incuiata. 0a traiesti fericit o mie de ani si sa ai parte de bucurii si sa stii sa5ti sarbatoresti neimplinirile. Pot sa plec acum, sefu1D ;a, cred ca poti. 0a punem punct aici, dar maine s5 ar putea sa am nevoie de tine dimineata, desi nu cred ca delegatia pe care o asteptam va veni atat de devreme. #m fi putut sa ne hotaram asupra variantei celeilalte, dar atunci s5ar fi complicat lucrurile si e posibil sa nu mai fi fost in stare sa terminam la timp. 7+ !er"s As ects of Modality and Modal
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%ultumesc ca nu mi5ai spus ca nu mergi la petrecere" pot, la fel de bine sa ma duc singura ca si cum n5as avea partener. ;upa cate vad s5ar putea sa amanam iesirea la iarba verde" cerul e acoperit de nori si s5ar putea sa inceapa ploaia in orice moment. Imprumutul acesta se poate obtine daca ai garantii serioase. Focul se poate @uca doar daca ii cunosti regulile si le respecti" altfel, s5ar putea sa nu5ti gasesti nici un partener dispus sa5l @oace cu tine. ;aca ti5ai lua diploma anul acesta, ai putea sa5ti gasesti un loc de munca care sa5ti satisfaca asteptarile. Toata lumea ocolea subiectul de teama sa nu5i tre<easca amintiri dureroase" ar fi putut sa se inchida din nou in sine, asa cum se mai intamplase, si nimic si nimeni n5ar mai fi deschis5o spre comunicarea cu ceilalti. ;upa cat il cunosc, s5ar putea sa mai studie<e inca, inchis in birou, dosarele acelea care i5au dat atata bataie de cap. ;esi nu era foarte entu<iasmat de idee, tatal sau il trimisese in Italia sa studie<e pictura renascentista. 9ricat ar costa, si oricate argumente mi5ar aduce el, insist sa ne petrecem vacanta in strainatate pentru ca, asa cum s5ar putea sa stii de@a, serviciile oferite sunt mult mai bune si preturile mai re<onabile. Ii puteai simti din tonul vocii ingri@orarea cu privire la soarta proiectului cu care se inscrisese pentru obtinerea unei burse" fie ce5o fi, el incercase si nimeni nu5i putea reprosa lipsa de interes. ;upa atatia ani petrecuti pe mare, inca au<ea <gomotul inconfundabil al valurilor, oricat de preocupat de altceva ar fi fost.
2545 MUST
254505 )$I-T)MI* MUST The epistemic sense of must ranks high on the probability scale and occurs in utterances that have been described as necessary statements, logical conclusions, inferences, deductions& They must have used their passkeys to get in. # feel terrible> # must have caught a cold or something. 4hat may be underlined as obvious is the speaker1s strong belief, conviction or near certainty concerning the truth5value of the proposition. In fact such sentences can be rephrased as #<m pretty sure1certain that they used% The speaker bases his assertion on his knowledge or on evidence immediately available to him from his observation of the relevant real situations. Palmer proposes as a rough paraphrase for this use the only possible conclusion is%, while +eech suggests that epistemic must is used to indicate 2knowledge arrived at by inference or reasoning rather than by direct experience3. 8ut, even if must is said to represent the strongest epistemic @udgement one can make, it should, however, be underlined that the strongest of all @udgement is not the same as a factual assertion. Must occurs chiefly as a resent, since epistemic modalities are oriented to s(ea*er + now" it may appear with past time reference, usually in sub5clauses, only if the time?sphere of the inference is simultaneous with
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that of the past state of affairs referred to in the utterance& Than she became aware that the man must be their new neighbour. ,ven when followed by a perfect infinitive, must is still a present, indicating the conclusions arrived at by the speaker at the time of speaking. !he surely must have arrived by this time. 6or future time reference be bound to is preferred. Must may occur in unreal conditional sentences indicating what, in the speaker1s opinion, would be a near certainty or inevitable if a past, present or future event did or did not come about, or would have been inevitable if such an event had or had not come about. #f one did not make all efforts to come to an understanding, things must come to a deadlock. (;acP nu s5ar faceJ, lucrurile ar intraJ) #f the pistol had been loaded, the child must inevitably have shot himself. (;acP pistolul ar fi fost J, copilul s5ar fi QmpuScatJ). E.otice that the notion of conviction or high probability implied by must is sometimes strengthened by an accompanying needs, of necessity, inevitably, etc. .otice also that in most cases, corresponding to the epistemic use of must, -omanian uses the present (and sometimes in past contexts, the imperfect) of epistemic a trebui. In some cases it is attended by reinforcing adverbs such as& desigur, cu siguranKL, negreMit, neapLrat, inevitabil. -yntactic "e'aviour a. ne%ation ,pistemic must is negated by can<t, which is the more natural expression of impossibility in ,nglish& #f he saw a woman cook, it can<t have been her Mustn<t can occur in those cases which Palmer calls >verbal crossing out1& -e must be there. .h no, he mustn<t. ". interro%ation ,pistemic must does not usually occur in interrogative contexts" nevertheless, Palmer offers examples such as& Must they be on holiday= -u"stitutes for Must 05 9) 9OUND TO #s already stated, be bound to is usually used for future time reference. 4hen must occurs with a future T-, it almost always is interpreted in a deontic, not epistemic sense& The government must act. #t must make up its mind about prioritiesE offices or homes, housing estates or luxury buildings. This restriction does not function for be bound to. 4e could say& The odds are bound to be with them in these tight situations. There is a difference in meaning between be bound to and must. !onsider the examples& Cohn<s bound to be in his office. Cohn must be in the1his office. The first sentence is the more certain of the two" it has little or no sense of 2conclusion3. The speaker wants to assert as positively as he can that this is the only possibility. In the second sentence, the speaker is 72 !er"s As ects of Modality and Modal
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drawing the most obvious conclusion. It may be a remark made in response to a comment that the lights were on in Fohn1s office. The nearest synonym of be bound to in sentences with a future T- is it is inevitable& #f the Novernment deals with the situation realistically, the cost of the E, integration is bound to be great. #s to this difference, Palmer points out that the concept of conclusivity is more appropriate to the present (must) and that of inevitability to the future. 2. EA!) GOT TO 0ometimes it occurs in an epistemic interpretation as in& #f he<s your friend, you<ve got to know all his 'okes. This interpretation of have got to is $uite common in #merican ,nglish& 2ou<ve got to be 'oking, the more likely 8ritish ,nglish form being 2ou must be 'oking. 75 EA!) TO In 8ritish ,nglish there appears to be a difference of context of use between have to and must. !ontrast& 2ou must be mad to do that. (epistemic interpretation, i.e. the conclusion from your action is that you are mad). 2ou have to be mad to do that. (being mad is a necessary condition for acting in a certain way IW so, the deontic use of have to isn1t far away). -ave (got to has a stronger force than must and cannot be weakened to the interpretation of >logical assumption1. 0omeone must be telling lies : voices mere suspicion. !omeone has (got to be telling lies : sounds more like an accusation. 2545+5 D)ONTI* MUST If must is used in a context relative to the system of social laws and the circumstances materiali<e in a person in a position of authority, must is interpreted as indicating obligation or compulsion. Two roles are important in the deontic use of must& the imposer: originator and the goal:receiver of the constraint or obligation. The former is the logical sub@ect of must, the latter is usually its surface sub@ect. The constraint imposed upon the sub@ect may originate from various sources such as& o the will of the speaker or some other authority, o the sub@ect1s own will or keen desire, o laws, regulations, circumstances, o a power beyond the sub@ect1s control. In many cases the source of the constraint is not specified. In sentences such as )ll man must die. 6hat must be, must be, it is hard to distinguish between the epistemic and the deontic uses. ;eontic must is used performatively when the speaker himself as authority imposes the obligation as in& #f you come in after midnight you must come in quietly. 0on<t wake me up. The speaker may also use must to report:state the existence of an obligation imposed by an external authority, to which he may or may not add
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his support:approval& 2ou must go now> the visiting hour is over and the head nurse is very strict about it. # sentence with a 'st person sub@ect, such as # must be leaving1leave now, is analysable in at least two ways& # must be leaving since # have a meeting to attend (the sub@ect is under the pressure of an external agent which reduces his freedom to act)" # must be leaving because this is what # want to do1#<m bored stiff with your company (the sub@ect1s will:desire is so strong as to make him view the actuali<ation of the predication as necessary). Bere are some further examples of keen desire or internal compulsion overmastering the sub@ect& -er secret smile made me feel that # must meet her. 2ou must always interfere, mustn<t you= #f you must smoke, use an ashtray. The sub@ect1s obligation:constraint may derive from other sources of >authority1 such as& o a power beyond the sub@ect1s control (rules, regulations, a code of honour)& 6omen must cover their heads in church. o the natural:inevitable conse$uence of a certain event& 2ou made your bed and you must lie upon it. o the necessity that a condition be fulfilled in order that a certain state of affairs may be possible& 2ou must work hard if you want to be an O)< student. o a strong moral obligation or an urgent advisability E 6hat # have promised # must do. 2ou must quit smoking if you want to live. +ike epistemic must, deontic must is chiefly used in the present. It may also occur with a past tense value mostly in sub5clauses when the time sphere is past& )nd the day came when she and her children must leave their home. ;eontic mustKperfect infinitive cannot be used to describe an event that has actually occurred" have to or one of the other approximately e$uivalent phrases are used instead& # was told that he had to1 had been obliged to hand in his resignation. In the following e.g., however, mustKperfect infinitive is used in a deontic sense (must expresses a present re$uirement, the perfect infinitive being a past time indicator of the state of affairs described in the proposition)& )pplicants for this position must have studied a minimum of two years in a university. -u"stitutes for MU-T 0. EA!) TO The two are not exact semantic e$uivalents. Anlike must, have to always indicates that it is not the speaker that re$uires the actuali<ation of predication, but some external authority or circumstances. 0ome of the deontic functions of must are shared by have to, which may represent a person under the constraint of& a task or official duty& ) ;resident has to devote all his time and energy to his country. a power beyond the sub@ect1s control (a law of nature, an overmastering emotion)& # saw she had to bite her lips not to burst into tears. 74 !er"s As ects of Modality and Modal
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the necessity of a condition to be fulfilled& #f you want to be there in time, you<ll have to leave early. #ccording to many grammarians, have to is more common and preferable for habitual activities and must for important and urgent obligations& # have to feed the baby six times a day. # must feed the baby now> it<s been crying for half an hour. EThe alternative from have got to is even more common in #merican ,nglish, fre$uently reduced to gotta both in speech and writing. -yntactic "e'aviour a. $ast ti&e reference Must ? ;erfect #nfinitive ? for the epistemic use. -ad To ? for the deontic use. b) - eec' acts (other than statements, $uestions or negations of obligations) expression of disapproval:reproach& Must you drink so much= 0o you have to smoke those stinking cigars= 0on<t you have to write some letters= casual invitations, excuses& 2ou must come and see me one of these days.# must be leaving now. suggestions, recommendations, emphatic advice (Ishould)& 2ou must see this movie> it<s the best #<ve seen in years. reprimands, orders& 2ou mustn<t speak like this to you mother.
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Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan 254575 MUST # <OUNDU$
It e3 resses t'e follo?in% functionsH 1. (o"Kective:su"Kective. necessity/ duty/ a"solute o"li%ation (eit'er i& osed "y t'e s eaBer 1 es ecially after t'e ver"s ad)it! conclude! realise! re)e)&er! sa"! understand # or derivin% fro& e3ternal aut'ority # rules:re%ulation 1 orders/ interdictions/ official ro'i"itions.& 2ou must keep your promise. 6e all must die. #<m afraid # must mortgage the house. # mustn<t leave before # say goodbye to all people present. Must you always treat everybody like dirt= # must say that we have not identified all the consequences. 2ou must admit we cannot ignore these arguments. 2ou must call for a doctor> she<s been seriously in'ured. -e must never treat us like that> we won<t put up with such a behavior. 2ou simply must not wear that shabby coat again> it<s embarrassing. #n )ustralia traffic must keep to the left. /ights must be on before dark. These books must not be taken away from the reading room. E#bsence of obligation:necessity is expressed by need not or don<t1doesn<t need to& you mustn<t do that again, but you needn<t be so upset about it. 6e do not need to go over that again and again> everybody has understood. (# must go now5* (8eed you really=* (2es, # must or #<ll be late for my date.* EEIn $uestions must and need are often similar in meaning, but need cannot be used after $uestion words" when using need the speaker hopes for a negative answer& 6hat must she do if she wants to make some progress= 8eed # tell you that this is not the best of solutions= 2. ro"a"ility/ su osition/ lo%ical conclusion:deduction& They aren<t home> they must be on holiday. -e returned too soon> he must have had a terrible time. EIn the negative, can<t1cannot is used& !he must be there> she can<t be anywhere else. -e must have accepted> he can<t have re'ected such a terrific opportunity> it would<ve been sheer madness. 3. ot'er s eec' acts& emphatic invitation or advice, reproach& 2ou simply must see him in this performance. 2ou mustn<t miss the show tonight> #<ve seen it twice already. Must you talk so much= MUST:vs:MAY 1) 8oth modals can express presupposition, but they differ through the opposed connotations they bring to this concept& may also suggests uncertainty, whereas must suggests certain probability& !he usually keeps late hoursE she may still be at her work. !he never goes to bed before midnight because she has a lot of work to get through> so, she must still be at it now, it<s only eleven. 76 !er"s As ects of Modality and Modal
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2) 8oth may (rarely, and most of the times replaced by can) and must can express interdiction, mainly in negative answers to may $uestions& (;lease, 0oc5 My hand is practically healed. May # go skiing=* (8o, you can<t (mustn<t . #t<s much too risky.* MUST:vs:HA,- TO 0ince must is defective, it refers only to present or general time and, possibly, to the future. 4here specific reference has to be made to other times or aspects, must is supplemented by have to. The have to forms often suggest that the obligation is habitual or arises from some external source, circumstances& 2ou must pay for yourself tonight. 6hat do you mean, tonight= # always have to pay for myself. !he said that # had to be at work early in the morning to have the paper finished. (cf. 2ou must stay the night (# press you to do so 1vs12ou have to stay the night (2ou can<t get back tonight . In the 'st person, the difference between internal (must) and external obligation (have to) is much attenuated and they very often can be used interchangeably. .evertheless, must is recommended for an extremely important or urgent obligation, while have to should be used for a habitual:regular action& # must be at the airport in half an hour to catch the PEQG plane. # have to take the pills twice a day. 0ince must can also be used in sentences where the T- is future, mention should be made of the fact that shall1will have to can imply annoyance with the necessity or obligation of the action they express& 4e shall have to do it ourselves since no one is here to help. They will have to listen to him unless they want him to take their firm to court.
SHALL/WILL HA,- TO are very common& 5 where words like probably1perhaps are used to refer to future time& #<ll probably have to get it done by next week. ;erhaps we<ll have to study in the library to find all the books on the reference list. 5 when future habitual obligation is expressed& 6hen # start work, #<ll have to get up early to catch the morning train. 5 when annoyance:reluctance:unpleasant necessity is indicated& !ince nobody cared to buy some sugar, #<ll have to drink my tea with no sugar in it. )ll # wanted was to go to the disco tonight, but for all # see, #<ll have to stay at home and wait for your call. #bsence of (external:habitual) obligation in the present, future and past can be expressed by needn.t/don.t/doesn.t need to! s all/will not a$e /need to! didn.t a$e/need to, to show that an action which was:is thought to be necessary became:becomes unnecessary and so, presumably, did:does:will not occur& # didn<t have1need to write her a letter> # simply e9 mailed the invitation. !he needn<t be1doesn<t need1have to be so defensive> no one here accuses her of anything. "or all # know, you won<t need1have to pay for anything> everything has been taken care of. Eneedn.t / (erf# infiniti$e is used exclusively to refer to something which took place in the past although unnecessarily. As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s 7=
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EEmust usually remains must after reporting verbs in the past when it expresses permanent rules:prohibition or logical deduction& !he said she must observe the internal regulations, otherwise she would be fired (cf. !he said she had to do it no matter what reporting 2# must do it no matter what* .The captain said all the passengers must stay on deck. MUST:vs:OUGHT TO must expresses imperative obligation or logical necessity, whereas ought to indicates moral obligation derived from a sense of duty or conscience, desirability, or logical but not certain conclusion& 2ou must organi+e work so as not to let machinery run idle. #t is late and # ought to go home (but maybe # won<t . 6or the conditional mood, ought to and should are usually used, followed by the present:perfect infinitive& 2ou ought to1should talk to her. -e ought to1should have listened to me.
OTE)< ALT)<NATI!) *ON-T<U*TIONE MU-T I be (bound) to, be essential:necessary for somebody to, be obligatory to, be obliged to, be re$uired to, be compelled to EE MU-T NOT I be not to, not be allowed to, be forbidden to EEE The concept of o"li%ation can also be expressed with shall (in the =nd and *rd persons), chiefly in regulations or legal documents, ought to1should (as mentioned above). EEEE The concept of ro'i"ition can also be expressed with shall not (in the =nd and *rd persons), may not (usually in official notices), cannot (not allowed:permitted to), should not1ought not to (advice and disapproval), the imperative mood, .9 ?I.7N (brief announcements). 254525 )C)<*I-)- 1 M)ANING- AND U-)- OF MUST Mrite five notices to express regulations (past, present and future). 9uild 08 sentences to express deduction (past or present). MaBe > sentences to underline the difference between ;I;.1T .,,; T9 and .,,;.1T B#/, K 5,.. 9uild 4 sentences to express future necessity:habitual future obligation:unpleasant necessity with 0B#++:4I++ B#/, T9. The sub@ect1s obligation may also derive from the necessity to fulfill a condition which will make the event possible. <es ond to t'e follo?in% state&entsH # want to get there in half an hour (run $uickly). !he wants to talk to him (be formally introduced). 6e want to participate in the conference (send a XY5word abstract). # want to make it up to you (take me out for dinner). As ects of Modality and Modal
28 !er"s
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They want to prepare for the debate (have some for and against arguments). AsB Guestions to t'e ?ords or 'rases italiciFed" use %A0T or .,,; (remember to avoid $uestion words K .,,;, and that with .,,; you expect a negative answer, it being used where there is a strong element of negation or doubt& e.g. .eed she come tomorrowD ? hoping for a negative answer" %ust she come tomorrowD ? open $uestion)& !he must arrive at the airport before REQG. 2ou must work if you want to make progress. -e must fly if he doesn<t want to be late for his first date. 2ou mustn<t do everything by yourself> share the responsibilities. /ucy is going to telephone. Cim is expecting her. (yes:no $uestion) Fill in t'e "lanBs ?it' DO (I.NO/ (I. DONAT N))D (TO. and/ res ectively/ N))D (I.NO/ (I. N))DNAT/ taking into account that usually the ;9 forms express habitual actions in literary language, while the latter are preferred for a particular occasion in spoken ,nglish& e.g. 0o # need (to go (to visit him every !unday= 8eed # show you my identity papers= # thought you know me already. Gou J renew your entrance card every month. J you write that seemingly long letter right nowD Be J do that every day" every other day is $uite enough. J you change your clothes whenever he stops byD J I listen to all thisD Gou J 0hake hands with him whenever you meet him. Gou J hurry. I J wake him up because he is used to getting up early in the morning. E#dd some more examples. Fill in t'e "lanBs ?it' )ust! need or a$e toH J I put my fur coat onD .o, you J, if it isn1t too cold for you. Gou J shout. I can hear you all right.J I meet them at the stationD Ges, you J" they don1t know how to get here.J I finish the experiments nowD Ges, you J" I J the results this very afternoon. Gou will J cook your own meals when you move to 8ucharest, but youJwash the linen yourself, you can take it to the laundry. Gou J light your cigarette in a petrol station. Translate and co&&ent on t'e &eanin%H #nul acesta am ore dimineata" in fiecare <i trebuie sa fiu la facultate la ora ''&*Y. Trebuie sa semnam actele maine dimineata si, apoi, sa participam la conferinta de presa. Trebuie ca a fost foarte suparat de faptul ca nu ai fost suficient de re<onabil in luarea deci<iei. Trebuie sa plec imediat daca vreau sa ii a@ung din urma. /a trebui sa5l determin sa isi ia pastilele la timp daca vrea sa se faca bine. !re<i ca va trebui sa merg si eu cu tineD Trebuie sa5ti marturisesc ca nu5mi face nici o placere. %ai este nevoie sa5ti spun ca nu ai voie sa pleci daca nu iti reinnoiesti pasaportulD #r trebui sa5ti ve<i de treburile tale daca nu vrei sa fii ocolit de toata lumea. .u era nevoie sa cheltuiesti atat de mult pe haine" ai un dulap plin. .5a fost nevoie sa ii traduc ce se vorbeste" spre surprinderea mea, vorbea romana foarte bine. %ark poate sa vina in orice moment" ar fi trebuit sa fie acasa de@a. !opiii sub saispre<ece ani nu pot participa la aceste curse de masini. Pasagerii <borului =Y* se vor pre<enta la punctul de control imediat dupa ateri<are. Probabil 20
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ca se simte bine cu vechii ei prieteni daca nu simte nevoia sa5si faca altii noi. .u se poate sa se intoarca a<i daca s5a oprit in 0ibiu. ;e ce a trebuit sa va duceti acoloD 0tiati ca nu era nevoie ba, mai mult, nu aveati voie s5o faceti. # spus ca a facut ce trebuia sa faca. /a trebui sa astepti aici pana se intoarce secretara" cineva trebuie sa raspunda la telefon.
2+ !er"s
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25;5 SHALL
For&sH !hall for present tense, all persons, should for past tense, conditional and sub@unctive moods, all persons. FunctionsH S all /infiniti$e can be an auxiliary or a modal verb& as an auxiliary, it is used in the 'st person to indicate simple futurity, unstressed intention or normal expectation, and in the = nd and *rd persons to express determination, promise, command, compulsion (whereas will is considered to be used in the opposite way& to express simple futurity in the =nd and *rd persons, and one of the above conditions in the 'st person). E.evertheless, in general usage, the rules are much more relaxed and fre$uent deviations can be noticed. Will appears to have gained ground at the expense of s all& Tomorrow # shall start working on my doctoral thesis. 8ext !eptember # shall have been a teacher for II years. as a modal verb, it occurs in the epistemic and the deontic meaning. 25;505 )$I-T)MI* SHALL 8y expressing simple futurity or prediction (as we have seen it does), with epistemic shall the speaker makes a present inference with a high degree of probability or expresses uncertainty about a potential case in relative clauses& -e shall be mad about that. )nn shall be a student next fall. ;ermission to 'oin the society will be granted only to persons who shall observe its regulations. ,pistemically, shall also occurs in hypothetical condition or concession clauses& #f you shall ever decide you want to do it, 'ust let me know. 6hoever shall come, we have to welcome him. #lternating in use with >recurrency1 will, shall is felt as somehow obsolete& ) self9centred, selfish person shall see no reason to worry about the sick and the poor. 25;5+5 D)ONTI* SHALL The type of modality called deontic is based on the idea of will" will triggers action which is performed either by the speaker or by others. The latter has =nd person sub@ects and is the most productive paradigm. !onse$uently, a distinction is made between internal volition, presupposing the coincidence of the person who wants something with the syntactic sub@ect of the sentence, and e3ternal volition, implying a different person from the one who is the sub@ect of the sentence. In its deontic use, shall expresses constraint, necessity or obligation imposed by the speaker. Internal volition/ with the speaker as both origin and goal of the constraint, expressing his determination to perform a certain action ('st person resolutions with shall seem to be the result of deliberation or deeply rooted feeling, whereas with will they are sensed to be formed under the impression of the moment)&
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# shall not give up my beliefs, not even for you. 2ou can give him the loan and he shall pay you back in due time (# guarantee that, # make myself responsible for . )3ternal volitionH with =nd and *rd person sub@ects, shall represents the speaker as determined to bring something about or prevent it& - in the 'st person, interrogative, it points to the interlocutor1s volition& /et<s go now, shall we= 6hat shall we do now= !hall # get you a cup of tea or something= - in the official style (rules, regulations, laws), expressing an intention of punishment& The penalty shall not exceed three years in prison. 6e shall not hear any of your nonsense. )ny one of you who shall break the rule shall be sanctioned accordingly. - a threat in the =nd:*rd person& -e shall face us and shall hear what we have to say. They shall pay dearly for what they did. - a promise or assurance& 2ou shan<t be sent to another unit. 2ou shall have my full support. - after words expressing re$uest, necessity, determination& #t<s for them to decide who shall come. 6e strongly request that no one shall leave the town without letting us know. - a command:commandment& 2ou shall tell the truth5 2ou shall not leave the room unless asked to do so. (prophetic shall (2ou shall love the /.D0 your Nod with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your mind5* (Mathew IIEQS - prohibitions (Imust not)& 2ou shall not block the negotiations5 2ou shall not talk to anybody5 - to express the idea of destiny or an obligation independent of human will& 6hat will be shall1will be. - logical necessity& 6ho will spend more than he should, shall not spend when he would. 6e shall take responsibility (Amust .
2565 SHOULD
To analyse should as the past form of shall is to reduce to a minimum the large variety of shades of meaning and functions that characteri<es it. FunctionsH !hould can be an auxiliary or a modal verb& 1. as an auxiliary, should is used to form& a. future in the past and future perfect in the past, 'st person sg.:pl.& # knew # should talk to him. 6e hoped we should have been back by six. b. conditional mood, 'st person sg.:pl& # should go visit her if # were you. # should have told him hadn<t # been so shy. c. sub@unctive e$uivalent& #t<s vital that they should know about that. # avoided her eyes lest she should feel embarrassed. #f he should make a decision, #<ll let you know. That they should have known about it and not utter 22 !er"s As ects of Modality and Modal
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a word5 -ow should # have imagined you would be so nuts. 2. as a modal verb, should is used with its epistemic or with its deontic meaning.
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Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan 256505 )$I-T)MI* SHOULD
4ith this meaning, it appears in sentences where the speaker expresses an inference, anticipating a probable occurrence, an expectation. This should is weaker than epistemic must. Bowever, there is some contrast in distribution, with should the speaker making a deductive inference, unlike with must, which is apparently based on inductive inference& 2ou must be out of your mind to do something like that 1vs1 #f they did something like that, then they should be out of their mind. -e must be sleeping like a log not to hear the phone ringing 1vs1 -e should be out if he didn<t hear the phone ringing. 4hen compared with inference will, should is felt to be slightly less confident& #f we go out on such a rainy weather, we will get wet through. /et<s do it tomorrow, when the weather will1should be nicer. !hould is used as a past counterpart of both futurity and modal shall. It is used in e&otional utterances to state that the situation previously thought about, expected or not expected, has caused an emotional reaction of doubt, uncertainty, disbelief, approval or disapproval& #t is unbelievable that he should turn1have turned up again after what he did. #t<s hardly likely that he should leave1have left without a word. # do not expect that he should ever grow up. E.otice that should occurs in the that5clause while the main one contains an emotional predicate which may be expressed by a verb, an ad@ective or a related noun& surprise, please, annoy, ama+e> curious, natural, lucky, strange, improbable, unconceivable, etc. In such sub@ective that5clauses, should indicates a conflict between reality and what the speaker had believed:expected. In e&otional Guestions/ expressing surprise, indignation, @oyH (#sn<t it surprising that they should be back so soon from their honeymoon=5 (#sn<t it marvelous that everybody should have come to this celebration5 -ow should # know about it= 8o one told me anything5 6hat should he come here for= 6ho should that marvelous woman be= 6hy should she have destroyed the evidence= # opened the envelope and what should # find but her picture= 2565+5 D)ONTI* SHOULD !hould can express several deontic nuances, the strong implication of obligation or necessity in shall:must1have to being less forceful. !hould is used performatively when the speaker imposes the obligation (sometimes prescribed by the moral code or social norms& duty, civility, propriety, what is thought as good, correct, right, @ust, sensible, reasonable, etc. and, therefore, advisable) and non5performatively when he only reports its existence& (# think you should leave now. They shouldn<t allow children to play unsupervised> it<s too dangerous. 7lose friends should stand by each other. 4hen followed by the perfect infinitive of the complement verb, should indicates that a past duty or sensible activity was not performed, which causes criticism on the part of the speaker" shouldn<t expresses the obligation not to have performed a certain activity& # should have stopped him from doing it. 2ou shouldn<t have been so unsympathetic. 24 As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s
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#s a sub@unctive e$uivalent, deontic should occurs in that5clauses after predicates expressing a constraint derived from someone1s volition, wish, desire" it is used after& AdKectives& imperative, important, necessary, essential, vital, (un desirable, (un wise, better, right, etc." !er"s& desire, propose, suggest, insist, recommend, request, require. 7ommand, urge, etc." Nouns& wish, desire, etc. #t is recommended that all applicants should read the instructions before filling in the forms. # insist that we should talk it through before letting them know. #t is your father<s last wish that you should marry Cane. -e urged that the conference should be held in Domania. E.otice that the #merican sub@unctive is should9less& #t is necessary that you be there in time. !hould also appears in clauses of conse$uence introduced by that& 6ho are you that you should 'udge another= 6hat has she done that we should treat her like that= !hould is sometimes used in purpose clauses (as an alternative of could1would) and in expressions of fear:anxiety after lest1in case& -e spoke in a loud voice so that the audience should1could1would hear him. 6e tiptoed for fear1lest he should hear us. 256575 SHOULD IN INDI<)*T -$))*E A*T -u%%estions and 'intsH !hould # warn him about it= !houldn<t you be there already= Offers and invitationsH !hould # get you something to eat= !hould we dine out tonight= <eGuests for instructions/ advice/ ordersH !hould # mix the ingredients now or after they have been kept in the fridge= !hould # take the pills between meals= <eco&&endations/ advice (notice t'at ?it' ad &etter t'e advice is i&&ediate/ ?'ereas ?it' s ould it is &ore %eneral.H 2ou should give up coffee if you know your blood pressure is too high. Disa roval/ re ri&andH 2ou shouldn<t use such foul words. )3 ressions of dis"elief or sur riseH -ow strange that they should meet again after twenty years. )3 ressions of dou"t/ uncertainty/ er le3ityH 7ould it be true that she should have been hiding for such a long time= 256525 )C)<*I-)- 1 Meanin%s and Uses of SHALL/SHOULD 05 Na&e t'e various conce ts e3 ressed "y s all sentencesL add your e3a& les& in t'e follo?in%
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4e shall arrive tomorrow by the * p.m. train. 0hall we be back in time for teaD Be said I was not to go, but I certainly shall. Be says he won1t go, but I say he shall. 0hall the boy waitD 0hips shall not sail out of the harbour without carrying three lights. 9ld traditions and customs shall not dieN 4ho shall describe their surpriseD Gou shan1t have any of theseN Gou shall pay for everything you did to herN If he comes I shall speak to him. #ll the scientific papers shall be completed by the end of the semester. 4hatever he shall do, we have to stand by him. Gou shall love and comfort and cherish him till death tears you apart. Thou shalt not kill" thou shalt not steal. 4ho will marry in haste shall repent at leisure. This book is sold condition that it shall not be lent, resold or hired out without the publisher1s consent. 4hat shall I tell him nowD +5 Na&e t'e various conce ts e3 ressed "y s ould in t'e follo?in% sentencesL add your e3a& les& I shouldn1t have believed it if I hadn1t seen it with my own eyes. Bow about your boyfriendD 0houldn1t he be here with youD 4hy should you be different from the rest of themD Bow should I know that if no one tells me anythingD It1s very strange that he should have asked you to move in with him because I know he is married. Gou should mind your own business instead of sticking your nose where it doesn1t belong. The match should be over by now, so I think they will soon be home" we should have dinner after all. 0hould it be wet, I should stay at home. 4ho is he that he should order people roundD 0hould I talk to him and explain your situationD !an it be true that she should have left her husband and children for her tennis coachD The guests should be coming any minute now. They shouldn1t have phoned because we were expecting them anyway. 75 Translate/ do not for%et to use t'e t?o &odals and na&e t'e conce ts e3 ressed "y t'e&H /enim maine cu trenul de M&*Y. !e sa fac ca sa5i fiu pe placD 0a inteleg ca proiectul nostrum nu te atrageD Iti spun eu ca am sa bat recordul la vite<a maine. #re s5o faca daca ii spun eu. #cest regulament ramane in vigoare pana in septembrie. ;aca te incapatane<i sa lasi oca<iile sa treaca pe langa tine, vei avea doar de pierdut. #ccidentele se intampla. Permisiunea de a parasi cladirea se va acorda doar persoanelor care au buletinul asupra lor. 9ricine ar veni in seara asta, spune5i ca nu sunt in dispo<itie de oaspeti. 9 persoana aroganta ca el nu va avea nicicand aproape de inima interesul public. ;e unde sa stiu eu ce avea el sa faca dupa ce s5a intalnit cu tineD ;aca a spus asa ceva, trebuie ca are toate datele. 0tiam ca il voi revedea intr5o <i. +5a amenintat ca nu va capata nici o <i libera daca nu munceste cu tragere de inima. ;e ce5ai fi nemultumit de viata pe care o duciD , de necre<ut ca a publicat articolul fara acordul persoanei intervievate. , absolut firesc ca el sa nu nege ce a facut. ;aca s5ar intampla sa dau peste articolul de care ai nevoie, am sa te anunt. .u e minunat ca sunteti impreuna si puteti sa sarbatoriti nunta fiului vostruN !e5a facut ca sa5l trate<i cum ai facut5oD 25 MaBe sentences and use s all and s ould as eGuivalent5 26 !er"s art of a su"Kunctive
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>5 Use s all and s ould in indirect s eec' acts5
2=
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25=5 WILL
To discuss the meanings and uses of will and shall is an extremely difficult task because they are used with many shades of meaning and their three ma@or functions (expressing an inference, indicating futurity, and signaling a constraint) are often blended and hard to distinguish one from the other. #ny attempt at a methodical treatment of the problems involved is still open to exception and fail to give satisfaction. The ,nglish future is said to be one of the most controversial and ill5 understood linguistic phenomena. Fespersen concluded& >,nglish has no real future tense1 ('(C'& LY). ,lena 8ara furthers this statement bringing such arguments as& In addition to the traditional shall1will future tense, there are other expressions available in ,nglish for future reference such as the present tense forms (simple and progressive) as well the so5called >periphrastic1 futures& be to, be about to, be going to, etcJ In an attempt to locate the position of >will1 on the scale Zthe epistemic scale on which the hierarchy of modals ranges from doubt to certainty[ and to account for its multiple functions, some linguists (-. +akoff, +. Born) have suggested that semantically >will1 is at the borderline @oining the modals and the tenses" J it indicates something less than 'YY per cent certaintyJ (8ara '(C(& 'XC) 0he adds that the true future in ,nglish, if there has to be one, is the shall1will5less form, as it indicates that the speaker has reasons to be certain that the event will occur, whether because it was scheduled or because he has control over it" will here might be viewed as dubitative %oreover, she considers that >our knowledge of the future is nothing more than our understanding and attitude towards the modalities of the present1. !onse$uently, many studies adopt the view that will and shall are not mere future5tense signals but genuine modals which may also be used for future5 time reference. Palmer, following Fespersen, distinguishes four uses of will which he deals with under the separate heading of& volition" power" habit" epistemic. Ioana 0tefanescu in English Morphology, vol. II, part II, 2The .ominal and /erbal !ategories3, discusses Palmer1s analysis of will with the declared intention of reducing the explanation of the four identified uses to one core sense. The different interpretations will be contextual extensions of the respective core sense. 25=505 !OLITION:D)ONTI* WILL In its deontic use, will indicates the existence of a constraint on the sub@ect, the origin of which is, as a rule, the speaker1s will but it may also be other authority, or rules, regulations, etc. The following example is an instance >8 !er"s As ects of Modality and Modal
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when the source of constraint is the sub@ect1s determination or obstinate insistence& #f you will act like a fool, don<t count on me to help . 6ill may denote various degrees of volition& a) a weak degree of volition (vague willingness, unpremeditated intention, simple futurity), often contracted to Oll& >!omeone<s ringing.< O#<ll get it.< 2ou<ll understand my doubts and reservations, Mr. Cohnson. O6hat do you think about that=< O6ell, #<ll tell you. # don<t think it<ll work.< #<ll see you (soon, later, tomorrow, etc. #<ll be hanged if # know. b) willingness or readiness or the reverse (sometimes unwillingness with inanimate sub@ects ? always in the negative)& # will do whatever # can to help her. # will buy the house if you think it is worth. (sunt gata saJ) # tried everything, but the car won<t start. .ote that there are many phrases to express the notion of willingness or the reverse& be (un willing1ready to, not to mind, refuse, decline, etc. c) determination and resolution, the strongest form of volition (intention to perform or bring about a state of affairs much desired by the speaker, but also a resolve to carry it out)" in these cases will is uncontracted and uttered with strong stress& # will see her. #<ll ask her to marry me. 8o one shall prevent me. In the negative form, non5volition is almost e$uivalent to refusal, as in& !he loves him and she won<t leave him. -e will not be commanded. # won<t stand such nonsense. ;etermination is also expressed by phrases like be determined, be bent on, set one<s heart on, etc. E.ote that will may also occur as a regular verb with the sense of want, desire, wish, in which case it can be used where >future will1 cannot& # saidE O6hy don<t you go and see if he will let you stay=< 2ou may say what you will, # stand on my own rights. <e&arBs ;eontic will with 'st person sub@ects conveys, according to the context, a promise or a threat. In $uestions, we should distinguish between& a) $uestions in the 'st person, especially in idiomatic ,nglish& >6ill you send it, my dear=< < 6ill # send it= #s that your wish=< b) $uestions in the =nd person, where will you is the e$uivalent of a re$uest& 6ill you dine with us on !aturday=. !ontextually, will you can be the mild form of an imperative like& 6ill you sit down for one moment= There are even politer ways of making a re$uest, when further markers of politeness are used& 6ill you be good enough to%= 6ill you kindly%= 6ill you like to%= In $uestions about the will of a *rd person, will he is comparatively rare" the unambiguous does he want1wish1mean1intend%= is generally preferred whenever will he might be mistaken for a $uestion about the future. /olition will is fre$uently found in the =nd and *rd persons in conditional clauses after if1unless& >6hat have you got to say to me=< O) great many things if you will come away somewhere where we can talk.
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If determination or intention is meant, want must be used in these conditional clauses& #f you want to smoke, you must go into another carriage.
>+ !er"s
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Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan 25=5+5 $OM)< WILL
It is, according to Palmer and Fespersen, >a little more than volition applied to inanimate ob@ects, to indicate how such ob@ects will characteristically behave1 (Iinanimate ability can)& # must warn you that the boat will hold only half of those who have taken tickets. 6ill the ice bear= E-emark that both the >volition1 interpretation of will and >power1 will are sub@ect5oriented, i.e. the source of the >will1 or >power1 is seen as intrinsic to the sub@ect of will. 25=575 )$I-T)MI* WILL In this interpretation will is used relative to the system of rational laws and the evidence has direct bearing on the truth of the sentence" in such sentences will does not express futurity but is similar to the inferential use of must" yet, on the epistemic scale, will is further from certainty than must& This will be the tower of /ondon # suppose. -e is waiting for us downstairs> he will be wandering where we are. -e will probably hunt her down for what she did to him. #ntinucci and Parisi claim that will is neutral with respect to time distinction. If the speaker wants to make a prediction, he will make use of a time marker (time adverbial, the progressive aspect, etc.). #ctually, there are sentences containing epistemic will which are ambiguous between the two readings (inference or prediction)" the reader interprets them as inferences about the present or predictions about the future according to the time location he assigns to the state of affairs& -e will tell the truth a why don<t you talk to him= A present b by the time the news break out. A future. If the inference concerns a past time sphere, then willKperfect infinitive is used& 2ou will have received the book by this time. ;erhaps you will have heard the news, as everybody is talking of it. This interpretation is suited to scientific and $uasi5scientific statements& #f litmus paper is dipped into acid it will turn red. E.ote that we have distinguished at least three types of inferences in the sentences above& inference regarding a future state of affairs, based on past knowledge and experience& -e<ll be forty9four next week. The 0ean will make a decision tomorrow. .otice that if the inference refers to an action:state that will be completed at or before a future time, will is followed by a perfect infinitive (future perfect tense)& 0on<t be so worried, #<ll have been gone by the time they get here. inference concerning a present state of affairs, traditionally referred to as the will of assumption:putative future (which, in fact, does not
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concern the future at all)& !he<ll be there by now. 2ou<ll be wishing to say something (oi fi vrand:vrei probabil sa spui si tu ceva). .otice that the present inference may concern a past circumstance in which case will is followed by a perfect infinitive& 6ell, it<s hard to talk about it, but you will have heard about her divorce by now. inference concerning a regular, habitual state of affairs, traditionally described as recurrent will. #ccording to Poutsma ('(*X), will can be used to state that, given certain (empirical) circumstances, a situation regularly, fre$uently or occasionally takes place or manifests itself as the conse$uence of a natural tendency in a person or ob@ect. This will generally occurs in statements about what has been observed at all times and the sub@ect is usually a (pro)noun in the *rd person& @oys will be boys. ) cat will often play with a mouse before she kills it. ;eople will talk> there<s no preventing it. .otice that will is often omitted in cases like those above, the present tense being used instead& !he dressed up smartly as models do. -yntactic "e'aviour a. ne%ation 4ith sub@ect5oriented will (boulomaicIvolition, deontic) it is usually the modality that is negated& They won<t give me a key to get into the building, so # can<t work. +ess fre$uently, however, in the boulomaic use, it is the event not the modality that is negated& # won<t ask for details. This doesn<t mean that # am unwilling or # refuse to, but that # am willing not to ask. 4ith epistemic will it is the situation that is negated& -e won<t be rewarded. This won<t be solved till next week. ". interro%ation 4ith sub@ect5oriented will it is possible to $uestion the modality& 6ill Cohn come= #s already shown with =nd person sub@ects, will is usually interpreted as sub@ect5oriented and, so, suggesting re$uest. Thus 6ill you come to the party tonight= would almost always be treated as an invitation and not as a re$uest for invitation. c. ast ti&e reference 4ith sub@ect5oriented will, the past tense corresponding form would is not used if there is an accomplished interpretation for the event referred to in the sentence, but wouldn<t is normal if the accomplishment did not take place& # asked him but he wouldn<t come. # asked him and he would come ? is not acceptable. 6or past accomplishment be willing to is, according to Palmer, the most likely candidate& # asked him and he was willing to come. The habitual use has the corresponding past form would1used to (only as a stative verb)& !he would1used to live in that house whenever she came1in those days.
25085 WOULD
>2 !er"s As ects of Modality and Modal
*'a ter 2
6ould is traditionally regarded as the past tense form of will, but more recent studies consider it a modal verb in its own right, with epistemic and deontic values. The apparent past tense morpheme may signal, besides past time (in reported speech), tentativeness, hypothesis, counterfactuality. 2508505 WOULD FO< $A-T TIM) <)F)<)N*) 1. The past marked would may be the past e$uivalent of epistemic will in reported or past time5sphere statements, indicating& a) a prediction about the future made from a past moment& -e said he would be late for work but we insisted he should stay a little longer. !he promised she would come by the next day. -emember that this construction is called >future5in5the5past1 b) an inference whose time5sphere coincides with the past time5sphere of the state of affairs described& # was ready to leave as # knew my friends would be waiting for me at the restaurant. .ote that when the inference refers to a circumstance prior to the past time5 sphere of the inference, would is followed by a perfect infinitive& # knew that the article had been published two months before, so she would have read it. c) an inference concerning a regular, habitual action:state (reported general statements about a natural tendency:inclination in a person or thing)& -e knew that boys would1will often feel the need to show off when they liked a girl. -e claimed that those shoes would last a life9 time. -er face would1used to always brighten when he entered the room. 6ould may also be the past counterpart of deontic will to denote& a) an intention (unpremeditated intention, often contracted to Od)& -e heard someone crying and said he<d go and see who it was. b) willingness, readiness or the reverse& ;ressed by the public opinion, he said he would marry her right away if she would have him. !he said she wouldn<t come with me as she had nothing new to wear. 3.ote that a sentence such as # will help you is reported in the past as # wanted1offered1promised1was willing to help him. c) determination and resolution, but also obstinate insistence or resistance ? with inanimate sub@ects (uncontracted and with strong stress)& !he resolved she would regain her self9confidence no matter what. They would buy that terribly expensive car though we advised them not to. )s hard as # might have tried, the engine wouldn<t start. 25085+5 WOULD FO< $<)-)NT TIM)#-$E)<) 6ould is often used to indicate tentativeness, to state an opinion or a wish modestly, cautiously. This may be the reson why would is felt as more polite& This would appear to support his argument. ,pistemic would expresses a weaker probability than will, a more tentative inference, but still belonging to the present time5sphere& This would be the critic who tormented the whole critical stage. (#cesta ar fiJ) ;eontic would is also used to signal willingness:readiness:wish in a more tentative way (conditional sentences type II)& # would do whatever it
2.
>>
*'a ter 2
takes if he would ask me to. #f he would be treated nicely, he must treat people nicely himself. E.otice the use of would after the verb wish and the expression if only to indicate a not very hopeful wish concerning the future& # wish1#f only he would accept the offer since he hasn<t been made a better one or the speaker1s regret that the sub@ect is unwilling to do something he approves of, or persists in doing something the speaker disapprove& # wish1#f only you would read more1you wouldn<t keep drinking so much. EE0pecial attention must be made of the occurrence of would in the phrases would rather1sooner to express the sub@ect1s wish:option:preference& -e<d rather1sooner die than admit he was wrong. #<d rather she didn<t get the custody of the child. 2508575 WOULD A- AN @I<<)ALI-A MA<P)< The cases in which would indicates tentativeness, improbable wishes, etc. involve a certain remoteness:dissociation from reality. This is more obvious when would is a component of the traditionally called conditional mood, and signals& hypothetical result of a hypothetical condition& #f we were1should not mention his name, he would be offended. hypothetical present:past result of a counterfactual situation& #f he were here, # would gladly tell him everything. #f it hadn<t been for the rain, we would have been gone by now. 2508525 WOULD IN INDI<)*T -$))*E A*T6ill and would are probably the most fre$uently used modals to perform all kinds of speech acts other than the direct ones performed with their literal meanings& offers and invitations& 6ill16ould you like to 'oin us= 6ill16on<t16ould you step in for a second= re$uests& 6ill16ould you (please show me the way to%= 6on<t16ouldn<t you (please call me a taxi= 6ould you mind not speaking so loud in here= re$uests for permission& 6ould you mind if #%= 6ould it be all right if #%= 2ou wouldn<t mind if # left earlier today, would you= orders or commands& They will be here tomorrow morning, R o<clock sharp. 2ou<d better turn off the TT and start studying. promises& # will buy everything on the shopping list, don<t worry, dear. E.otice that the two modals appear in performative sentences as >hedges1 on performative verbs& # will ask you to help me with%. # will give you that you are the most insistent person #<ve ever met. These appear to be statements of the speaker1s intention to perform a particular illocutionary act at some point in the future but, in fact, the intended actions are carried simultaneously. The role of will1would is to soften the direct speech act. Bedged performative sentences with would are appropriate when the speaker feels it would be reasonable to offer his:her opinion, whether asked or not& # would suggest some modifications on the proposal if you want it >4 !er"s As ects of Modality and Modal
*'a ter 2
accepted. # would define this as revolting. #gain, these appear to announce the speaker1s hypothetical wish:option:preference when, in fact, the actions are performed simultaneously. The function of would here is once more to soften the possible unkindness or bluntness of the direct speech act.
>;
*'a ter 2
Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan 25085>5 WILL/ WOULD 1 <OUNDU$
MILL FunctionsH 6ill can be a main:full verb, an auxiliary verb or a modal one. 1. #s a full verb, will can be defective or regular& a) defective verb& #t shall be as you will. !ay what he will, # still can<t believe he got the 'ob. b) regular verb, having forms for all persons, tenses and mood, followed by a to5infinitive when needed& I a vrea& 6illing and being able to are not the same. (# voi nu este acelasi lucru cu a dori) 2ou must will to get better. (Trebuie sa si vrei sa te faci bine) -e who wills success is half way to it. (!el care voieste cu adevarat sa i<bandeasca a si i<bandit pe @umatate) I a lasa prin testament& -e willed his wife everything he owned. (# lasat prin testament sotiei tot ce avea) =. #s an auxiliary& a) to form the future and the perfect future (=nd and *rd persons sg. and pl.)& 2ou will see her tomorrow. -e will have learned the news by then. b) >volition future1 (all persons)& #f that<s what you want, #<ll do it. # won<t tell her that> # simply can<t. 6e will see to it, don<t worry. c) >fre$uency will1 (all persons)& .n !unday morning, they will go to church to pray for their mother<s health. 75 #s a modal verb& a) it preserves the idea of >insistence1 even in cases when the notion of future is gone& !he will drop things when people sleep. (Intotdeauna scapa lucrurile din mana cand lumea doarme) "or all my advice you will have it your way. (!u toate sfaturile mele, te incapatane<i sa faci cum vrei tu) b) it very often appears in sayings:proverbs& @oys will be boys. )ccidents will happen. @lood will tell. (0angele apa nu se face) c) it is used in an invitation or a polite re$uest (=nd pers.), would being the even more polite choice& 6ill you come this way= 6on<t you sit down= 6ill16ould you pass the sugar (please = d) it is used in conditional clauses to introduce a re$uest& #f you will listen to me, you will see #<m right. #f they will look after our children, we<ll be able to paint the house ourselves. e) it expresses probability& This will be the address we are looking for for two hours. 2ou will have met them. (probabil ca i5ati cunoscut) f) it signals present time5sphere& That will do1be enough. .il will float because it<s lighter than the water. MOULD FunctionsH 6ould can be a main:full verb, an auxiliary verb or a modal one. >6 !er"s As ects of Modality and Modal
*'a ter 2
1. #s a defective full verb, meaning a voi, a dori, a9i place (cuiva , it is used in the past tense, the future5in5the5past, the sub@unctive, the conditional& !he asked me to forget about the past, but # wouldn<t. (J dar n5am vrut) They assured us it should be as we would. (.e5au asigurat ca va fi asa cum vom dori) This is the place where # would spend the rest of my life. (J unde as vrea sa5mi petrec restul vietii) 2ou look so miserable that # wouldn<t be you. (J incat n5as vrea sa fiu in locul tau) 6ould it were true5 (;e5ar fi adevaratN) +5 #s an auxiliary& a) to form the future5in5the5past and the future perfect5in5the5past (=nd and *rd persons sg. and pl.)& !he promised she would call us as soon as she got back. @y the time she told you about the case, # would have solved it. b) E.otice that all the cases we considered under will as an auxiliary ? b), c) and will as a modal are also valid for would" we might as well use the same examples in the past& # wouldn<t tell her that> # simply couldn<t. # asked her not to worry because we would see to it. .n !unday morning, they would go to church to pray for their mother<s health. c) to form the conditional (=nd and *rd persons sg. and pl.)& 2ou would give us a ring if you thought it was necessary. 6e would have given a quick reply if we had known all the details. d) !ompare # should have paid for it. (#s fi platit:#r fi trebuit sa platescJ) with # would have paid. (#s fi platitI#veam intentia s5o fac)" also compare 2ou should have told me. (#r fi trebuit sa5mi spui) with 2ou would have told me. (%i5ai fi spusI#veai intentia saJ) 75 #s a modal verb& a. to express offers or very polite re$uests b) it is used in conditional clauses to introduce a re$uest& #f you would coach me for my exam, # might get through this time. c) it expresses probability& # honestly don<t know who that would be. O-e never spends money on books.< O8o, he wouldn<t.< 4. EI ?ould liBe # In traditional grammar, the verbs to like, to care (Ito want), to prefer, to be glad, to be inclined, to find it hard etc., in the 'st person in conditional sentences, cannot have the auxiliary would, because the expression is pleonastic" instead, should should be used. .evertheless, in collo$uial style, # would like1prefer are currently used. 5. final clauses often contain should or would& !he tiptoed so that she should bother nobody. # told her to wait for you at the station so that you wouldn<t feel neglected.
>=
Final Tests

T)-T $A$)< 0
I5 Fill in ?it' can/&e a&le to in t'e follo?in% sentencesH '. If he still is the person I have known him to be, I1m sure he will J to provide $uite decently for him and his family. =. I J see her standing there alone, and I J say that she felt embarrassed, J to say a word. *. 4hen she saw the bus, she ran as fast as she J, but J to get on. L. Be made me so mad that in the state I was, I J actually say things I knew I would regret later. M. Bowever harsh they were, they still wanted their son to always be honest and speak up his mind" he J stand up and tell them his opinion whenever he wanted to. X. There was very little I J say or do about the whole situation. 4hat had been done J be undone. C. They were so shocked, they J hardly utter a word. ). I J understand what he meant, but that did not necessarily mean that I J agree with him. (. +ookN #s I have told you I don1t know how many times, I J do it on my own. 'Y.4hen you are in your sixties, you1ll J to say that you have had enough. II5 MaBe sentences to illustrate t'e follo?in% &eanin%s and uses of can% could/&e a&le toH '. past physical:mental ability" =. present ability to be actuali<ed in future" *. single accomplished past occurrence" L. habitual, recurrent past event:behaviour" M. description of present:past characteristic features of people:events" X. possible event:situation" C. strong recommendation" ). circumstantial possibility (ifJ, you canJ):(Jso that O can:couldJ)" (. past possibility not put to the test:unfulfilled past possibility" 'Y.reproach for past actions" III5 Translate into )n%lis' usin% can/&e a&le toH '. 0ugerPm sP ne oprim deocamdatP, dar am putea continua mTine la aceeaSi orP. !redeRi cP vom putea termina suficient de repede pentru a trimite la timp documenteleD =. Umi amintesc cP era o vreme cTnd puteam petrece <ile Qntregi fPrP sP obosim. 0P fie oare vTrstaD .u se poateN *. Putem sP gP<duim urmPtoarea conferinRP la 7alaRi, vara viitoare. #m putea sP trimitem invitaRiile chiar sPptPmTna viitoare. L. ;acP te concedia<P, poRi oricTnd sP vii la firma noastrP. Vtiu cTt de Qncredere poRi fi Si chiar aS dori sP ni te poRi alPtura. M. Un ce priveSte medicamentul acesta, se Stie cP poate fi foarte folositor Qn tratamentul pneumoniei" nu se poate sP fi refu<at administrarea lui. X. .u se poate sP fi venit la Qntrunire" aS fi observat5o Si sigur m5aS fi dus sP vorbesc cu ea. Vtiu cTt de @ignitP se poate simRi cTnd nu este bPgatP Qn seamP. C. .u5mi dau seama ce urmPreSte" s5ar putea sP intenRione<e sP QnfiinRe<e o societate de asigurPri.
48 As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s
*'a ter 2
). ;eSi poate fi nesuferit uneori, Si5a cerut scu<e cP n5a putut a@unge la timp din cau<a unui bloca@ Qn traffic. (. #i fi putut sP5mi spui Si mie despre broSurile pe care le5ai luat de la agenRia de voia@" mi5aS fi fPcut o idee mai clarP despre condiRiile pe care le oferP. 'Y.;acP au reuSit sP5i convingP sP intre Qn proiect, este pentru cP ei chiar sunt Qn stare sP5l ducP la bun sfTrSit. T)-T $A$)< + Translate/ use MA,:MIGET (eac' sentence is alotted 85> oints.H
'. %a intreb daca isi da seama de consecinte" s5ar putea sa fie constient de responsabilitatea pe care si5a asumat5o, desi, sincer sa fiu, nu pare. =. #i fi putut sa5i anunti ca plecati ca sa nu faca tot drumul acela numai ca sa gaseasca usa incuiata. *. 0a traiesti fericit o mie de ani si sa ai parte de bucurii si sa inveti cum sa5ti sarbatoresti neimplinirile. L. Pot sa plec acum, sefu1D ;a, cred ca poti. 0a punem punct aici, dar maine s5 ar putea sa am nevoie de tine dimineata, desi nu cred ca delegatia pe care o asteptam va veni atat de devreme. M. #m fi putut sa ne hotaram asupra variantei celeilalte, dar atunci s5ar fi complicat lucrurile si e posibil sa nu mai fi fost in stare sa terminam la timp. X. Focul se poate @uca doar daca ii cunosti regulile si le respecti" altfel, s5ar putea sa nu5ti gasesti nici un partener dispus sa5l @oace cu tine. C. Toata lumea ocolea subiectul de teama sa nu5i tre<easca amintiri dureroase" ar fi putut sa se inchida din nou in sine, asa cum se mai intamplase, si nimic si nimeni n5ar mai fi deschis5o spre comunicarea cu ceilalti. ). ;upa cat il cunosc, s5ar putea sa mai studie<e inca inchis in birou dosarele de teama sa nu I se ceara sa dea socoteala pentru ele . (. 9ricat ar costa, si oricate argumente mi5ar aduce el, insist sa ne petrecem vacanta in strainatate pentru ca, asa cum s5ar putea sa stii de@a, serviciile oferite sunt mult mai bune si preturile mai re<onabile.
10. Multumesc ca nu mi-ai spus ca nu mergi la petrecere; pot, la fel de bine sa ma duc singura ca si cum n-as a ea partener.
Translate and identify t'e &eanin% of MU-T or EA!) TO (eac' sentence is alotted 0 oint. H '. Trebuie ca a fost foarte suparat de faptul ca nu ai fost suficient de re<onabil in luarea deci<iei. =. .5a fost nevoie sa ii traduc ce se vorbeste" spre surprinderea mea, vorbea romana foarte bine. *. ;e ce a trebuit sa va duceti acoloD 0tiati ca nu era nevoie ba, mai mult, nu aveati voie s5o faceti. L. # spus ca a facut ce trebuia sa faca. /a trebui sa astepti aici pana se intoarce secretara" cineva trebuie sa raspunda la telefon.
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Dunarea de Jos University of Galati Faculty of Letters

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan/ $'D

As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s

*'a ter 7 1 Modals !er"s 08

7505 -yntactic 9e'aviour 08 75+5 Modals and Tenses 00

*'a ter 2 1 Meanin%s and Uses of t'e )n%lis' Modal !er"s 07

As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

Final Tests >0

*'a ter 0 1 As ects of Modality in )n%lis'

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan rinci les

As ects of Modality and Modal

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

*'a ter + 1 *onte3t and Modality +505 *onte3t and Modality

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

As ects of Modality and Modal

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

+5+5 )3 ressions of Modality5 -o&e )3a& les

As ects of Modality and Modal

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

*'a ter 7 1 Modals !er"s 7505 -yntactic 9e'aviour

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

75+5 Modals and Tenses

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

As ects of Modality and Modal

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

*'a ter 2 1 Meanin%s and Uses of t'e )n%lis' Modal !er"s

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

As ects of Modality and Modal

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

As ects of Modality and Modal !er"s

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan 254575 MUST # <OUNDU$

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

Associate $rofessor -teluta -tan

'a ter + 1 onte3t and Modality +505 *onte3t and Modality