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Women Introduction: Perhaps one of the most beloved and enduring meri!an novels is "ouisa #a$ l!ott%s& Little Women. Published in 18'8& it be!ame an (instant bestseller) *+uttleton ,and has been !alled (the most popular girls% stor$ in meri!an literature) *Si!herman 2.0-/ lthough the boo0 has traditionall$ been defined as (a girl%s stor$&) s!holars have anal$1ed the boo0 2idel$/ !!ording to literar$ !riti! 3laine Sho2alter& Little Women has been (the sub4e!t of mu!h !riti!al reevaluation and debate *Sho2alter5 viii-/ Professor #adelon 6edell (has des!ribed Little Women as (%the meri!an female m$th) and Susan 7ouglas& Sarah 3lbert& and nne 8ose have all interpreted Little Women (as an important !riti9ue of the +rans!endlist #ovement) *Sho2alter5 viii-/ :ountless arti!les have anal$1ed the themes of female anger& subversion& male and female relationships& sisterhood& mother;daughter relationships& and standards of nineteenth;!entur$ propriet$ in Little Women. Some s!holars have even interpreted Little Women to be a representation of l!ott%s o2n metaphori!al (:ivil War&) s$mboli1ing her struggle to negotiate her mas!uline tenden!ies& 2hi!h are evident in her desire to be a bo$ and her !onsistent !riti9uing of femininit$& 2ith the !ultural ne!essit$ of being feminine/ <n addition to anal$1ing the a!tual te=t& some s!holars have 2ritten essa$s dis!ussing the novel%s re!eption and e=ploring possible reasons 2h$ readers have be!ome so enthralled 2ith the #ar!h sisters over the $ears/ :riti!s have been spe!ifi!all$ interested in >o& 2ho& a!!ording to 8i!hard shford& is (the best 0no2n tombo$ of meri!an literature)
2 * shford 1-/ lthough one ma$ assume given the immense amount of s!holarl$ 2or0 2ritten on Little Women that !riti!s have e=hausted ever$ interpretation of the te=t& fe2 !riti!s have anal$1ed the relationship bet2een readers% adoration of >o and her role as a figure of female mas!ulinit$/ <n this paper& < argue that t2entieth and t2ent$;first !entur$ readers of Little Women read the te=t subversivel$ b$ refusing to a!!ept the sentimental and arguabl$ anti;feminist !on!lusion& 2hi!h portra$s the formerl$ independent and rebellious >o as a traditional& gender;!onforming 2oman 2ho has given up her dreams of be!oming a 2riter/ Given the fa!t that !ontemporar$ readers do not e=press anger to2ards the ending& 2hi!h in man$ 2a$s indi!ates >o%s disavo2al of her female mas!ulinit$ and adheren!e to more traditional norms of femininit$& < !ontend that 2omen subversivel$ read the !on!lusion of Little Women b$ !hoosing to see be$ond the seemingl$ redu!tive ending/ <n order to prove that modern female readers of Little Women interpret the te=t subversivel$& < divide m$ paper into three parts/ Se!tion one dis!usses the 2a$s >o%s !hara!ter !ollapses the mas!uline/feminine binar$ b$ e=hibiting female mas!ulinit$ and thus e=poses the potential for a 9ueer sub4e!ts position outside the !onfines of the binar$/ +his se!tion in!ludes 9ueer and feminist theor$& spe!ifi!all$ as it pertains to tombo$s and mas!uline females/ +his portion is mainl$ !omposed of 9uotes from Little Women that illustrate the 2a$s >o demonstrates female mas!ulinit$ and modifies femininit$/ Se!tion t2o presents a nuan!ed e=amination of ho2 the !on!lusion seems to reassert the gender binar$/ ?inall$& se!tion three in!ludes an anal$sis of t2entieth and t2ent$;first !entur$ 2omen readers% rea!tions to Little Women, spe!ifi!all$ an enduring valori1ation of >o in
, spite of the novel%s arguabl$ antifeminist ending/ 6$ outlining the 2a$ >o%s !hara!ter de!onstru!ts but then eventuall$ seems to reinfor!e the gender binar$ and b$ evaluating !ontemporar$ readers% response to this reassertion& < sho2 that t2entieth and t2ent$;first !entur$ readers politi!all$ def$ the politi!s of the novel%s !onservative !on!lusion/
Jo: xposing a !ueer Sub"ect #osition by Representing $emale %asculinity #ore than $our standard tombo$ heroine& >o e=emplifies the notion of (female mas!ulinit$) outlined in >udith Halberstam%s boo0& Female Masculinity. <n her prefa!e& Halberstam defines (female mas!ulinit$) as (2omen 2ho feel themselves to be more
4 mas!uline than feminine) *=i-/ Halberstam uses the (the trope of female mas!ulinit$ to e=plore a 9ueer sub4e!t position) and !ontends that female mas!ulinit$ !an (!hallenge hegemoni! models of gender !onformit$) *9-/ :ontrar$ to normative notions of gender& (mas!ulinit$ must not and !annot and should not be redu!ed to the male bod$) *2-/ Halberstam suggests that mas!ulinit$& a so!ial !onstru!tion asso!iated 2ith (po2er& legitima!$& and privilege&) is onl$ seen as (real) 2hen it is as!ribed to a male bod$ *2-/ 6$ pointing out the 2a$s in 2hi!h (female mas!ulinit$ has been blatantl$ ignored in the !ulture at large and 2ithin a!ademi! studies&) she asserts that the (2idespread indifferen!e to female mas!ulinit$@/has !learl$ ideologi!al motivations and has sustained the !omple= so!ial stru!tures that 2ed mas!ulinit$ to maleness and po2er to domination) *2-/ Halberstam asserts that a!ademi!s and readers have failed to re!ogni1e female mas!ulinit$ be!ause it reveals the 2a$s in 2hi!h mas!ulinit$ is a so!ial !onstru!tion5 (?ar from being an imitation of maleness& female mas!ulinit$ a!tuall$ affords us a glimpse of ho2 mas!ulinit$ is !onstru!ted as mas!ulinit$) *1-/ <n other 2ords& people have !hosen to ignore female mas!ulinit$ be!ause it !hallenges the assumption that mas!ulinit$ belongs to male bodies and femininit$ belongs to female bodies/ :onse9uentl$& b$ ignoring female mas!ulinit$ and refusing to a!0no2ledge a potential brea0do2n of the binar$& resear!hers and !riti!s have upheld patriar!hal stru!tures/ While Halberstam does not e=pli!itl$ dis!uss >o in her anal$sis& < thin0 >o is a perfe!t e=ample of female mas!ulinit$/ >o%s e=pression of mas!ulinit$& although not as overt as 2hat 2e ma$ see in more !ontemporar$ e=pressions of female mas!ulinit$ *su!h as those seen in but!h lesbians& transgender but!hes& or drag 9ueens-& is still !ertainl$
A apparent in the te=t of Little Women. We see this spe!ifi!all$ in the ph$si!al and mental aspe!ts of her mas!ulinit$& parti!ularl$ her bo$ish appearan!e and her understanding of herself as a 2riter/ >o de!onstru!ts the mas!uline/feminine binar$ b$ subverting the hegemoni! models of gender) that 2ed mas!ulinit$ to male bodies and femininit$ to female bodies *9-/ :onse9uentl$& b$ offering a radi!al e=ample of gender;non!onformit$& >o serves as a progressive alternative to the 2a$s 2omen live their lives/ Signifi!antl$& Halberstam refuses to !onsider >o in her anal$sis of female mas!ulinit$/ While it is impossible to 0no2 for sure 2h$ Halberstam made this de!ision& one reason ma$ be be!ause li0e most literar$ tombo$s& >o eventuall$ !onforms to normative standards of femininit$/ :onse9uentl$& it is possible that Halberstam sa2 >o%s e=pression of mas!ulinit$ as mere tombo$ism and therefore did not vie2 >o%s female mas!ulinit$ as legitimate& sin!e in Halberstam%s opinion& tombo$ism is a (futile narrative) that (fails to re!ogni1e and ratif$ differentl$ gendered bodies and sub4e!tivities) *8-/ Halberstam dis!usses the differen!es bet2een tombo$ism and female mas!ulinit$ in her boo0& e=plaining that !ulturall$& (tombo$ism is punished@/2hen it appears to be the sign of e=treme male identifi!ation *ta0ing a bo$%s name or refusing girl !lothing- and 2hen it threatens to e=tend be$ond !hildhood and into adoles!en!e) *'-/ s a result& tombo$ism is seen (an e=tended !hildhood period of female mas!ulinit$) that girls generall$ gro2 out of& 2hile female mas!ulinit$ is vie2ed as a more permanent& and therefore a more radi!al e=pression of female mas!ulinit$ *'-/<n other 2ords& if one 2ere to vie2 various forms of female mas!ulinit$ on a !ontinuum in relationship to so!ial a!!eptabilit$& female mas!ulinit$ 2ould be!ome deviant on!e a female bod$ begins the transition into 2omanhood/ +his is be!ause on!e a girl hits pubert$& female mas!ulinit$
' !annot simpl$ be redu!ed to tombo$ism/ 6$ positioning >o%s !hara!ter 2ithin Halberstam%s spe!trum of female mas!ulinities& one !an suggest that Halberstam does not vie2 >o as an e=ample of female mas!ulinit$ be!ause >o seems to disavo2 her mas!ulinit$ in adulthood and therefore more !losel$ fits the less progressive persona of the tombo$/ lthough b$ refusing to in!lude >o in her anal$sis of female mas!ulinit$ Halberstam impli!itl$ re4e!ts >o%s female mas!ulinit$ as less valid& < !ontend that su!h a dismissal ignores the man$ 2a$s >o%s female mas!ulinit$ provides a radi!al e=ample of gender non!onformit$ for both the mid;nineteenth !entur$ and toda$/ Whether >o%s female mas!ulinit$ !an simpl$ be redu!ed to so!iet$%s more romanti!i1ed notion of tombo$ism or not& it is important for us to re!ogni1e 2hat Barin Cuimb$ !alls (the 9ueer energies) or 9ueer middle ground that >o represents *4-/ 6$ re!ogni1ing this 9ueer middle ground& 2e 2ill be able to see the 2a$s in 2hi!h >o brea0s do2n the mas!uline/feminine binar$ b$ revealing mas!ulinit$ to be& as Halberstam suggests& a so!ial !onstru!tion/ Su!h a reading 2ill allo2 us to see the man$ 2a$s >o%s !hara!ter& far from simpl$ being a tombo$& (destabili1es gender as a Dnatural% !onstru!t)*Cuimb$ 1- and thus& !hallenges the patriar!hal gender binar$ that our so!iet$ is so (!ommitted to maintaining) *Halberstam 2.-/ >o%s female mas!ulinit$ is spe!ifi!all$ evident in her desire to be a bo$5 < hate to thin0 <%ve got to gro2 up and be a #iss #ar!h& and 2ear long go2ns& and loo0 as prim as a :hinamaster/ <t%s bad enough to be a girl& an$;2a$& 2hen < li0e bo$s% games& and 2or0& and manners/ I cant get over my disappointment in not being a boy, and it%s 2orse than ever no2& for <%m d$ing to go and fight 2ith
. papa& and < !an onl$ sta$ at home and 0nit li0e a po0$ old 2oman *2-/ side from simpl$ 2ishing she 2ere a bo$& >o also seems to insist the she is a man b$ referring to herself 2ith male pronouns/ She repeatedl$ de!lares that she is (the man of the famil$ no2 that papa is a2a$) *A- and mista0enl$ refers to herself as a (businessman) instead of business2oman *A1-/ While one !ould argue that the 2ord (business2oman) did not e=ist in !ollo9uial nineteenth !entur$ terms as it does toda$& and therefore& >o%s use of it merel$ indi!ates that there 2ere no other phrases available to her& one !ould !ontend that >o !ould have made up her o2n terms but !hose not to/ +he fa!t that >o has no problem !omposing imaginative stories and pla$s and seems to !onsistentl$ 9uestion others% assumptions about ho2 she should live her life suggests that >o has both the insight and the bra1enness to invent her o2n 2ord/ 6e!ause she !hooses not to& one !ould !on!lude that >o intentionall$ uses the 2ord (businessman) in order to suggest her desire to be a man/ #oreover& >o even insists that her father !all her (son >o) rather than daughter >o *22,-/ With these multiple referen!es to herself as a man& >o re4e!ts femininit$ s Shirle$ ?oster and >ud$ Simmons suggest in their boo0& What Katy Read: Feminist Re readings o! "lassic #tories !or $irls, %&'( %)*(, (it is a mas!uline dis!ourse to 2hi!h l!ott reverts in order to arti!ulate >o #ar!h%s re4e!tion of femininit$) *9.-/ lthough refusing femininit$ does not ne!essaril$ mean that >o embodies female mas!ulinit$ be!ause as Halberstam argues& female mas!ulinit$ is its o2n parti!ular !onstru!t and not simpl$ an imitation of mas!ulinit$& >o%s disavo2al of femininit$ subverts the mas!uline/feminine binar$ b$ displa!ing mas!ulinit$ from the male bod$/ :onse9uentl$& b$ adopting mas!ulinit$ and using it in her o2n 2a$& >o e=plores the possibilit$ of a
8 9ueer sub4e!t position in the 2a$s that Halberstam promotes through her arti!ulation of female mas!ulinit$/ <n addition& >o also ta0es on the persona of a man in her art/ She !asts herself as a bo$ in the theater produ!tions she 2rites& (pla$inEingF male parts to her heart%s !ontent) *1'-/ Gne parti!ularl$ sees this in the se!ond !hapter& 2hen she a!ts as a man in the Gperati! +raged$ she and her sisters put on for their famil$ and friends/ >o%s adoption of male personas is also evident 2hen& after reading 7i!0ens% +he ,ic-.ic- ,apers, the #ar!h sisters 2rite a ne2spaper of their o2n and >o !hooses to adopt the pen name of the male !hara!ter& ugustus Snodgrass/ ?oster and Simmons e=plore the 2a$ >o uses art to fulfill her desire to be male b$ noting5 6oth >o%s literar$ produ!tions& and the roles she !reates for herself in the famil$%s amateur theatri!als& suggests subversive tenden!ies and the need to ena!t fantasies of po2er/ <n the pla$s the !hildren perform and in male disguise& >o !an release the aggressive impulses that 2ould other2ise be una!!eptable/ <n a perfe!t illustration of the personalit$ split she embodies& she !an !ast herself as both hero and villain simultaneousl$& ta0ing on adventurous and romanti! parts in her home; made dramas& 2hile her alternative persona engages in deeds of murder and violen!e *98-/ +hus& b$ e=ploring her (personalit$ split) through drama and literature& >o fulfills her desire to be a bo$ and to ena!t her female mas!ulinit$ in a so!iall$ a!!eptable 2a$ and !onse9uentl$ indi!ates the 2a$s that mas!ulinit$ *and femininit$- !an be seen as performative/ s a result& >o displa!es the narro2 !onstru!t of the gender binar$/ >o also re4e!ts traditional femininit$& and thus !hallenges the gender binar$& in her
9 disregard for standards of feminine de!orum& >o overtl$ !riti9ues femininit$ 2hen& in referring to girls& she sa$s& (< hate affe!ted& nimin$ pimin$ !hits) *,-/ Signaling her re4e!tion of proper notions of 2omanhood& >o asserts that she (li0eEsF to fl$ about and !ut !apers) *24- and (en4o$s having a good romp) *2,-/ >o%s disregard for feminine propriet$ is further represented in the various 2a$s in she !hallenges the trope of the deli!ate& tid$ female/ s #i!helle nn bate notes& (2hether pla$ing outdoors& 2or0ing at home& or attending #rs/ Gardiner%s part$& disorder and even !haos seem to follo2 her) *40-/ >o is mess$ 2hen she 2rites& spilling in0 all over her dress and having her papers spread about her trun0 *14.-/ <n another s!ene& >o ruins her good go2n b$ standing too !lose to a fire& resulting in burn mar0s that (sho2 horridl$) *2,-/ When she sets up for the :hristmas pla$& >o is the epitome of !lumsiness and disarra$& (dropping& overturning& and !lattering ever$thing she tou!hed) *.-/ <nterestingl$& >o%s disavo2al of feminine (primness) !ould !ontradi!toril$ be read as a manifestation of feminine in!ompeten!e/ When male order is demonstrated b$ !ontrol and rationalit$& su!h !lumsiness appears to be the ver$ definition of femininit$/ While it remains debatable 2hether >o%s disregard for traditional female de!orum indi!ates her adoption of female mas!ulinit$ or !onversel$ implies her feminine inade9ua!$& >o%s inabilit$ to abide b$ feminine propriet$ e=poses ho2 her !hara!ter !hallenges the mas!uline/feminine binar$/ +his again suggests ho2 she reveals the possibilities for a 9ueer sub4e!t position outside of the mas!uline/man& feminine/2oman binaries/ dditionall$& >o !onstantl$ !hallenges the notion that 2omen are too deli!ate for ph$si!al e=ertion and ta0es on a mas!uline sub4e!t position in her ph$si!alit$/ t one
10 point in the novel she runs do2n a hill 2ith her friend "aurie& losing her hat and hairpins& and in another s!ene she thro2s a sno2ball at "aurie%s house in an effort to get his attention *140& 4.-/ >o%s disregard for feminine so!ial !onventions is made more evident b$ her persistent habit of 2histling& 2hi!h m$ reproa!hes her of& !alling it (bo$ish)*,-/ ll of these instan!es suggest an impli!it adoption of female mas!ulinit$ sin!e to be untid$& !lums$& and ph$si!al is to be !oded as mas!uline/ Gne !ould further argue that
>o Ds 2histling indi!ates mas!ulinit$ in its s$mboli! disruption of the publi! spa!e/ Sin!e 2histling loudl$ represents a 2a$ of using one%s voi!e& >o%s 2histling !an be interpreted as a defiant a!t of spea0ing loudl$ in an environment 2here she is e=pe!ted to be silent/ +he (ideolog$ of the separate spheres&) 2hi!h 2as a s$stem of ideas that too0 hold in the earl$ nineteenth !entur$& (treated men and 2omen as !omplete and absolute opposites and (sa2 larger so!iet$ as !arved into !omplementar$ but mutuall$ e=!lusive Dspheres% of publi! and private !on!erns& 2or0 and home& politi!s and famil$) *7u6ois& 7umenil 1,.-/ biding b$ the prin!iples of the separate spheres& 2omen 2ere e=pe!ted to sta$ in the home and !are for the !hildren 2hile men immersed themselves in the publi! spa!e of 2or0 and government/ 6e!ause the ideolog$ of the separate spheres restri!ted the spa!es that men and 2omen !ould o!!up$& an$one 2ho !hallenged this bifur!ated notion of spa!e 2as seen as !hallenging the ver$ gender binaries the$ 2ere premised upon/ Signifi!antl$& >o not onl$ disrupts the separation of the spheres b$ positioning herself in a publi! spa!e& but further disturbs the gendering of the spa!e b$ 2histling/ :onse9uentl$& >o parti!ipates in a stereot$pi!all$ male a!tivit$ 2hile in a male;!oded spa!e& 2hi!h further points to her female mas!ulinit$ and subversion of the gender binar$/ >o further !ollapses the gender binar$ b$ suggesting a la!0 of feminine de!orum
11 !on!erning her loo0s/ We see this spe!ifi!all$ in her manl$ and un0empt ph$si!al appearan!e/ Within the first fe2 pages of the novel& l!ott des!ribes >o as ph$si!all$ ver$ mas!uline& 2riting& ?ifteen;$ear old >o 2as ver$ tall& thin and bro2n& and reminded one of a !oltH for she never seemed to 0no2 2hat to do 2ith her long limbs& 2hi!h 2ere ver$ mu!h in her 2a$/ She had a de!ided mouth& a !omi!al nose& and sharp gra$ e$es&
2hi!h appeared to see ever$thing& and 2ere b$ turns fier!e& funn$& or thoughtful/ Her long& thi!0 hair 2as her one beaut$H but it 2as usuall$ of her 2a$/ 8ounded shoulders had >o& big hands !lothes& and the un!omfortable appearan!e of into a 2oman& and didn%t li0e it *4-/ 6$ des!ribing >o as (a !olt&) a $oung male horse& l!ott overtl$ suggests that >o has a mas!uline and a202ard appearan!e& sin!e a !olt has $et to learn to be as gra!eful as a horse/ +his !omparison also evo0es the !ultural ne!essit$ of the tombo$ to eventuall$ adopt proper femininit$ b$ suggesting that >o& li0e a !olt& has $et to mature into a deli!ate 2oman/ 7epi!tions of (rounded shoulders&) (big hands&) and (big feet) further point to the 2a$s >o%s bod$ !an be !oded as mas!uline/ 6$ asserting that she had a (fl$;a2a$) appearan!e& l!ott portra$s >o as un0empt and therefore unfeminine& thus revealing another 2a$ in 2hi!h >o defies the !onstru!tion of the traditional 2oman/ lthough she does ma0e note of >o%s beautiful hair& 2hi!h !ould fun!tion as an indi!ator of her femininit$& >o !uts her hair and sells it to a 2igma0er in order to ma0e mone$ for her famil$& and thus ta0ing on the mas!uline role of the (bread 2inner/) 7espite the fa!t that >o%s hair is her (onl$ beaut$&) she (assumes an indifferent air) about !utting it *1'2-/ <t is bundled into a net& to be out
and feet& a fl$;a2a$ loo0 to her a girl 2ho 2as rapidl$ shooting up
12 onl$ later that she !ries over her lost hair& suggesting her (!onfusion about her o2n gendered identit$) *?oster& Simmons 9A-/ 6$ using 2hat !ould interpreted as one of >o%s fe2 feminine 9ualities to later reinfor!e her female mas!ulinit$& l!ott !raftil$ points to >o%s disturban!e of the gender binar$ through the s$mbol of >o%s hair/ >o%s !ollapsing of the gender binar$ is made more evident b$ her love of reading& 2riting& and intelle!tual 2or0& 2hi!h are all mas!uline;!oded a!tivities/ >o spends hours reading ever$da$ and 2rites pla$s and shorts stories to supplement her famil$%s in!ome/ While tal0ing about her life ambitions 2ith her sisters and "aurie& >o e=presses her desire to be a published 2riter& sa$ing& < 2ant to do something splendid@something heroi! or 2onderful&;;that be forgotten after <%m dead/ < don%t 0no2 2hat& but < am on the 2at!h mean to astonish $ou all& some da$/ < thin0 < shall 2rite boo0s& and famousH that 2ould suit me& so that is m$ favorite dream *142; 14,-/ 2on%t
<n an effort to a!!omplish her dream& >o 2ould 2rite 2henever she got the !han!e and (ever$ fe2 2ee0s she 2ould shut herself up in her room& put on her s!ribbling suit and Dfall into a vorte=&% as she e=pressed it& 2riting a2a$ at her novel 2ith all of her heart and soul& for till that 2as finished !ould she find no pea!e) *2'A-/ >o%s love of 2riting and her personal investment in her 2or0 is e=emplified in the s!ene 2here she !ries of happiness 2hen her manus!ript is finall$ published& (be2de2EingF her little stor$ 2ith a fe2 natural tearsH for to be independent& and earn the praise of those she loved& 2ere the dearest 2ishes of her heart ( *1A'-/ !!ording to ?oster and Simmons& >o%s (subversive
impulse) to (2rite) are (in!ompatible 2ith the !ontemporar$ versions of selfhood for 2omen) and it is this in!ompatibilit$ that sets her apart as mas!uline *99-/ 6e!ause >o
1, defies the traditional notion that 2omen should not read or 2rite and instead opts to ta0e upon the more mas!uline persona of an intelle!tual& one !an suggest that >o e=hibits female mas!ulinit$/ >o%s love of reading and 2riting further indi!ate her mas!ulinit$ as throughout histor$& female 2riters have !onsistentl$ been vie2ed as e=!essive and manl$/ s li!ia Gstri0er suggests in her boo0& #tealing the Language, (+o be a 2oman and a !reator rather than simpl$ a pro!reator is to be Dun!ontrolled% and so to doom oneself@to monstrosit$) *.4-/ +herefore& 2omen 2riters are seen as rebellious not onl$ be!ause reading and 2riting are !ategori1ed as mas!uline a!tivities& but also be!ause 2riting displa!es 2omen from their traditional role of pro!reator/ While one !ould argue that a!ting as !reator/life;giver is a ver$ feminine !onstru!t sin!e it evo0es 2omen%s reprodu!tive !apa!ities& there is a distin!t differen!e bet2een !reation as giving life and !reation as a !ommer!ial and intelle!tual pursuit/ While the !reation of life denotes feminine selflessness& the !reation of boo0s and novels impl$ female selfishness& a 9ualit$ that positions 2omen outside the ideolog$ of the (separate spheres) b$ !hallenging the idea that 2omen must produ!e babies rather than te=ts *7u6ois& 7umenil 1,.-/ Signifi!antl$& >o%s understanding of herself as an author also points to her subversion of the separate spheres& sin!e it suggests her intention to not onl$ disrupt the publi! spa!e 2ith her 2ords& but to also !hallenge the publi!%s idea of 2hat it means to be an author/ 6e!ause authors during the nineteenth !entur$ 2ere almost al2a$s !oded as male& b$ defining herself as an author >o poses the progressive idea that 2omen !an also ta0e up the 2riting profession/ >o%s !on!eptuali1ation of herself as author further points to
14 her disruption of the gender binar$ b$ allo2ing her to (!omment on 2omen%s position in the literar$ mar0etpla!e) *?oster& Simmons 91-/ s Shirle$ ?oster and >ud$ Simmons argue& Her en!ounters 2ith publishers and later 2ith Professor 6aher for!e >o to !onfront the tension bet2een !ommer!ial pra!ti!e and !onventional famil$ values& and she ultimatel$ tones do2n her e=oti! taste for thrillers to be the more domesti!& a!!eptable mode of moral fables for !hildren/ *?oster& Simmon 91-/ 6$ sho2ing this tension& >o not onl$ e=poses the !onfli!t that man$ female authors li0e l!ott most li0el$ felt& but also (ma0es e=pli!it the !onne!tion bet2een person ambition& literar$ pra!ti!e and the parameters of a!hievement for 2omen) *91-/ :onse9uentl$& >o sho2s ho2 her disruption of the binar$& 2hi!h in this !ase is represented b$ her literature& be!omes !ontained to fit the !onventions of so!iet$/ ?inall$& >o%s female mas!ulinit$ is also made !lear in her overt e=pressions of anger/ s l!ott 2rites earl$ on in the novel& >o%s (9ui!0 temper& sharp tongue& and restless spirit 2ere al2a$s getting her into s!rapes) *,8-/ Iie2ed as too e=treme an emotion for 2omen to openl$ !onve$& anger has histori!all$ been !oded as a male feeling/ s Greta Gaard observes in her essa$& (Self;7enial Was ll the ?ashion5 8epressing nger in Little Women,/ (girls 2ere supposed to be trained to prepare a tran9uil home and to learn to fa!e problems D!heerfull$&%) and therefore& 2ere e=pe!ted to repress their anger *2-/ :onse9uentl$& for most meri!an 2omen& (anger remained una!!eptable) *2-/ +his e=pe!tation of repression& parti!ularl$ as it has manifested itself in meri!an 2omen%s literature& has been !arefull$ e=plored in te=ts su!h as +he
1A Mad.oman in the 0ttic, For 1er 2.n $ood, and Women and Madness. Perhaps the most e=pli!it representation of >o%s anger appears 2hen m$ burns >o%s manus!ript and in response& >o%s (hot temper masters her) *.A-/ Jpon learning that her manus!ript has been ruined& >o )shoo0 m$ till her teeth !hattered in her headH !r$ing in a passion of grief and angerKDLou 2i!0ed& 2i!0ed girl@< 2ill never forgive $ou as long as < liveM%) *.A-/ +his overt and unrestrained e=pression of anger sho2s the 2a$s (>o%s subversive impulses@are in!ompatible 2ith the !ontemporar$ version of selfhood for 2omen& 2here anger must be 0ept hidden and a silent !onformism !ultivated) *?oster& Simmons 99-/ >o%s anger automati!all$ pla!es her outside of (the !ult of true 2omanhood&) 2hi!h re9uires (piet$& domesti!it$& purit$& and submission) *Welter-/ Ho2ever& rather than !oding her as stri!tl$ male& >o%s anger e=poses the possibilities for her to inhabit a 9ueer sub4e!t position& one that is neither entirel$ feminine nor !ompletel$ mas!uline/ Signifi!antl$& as Halberstam !ontends& the absen!e or negation of femininit$ does not ne!essaril$ denote mas!ulinit$& sin!e su!h an assumption merel$ reasserts the patriar!hal binar$/ <nstead& >o%s anger& 2hi!h suggests her adoption of mas!ulinit$& reveals ho2 female mas!ulinit$ has its o2n performative aspe!ts and norms& setting it apart from mas!uline/feminine and man/2oman binaries/ Perhaps one of the most dis!ussed representations of >o%s female mas!ulinit$ and !onse9uent disruption of the gender binar$ is her relationship 2ith "aurie& her friend 2ho fun!tions as her foil/ <nterestingl$& 2hile >o adopts female mas!ulinit$& "aurie seems to adopt male femininit$& and their friendship e=aggerates their individual gender devian!e/ Barin Cuimb$ dis!usses the signifi!an!e of their relationship b$ observing (together the$ establish a 0ind of !ommon identit$ on the fringes/ >o& for instan!e& !losel$ e=amines
1' "aurie%s build& dress& and manner !omparing them to her o2n5 (little hands and feet& tall as < am5 ver$ polite for a bo$%) * l!ott ,0& Cuimb$ .;8-/ "aurie seems to struggle 2ith his femininit$ in mu!h the same 2a$ that >o struggles 2ith her female mas!ulinit$/ "aurie is not manl$ enough to please his grandfather and enter the business 2orld be!ause he 2ould rather pursue the more feminine field of musi!& 4ust as >o is not feminine enough to !onform to so!iet$%s e=pe!tations be!ause she prefers to 2rite/ When >o first visits "aurie at his home& he is ill& 2hi!h further !odes him as 2ea0 and feminine/ <nterestingl$& both have gender;bending namesK2hile >o& short for >osephine& is a traditionall$ male name& "aurie& short for +heodore "auren!e& is a stereot$pi!al girl%s name/ 6oth !hara!ters seem to refle!t 2hat the other should be!ome/ +hus& b$ setting up the 4u=taposition of >o and "aurie& l!ott emphasi1es >o%s female mas!ulinit$ b$ destabili1ing the gender binar$ through t2o !hara!ters/ Ho2ever& the fa!t that >o refuses to marr$ "aurie and instead 2eds the older and more intelle!tual professor 6aher !ompli!ates the idea that >o is genuinel$ mas!uline/ <f >o 2ere trul$ a mas!uline figure& she 2ould have married "aurie sin!e their pairing 2ould have modeled the normative mas!uline/feminine relationship/ >o%s de!ision to marr$ Professor 6aher& her intelle!tual e9ual& suggests that she 2anted a husband 2ho is similar to her and 2ho !ould help her su!!eed both personall$ and professionall$& thereb$ suggesting that she 2anted an egalitarian relationship outside of the restri!tive !onstru!ts of the standard mas!uline/feminine !oupling/ :onse9uentl$& rather than indi!ate >o%s mas!ulinit$& her marriage to 6aher reveals her re4e!tion of the gender binar$ altogether& sin!e their marriage displa!es the standard mas!uline/feminine !onstru!t/ +his suggests that she is able to revise or (9ueer)
1. femininit$ in a 2a$ that 2or0s for her and pla!es >o in a ne2 sub4e!t position outside of the binar$/ +his position parallels Halberstam%s definition of female mas!ulinit$ as a sub4e!t position that allo2s one to see ho2 mas!ulinit$ and femininit$ are both so!ial !onstru!tions/ lthough one !annot !on!lusivel$ sa$ that >o represents mas!ulinit$ given her marriage to Professor 6aher& one !an argue that her de!ision to have an egalitarian marriage pla!es her outside of the gender binar$ in the same 2a$ that adopting female mas!ulinit$ 2ould& sin!e both 9uestion 2hat it means to be feminine/ Jpon !lose e=amination of >o%s mas!uline tenden!ies and re!onfiguration of femininit$& it is !lear that >o !hallenges the gender binar$& thereb$ be!oming a 9ueer sub4e!t position/ 6$ not entirel$ adopting femininit$ or mas!ulinit$& one !an interpret >o as both a representation of female mas!ulinit$ and a s$mbol of revised femininit$/ :onse9uentl$& (>o !hallenges hegemoni! models of gender !onformit$) and thus de!onstru!ts the mas!uline/feminine binar$ *Halberstam 9-/ Su!h a de!onstru!tion suggests a radi!al destabili1ation of traditional notions of gender and opens up readers to the possibilit$ of liberator$ gender subversion/ <n man$ 2a$s& it is >o%s abilit$ to e=pose readers to the potential for gender; bending that has made readers adore her/ s Cuimb$ sa$s& (she in man$ 2a$s@reveals in the e=treme 2hat is true for all !hildren5 that the possibilities of gender identifi!ation are vast and perverse) *2-/ +hus& one !an suggest that >o%s popularit$ !an be attributed& in part& to her role in e=posing her readers to alternative 2a$s of identif$ing 2ith one%s bod$ and gender/
18 'oes the nding Reinforce the (ender )inary or *ot+ lthough >o de!onstru!ts the mas!uline/feminine binar$ b$ representing female mas!ulinit$ throughout most of Little Women& b$ the end of the te=t she has !onformed to the !ult of true 2omanhood/ :onse9uentl$& the !on!lusion appears to reinfor!e the gender binar$ that she previousl$ de!onstru!ts/ Gne !an !ontend that the reassertion of the gender binar$ !an spe!ifi!all$ be seen at the end of the novel 2hen >o& no2 married 2ith !hildren& tells m$ that the life of 2riting and independen!e that she had 2anted (seems selfish& lonel$& and !old to EherF no2 *489-/ While (glan!ing from her husband to her !hubb$ !hildren&) she refle!ts& (+here is no need for me to sa$ it& for ever$one !an see no2 that < am far happier than < deserve) *490-/ lthough& >o e=plains that she has not (!ompletel$ given up hope that EsheF ma$ 2rite a good boo0& EsheF !an 2ait) *489-/ +he sentimental and ideali1ed tone at the end of the novel is best e=emplified b$ #armee%s last 2ords5 (Gh m$ girls& ho2ever long $ou ma$ live& < never !an 2ish $ou a greater happiness than thisM) *491-/ Given this highl$ sentimental& heteronormitive& and traditional ending& some ma$ suggest that the mas!uline/feminine binar$ is upheld at the novel%s !on!lusion/ Ho2ever& the fa!t that >o is a published novelist b$ the end of the boo0 !ompli!ates this argument/ >o !ertainl$ seems to e=er!ise agen!$ in !hoosing to marr$ 6aher and have !hildren& even if the events leading up to her de!ision suggest her disavo2al of her goals/ 6$ e=amining the tra4e!tor$ of >o%s and Professor 6aher%s relationship& one !an see the !ompli!ated 2a$s >o seems to adopt more stereot$pi!all$ feminine traits/ Jpon be!oming involved 2ith Professor 6aher& >o reverts to domesti! 2or0& helping him mend his so!0s and !ompleting other tas0s for him/ She even gives up her 2riting& and 2ith it the in!ome she
19 ma0es from her 2or0& !iting that her sensationalist fi!tion is (trash) *,A'-/ 6oth these a!tions suggests that >o begins to more !losel$ align herself to the (!ult of true 2omanhood) b$ indi!ating her retreat from the publi! sphere and her transition into the private sphere/ Signifi!antl$& >o%s de!ision to stop 2riting is at least in part motivated b$ Professor 6aher/ When he tells her to refrain from 2riting gothi! dar0 tales >o immediatel$ (stuffEsF the 2hole bundle into the stove) and stops 2riting *,A'-/ 3laine Sho2alter dis!usses the signifi!an!e of this in 0 3ury o! her ,eers, noting& >o%s uneasiness is reinfor!ed b$ her rea!tion to her fatherl$ suitor& Professor 6aher& 2ho tells her that he does not li0e to see good $oung girls reading su!h stories& mu!h less 2riting them& and ma0es her feel as if Dthe 2ords 4olcano 2ere printed in large t$pe on her forehead/% <n 6aher%s e$es& Wee-ly she is almost
as sinful as Hester Pr$nneH instead of tr$ing to e=pand her limited e=perien!e of !hallenge so!iet$%s restri!tion on good girls& >o burns novel%s end& she has given up& or at least postponed& great author in e=!hange for marriage and her manus!ript/ 6$ the her dream of be!oming a
motherhood *14,-/
"iterar$ !riti! #i!helle nn bate adds to this !onversation b$ e=ploring the impli!ations of this a!t& arguing that it (largel$ mar0s the end of her ambitions to be a professional 2riter) *4'-/ >o also seems to be a2are that she has !onformed to her proper feminine role b$ the end of the novel/ +his is evident in the s!ene 2here she and Professor 6aher dis!uss marriage/ >o sa$s& (< ma$ be strong;minded but no one !an sa$ < am out of m$ sphere no2) *480-/ >o%s use of the 2ord (sphere) evo0es the nineteenth !entur$ ideolog$ of the separate spheres& the gendered and spatial terms that define the
20 pla!e of 2omen as the home *or private sphere- and the pla!e of men as the publi! sphere of politi!s/ Given this 9uote& one !an suggest that >o 0no2s that she has forsa0en her female mas!ulinit$ and the publi! sphere that a!!ompanies it in order to o!!up$ the private sphere as a mother and 2ife/ Ho2ever one !annot dis!ount that she seems to e=er!ise agen!$ in this !hoi!e& thereb$ ma0ing it impossible to !on!lusivel$ determine 2hether or not her de!ision to marr$ 6aher and give up her 2riting suggests the reinfor!ement of the binar$/ 8ather than tr$ing to determine 2hether the !on!lusion presents a true reassertion of the mas!uline/feminine binar$& it is perhaps more produ!tive to !onsider the 2a$s >o%s de!ision to neither re4e!t femininit$ *b$ marr$ing and having !hildren-& nor !ompletel$ disavo2 her mas!ulinit$ *b$ still being a published 2riter-& reveals ho2 she reshapes femininit$ to a!!ommodate the t$pe of life she 2ants to live/ 6e!ause the femininit$ given to >o is not appealing to her& she re2or0s it b$ finding her pla!e outside of the gender binar$/ +his is made most evident b$ her marriage to Professer 6aher& sin!e their relationship simultaneousl$ s$mboli1es her adheren!e to and re4e!tion of (the !ult of true 2omanhood/) 6$ not adhering to simple mas!uline and feminine !onstru!ts& >o refuses so!ial norms that restri!t 2omen%s lives and reveals the possibilit$ for other females to do the same/
Reading Against the Conclusion: <n evaluating the re!eption of l!ott%s !on!lusion& it is important to e=plore
21 potential reasons 2h$ she ended the novel the 2a$ that she did be!ause su!h an e=amination ma$ help e=plain reader response/ l!ott%s de!ision to end her te=t sentimentall$ 2as largel$ influen!ed b$ her desire to be (a published 2riter& at all !osts)*Sands;G%:onnor 2'-/ s Baren Sands;G%:onnor asserts& Little Women 2as 2ritten at a time 2hen l!ott had alread$ been disillusioned about her abilit$ to 2rite her o2n ideas freel$& 2ithout sub4e!tion to mar0et for!es@and she found that often 2hat she valued 2as not !onsidered saleable b$ editors *2A;2'-/ +herefore& l!ott%s de!ision to end the novel in a sentimental 2a$ re!ogni1es the pressures pla!ed upon her to 2rite a !on!lusion that 2ould appeal to nineteenth !entur$ readers/ <n order to interest nineteenth !entur$ readers& l!ott had to engage 2ith nineteenth !entur$ ideologies !on!erning the proper pla!e for 2omen/ While these ideas varied b$ ra!e and !lass& man$ people believed that 2hite 2omen should be married *to a man-& 2ith !hildren& and stationed in the home/ +his belief refle!ted the (!ult of true 2omanhood&) 2hi!h positioned 2omen 2ithin the private sphere and emphasi1ed females% roles as mothers& 2ives& and !areta0ers and dis!ouraged their parti!ipation in an$ form of ph$si!al or intelle!tual e=ertion/ lthough (the e=perien!es of the slave 2omen in the South& the mill girls of the North& the impoverished 2ido2s of the ne2 !ities& and the rising number of female immigrants !ontradi!ted this ideolog$&) the belief that 2hite upper middle !lass 2omen should adhere to the (!ult of true 2omanhood) remained popular amongst l!ott%s nineteenth !entur$ readership& 2ho mostl$ !ame from this demographi! *7u6ois& 7umenil 1,.-/ <n fa!t& in a letter 2ritten to a friend not long after Little Women 2as published& l!ott suggests that the !on!lusion !ame about as a
22 result of her bo2ing to pressure from publishers5 Publishers 2on%t let authors finish up as the$ li0e but insist on having married off in a 2holesale manner 2hi!h mu!h affli!ts me/ >o should have remained a literar$ spinster but so man$ enthusiasti! ladies 2rote me !lamorousl$ demanding that she should marr$ "aurie& or somebod$& that < didn%t dare refuse and out of perversit$ 2ent and made a funn$ mat!h for her *Cuimb$ 10-/ 6arbara Si!herman e!hoes literar$ s!holars and historians 2ho suggest that l!ott 2rote the !on!lusion of Little Women the 2a$ that she did be!ause she needed her !hara!ters to !onform to normative so!iet$ in order to have her novel published5 <f >o had remained a spinster& as l!ott 2ished& or if she had married the attra!tive and 2ealth$ hero& as readers hoped& it is unli0el$ that the boo0 have had su!h a 2ide appeal/ 8ather& the problemati! ending 2ould people
!ontributed to Little
Womens popularit$& the la!0 of satisf$ing !losure helping to 0eep the stor$ alive& something to ponder& return to& reread& resolution *Si!herman 2.A-/ +hus& the !on!lusion of Little Women 2as determined& as evident from l!ott%s o2n admission and the anal$sis of various !riti!s& b$ the boo0%s histori!al moment/ While 2e !annot ta0e !omplete agen!$ a2a$ from l!ott and dedu!e that the !on!lusion 2as entirel$ determined b$ the e=pe!tations of its time& 2e !an re!ogni1e ho2 nineteenth !entur$ beliefs !on!erning gender and 2omanhood affe!ted l!ott%s de!ision to end Little Women in a traditionall$ sentimental 2a$/ 7espite 2hat some !onsider to be >o%s disappointing disavo2al of her female mas!ulinit$& readers still adore her/ While man$ readers do not parti!ularl$ li0e the perhaps 2ith the hope of a different
2, ending of the novel& their disdain does not stem from the !on!lusion& but rather& derives from their disappointment that >o did not marr$ "aurie/ +his is seen in various rea!tions to Little Women throughout histor$/ <n fa!t& readers 2anted >o to marr$ "aurie so badl$& that as l!ott 2as 2riting the se!ond half of the novel& readers bombarded her 2ith letters begging her to marr$ them/ l!ott dis!usses this in her 4ournal5 ( s < laun!h into the future& m$ fan!$ has more pla$/ Girls 2rite to as0 2ho the little 2omen marr$& as if that 2as the onl$ end and aim of a 2oman%s life) *Sands;G%:onnor ,2-/ 3ven toda$ readers remain disappointed that >o did not marr$ "aurie& as entire 2ebsites& !hat rooms& and Lou+ube videos have been dedi!ated to mourning the foiled mat!h/ While these sorts of rea!tions& 2hi!h are !hara!teri1ed b$ a disregard for the disappointing ending& !an some2hat be e=pe!ted from 2omen of l!ott%s time be!ause it is possible that readers did not realisti!all$ re!ogni1e the potential for >o to live a spinster life& reader re!eption is still fairl$ similar toda$/ Given the strides 2omen have made in the one hundred and fort$;three $ears sin!e the novel%s publi!ation& one 2ould thin0 that readers 2ould noti!e the !ru!ial 2a$s the ending redu!es >o to the trope of the subservient and gender;!onforming 2oman/ :onsidering that the ending appears to undermine the ver$ !hara!teristi!s that readers seem to adore about >o5 her rebelliousness& her independen!e& her boo0ishness& and her refusal to !onform to the stri!t !odes that so!iet$ tries to impose upon her& one 2ould assume that readers 2ould ta0e issue 2ith the !on!lusion/ 8eaders% obsession 2ith Little Women in the t2entieth and t2ent$;first !entur$ is spe!ifi!all$ seen in the fa!t that several 2riters& feminists& and intelle!tuals !ite Little Women as one of their favorite novels& thereb$ re!ogni1ing >o as a sour!e of inspiration
24 and an important role model/ Signifi!antl$& authors Gertrude Stein and >o$!e :arol Gates have all (dis!ussed their admiration for >o and ho2 the$ 2anted to be li0e her) *Sho2alter vii-/ <n her autobiograph$& Memoirs o! a 5uti!ul 5aughter, Simone de 6eauvoir 2rote ho2 >o shaped her desire to 2rite5 +here 2as one boo0 2hi!h < believed < had !aught a glimpse of m$ future self5 Little Women& b$ "ouisa #a$ l!ott@< identified m$self passionatel$ 2ith >o& the intelle!tual/ 6rus9ue and bon$& >o !lambered up into trees 2hen she 2anted to readH she 2as more tombo$ish and daring than < 2as& but < shared her horror of se2ing and house0eeping and her love of boo0s/ < 2roteH in order to imitate her more !ompletel$& < !omposed t2o or three short stories/ Gloria Steinem (named >o as her female role model) *Sho2alter A29-/ 3laine Sho2alter illustrates 2omen%s love of >o b$ depi!ting the follo2ing stor$5 (< 2as sitting at a restaurant table 2ith three other 2omen a!ademi!s of appro=imatel$ m$ generation and our tal0 turned to earliest models of ideal !hara!ters/ Simultaneousl$& 2e all blurted out the same !onfessions5 #$ role model 2as >o #ar!h) *Sho2alter A29-/ ?urthermore& famous 2riter >/B 8o2ling& Supreme :ourt >usti!es Sandra 7a$ G%:onnor and 8uth 6ader Ginsberg& Se!retar$ of the State Hilar$ :linton& and former ?irst "ad$ "aura 6ush (all !ite "ittle Women as the most influential boo0 of their !hildhoods) *"esson Plan-/ side from famous publi! figures and literar$ !riti!s& other readers also idoli1e >o/ <n 19'8 4ournalist "avinia 8uss 2rote about rereading Little Women after fift$ $ears& !iting that she reali1ed she (loved it be!ause >o 2as a rebel) *7elamar 1A9-/ She goes on to sa$ that she admired >o%s literar$ ambitions& suggesting that she idoli1ed >o for both
2A her defian!e of gender norms and her resolve to be a 2riter/ !!ording to Gloria +/ 7elamar& readers have oftentimes had an (emotional response) to Little Women and to >o in parti!ular& noting that (a large per!entage sa$ the$ idoli1ed >o) be!ause (>o 2as the heroine the$ 2anted to beKindependent& a bit brash but nevertheless !aring& brave and !reative) *249-/ Signifi!antl$& libraries report that Little Women is still !he!0ed out fre9uentl$ enough to 2arrant putting it in the (popular) reading se!tion& in part due to !ontemporar$ readers% !ontinued adoration of >o *7elamar 249-/ While one !ould argue that this valori1ation of >o implies a disregard for the ending& su!h an anal$sis 2ould fail to !onsider the potential for subversive readings/ 2are of the so!ietal !onstraints pla!ed upon l!ott and re!ogni1ing the 2a$s these !onstraints inhibited her abilit$ to develop a !hara!ter 2ho !onsistentl$ deviates from gendered e=pe!tations& t2entieth and t2ent$;first !entur$ readers !hallenge the ending b$ reading against the te=t/ 8eali1ing that l!ott%s portra$al of >o 2as as politi!all$ radi!al as l!ott !ould get 2hile still maintaining a readership& readers seem to have an unsaid understanding for l!ott%s plight/ +hus& !ontemporar$ females% la!0 of !riti!ism to2ards >o%s eventual disavo2al of female mas!ulinit$ suggests a !olle!tive re!ognition that l!ott did the best she !ould given the !onstraints pla!ed upon her and her 2riting/ Cuimb$ dis!usses this politi!al subversion& e=plaining& 3ven though Little Women brings its tombo$ to the e=pe!ted end of marriage& this !on!lusion is so unsatisf$ing and in!oherent that most readers re4e!t it in favor of the far more 9ueer middle of >o%s plot& 2here meaning do not line up into seamless& univo!al 2hole/ <n this 2a$ l!ott& perhaps un0no2ingl$&
2' presented all readers 2ith an epistemologi!al o!!asion to develop a 9ueer reading pra=is *4-/ <n addition to Cuimb$& :atharine 8/ Stimpson dis!usses this subversion& 2riting& Generations of female readers@have maneuvered themselves around l!ott%s most obviousl$ !onstri!tive maneuvers/ +he$ have !ontinued to tutor themselves in unfeminine 2ill b$ !hoosing 2hi!h parts of Little Women and 2hi!h >o the$ 2ill imitate& or at least& find en!hanting/ 8e!idivists of reading& the$ return again and again to the far naughtier beginning and middle of the narrative *Stimpson-/ +hus& rather than interpret the !on!lusion as a mere reinfor!ement of the gender binar$& readers refle!t on ho2 the tra4e!tor$ of >o%s stor$ reveals her su!!essful re2or0ing of femininit$/ <n this 2a$& readers are able to use >o as a vehi!le to e=amine their o2n gender subversion as 2ell as e=plore the 2a$s so!iet$ limits this disruption of the binar$/ :onse9uentl$& b$ reading against the te=t& !ontemporar$ females are able to use >o to evaluate their o2n status as 2omen& and are en!ouraged to develop their o2n definition of 2hat it means to be a su!!essful and satisfied female/
2.
Works Cited Abate, Michelle Ann. Tomboys: a Literary and Cultural History. Philadelphia: Temple UP, 2008. Print. Alcott, Lo isa Ma!. "#ntrod ction." #ntrod ction. Little Women. $d. $laine %ho&alter. 'e& (ork, '.(., U.%.A.: Pen) in, *+8+. Print. Ash,ord, -ichard .. "Tombo!s and %aints: /irls0 %tories o, the Late 'ineteenth Cent r!." SLJ School Library Journal 1*+802. Print. 3ea 4oir, %imone 5e. Memoirs of a Dutiful Daughter. Cle4eland: World P b., *+6+. Print. 7elamar& Gloria +/ Louisa May 0lcott and 6Little Women:6 7iography, "riti8ue, ,ublications, ,oems, #ongs and "ontemporary Revlevance/ >efferson5 #!Hardland and& 1990/
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7u6ois& 3llen :arol& and "$nn 7umenil/ +hrough Women9s :yes: an 0merican 1istory .ith 5ocuments/ 6oston5 6edford/St/ #artinOs& 2009/ 7oster, %hirle!, and 8 d! %imons. What Katy ead: !eminist e"readings of #classic# Stories for $irls. #o&a Cit!: Uni4ersit! o, #o&a, *++6. Print. /aard, /reta. ""%el, 5enial Was All the 7ashion:" -epressin) An)er in Little Women." %a&ers on Language and Literature 29.* 1*++*2: :;*9. Print. <alberstam, 8 dith. !emale Masculinity. 5 rham: 5 ke UP, *++8. Print. "Lesson Plan = Lo isa Ma! Alcott." The Woman 'ehind Little Women ( Louisa May )lcott. Web. 02 'o4. 20**. >http:??&&&.alcott,ilm.com?reso rces?ed cational; in,o?@. Astriker, Alicia. Stealing the Language: the *mergence of Women+s %oetry in )merica. 3oston: 3eacon, *+8B. Print. C imb!, .arin. "The %tor! o, 8o: Literar! Tombo!s, Little Women, and the %eD al; TeDt al Politics o, 'arrati4e 5esire." $L-: ) Journal of $ay and Lesbian Studies 1200:2: *;22. Print. %ands;A0Connor, .aren. "Wh! 8o 5idn0t Marr! La rie: Lo isa Ma! Alcott and <eir o, -edcl!,,e." )T-. Print. %ho&alter, $laine. ) Jury of Her %eers: )merican Women Writers from )nne 'radstreet to )nnie %roul.. 'e& (ork: Al,red A. .nop,, 200+. Print. %icherman, 3arbara. "-eadin) Little Women: The Man! Li4es o, a TeDt." The $irls+ History and Culture eader: the /ineteenth Century. $d. Miriam 7orman;3r nell and Leslie Paris. Urbana: Uni4ersit! o, #llinois, 20**. Print. %timpson, Catharine -. "-eadin) ,or Lo4e: Canons, Paracanons, and Whistlin) ,or 8o March." /e0 Literary History 2* 1*++02: +69;9B. Print. T ttleton, 8ames W. "The %ensational Miss Alcott." /e0 Criterion *E.2 1*++62. Print. Welter, 3arbara. "The C lt o, Tr e Womanhood: *820;*8B0." )merican -uarterly *8 1*+BB2: *6*;9E. Print.