Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 132 (2009) 2331

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/agee

Assessing the impacts of ow diversion terraces on stream water and sediment yields at a watershed level using SWAT model
Qi Yang a,*, Fan-Rui Meng a, Zhengyong Zhao a, Thien Lien Chow b, Glenn Benoy c, Herb W. Rees b, Charles P.-A. Bourque a
a b c

Faculty of Forestry and Environmental Management at the University of New Brunswick, 28 Dineen Drive, Fredericton, NB E3B 6C2, Canada Potato Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 850 Lincoln Road, Fredericton, NB E3B 4Z7, Canada Environment Canada and Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Potato Research Centre, 850 Lincoln Road, Fredericton, NB E3B 4Z7, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O

A B S T R A C T

Article history: Received 28 October 2008 Received in revised form 26 December 2008 Accepted 15 February 2009 Available online 27 March 2009 Keywords: Sediment yield Water quality Watershed Flow diversion terraces (FDT) Benecial Management Practices (BMPs) Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT)

Around the world, soil erosion is a major concern for the sustainability of agricultural systems and a threat to the integrity of aquatic ecosystems. Soil conservation Benecial Management Practices (BMPs) have been widely used to reduce soil loss from cultivated lands and minimize degradation in water quality. As an effective BMP, ow diversion terraces (FDT) have been widely implemented in Canada and their impacts at eld levels have been well documented. The objective of this study was to use the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) to assess the efcacy of FDT systems on maintaining surface water quality at the watershed level in the Black Brook Watershed (BBW) in northwestern New Brunswick. The SWAT model was calibrated with three years of data (19921994) when limited amount of FDT had been implemented in the watershed. For this period, we found that SWAT performed well in predicting the seasonal variation of water yield (R2 = 0.91) and moderately well for sediment yield (R2 = 0.5). For key water variables, the SWAT model captured the variation of soluble phosphorous very well (R2 = 0.81). However, the SWAT model over-predicted the amount of nitrate loading (R2 = 0.02), and poorly represented the general trend of nitrate. The calibrated model was used to assess seasonal and annual effects of FDT on water quality for the entire watershed during the period of 19952005. The results indicated that FDT implemented in BBW contributed to the reduction of sediment yield by 4 tonne ha1 yr1 on average, which represented a reduction of 56%. We also found that the FDT system as a BMP not only reduced the sediment loading at a watershed level, but also reduced water yield during the summer growing seasons. FDT systems contributed to the reduction of water yield by 158 mm yr1, which represented a reduction of 20%. 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Soil erosion can lead to reduction of soil fertility, loss of nutrients, and declines of crop yields in farmlands. In a review of mechanized agricultural systems in which wheat, corn, soybean, and barley were planted, Bakker et al. (2004, 2005) found that on average, soil erosion reduced crop productivity by about 4% for each 10 cm of soil lost. Concerns about soil loss are particularly important in northwestern New Brunswick that has shallow soils (Langmaid et al., 1980). The intensity of agricultural activities largely determines the magnitude of soil and nutrient (N, P and K) loss to surface water. As a consequence, sediment yields and leaching of pollutants into surface water can lead to degradation of important aquatic habitat, affect recreational uses of water, and

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 506 452 6332; fax: +1 506 453 3538. E-mail address: c2g63@unb.ca (Q. Yang). 0167-8809/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2009.02.012

introduce toxins into the human food chain (Gitau et al., 2005). For example, elevated concentrations of NO3-N have been found in surface waters and groundwater in many agricultural lands (Forrest and Caux, 1988; Chow et al., 1995; Hubbard and Sheridan, 1989). Nagasaka et al. (2005) also found that the concentration of suspended sediments was consistently high in streams that drained from intensively cultivated catchments. In order to restore and maintain the quality of surface water, it is important to limit nutrient loading through soil conservation and water protection practices (Isermann, 1990). The potato growing region of New Brunswick (NB) has been identied as one of the regions in Canada most prone to soil erosion by water (Chow et al., 1999). Average annual soil losses of 17 tonne ha1 yr1 were reported by Saini and Grant (1980) for continuous potato planted up-and-down slope. Soil erosion rates found through plot measurements were reported to be from 1.2 to 24.3 tonne ha1 yr1 in the same region (Chow et al., 1990). Climatic conditions (especially intensive thunderstorms), shallow

24

Q. Yang et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 132 (2009) 2331

soils, and rolling topography coupled with cultural practices including up-and-down slope cultivation have been identied as the main reasons for this level of soil erosions (Chow et al., 1990). Black Brook Watershed (BBW), a typical agricultural watershed within the so-called potato belt of NB, has been established as a national benchmark watershed managed by Agriculture and AgriFood Canada (AAFC). Land-use, soil, stream water quality and weather have been monitored since 1992. Soil conservation Benecial Management Practices (BMPs) have been implemented in order to prevent soil erosion and reduce the movement of nutrients and pesticides from agricultural lands to water courses. Considerable effort at national and provincial levels of government has been devoted to the development and evaluation of BMPs. As one of the major BMPs in BBW, the ow diversion terraces (FDT) system has been implemented on more than 50% of cultivated lands in the watershed. A typical FDT system consists of earth embankments with grassed channels constructed across the eld slope (NRCS, 2002). In FDT protected lands, long slopes are reduced into shorter segments with spacing suitable for erosion control and farming. Combined with contour tillage, FDT can reduce sheet and rill erosion of cultivated lands, reduce sediment delivery by deposition, and trap much of the sediment eroded from areas between the terraces. The deposited sediment thus remains on the eld and can be redistributed over portions of the eld as needed (Foster and Highll, 1983). The FDT systems also increase the surface water retention via storage of precipitation or snow melt water, and increase the soil water availability due to the inltration of water stored in the frontal channel of terraces (Baryla and Pierzgalski, 2008). The FDT systems have been shown to be effective for the conservation of soil through eld experiments (Chow et al., 1999; Al Ali et al., 2008). Benchmarking or paired watersheds, upstream and downstream monitoring, and edge-of-eld testing can help determine the efciency of the FDT. However, the impact of FDT on surface water quality at a watershed level is affected by many factors, such as year to year variations of land use and climate, and geological and topographic differences within the watersheds. The interaction between these factors is complex and varies spatially and temporally. In BBW, FDT implementations have been

staggered over a period of several years in different sub-basins of BBW. Therefore, it is necessary to assess the impacts of FDT on water quality at a watershed level by using integrated hydrological models. A number of hydrology models are available for assessing land use impacts on surface water quality, including the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) and the Agricultural Non-Point Source pollution model (AGNPs). Among several watershed-scale models, SWAT has been used successfully to evaluate the environmental and economic impacts of BMPs, or land use changes, at a variety of scales (Gassman et al., 2005; Gitau et al., 2004). For instance, SWAT was used within the Hydrologic Modeling of the United States Project (HUMUS) to conduct a national-scale analysis of the effect of management scenarios on water quantity and quality (Jayakrishnan et al., 2005; Gassman et al., 2005). SWAT results indicated that implementation of improved tillage practices could reduce sediment yields by almost 20% in the Rock River in Wisconsin (Kirsch et al., 2002). Vache et al. (2002) analyzed BMPs in SWAT for Walnut Creek and a second Iowa watershed indicated that large sediment reductions could be obtained, depending on the choice of BMP. In this research, SWAT was selected to assess the efcacy of FDT systems on surface water quality at a watershed scale. SWAT has previously been used in New Brunswick (Yang, 1997; Fowler, 2003). However, none of these studies assessed the effectiveness of existing BMPs on surface water quality. The objectives of this research were: (1) to calibrate the SWAT model for the BBW with limited FDT by comparing monthly predicted and measured water quality indicators (water yields, sediment yields, nitrate, and soluble phosphorous) under Maritime climate and soil conditions and (2) to use a calibrated SWAT model to assess the effect of FDT on surface water quality at a watershed level. 2. Methodology 2.1. Research site: Black Brook Watershed The BBW is located in northwestern New Brunswick (Fig. 1), between 478050 and 478090 N and between 678430 and 678480 W. Elevation ranges from 170 to 260 m above mean sea level. The total area of the watershed is approximately 1450 ha. The climate

Fig. 1. Research site: Black Brook Watershed.

Q. Yang et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 132 (2009) 2331

25

Fig. 2. Major soil types (A) and major land use types (B) in the Black Brook Watershed.

associated with the watershed is moderately cool boreal with approximately 120 frost-free days per year (Langmaid et al., 1980). Annual rainfall, snowfall, precipitation, and daily temperature averages are 768.9 mm, 353.5 cm, 1091.5 mm, and 3.2 8C, respectively (Environment Canada, 2004). The climate normal shows that the monthly average precipitation ranged from a low of 64.6 mm in February to a high of 111.6 mm in July with a mean value of 91 mm. The period from December to March contributes 80% of the snowfall, which helps to prevent the soil from eroding (Chow and Rees, 2006). However, the large amount of snowmelt with rainfall in spring exceeds the inltration capacity of the soil and becomes a potential risk for soil erosion. Most of the BBW is undulating to gently rolling with slopes of 16% in the upper portions and slopes of 49% in the central parts. In the lower portions, slopes are more strongly rolling at 516% (Mellerowicz et al., 1993). There are six mineral soils: Grand Falls, Holmesville, Interval, Muniac, Siegas and Undine; and one organic soil: St. Quentin (Fig. 2A). The major land use within the watershed is agriculture and approximately 1050 ha out of the total area of 1450 ha are devoted to farming. The major crops are potato and barley (Fig. 2B). Potato is the dominant crop, annually occupying approximately 50% of the agricultural lands. For the period of 19922002, sediment yield from the BBW has been estimated at a low of 1526 tonne yr1 in 2002 to a high of 8029 tonne yr1 in 1996 and approximately 36% of sediment load occurred during the month of April (Chow and Rees, 2006). The major BMP in this watershed is the FDT system. During the period 19882005, the areas under variable grade FDT in the BBW increased from about 4 to 38% of the total watershed area. In this research, areas protected by FDT systems were assumed to average 24% of the total watershed area in BBW for the period 19952005. 2.2. Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) description SWAT is a process-based, continuous, watershed-scale, hydrological model which can be used to evaluate land management practices in large rural watersheds. It is designed to predict impacts of long-term, point and non-point source pollution on water quality variables such as sediments, nutrients, and pesticide loads (Arnold et al., 1994). Based on a digital elevation model

(DEM) and stream network, SWAT delineates watersheds into subbasins. Sub-basins are further subdivided into hydrologic response units (HRUs) which are assumed to be spatially uniform in terms of soil, landuse and topographic characteristics. Flow, sediment, and nutrient loadings from each HRU in a sub-basin are totaled and the resulting loads are then routed through channels, ponds, and reservoirs to the watershed outlet (Arnold et al., 2001; Singh et al., 2005). SWAT cannot simulate the FDT directly, but it can account for the effects of FDT by adjusting the support practice factor (Pfactor), which is one of the factors in the Modied Universal Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE) used in SWAT. By denition, the P-factor is the ratio of soil loss when using a soil conservation practice to the corresponding loss without any soil conservation practice (Wischmeier and Smith, 1978; Wall et al., 1997). 2.3. SWAT input data The basic input data included the digital elevation model (DEM), landuse, soil maps, and climate data for the BBW. The DEM was interpolated from NB Department of Natural Resource (DNR) irregular point elevation data provided by Service New Brunswick. Soil data were obtained from an AAFC detailed soil survey map (Mellerowicz et al., 1993). The land use types in BBW are summarized in Table 1. The major crops are potato and barley, which cover 32% and 23% of the entire watershed area, respectively. Forest areas account for 22% of the total watershed area. Climate data SWAT requires include daily precipitation, maximum and minimum air temperature, solar radiation, wind speed, and relative humidity. The AVSWAT extension in ArcView 3.3 was used to delineate the boundaries of the entire study area and its sub-basins, along with their drainage channels. The BBW was divided into eight subbasins corresponding to eight existing discharge and water quality monitoring stations. The areas of the individual sub-basins ranged from 68 to 278 ha in size (Table 2 and Fig. 1). The total area of the BBW was determined to be 1302 ha, which is smaller than the recorded 1450 ha, because there was some discrepancy between the boundary denition by SWAT and the boundary surveyed by AAFC. Physical characteristics of each sub-basin and channel attributes are listed in Table 2. With SWAT threshold levels of 5 and

26

Q. Yang et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 132 (2009) 2331

Table 1 Summary of crop and land use types in Black Brook Watershed. Land use Barley Canola Corn Forest-Deciduous Forest-Evergreen Forest-Mixed Lagoon Other Agriculture-land Pasture Potato Range-Brush Range-Grasses Red Clover Residents Road Wetland Forestry Winter Rye SWAT code BARL CANA CORN FRSD FRSE FRST WATR AGRL PAST POTA RNGB RNGE CLVR URMD UTRN WETF RYE Percentage of watershed 23.1 0.9 0.7 8.2 6.9 5.1 2.0 6.1 2.0 31.8 0.9 1.1 3.7 5.3 1.7 2.0 0.3

the P-factor at the sub-basin level was 0.74 (Yang et al., 2008). The absence of FDT systems was represented by multiplying the FDT P-factor by a contouring farming P-factor of 0.5 for slopes of 38% (P-factor = 0.37; Wischmeier and Smith, 1978). Since the P-factor only affects the sediment loadings in SWAT, the inltration-related parameters which affect the water yield were further altered by comparing the predicted and measured water yields. These results were used as the second FDT scenario. In order to assess the impacts of FDT on water quality at a watershed scale, the absolute reduction (AR) and the percent of relative reduction (RR) were calculated based on outputs from the scenarios according to the following equations: AR outputs without FDT outputs with FDT   outputs without FDT outputs with FDT RR % 100 outputs without FDT 2.6. Model performances (1) (2)

Table 2 Sub-basins of Black Brook Watershed. Sub-basin number Sub-basin area (ha) 211 211 143 278 64 84 243 68 1302 Area Fraction of watershed 0.16 0.16 0.11 0.22 0.05 0.06 0.19 0.05 1.0 Number of HRUsa 19 26 22 21 13 8 19 14 142

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Whole watershed
a

Model performance was assessed by the coefcient of determination (R2), root mean square error (RMSE), and the NashSutcliffe coefcient (ENS; Nash and Sutcliffe, 1970). RMSE and ENS were calculated as: v u n u1 X (3) RMSE t Q Q s 2 n i1 o Pn Q Q s 2 EN-S 1 P i1 o 2 n i1 Q o Q o (4)

HRUs: Hydrologic response units.

where Qo and Qs were the observed and simulated values, respectively, and Q o was the average of observed values. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Model performance before FDT implementation

10% for land use and soil, respectively, a total of 142 HRUs were dened for the BBW. 2.4. SWAT calibration SWAT input parameters are physically based and are allowed to vary within a realistic uncertainty range for calibration (Gassman et al., 2005). The calibration procedure for this research was performed manually for the period of 19921994. Because there were limited areas protected by FDT at this time, we assumed that no FDT systems were implemented on site when running SWAT in order to calibrate basic climate and hydrological parameters. The annual total water yield, sediment, and nutrient loadings were initially compared with measured values in SWAT and further calibration was based on a monthly time step. Water yields and loadings of sediments, nitrate, and soluble phosphorous were calibrated at the outlet of the watershed. 2.5. Simulation and assessment of FDT impacts on water and sediment yields After the basic climate and hydrological parameters were calibrated, SWAT was applied to simulate the impacts of FDT on water and sediment yields for the period of 19952005. Because of limited data availability, nitrate and soluble phosphorous were not calibrated further at this step. First, the calibrated SWAT model was run using the input dataset of 19952005 without modication of any parameters. Results from this run served as the baseline scenario without FDT. Second, the P-factor was applied to represent FDT and simulate the impacts of FDT on abating water and sediment yields. For this research, by assuming that the FDT interval was uniform at 60 m,

For the period with limited FDT implementation (19921994), the model slightly under-predicted water yield and over-predicted sediment yield both annually and monthly (Table 3). The simulated monthly water and sediment yields were generally in agreement with measured values (Fig. 3). Simulated peaks in water yield, associated with the snowmelt period, were generally synchronized with measured values, indicating success in simulating evapotranspiration and snowmelt processes and the potential to simulate stream discharge in the BBW with SWAT (R2 = 0.91 and ENS = 0.88; Table 3). The model slightly under-predicted sediment yield in early summer (JuneJuly 1992 and 1994; Fig. 3) and over-predicted in the fall (OctoberDecember, all three years; Fig. 3). One possible reason for the discrepancy might be the forest riparian buffers in the watershed, which are difcult to simulate in SWAT because it does not have hydraulically interconnected HRUs within subbasins (Singh et al., 2005) and does not have an appropriate component for modeling forest growth. Improved simulation of riparian zones and other conservation practices is needed in SWAT, to better support watershed-based BMP evaluations (Gassman et al., 2005). In addition, there were two obvious discrepancies between measured and predicted sediment yields. First, predicted sediment yields peaks in 1992 were not in agreement with measured values (Fig. 3), but they were well synchronized with predicted and measured water yield peaks. Measured peaks of sediment yield, however, were delayed compared with measured and predicted peaks of water yield. Chow and Rees (2006)

Q. Yang et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 132 (2009) 2331

27

Table 3 SWAT results for average monthly water yield, sediment yield, nitrate and soluble phosphorous (R2: the coefcient of determination, RMSE: root mean square error, ENS: NashSutcliffe coefcient). Indicators Before BMP (9294) Oa Water mm yr1 mm month1 Sediment tonne ha1 yr1 tonne ha1 month1 NO3-N kg ha1 yr1 kg ha1 month1 Sol P kg ha1 yr1 kg ha1 month1
a

After BMP (9505) R2 RMSE ENS Oa Pa R2 RMSE ENS

Pa

747.99 62.33

650.48 54.21

0.91

27.42

0.88

548.17 45.68

646.32 53.86

0.54

30.31

0.32

4.57 0.38

5.24 0.44

0.50

0.61

0.29

2.94 0.24

3.15 0.26

0.95

0.18

0.99

25.09 2.09

47.22 3.94

0.02

5.57

5.03

0.35 0.03

0.46 0.04

0.81

0.04

0.42

O: Observed; P: SWAT predicted.

Fig. 3. SWAT model predicted and measured monthly water and sediment yield, and nitrate and soluble phosphorous loading at the outlet of the Black Brook Watershed from 1992 to 1994.

research indicated that the correlation between monthly water yields and sediment loadings is exceptionally good with a correlation coefcient of 0.92 for long term variations and over 85% of sediment yield from BBW occurred during the snowmelt period. As a consequence, there was no reason sediment yield associated with snowmelt should be delayed. We speculated that this discrepancy between predicted and measured sediment yield may have been caused by recording error. Determination of sediment loadings requires accurate ow rate observations and concentration measurements, which is challenging, as these vary in time and space over the measurement cross-section (Abtew and Powell, 2004). Second, we noticed that predicted sediment yields during the snowmelt season in year 1994 were substantially higher than corresponding measured values. One of the reasons for this may have been the assumption that no BMP was implemented, when actually about 12% of the watershed had FDT in place in 1992, with this percentage increasing to 17% in 1994. In general, the annual and monthly predicted nitrate and phosphorous loadings were higher than observed values (Table 3), and the variations of nitrate loadings were not consistent with trends observed in the measured values (Fig. 3).

Predicted soluble phosphorous reected the seasonal variation well and there was consistent agreement of peak times with measured values at monthly time-steps (R2 = 0.81, ENS = 0.42; Table 3) although the predicted loadings of soluble P were in general higher than measured values for summer 1992 and fall 1993 (Fig. 3). The results showed that the variation of soluble P was similar with that of predicted sediment yield, because eroded sediments are enriched with P compared to the original soil prole, due to the preferential transport of light and highly P-sorptive nes compared to coarse-sized particles (Mcdowell et al., 2004). Therefore, the phosphates are adsorbed on to soil particles and transported into streams. Also, the mineral fertilizer and manure in agriculture lands can greatly increase dissolved P losses in overland ow (Mcdowell et al., 2004). Calibration coefcients for nitrate loadings were unacceptably low (R2 = 0.02 and ENS = 5.03; Table 3). It is likely that forested riparian buffer zones adjacent to the streams may have played a major role in reducing N loadings. An amount of nitrate may have been retained in the forested buffers. Predicted results for nitrate also exhibited two peaks each year (Fig. 3). One occurred during spring, possibly associated with the spring surface runoff generated from snowmelt. During

28

Q. Yang et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 132 (2009) 2331

the snowmelt seasons (MarchMay), the peak of the simulated nitrate loading was about one month later than the measured peak. The results indicated that the predicted peak of nitrate loading occurred after spring runoff and did not coincide with the timing of fertilizer application. This discrepancy may have been caused by an error in the simulation of soil temperature by SWAT. For the snowmelt period, the model predicted soil temperatures below zero and it predicted that all snowmelt water was surface runoff due to a lack of inltration under frozen ground. When soils thaw, nitrate would be ushed out. However, due to a thick snow cover, soil temperatures in Maritime Canada are often close to or above freezing during the snowmelt season (Chow and Rees, 2006), and inltration results in nitrate leaching. This process cannot be simulated by the SWAT model. Implications to water quality may be profound because high nitrate loadings during the low-ow period can lead to high nitrate concentrations in the stream. Under normal conditions, high nitrate loadings are diluted by concurrent high stream discharge. SWAT could wrongly forecast high nitrate concentrations in surface water in regions with large amounts of snowfall, resulting in relatively high soil temperatures. These conditions are prevalent in the Maritimes and parts of Quebec, Canada, but they are not adequately simulated in SWAT. Another peak of nitrate loading occurred in late summer, coinciding with the end of the growing season and the onset of potato harvesting (Fig. 3). High nitrate loadings occur for two reasons: (1) at the end of the growing season, nutrient uptake by vegetation stops and (2) residues decompose and release mineralized nitrogen during harvest. However, the observed data did not show this peak at the end of the growing season. It is possible that riparian forests could have played a role in trapping nitrate lost from upland areas. The N in the riparian forests along streams in BBW could then be released to the atmosphere through denitrication or trapped during the course of the summer and then released following the freshet ooding during the next spring. 3.2. Model performance after FDT implementation For the baseline scenario with the assumption that no BMPs were implemented after 1995, SWAT simulations of sediment and water yield were substantially higher than the measured values from 1997 to 2005, during both the spring snowmelt and summer periods (Figs. 4A and 5A). However, the model under-predicted sediment yields in fall 1996. After FDT systems were taken into account (P-factor = 0.37), the model predicted no change for water yield and reduced sediment yields, which were in agreement with the trends in measured values (Figs. 4B and 5B). These results indicated that the FDT systems were effective at reducing sediment loadings into aquatic ecosystems with annual variations in climate and landuse in SWAT. In 1996 (Fig. 5), observed high sediment yield may have been caused by events or catchment disturbances other than upland sheet or rill erosion. Such disturbances include road and residential constructions, or construction of FDT systems in agricultural elds. A stabilization period over two to three years is generally required for the FDT to function properly after construction. Comparing the simulation results with measured values in Figs. 4 and 5, the FDT system not only effectively reduced sediment yield from the uplands and reduced sediment loading to aquatic ecosystems, but also reduced water yield at the same time. This effect was not anticipated in the SWAT model since only the support practice P-factor was changed. According to the denition of P-factor, it accounts for the erosion control effectiveness of support practices (Wischmeier and Smith, 1978), and the change of the P-factor value will only affect the amount of predicted
Fig. 4. SWAT model predicted and measured water yield from 1995 to 2005 at the outlet of the Black Brook Watershed for three scenarios. (A) no ow diversion terraces were adopted; (B) ow diversion terraces were adopted; (C) under the assumption that ow diversion terraces increased inltration as well as reduced soil erosion.

annual soil loss with support practices. After further modication of the inltration-related parameters, predictions of the nal model are shown in Figs. 4C and 5C. As shown, both water yield and sediment yield were in close agreement with measured values after the FDT systems were considered. This is also shown by presenting the cumulative curves of measured and predicted water and sediment yield in Fig. 6. When FDT was adopted by changing the P-factor, the predicted water yield was the same as without FDT; although sediment yield was largely reduced. When the impact of FDT on water yield was considered, the cumulative curves for predicted water and sediment yield were very close to the measured curve. The R2 for water and sediment yields were 0.54 and 0.95, respectively; the ENS values for water and sediment yields were 0.32 and 0.99, respectively (Table 3). The predicted yields of water and sediment were higher than the measured values for both annual and monthly averages, perhaps because the impact of the existing riparian forests was not simulated well in the present form of SWAT. The FDT systems divided the slope into smaller hydrographic units, signicantly reducing the amount of runoff, thus affecting water circulation on the slope and in the entire basin (Baryla and Pierzgalski, 2008). The FDT systems increase the surface water retention and inltration of certain amounts of water stored in

Q. Yang et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 132 (2009) 2331

29

Fig. 5. SWAT model predicted and measured sediment yield from 1995 to 2005 at the outlet of the Black Brook Watershed for three scenarios. (A) no ow diversion terraces were adopted; (B) ow diversion terraces were adopted by only changing P factor; (C) under the assumption that ow diversion terraces increased inltration as well as reduced soil erosion.

the frontal channel of the terraces. Water, retained by FDT, inltrates into the ground resulting in water storage increase at a given site (Baryla and Pierzgalski, 2008; Chow et al., 1999), and hence increases available moisture for crop growth. However, the system may increase leaching of nitrates to groundwater because the transport of the dissolved nutrients is dependent on the availability of water and inltration (Duran Zuazo et al., 2004). The predicted sediment yield was still higher for 20002005 because the areas covered by FDT were assumed to be 24% of the total watershed, which meant the value for P-factor was xed for each simulated year. In fact, the FDT implementation was gradually increased each year from 4% in 1988 to 38% of the total watershed area in 2005. Consequently, the P-factor in SWAT should be altered for each simulated year in order to represent the actual change in FDT; a feature currently not addressed in SWAT. 3.3. Impacts of FDT on water and sediment yields at the watershed scale The reductions of water and sediment yields caused by the FDT were calculated at the watershed scale based on the outputs of scenarios with and without FDT. As shown in Table 4, the absolute, seasonal reduction of water yield caused by FDT ranged from 9.2

Fig. 6. Cumulative curves of model predicted and measured water and sediment yield from 1995 to 2005 for three scenarios. No ow diversion terraces were adopted (Non_FDT); ow diversion terraces were adopted by only changing P factor (Prediction 1); under the assumption that ow diversion terraces increased inltration as well as reduced soil erosion (Prediction 2).

to 94.8 mm. The reduction was highest in spring during the snowmelt period. Relative reduction in water yield ranged from 11.2 to 25.2%. Absolute seasonal reduction in sediment yield caused by the implementation of FDT ranged from 0.3 to
Table 4 The reduction by FDT in terms of water and sediment yield at the seasonal and annual levels for the period 19952005. Seasonal meana Fallb Water yield AR (mm)d RR (%)d Sediment yield AR (tonne ha1)d RR (%)d
a b

Annual mean Summerb Winterb Predicteda Observedc

Springb

32.7 17.0

94.8 25.2

20.8 11.2

9.2 18.9

158 20

256 32

0.7 64.1

2.5 51.8

0.6 71.4

0.3 57.1

4 56

4 59

Calculated based on model predicted results. Fall: SeptemberNovember; Spring: MarchMay; Summer: JuneAugust; Winter: DecemberFebruary. c Calculated based on measured values and predicted results from the baseline scenario. d AR: Absolute reduction; RR: relative reduction.

30

Q. Yang et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 132 (2009) 2331

2.5 tonne ha1, with the maximum reduction occurring during the spring period. Also as shown in Table 4, we found that the relative reduction in sediment caused by FDT ranged from 51.8 to 71.4%, which was substantially higher than the reduction in water yield. Maximum relative reduction in sediment yield occurred in the summer period. At the watershed scale, the annual absolute reduction of water yield caused by FDT was 158 mm yr 1. Annual sediment yield reduction caused by FDT was 4 tonne ha1 yr1. In relative terms, annual water yield reduction was 20% and annual sediment yield reduction was 56%. By using the measured annual water and sediment yield and the baseline scenario without FDT, Observed reductions were calculated. The Observed absolute and relative reductions for water yield were 256 mm yr1 and 32%, both of which are higher than predicted results. The Observed absolute and relative reduction of sediment yields were 4 tonne ha1 yr1 and 59%, very close to the predicted results. Based on the predictions, the reductions for both water and sediment yields were lower than empirical data collected by Chow et al. (1999), who found that an average reduction of 7 times in runoff and 20 times in soil loss occurred in an area under potato production during a three year study of paired drainage basins, located approximately 20 km from the BBW. However, it is reasonable that the impact of FDT on water and sediment yields is greater at the eld level than at a watershed scale. Moreover, in our research, the areas covered by FDT were assumed to be 24% of the total watershed area for each year from 1995 to 2005. In addition, only approximately 32% of the land base is used for potatoes. In addition, the results indicated that the FDT systems may have a more profound impact on reducing sediment than water yields; this is consistent with the USDA handbook 537 (Wischmeier and Smith, 1978). Previous research has shown that reductions in offsite sediment by FDT systems with contouring were estimated to range from 82 to 95%, but annual runoff reductions at 21 locations throughout the USA, had been estimated to vary from 9 to 37%. 4. Conclusions SWAT was calibrated and applied to simulate water and sediment yields, and nutrient loadings in a watershed in northwestern New Brunswick, Canada. Simulated water and sediment yields were generally in agreement with the measured data; the model captured the variation of soluble phosphorous very well. However, model simulated nitrogen and water soluble phosphorous were generally higher than measured values. It was speculated that wetland processes in forested riparian zones were responsible for this discrepancy. It was also identied that the model had difculties in simulating nitrogen leaching during the snowmelt season. We suspected that model simulated ground temperatures could have been lower than the actual temperatures, which may have caused 100% of predicted water from snowmelt to ow as surface runoff rather than being partitioned into surface runoff and deep percolation. The ushing of nitrogen will be delayed until soils thaw in the spring. The calibrated SWAT model was used to estimate the efcacy of FDT on water and sediment yields for BBW. On an annual basis, under current level of FDT implementation, the results indicated that FDT implemented in the BBW contributed to a 20% reduction in water yield and 56% reduction in sediment yields watershed-wide. Acknowledgements The funding for this project was provided by Ducks Unlimited and the Greencover Canada WEBs program of Agriculture and Agri-

Food Canada. We gratefully appreciate the help of the Eastern Canada Soil and Water Conservation Centre for providing farmland information and assistance. References
Abtew, W., Powell, B., 2004. Water quality sampling schemes for variable ow canals at remote sites. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 40 (5), 11971204. Al Ali, Y., Touma, J., Zante, P., Nasri, S., Albergel, J., 2008. Water and sediment balances of a contour bench terracing system in a semi-arid cultivated zone (EI Gouazine, central Tunisia). Hydrological Sciences 53 (4), 883892. Arnold, J.G., Williams, J.R., Srinivasan, R., King, K.W., Griggs, R.H., 1994. SWAT: Soil Water Assessment Tool. U.S.D.A., Agricultural Research Service, Grassland, Soil and Water Research Laboratory, Temple, TX. Arnold, J.G., Allen, P.M., Morgan, D.S., 2001. Hydrological model for design and constructed wetlands. Wetlands 21 (2), 167178. Bakker, M.M., Govers, G., Rounsevell, M.D.A., 2004. The crop productivityerosion relationship: an analysis based on experimental work. Catena 57, 5576. Bakker, M.M., Govers, G., Kosmas, C., Vanacker, V., Oost, K.V., Rounsevell, M., 2005. Soil erosion as a driver of land-use change. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 105, 467481. Baryla, A., Pierzgalski, E., 2008. Ridged terracesfunctions, construction and use. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management 16 (2), lalf. Chow, T.L., Rees, H.W., 2006. Impacts of Intensive Potato Production on Water Yield and Sediment LoadBlack Brook Experimental Watershed: 19922002 Summary. Potato Research Centre, AAFC, Fredericton, p. 26. Chow, T.L., Daigle, J.L., Ghanem, I., Cormier, H., 1990. Effects of potato cropping practices on water runoff and soil erosion. Canadian Journal of Soil Science 70, 137148. Chow, T.L., Rees, H.W., Ghanem, I., Daigle, J.L., 1995. Effects of intensive potato production on surface water quality in the Black Brook Watershed, St. Andre Parish, New Brunswick. In: Proceeding of the 48th CWRA Annual Conference on Managing the Water Environment, Fredericton, NB, June 2023, pp. 303311. Chow, T.L., Rees, H.W., Daigle, J.L., 1999. Effectiveness of terraces/grassed waterway systems for soil and water conservation: a eld evaluation. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 54, 577583. Duran Zuazo, V.H., Raya, A.M., Ruiz, J.A., 2004. Nutrient losses by runoff and sediment from the taluses of orchard terraces. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 152, 355373. Environment Canada, 2004. Canadian Climate Normals 19712000. http://climate.weatherofce.ec.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_e.html. Forrest, S., Caux, P., 1988. Pesticides in Tributaries of the St. Lawrence River 1987 1988 Program Rept. Environment Canada and Networks Centre, Saint Laurent, Longueuil, Quebec. Foster, G.R., Highll, R.E., 1983. Effect of terraces on soil loss: USLE P factor values for terraces. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 38 (1), 4851. Fowler, F.C., 2003. Modeling watershed responses to agriculture and forestry in the potato belt of northwestern New Brunswick. Thesis (M.Sc.). University of New Brunswick. Faculty of Forestry and Environmental Management, pp. 7582. Gassman, P.W., Reyes, M.R., Green, C.H., Arnold, J.G., 2005. SWAT peer-reviewed literature: a review. In: 3rd International SWAT Conference Proceedings. pp. 118. Gitau, M.W., Veith, T.L., Gburek, W.J., 2004. Farm-level optimization of BMP placement for cost-effective pollution reduction. Transaction of American Society of Agricultural Engineers 47 (6), 19231931. Gitau, M.W., Gburek, W.J., Jarrett, A.R., 2005. A tool for estimating best management practice effectiveness for phosphorus pollution control. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 60 (1), 19. Hubbard, R.K., Sheridan, J.M., 1989. Nitrate movement to groundwater in the southeastern Coastal Plain. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 44, 2027. Isermann, K., 1990. Share of agriculture in nitrogen and phosphorus emissions into the surface waters of Western-Europe against the background of their eutrophication. Fertilizer Research 26 (13), 253269. Jayakrishnan, R., Srinivasan, R., Santhi, C., Arnold, J.G., 2005. Advances in the application of the SWAT model for water resources management. Hydrological Processes 19 (3), 749762. Kirsch, K., Kirsch, A., Arnold, J.G., 2002. Predicting sediment phosphorus loads in the Rock River Basin using SWAT. Transaction of ASAE 45 (6), 17571769. Langmaid, K.K., MacMillan, J.K., Losier, J.G., 1980. Soils of Madawaska County, New Brunswick. Research Branch, Canada Dept. of Agriculture and New Brunswick Dept. of Agriculture. Mcdowell, R.W., Biggs, B.J.F., Sharpley, A.N., Nguyen, L., 2004. Connecting phosphorus loss from agricultural landscapes to surface water quality. Chemistry and Ecology 20 (1), 140. Mellerowicz, K.T., Rees, H.W., Chow, T.L., Ghanem, I., 1993. Soils of the Black Brook Watershed, St. Andre Parish, Madawaska County, New Brunswick. New Brunswick Dept of Agriculture and Agriculture Canada, Fredericton, N.B., Canada. Nagasaka, A., Yanai, S., Sato, H., Hasegawa, S., 2005. Soil erosion and gully growth associated with cultivation in southwestern Hokkaido. Japanese Ecological Engineering 24, 503508. Nash, J.E., Sutcliffe, J.E., 1970. River ow forecasting through conceptual models. Part 1. A discussion of principles. Journal of Hydrology 10 (3), 282290.

Q. Yang et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 132 (2009) 2331 NRCS (Natural Resources Conservation Service), 2002. Conservation Practice Standard. September 14, 2007. ftp://ftp-fc.sc.egov.usda.gov/NHQ/practice-standards/standards/600.doc. Saini, G.R., Grant, W.J., 1980. Long-term effects of intensive cultivation on soil quality in the potato-growing areas of New Brunswick (Canada) and Maine (U.S.A.). Canadian Journal of Soil Science 60, 421428. Singh, A., Rudra, R., Yang, W.H., 2005. Adapting SWAT for Riparian Wetlands in an Ontario Watershed. In: 3rd International SWAT Conference Proceedings. pp. 123131. Vache, K.B., Eilers, J.M., Santelman, M.V., 2002. Water quality modeling of alternative agricultural scenarios in the U.S. Corn Belt. Journal of the American Water Resource Association 38 (2), 773787.

31

Wall, G.J., Coote, D.R., Pringle, E.A., Shelton, I.J., 1997. RUSLEFAC Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation for Application in Canada. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Ottawa. Wischmeier, W.H., Smith, D.D., 1978. Predicting rainfall erosion losses- a guide to conservation planning. US Department Agriculture Handbook. No. 537. US Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. Yang, Y., 1997. Evaluating agricultural non-point source pollution using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). Thesis (M.Sc.E.). University of New Brunswick, Dept. of Civil Engineering. Yang, Q., Chow, T.L., Rees, H.W., Meng, F.R., 2008. Using a GIS and digital elevation model to assess the effectiveness of variable grade ow diversion terraces for reducing soil erosion in northwestern New Brunswick. Hydrological Processes ID: HYP-07-0519.R1.