THE AGE OF TRANSITION (1760- 1798 ) The first half of Geor e!

s rei " HISTORY GEORGE III # the first E" lish-$or" Ha"o%eria" &i" # His rei " laste' 60 (ears I" the first )0 (ears of his rei " * "e+ so,ial* -oliti,al a"' e,o"o.i, e%e"ts ,o"tri$/te' to the slo+ 'e,li"e of ,lassi,al %al/es a"' a+a&e"i" of ro.a"ti, i'eals # These ,ha" es ,hara,teri0e' a -erio' of Tra"sitio" * i" +hi,h -eo-le ha' to a'a-t the.sel%es to ra-i' ( fast- ro+i" ) ,ha" es1 A.eri,a" a"' Fre",h Re%ol/tio" hel-e' to 'e%elo- a "e+ a+are"ess of h/.a" ri hts The first i"'/strial re%ol/tio" that ,ha" e' so,iet(# ( it is -la,e' $et+ee" 1760 a"' the first 'e,a'es of 19th ,e"t/r()# I" the last -erio' of His rei "* Geor e III ha' -erio's of i"sa"it(* so his so" (the f/t/re Geor e I2 ) r/le' as 3 Re e"t4 # This -erio' +as ,alle' 3 The Re e",( 3 ( 1811- 1850 )# 6"'er his rei " 7 i.-orta"t Revolutions1 1# American Revolution +ith the loss of the 17 A.eri,a" ,olo"ies# The .ai" fa,tors that $ro/ ht to the A.eri,a" re%ol/tio" +ere1 The 'ista",e fro. the .other ,o/"tr( ( '/e to the 'iffi,/lties i" ,o../"i,atio"s ) ha' 'e%elo-e' the ha$it of i"'e-e"'e"t e8iste",e Fi'elt( a"' lo(alt( to E" la"' +as har'l( felt $e,a/se the .ost of the. +ere A.eri,a"- $or" # A.eri,a ha' rea,he' a -o-/latio" of o%er 5*000*000 i"# * a"' .ost +ere -rotesta"t fro. Ger.a"(* Holla"' a"' Fra",e* 9atholi,s fro. Irela"'# The A.eri,a"s +ere"!t re-rese"te' i" the :arlia.e"t a"' the( 'i' "ot a,,e-t the ta8es i.-ose' $( the E" lish :arlia.e"t +itho/t their ,o"se"t# Se%eral ta8es +ere re-eale' e8,e-t the ta8 o" tea#The ,olo"ies $o(,otte' the i.-orte' tea ( i" 1777 the fa.o/s tea -art() a"' so.e -rotesters thre+ a lar e ;/a"tit( of tea i"to the har$o/r# The other 15 ,olo"ies s/--orte' <assa,h/ssetts a"' the +ar $ro&e o/t i" 177=# Geor e >ashi" to" +as .a'e ,o..a"'er- i"- ,hief of the A.eri,a" Ar.(# In 1776 ?efferso" affir.e' the "at/ral ri hts of -eo-les to ,hoose their o+" s(ste. of o%er".e"t* i" the DECLARATION OF INDE ENDENCE ! "ut onl# in 17$% @ritai" a,&"o+le e' the In&e'en&ence of A.eri,a +ith the Treat( of 2ersailles 5# The Fre",h Re%ol/tio" ( 1789 ) a"' the lo" str/ le a ai"st Na-oleo"# At the $e i""i" @ritai" re.ai"e' "e/tral# The Fre",h re%ol/tio" +as +el,o.e' i" the "a.e of li$ert(* $/t after the ,o"se;/e",es E8e,/tio"s A Bo/is 2I +as e8e,/te' I"%asio" of Rhi"ela"' a"' Netherla"'s $( Na-oleo" The( reali0e' that it +as "e,essar( to o--ose the Fre",h He e.o"( i" E/ro-e# O"l( Nelso"!s %i,tor( at Trafal ar (180=) .a'e the Fre",h i"%asio" of E" la"' i.-ossi$le# 7# The First I"'/strial Re%ol/tio" I"%e"tio" of .a,hi"es +hi,h tra"sfor.e' ,o..er,ial -ro'/,tio" ,ha" i" the ol' +or&i" te,h"i;/es a"' tra"sfor.i" a +hole +a( of life ( ?a.es >att!s stea. e" i"e +hi,h .a'e the /se of ,oal "e,essar(- ,oal .i"es i" the "orth of E" la"' a"' i" >ales) These i"%e"tio"s 'estro(e' the ol' 'o.esti, +ea%i" a"' s-i""i" * i"tro'/,i" the .etho' of fa,tor( -ro'/,tio"# Aristo,ra,( sho+e' a se"se of e"ter-rise "ot fo/"' i" the aristo,ra,( of the other E/ro-ea" ,o/"tries* the( i"%este' their .o"e( to i.-ro%e :ro'/,tio"1 Ne+ s,ie"tifi, te,h"i;/es a--lie' to far.i"

E",los/re A,ts allo+i" Ba"'o+"ers to fe",e off their hol'i" s* so "o .ore ,o..o" la"' for the la"'less -oor ( $efore the( ,o/l' ,olle,t +oo' or ra0e their a"i.als) Ne+ s,ie"tifi, te,h"i;/es a--lies to far.i" @e,a/se of the "ee' of fi"a",ial s/--ort * -eo-le +illi" to i"%est their .o"e( $e,a.e reall( i.-orta"t i" e,o"o.i, life A 'ee- a-1 ,a-ital o" o"e si'e a"' la$o/r o" the other# :eo-le starte' to .o%e i"to to+"s

This -ro,ess ha' $e a" +ith E8-loitatio" of the Ne+ >orl' 9o..er,e a"' Tra'e A%aila$ilit( of 9a-ital >hat ,ha" e'C Tra"s-ort +as .a'e easier +ith "e+ rail+a(s* roa's* ,a"als E8-ort rose ;/i,&l( :o-/latio" i",rease' >ealth a,,/./late' $( 6--er a"' <i''le ,lass This "e+ e,o"o.( +as s/--orte' $( e,o"o.ists s/,h as A'a. S.ith ( 1776) +ith his theor( of 3 Baisse0 Faire41 Free tra'e* <a" is free to -/rs/e his i"terest* o%er".e"t 'oes"!t ha%e to i"terfere# Free'o. i" the i"ter"atio"al tra'e No '/ties a"' .o"o-olisti, -ri%ile es# C(an)es in A)riculture As a ,o"se;/e",e1 The -oor .o%e' to to+"s O%er,ro+'i" A sl/.s Ba,& of sa"itatio" Har'-+or&i" ,o"'itio"s* /- to 16 ho/rs a 'a( Star%atio" +a es 6--er a"' <i''le ,lass * the 9h/r,h sa+ the .iser( of -oor as a" i"e%ita$le so,ial e%il# O"l( to+ar's the e"' of the ,e"t/r(* 9harit( s,hools o-e"e'* >o.e" starte' to as& for .ore ri hts* <ar( >ollsto"e,raft 'e.a"'e' $etter e'/,atio"#

LITERARY ROD*CTION It +as i"fl/e",e' $( the so,ial a"' -oliti,al ,o"'itio"s of the a e# The AGE OF REASON slo+l( t/r"e' i"to the AGE OF SENSI@IBITD 1 Satire re-la,e' $( se"ti.e"talis. Realis. a"' ratio"alis. $( s(.$olis. a"' i.a i"atio" Feeli" s a ai"st reaso" :athos a ai"st ,o..o" se"se Ori i"alit( a"' ,reati%it( a ai"st i.itatio" S-o"ta"eit( a ai"st ela$oratio" I"terest i" the /"&"o+" a ai"st the &"o+" I"terest i" the <i''le A es a ai"st ,lassi,al Gree,e a"' Ro.e A "e+ i"terest i" "at/re see" as a "e+ so/r,es of i"s-iratio"# This e%ol/tio" +as slo+* it too& a$o/t =0 (ears* $/t $( the e"' of the ,e"t/r( E" la"' +as rea'( for the flo/rishi" of Ro.a"ti,is. # S/..ari0i" +e ,a" sa( that THE A+E OF TRANSITION is &ivi&e& into T,ILI+HT OF CLASSICISEARLY RO-ANTICIST>IBIGHT OF 9BASSI9IS< The i'eal of a" a e $ase' o" the -ri",i-les of ,lassi,is. $e a" to ,ha" e# This 'e,li"e ha' $e /" +he" the reatest .asters of the No%el +ere al.ost all 'ea' ( a$o/t 1770)# #The .ai" feat/res1 9lassi,al ele.e"ts still -ersisti" 1 6se of )-li"es a"' alter"ate rh(.e sta"0as of ia.$i, -e"ta.eters 6se of a$stra,t -erso"ifi,atio"( A.$itio") 6"i%ersalit( of the.es ( 'eath* o$s,/rit(##) I'(lli, %ie+ of ,o/"tr( life I"fl/e",e of a",ie"t +riters ( Ea"te ) At the $e i""i" +e still fi"' e.-hasis o" reaso"* or'er a"' har.o"( Still 9offee ho/ses $/t the i"terest +as o" the effe,ts of the I"'/strial Re%ol/tio" The i"terest shifte' fro. the to+"s to the ,o/"tr( life* r/ral .i''le ,lass e"'o+e' +ith .oralit( a"' 'i "it( The -oor re ar'e' +ith .ore s(.-ath( a"' tolera",e The i"terest i" the ,o/"tr( life le' to a "e+ a--roa,h to "at/re* see" as so.ethi" ta" i$le a"' real "o .ore a" a$stra,t -hiloso-hi,al ,o""otatio"* "o .ore as so.ethi" f/",tio"i" a,,or'i" to set -ri",i-les a"' or'ere' $( .a"!s i"telle,t ( re.e.$er the eo.etri,al s(..etr( of the ar'er"s)* @6T as so.ethi" +ith a" e8iste",e of its o+"* o$ser%e' a"' 'es,ri$e' as it reall( +as Relatio"shi- $et+ee" .a" a"' "at/re The ,o/"tr(si'e starte' to $e see" as the i'eal setti" Ne+ feeli" s * .ore i"ti.ate as -elanc(ol# !,o.i" fro. the 'is-ro-ortio" $et+ee" 'rea. a"' realit(* -er%a'e' -oetr( ofte" asso,iate' +ith .e'itatio" o" 'eath ( fa%o/re' $( <etho'is.* that altho/ h $ase' o" har' +or&* also -rea,he' a" a+are"ess of the %a"it( of life)

:ROSE $e a" to lose its ,o",er" +ith .a"!s e8ter"al +orl' a"' $eha%io/r* $e,o.i" .ore -hiloso-hi,al a"' t/r"i" i"to TREATISE (## Ei,tio"ar( of e" lish Ba" /a e* :refa,e to Sha&es-eare##) It +as i" :OETRD that the ,o"fli,t $et+ee" i"telle,t a"' e.otio" +as .ore e%i'e"t* o"l( to+ar's the e"' of the ,e"t/r( it ha' a "e+ l(ri,al i.-/lse +hi,h le' to the re%ol/tio" of -oetr( at the t/r" of the ,e"t/r( +ith Ro.a"ti,is.) The -oets still share' %al/es +ith :O:E a"' ?oh"so" ( :oetr( see" as a %ehi,le for satireAle8a"'er :o-e!s .o,&-heroi, ,o/-lets* +ith ia.$i, -e"ta.eter* a" e-i, st(le that /se' a" ele%ate' la" /a e for a tri%ial s/$Fe,t -:oeti, 'i,tio") $/t o" the other ha"' i"tro'/,e' "e+ te"'e",ies i" ,o"trast to Neo,lassi,is.# I" ,o"trast to the .ost of the +riters o"l( i"tereste' i" <a" as a so,ial $ei" rather tha" a" i"'i%i'/al +ith his o+" so/l* the( es,a-e' i" "at/re or i" the h/.$le life of the ,o/"tr( -eo-le* re'is,o%eri" the -leas/re of .e'itatio"# These -oets +ere ,alle' . Ele)iac/ $e,a/se of their refle,ti%e .oo'* a .ela",hol( that fa%o/re' lo" solitar( +al&s i" the +oo's or o" the hills# ( Ele ( is a &i"' of -oe. la.e"ti" so.eo"e!s 'eath or .e'itati" o" 'eath i" e"eral ) The ,/lt of a si.-le a"' -ri.iti%e life a"' a ro+i" i"terest a"' the i"terest i" fol&tra'itio" +ere res-o"si$le for the s/,,ess of OSSIANI9 -oetr(* a ,(,le of -oe.s $( a le e"'ar( Irish +arrior ,alle' Ossia"* +ho li%e' i" the 7r' ,# i" S,otlal'* ,olle,te' a"' -/$lishe' $( <A9:HERSON1 <ela",hol( a"' s/fferi" -ro'/,e' $( +ar 6"re;/ite' lo%e Ees,ri-tio" of a +il' * loo.( "at/re# This .ela",hol( t/r"e' i"to a" i"terest i" r/i"s* 'eserte' -la,es* "i ht s,e"es a"' to.$s* e%er(thi" that re.i"'e' .a" of his o+" .ortalit(# A "e+ &i"' of -oetr( e.er e' * 3 GRA2EDARE :OETRD4 $e,a/se of its1 <e'itaio" o" Eeath Tra"sitori"ess of life Ees,ri-tio"s of ,h/r,h(ar' setti" # The( ,hro"olo i,all( still $elo" to the A/ /sta" A e* $/t their se"si$ilit( -/t the. i" the "e+ a e# These t+o &i"' of -oets -a%e' the +a( for the reatest -oet of the Tra"sitio" -erio' 1 THO<AS GRAD#

Tho.as Gra( ( ra%e(ar' -oetr()# >ell-e'/,ate'* he tra%elle' a lot* +he" his $est frie"' 'ie' of t/$er,olisis at the a e of 5)* i"s-ire' $( hi 'eath he +rote his .aster-ie,e 3Ele ( +ritte" i" a ,o/"tr( ,h/r,h(ar'4* it +as a "eo,lassi, ( ele a"t a"' artifi,ial la" /a e* i" t/"e +ith 18th ,# -oeti, 'i,tio" a"' i" i.itatio" of Gree& a"' Bati" .o'els# For hi. e%er('a( la" /a e ,a" "ot $e the la" /a e of -oetr() i'eali0atio" of -oor ,o/"tr( life that ,o",eals the 'e"/",iatio" of +hat -o%ert( .ea"t i" ter.s of har'shi-* a .e'itatio" o" 'esti"(* e;/alit(* a.$itio"# It i"tro'/,e' a "ote of si",erit( a"' se"ti.e"talis. +hi,h a"ti,i-ate' Ro.a"ti,is.# It i"s-ire' Fos,olo!s Se-ol,ri* $/t Fos,olo* /"li&e Gra(* ,o",e"trate' o" the f/",tio" of the ra%e as a li"& $et+ee" li%i" a"' the 'ea'* as a s(.$ol of lor( a"' a so/r,e of -oetr( a"' i"s-iratio"# Fos,olo $elie%e' i" the life after 'eath thro/ h the .e.ories of the li%i" ( ,orris-o"'e"0a 'i a.orosi se"si)* +hile Gra( la.e"ts the ho-eless tra"sie",e of .a" a"' thi" s# GRAD ANE FOS9OBO 1# The.e 1 Eeath 'estro(i" e%er(thi" Gra( i"tereste' i" h/.$le -eo-le* /"&"o+" +ith Fos,olo 1 fa.o/s -eo-le to.$s e",o/ra e "o ,ha",e of 'e%elo-i" their tale" to i.itate the. 5# H/.a" a,ti%ities 'art&e"e' $( 'eath 7# Solitar( +a"'eri" * <ela",hol( ,o"te.-latio" Gra( Gs :essi.isti, <ela",hol( loo&i" at Fos,olo!s ai. +as to +rite a -hiloso-hi,al the .e"!s %i,es is softe"e' i" Fos,olo +ho a"' -oliti,al +or& i" %erses i"fl/e",e' $( +ar"e' a ai"st the 'a" er of s/rre"'eri" the +ish of i"'e-e"'e",e fro. forei " o"eself to <ela",hol( a"' loosi" all -o+er 'o.i"atio" ( 1st half of 19th ,#H Gra( ha' for a,tio"* $/t he also sa" the 3 %ol/ttI 'el -/$lishe' his Ele ( a$o/t =0 (ears $efore) 'olore4 i" Ortis* a -leas/re i" s/fferi" )# Gra%e(ar' see" as a so/r,e of i"s-iratio" a"' tea,hi" for the li%i" Gra(!s i"terest +as to r/ral ,h/r,h(ar's Fos,olo Gs i"terest +as to the to.$s i" the A"' sho+e' s(.-ath( to+ar's -oor 9h/r,h of Sa"ta 9ro,e i" Flore",e* he felt :eo-le* /"&"o+" -oets# A ,o../"io" +ith reat -oets ( Ea"te)* a .ore heroi, attit/'e to+ar's 'eath* a s(.$ol of lor( # =# 9o../"io" <a"- Nat/re Fos,olo ,o",e"trates ./,h .ore o" the f/",tio" of the ra%e as a li"& $et+ee" the li%i" a"' 'ea'#

This "e+ theories ,a.e $( ?ea" ?a,;/es Ro/ssea/1 it is i" -ri.iti%e so,iet( that ori i"alit( a"' i"s-iratio" flo/rishe'* free fro. the .o'er" so,iet( Ro/ssea/ +or&e' o/t theories +hi,h -a%e' the +a( for .ost of the ,/lts +hi,h +ere to ,hara,teri0e Ro.a"ti,is.1 9hil'hoo' J +is'o. a"' ha--i"ess The sa%a e1 .a" is "at/rall( oo'* .a'e $a' $( i"sit/ttio"s* so a ret/r" to "at/re +as a'%o,ate'