WHAT IS POLITICS?

Andrew Heywood

In the early stages of academic study students are invariably encouraged to reflect on what the subject itself is about, usually by being asked questions such as 'What is History?', 'What is Economics? or 'What is stro!hysics?'" #uch reflections have the virtue of letting students

know what they are in for$ what they are about to study and what issues or to!ics are going to be raised" %nfortunately for students of !olitics, however, the question 'What is &olitics?' is more likely to generate confusion rather than bring comfort and reassurance" 'he !roblem is that debate, argument and disagreement lie at the very heart of !olitics, and the definition of 'the !olitical' is no e(ce!tion)"

Defining Politics

&olitics, in its broadest sense, is the activity through which !eo!le make, !reserve and amend the general rules under which they live" s such, !olitics is ine(tricably linked to the !henomena of conflict and coo!eration" *n the one hand, the e(istence of rival o!inions, different wants, com!eting needs or o!!osing interests guarantees disagreement about the rules under which !eo!le live" *n the other hand, !eo!le recognise that in order to influence these rules or ensure that they are u!held, they must work with others" 'his is why the heart of the !olitics is often !ortrayed as a !rocess of conflict+resolution, in which rival views or com!eting interests are reconciled with one another" However, !olitics in this broad sense is better thought of as a search for conflict+resolution than as its achievement, since not all conflicts are + or can be + resolved"

,evertheless, when e(amined more closely, this broad definition of !olitics raises as many questions as it answers" -or instance, does '!olitics' refer to a !articular way in which rules are made, !reserved or amended .that is, !eacefully, by debate/, or to all such !rocesses? #imilarly, is !olitics !ractised in all social conte(ts and institutions, or only in certain ones .that is, government and !ublic life/? 'here are, in other words, a number of more s!ecific definitions of !olitics0 indeed, it sometimes a!!ears that there are as many definitions as there are authorities willing to offer an o!inion on the subject" 'he main definitions nevertheless can be broken down into four categories$ !olitics as the art of government0 !olitics as !ublic affairs0 !olitics as com!romise0 and !olitics as !ower "

Politics as the art of government

'&olitics is not a science""" but an art', 1hancellor 2ismarck is re!uted to have told the 3erman 4eichstag" 'he art 2ismarck had in mind was the art of government, the e(ercise of control within society through the making and enforcement of collective decisions" 'his is !erha!s the classical definition of !olitics, having develo!ed from the original meaning of the term in ncient 3reece"

'he word '!olitics' is derived from polis, literally meaning city+state" ncient 3reek society was divided into a collection of inde!endent city+states, each of which !ossessed its own system of government" 'he largest and most influential of these was thens, often !ortrayed as the cradle of democratic government" In this light, !olitics can be understood to refer to the affairs of the polis, in effect, 'what concerns the polis'" 'he modern form of this definition is therefore$ 'what concerns the state'" 'his view of !olitics is clearly evident in the everyday use of the term$ !eo!le are said to be 'in !olitics' when they hold !ublic office, or to be 'entering !olitics' when they seek to do so" It is also a definition which academic !olitical science has hel!ed to !er!etuate"

In many ways the notion that !olitics amounts to 'what concerns the state' is the traditional view of the disci!line, reflected in the tendency for academic study to focus u!on the !ersonnel and machinery of government" 'o study !olitics is in essence to study government, or more broadly, to study the e(ercise of authority" 5avid Easton thus defined !olitics as the 'authoritative allocation of values'6" 2y this he meant that !olitics encom!asses the various !rocesses through which government res!onds to !ressures from the larger society, in !articular by allocating benefits, rewards or !enalties" ' uthoritative values' are therefore ones that are widely acce!ted in society and considered binding by the mass of citi7ens" In this view, !olitics is associated with '!olicy', with formal or authoritative decisions that establish a !lan of action for the community"

However, this definition offers a highly restricted view of !olitics" &olitics is what takes !lace within a '!olity', a system of social organisation centred u!on the machinery of government" &olitics can therefore be found in cabinet rooms, legislative chambers, government de!artments and the like, and it is engaged in by a limited and s!ecific grou! of !eo!le, notably !oliticians, civil servants and lobbyists" 'his means that most !eo!le, most institutions and most social activities are 'outside' !olitics" 2usinesses, schools and other educational institutions, community grou!s, families and so on, are in this sense 'non+!olitical', because they are not engaged in 'running the country'"

'his definition can, however, be narrowed still further" 'his is evident in the tendency to treat !olitics as the equivalent of !arty !olitics" In other words, the realm of 'the !olitical' is restricted to those state actors who are consciously motivated by ideological beliefs and who seek to advance them through membershi! of a formal organisation like a !olitical !arty" 'his is the sense in which !oliticians are described as '!olitical' whereas civil servants are seen as 'non+ !olitical', so long as, of course, they act in a neutral and !rofessional fashion" #imilarly, judges

are taken to be 'non+!olitical' figures while they inter!ret the law im!artially and in accordance with the available evidence, but may be accused of being '!olitical' if their judgement is influenced by !ersonal !references or some other form of bias"

Politics as public affairs

'he second conce!tion of !olitics moves it beyond the narrow realm of government to what is thought of as '!ublic life' or '!ublic affairs'" In other words, the distinction between 'the !olitical' and 'the non+!olitical' coincides with the division between an essentially public s!here of life and what can be thought of as a private s!here" #uch a view of !olitics is often traced back to the work of the famous 3reek !hiloso!her, ristotle" In Politics, ristotle declared that '8an is by nature a !olitical animal' 9, by which he meant that it is only within a !olitical community that human beings can live 'the good life'" &olitics is, then, an ethical activity concerned with creating a 'just society'0 it is what ristotle called the 'master science'"

However, where should the line between '!ublic' life and '!rivate' life be drawn? 'he traditional distinction between the !ublic realm and the !rivate realm conforms to the division between the state and civil society" 'he institutions of the state + the a!!aratus of government, the courts, the !olice, the army, the society security system and so forth + can be regarded as '!ublic' in the sense that they are res!onsible for the collective organisation of community life" 8oreover, they are funded at the !ublic's e(!ense, out of ta(ation" 2y contrast, civil society consists of institutions like the family and kinshi! grou!s, !rivate businesses, trade unions, clubs, community grou!s and so on, that are '!rivate' in the sense that they are set u! and funded by individual citi7ens to satisfy their own interests, rather than those of the larger society" *n the basis of this '!ublic:!rivate' division, !olitics is restricted to the activities of the state itself and the res!onsibilities which are !ro!erly e(ercised by !ublic bodies" 'hose areas of life in which

individuals can and do manage for themselves + economic, social, domestic, !ersonal, cultural, artistic and so on + are therefore clearly 'non+!olitical'"

n alternative '!ublic:!rivate' divide is sometimes e(!ressed in a further and more subtle distinction, namely between 'the !olitical' and 'the !ersonal'" lthough civil society can be

distinguished from the state, it nevertheless contains a range of institutions that are thought of as '!ublic' in the wider sense that they are o!en institutions, o!erating in !ublic and to which the !ublic has access" It is therefore !ossible to argue that !olitics takes !lace in work!lace" ,evertheless, although this view regards institutions like businesses, community grou!s, clubs and trade unions as '!ublic', it remains a restricted view of !olitics" ccording to this

!ers!ective, !olitics does not, and should not, infringe u!on '!ersonal' affairs and institutions" -eminist thinkers in !articular have !ointed out that this im!lies that !olitics effectively sto!s at the front door0 it does not take !lace in the family, in domestic life or in !ersonal relationshi!s" &oliticians, for e(am!le, tend to classify their own se(ual behaviour or financial affairs as '!ersonal' matters, thereby denying that they have !olitical significance in the sense that they do not touch on their conduct of !ublic affairs"

Politics as compromise and consensus

'he third conce!tion of !olitics refers not so much to the arena within which !olitics is conducted as to the way in which decisions are made" #!ecifically, !olitics is seen as a !articular means of resolving conflict, namely by com!romise, conciliation and negotiation, rather than through a resort to force and naked !ower" 'his is what is im!lied when !olitics is !ortrayed as 'the art of the !ossible'" #uch a definition is evident in the everyday use of the term" -or instance, a '!olitical' solution to a !roblem im!lies !eaceful debate and arbitration, by contrast with what is often called a 'military' solution" 2ernard 1rick, a leading !ro!onent of this view, defined !olitics as follows$

&olitics .is/ the activity by which differing interests within a given unit of rule are conciliated by giving them a share in !ower in !ro!ortion to their im!ortance to the welfare and the survival of the whole community;"

'he key to !olitics is therefore a wide dis!ersal of !ower"

cce!ting that conflict is inevitable,

1rick argued that when social grou!s and interests !ossess !ower they must be conciliated, they cannot merely be crushed" 'his is why he !ortrayed !olitics as 'that solution to the !roblem of order which chooses conciliation rather than violence and coercion' <" #uch a view of !olitics reflects a resolute faith in the efficacy of debate and discussion, as well as the belief that society is characterised by consensus rather than by irreconcilable conflict" In other words, the disagreements that e(ist can be resolved without a resort to intimidation and violence" 1ritics, however, !oint out that 1rick's conce!tion of !olitics is heavily biased towards the form of !olitics that takes !lace in western !luralist democracies0 in effect, he equated !olitics with electoral choice and !arty com!etition" s a result, his model has little to tell us about, say, one+ !arty states or military regimes"

Politics as power

'he fourth definition of !olitics is both the broadest and the most radical" 4ather than confining !olitics to a !articular s!here + the government, the state or the '!ublic' realm + this sees !olitics at work in all social activities and in every corner of human e(istence" s drian =eftwich !ut it$ '&olitics is at the heart of all collective social activity, formal and informal, !ublic and !rivate, in all human grou!s, institutions and societies'>" In this sense, !olitics takes !lace at every level of social interaction0 it can be found within families and amongst small grou!s of friends just as much as within nations and on the global stage" However, what is it that is distinctive about !olitical activity? What marks off !olitics from any other form of social behaviour?

t its broadest, !olitics concerns the !roduction, distribution and use of resources in the course of social e(istence" &olitics, in essence, is !ower$ the ability to achieve a desired outcome, through whatever means" 'his notion was neatly summed u! in the title of Harold =asswell's book Politics: Who Gets What, When, How? 7" 'rue, !olitics is about diversity and conflict, but this is enriched by the e(istence of scarcity, by the sim!le fact that while human needs and desires are infinite, the resources available to satisfy them are always limited" &olitics is therefore a struggle over scarce resources, and !ower is the means through which this struggle is conducted"

dvocates of this view of !ower include feminists and 8ar(ists" 8odern feminists have shown !articular interest in the idea of 'the !olitical'" 'his arises from the fact that conventional definitions of !olitics effectively e(clude women from !olitical life" Women have traditionally been confined to a '!rivate' s!here of e(istence, centred on the family and domestic res!onsibilities" 4adical feminists have therefore attacked the '!ublic:!rivate' divide, !roclaiming instead that 'the !ersonal is the !olitical'" 'his slogan neatly enca!sulates the radical feminist belief that what goes on in domestic, family and !ersonal life is intensely !olitical, indeed it is the basis of all other !olitical struggles" 1learly, a more radical notion of !olitics underlies this !osition" 'his was summed u! by ?ate 8illett as, '!ower+structured relationshi!s, arrangements whereby one grou! of !ersons is controlled by another' @" -eminists are therefore concerned with 'the !olitics of everyday life'" In their view, relationshi!s within the family, between husbands and wives, or between !arents and children, are every bit as !olitical as relationshi!s between em!loyers and workers, or between government and citi7ens"

8ar(ists have used the term !olitics in two senses" *n one level, 8ar( used '!olitics' in a conventional sense to refer to the a!!aratus of the state" In the Communist Manifesto he thus referred to !olitical !ower as 'merely the organised !ower of one class for o!!ressing another' A"

-or 8ar(, !olitics, together with law and culture, are !art of a 'su!erstructure', distinct from the economic 'base', which is the real foundation of social life" However, he did not see the economic 'base' and the legal and the !olitical 'su!erstructure' as entirely se!arate, but believed that the 'su!erstructure' arose out of, and reflected, the economic 'base'" t a dee!er level,

!olitical !ower is therefore rooted in the class system0 as B" I" =enin !ut it$ '&olitics is the most concentrated form of economics'" -ar from believing that !olitics can be confined to the state and a narrow !ublic s!here, 8ar(ists can be said to believe that 'the economic is !olitical'" -rom this !ers!ective, civil society, characterised as 8ar(ists believe it to be by class struggle, is the very heart of !olitics"

References

For a broader discussion of politics, government and the state see He !ood, "# Political Theory: An Introduction# $ondon% &algrave, 'h# 3# 2 (aston, )# *1+81, The Political System. 'hicago% 'hicago -niversit &ress# 3 "ristotle *1+48, Politics, ed# (# .a/er# 01ford% 'larendon &ress# 4 'ric/, .# *1++3, In Defence of Politics. Harmonds!orth% &enguin, 21# 5 'ric/, .# ibid #, 32# 6 $eft!ich, "# What is Politics?: The Activity and its Study# 01ford% .lac/!ell, 64# 7 $ass!ell, H# *1+36, Politics: Who Get What, When, Ho ? 3e! 4or/% 5c6ra!7Hill# 8 5illett, 8# *1+72, Se!ual Politics. $ondon% 6ranada, 23# + 5ar1, 8 and (ngels, F# *1+72, "ommunist #anifesto. Harmonds!orth% &enguin, 125#

6overnance From 9i/ipedia, the free enc clopedia :his article is about the concept of 6overnance# For the ;ournal 6overnance, see 6overnance *;ournal,# :his article needs attention from an e1pert in &hilosoph or .usiness# &lease add a reason or a tal/ parameter to this template to e1plain the issue !ith the article# 9i/i&ro;ect &hilosoph or 9i/i&ro;ect .usiness *or their &ortals, ma be able to help recruit an e1pert# *Februar 222+,

&art of a series on 6overnance 5odels 'ollaborative 6ood 5ultista/eholder 0pen7source &rivate . level $ocal 6lobal . field 'limate 'linical 'orporate )ata (arth s stem (cclesiastical (nvironmental Higher education <nformation 3et!or/ 0cean &olitical part &ro;ect =elf =ervice7oriented architecture =oil :echnolog :ransnational 9ebsite 5easures 9orld 6overnance <nde1 =ustainable 6overnance <ndicators >elated topics 'hief governance officer 6overnance, ris/ management and compliance (7governance (nvironmental, social and corporate governance 5ar/et governance mechanism vte 6overnance refers to ?all processes of governing, !hether underta/en b a government, mar/et, or net!or/, !hether over a famil , tribe, formal or informal organi@ation, or territor , and !hether through la!s, norms, po!er, or language#?A1B <t relates to processes and decisions that see/ to define actions, grant po!er, and verif performance# <n general terms, governance occurs in three broad !a s%Acitation neededB :hrough net!or/s involving public7private partnerships *&&&, or !ith the collaboration of communit organisationsC :hrough the use of mar/et mechanisms !hereb mar/et principles of competition serve to allocate resources !hile operating under government regulationC :hrough top7do!n methods that primaril involve governments and the state bureaucrac # :o distinguish the term governance from government% ?governance? is the concrete activit that reproduces a formal or informal organi@ation# <f the organi@ation is a formal one, governance is primaril about !hat the relevant ?governing bod ? does# <f the organi@ation is an informal one, such as a mar/et, governance is primaril about the rules and norms that guide the relevant activit # 9hether the organi@ation is a geo7political entit *nation7state,, a corporate entit *business entit ,, a socio7political entit *chiefdom, tribe, famil , etc#,, or an informal one, its governance is the !a the rules and actions are produced, sustained, and regulated# 'ontents AhideB 1 0rigin of the !ord 2 )ifferent uses 2#1 6overnance as &rocess 2#2 &ublic governance 2#3 &rivate governance 2#4 6lobal governance 2#5 3on7profit governance 2#6 'orporate governance 2#7 &ro;ect governance 2#8 (nvironmental governance 2#+ <nternet governance 2#12 <nformation technolog governance 2#11 >egulator governance 2#12 &articipator governance 2#13 5ultilevel governance 2#14 5etagovernance 2#15 'ollaborative governance 3 6overnance as a normative concept 3#1 Fair governance 3#2 6ood governance 3#3 5easuring governance 4 =eat of government

5 =ee also 6 >eferences 7 $iterature 8 (1ternal lin/s 0rigin of the !ordAeditB :he !ord governance derives from the 6ree/ verb DEFGHIJK A/ubernLoB !hich means to steer and !as used for the first time in a metaphorical sense b &lato# <t then passed on to $atin and then on to man languages#A2B )ifferent usesAeditB 6overnance is a ver general concept that can refer to all manner of organi@ations# (Muall , this generalit means that governance is often defined more narro!l to refer to a particular NlevelN of governance associated !ith a t pe of organi@ation *including public governance, global governance, non7profit governance, corporate governance, and pro;ect governance,, a particular NfieldN of governance associated !ith a t pe of activit or outcome *including environmental governance, internet governance, and information technolog governance,, or a particular NmodelN of governance, often derived as an empirical or normative theor *including regulator governance, participator governance, multilevel governance, metagovernance, and collaborative governance,# 6overnance can be used not onl to describe these diverse topics but also to define normative or practical agendas for them# 3ormative concepts of fair governance or good governance are common among public, voluntar , and private sector organi@ations# 6overnance as &rocessAeditB Ouestion boo/7ne!#svg :his section does not cite an references or sources# &lease help improve this section b adding citations to reliable sources# -nsourced material ma be challenged and removed# *)ecember 2213, <n its most abstract sense, governance is a theoretical concept referring to the actions and processes b !hich stable practices and organi@ations arise and persist# :hese actions and processes ma operate in formal and informal organi@ations of an si@eC and the ma function for an purpose, good or evil, for profit or not# 'onceiving of governance in this !a , one can appl the concept to states, to corporations, to non7profits, to 360s, to partnerships and other associations, to pro;ect teams, and to an number of humans engaged in some purposeful activit # 5ost theories of governance as process arose out of neoclassical economics# :hese theories build deductive models, based on the assumptions of modern economics, to sho! ho! rational actors ma come to establish and sustain formal organi@ations, including firms and states, and informal organi@ations, such as net!or/s and practices for governing the commons# 5an of these theories dra! on transaction cost economics &ublic governanceAeditB 5ain article% &ublic administration <t is useful to note the distinction bet!een the concepts of governance and politics# &olitics involves processes b !hich a group of people *perhaps !ith divergent opinions or interests, reach collective decisions generall regarded as binding on the group, and enforced as common polic # 6overnance, on the other hand, conve s the administrative and process7oriented elements of governing rather than its antagonistic ones# =uch an argument continues to assume the possibilit of the traditional separation bet!een ?politics? and ?administration?# 'ontemporar governance practice and theor sometimes Muestions this distinction, premising that both ?governance? and ?politics? involve aspects of po!er# &rivate governanceAeditB &rivate governance occurs !hen non7governmental entities, including private organi@ations, dispute resolution organi@ations, or other third part groups, ma/e rules andPor standards !hich have a binding effect on the ?Mualit of life and opportunities of the larger public#? =impl put, privateQnot publicQentities are ma/ing public polic # :he term ?public polic ? should not be e1clusivel associated !ith polic that is made b government# &ublic polic ma be created b either the private sector or the public sector# <f one !ishes to refer onl to public polic that is made b government, the best term to use is ?governmental polic ,? !hich eliminates the ambiguit regarding the agent of the polic ma/ing# 6lobal governanceAeditB 5ain article% 6lobal governance 6lobal governance is definedAb !homRB as ?the comple1 of formal and informal institutions, mechanisms, relationships, and processes bet!een and among states, mar/ets, citi@ens and organi@ations, both inter7 and non7governmental, through !hich collective interests on the global plane are articulated, right and obligations are established, and differences are mediated?# <n contrast to the traditional meaning of ?governance?, some authors li/e Sames >osenau have used the term ?global governance? to denote the regulation of interdependent relations in the absence of an overarching political authorit # A3B :he best e1ample of this is the international s stem or relationships bet!een independent states# :he term, ho!ever, can appl !herever a group of free eMuals needs to form a regular relationship# 3on7profit governanceAeditB

3on7profit governance focuses primaril on the fiduciar responsibilit that a board of trustees *sometimes called directors Qthe terms are interchangeable, has !ith respect to the e1ercise of authorit over the e1plicit public trust that is understood to e1ist bet!een the mission of an organi@ation and those !hom the organi@ation serves#A4B 'orporate governanceAeditB 5ain article% 'orporate governance 'orporate organi@ations often use the !ord governance to describe both% :he manner in !hich boards or their li/e direct a corporation :he la!s and customs *rules, appl ing to that direction 'orporate governance consists of the set of processes, customs, policies, la!s and institutions affecting the !a people direct, administer or control a corporation# 'orporate governance also includes the relationships among the man pla ers involved *the sta/eholders, and the corporate goals# :he principal pla ers include the shareholders, management, and the board of directors# 0ther sta/eholders include emplo ees, suppliers, customers, ban/s and other lenders, regulators, the environment and the communit at large# :he first documented use of the !ord ?corporate governance? is b >ichard (ells *1+62, pg# 128, to denote ?the structure and functioning of the corporate polit ?# :he ?corporate government? concept itself is older and !as alread used in finance te1tboo/s at the beginning of the 22th centur *.echt, .olton, >Tell 2224,# &ro;ect governanceAeditB 5ain article% &ro;ect governance :he term governance as used in industr *especiall in the information technolog *<:, sector, describes the processes that need to e1ist for a successful pro;ect# (nvironmental governanceAeditB 5ain article% (nvironmental governance <nternet governanceAeditB 5ain article% <nternet governance <nformation technolog governanceAeditB 5ain article% <nformation technolog governance <: governance primaril deals !ith connections bet!een business focus and <: management# :he goal of clear governance is to assure the investment in <: generate business value and mitigate the ris/s that are associated !ith <: pro;ects#A5B >egulator governanceAeditB 5ain article% >egulator governance >egulator governance reflects the emergence of decentered and mutuall adaptive polic regimes !hich rests on regulation rather than service provision or ta1ing and spending#A6B :he term captures the tendenc of polic regimes to deal !ith comple1it !ith delegated s stem of rules# <t is li/el to appear in arenas and nations !hich are more comple1, more global, more contested and more liberall democratic#A7B :he term builds upon and e1tends the terms of the regulator state on the one hand and governance on the other# 9hile the term regulator state marginali@e non7state actors *360s and .usiness, in the domestic and global level, the term governance marginali@e regulation as a constitutive instrument of governance# :he term regulator governance therefore allo! us to understand governance be ond the state and governance via regulation# &articipator governanceAeditB &articipator governance focuses on deepening democratic engagement through the participation of citi@ens in the processes of governance !ith the state# :he idea is that citi@ens should pla a more direct roles in public decision7ma/ing or at least engage more deepl !ith political issues# 6overnment officials should also be responsive to this /ind of engagement# <n practice, participator governance can supplement the roles of citi@ens as voters or as !atchdogs through more direct forms of involvement#A8B 5ultilevel governanceAeditB 5ain article% 5ultilevel governance 5etagovernanceAeditB ?5etagovernance? is !idel defined as the ?governing of governing?#A+B <t represents the established ethical principles, or NnormsN, that shape and steer the entire governing process# <t is important to note that there are no clearl defined settings !ithin !hich metagoverning ta/es place, or particular persons !ho are responsible for it# 9hile someA!hoRB believe metagoverning to be the role of the state !hich is assumed to !ant to steer actors in a particular direction, it can ?potentiall be e1ercised b an resourceful actor?A12B !ho !ishes to influence the governing process# (1amples of this include the publishing of codes of conduct at the highest level of international government,A11B and media focus on specific issuesA12B at the socio7cultural level# )espite their different sources, both see/ to establish values in such a !a that the become accepted NnormsN# :he fact that NnormsN can be established at an level and can then be used to shape the governance process as !hole, means metagovernance is part of the both the input and the output of the governing s stem#A13B 'ollaborative governanceAeditB 5ain article% 'ollaborative governance

6overnance as a normative conceptAeditB Fair governanceAeditB 9hen discussing governance in particular organisations, the Mualit of governance !ithin the organisation is often compared to a standard of good governance# <n the case of a business or of a non7profit organi@ation, for e1ample, good governance relates to consistent management, cohesive policies, guidance, processes and decision7rights for a given area of responsibilit , and proper oversight and accountabilit # " fair governance implies that mechanisms function in a !a that allo!s the e1ecutives *the ?agents?, to respect the rights and interests of the sta/eholders *the ?principals?,, in a spirit of democrac # 6ood governanceAeditB 5ain article% 6ood governance 6ood governance is an indeterminate term used in international development literature to describe various normative accounts of ho! public institutions ought to conduct public affairs and manage public resources# :hese normative accounts are often ;ustified on the grounds that the are thought to be conducive to economic ends, such as the eradication of povert and successful economic development# -nsurprisingl different organi@ations have defined governance and good governance differentl to promote different normative ends# :he 9orld .an/ defines governance as% the manner in !hich po!er is e1ercised in the management of a countr Ns economic and social resources for development# A14B :he 9orld!ide 6overnance <ndicators pro;ect of the 9orld .an/ defines governance as% the traditions and institutions b !hich authorit in a countr is e1ercised#A15B :his considers the process b !hich governments are selected, monitored and replacedC the capacit of the government to effectivel formulate and implement sound policies and the respect of citi@ens and the state of the institutions that govern economic and social interactions among them# "n alternate definition sees governance as% the use of institutions, structures of authorit and even collaboration to allocate resources and coordinate or control activit in societ or the econom #A16B "ccording to the -nited 3ations )evelopment &rogrammeNs >egional &ro;ect on $ocal 6overnance for $atin "merica% 6overnance has been defined as the rules of the political s stem to solve conflicts bet!een actors and adopt decision *legalit ,# <t has also been used to describe the ?proper functioning of institutions and their acceptance b the public? *legitimac ,# "nd it has been used to invo/e the efficac of government and the achievement of consensus b democratic means *participation,#A17B "ccording to the 6overnance "nal tical Frame!or/ *6"F,,A18BA1+B governance can be defined in broader terms# <t refers to the ?processes of interactions and decision7ma/ing among the actors involved in a collective problem, that lead to the creation, reinforcement or reproduction of social norms and institutions?# 6overnance processes are found in an societ , and the can be anal @ed from a non7normative perspective, the 6"F# :he proposed method is based on five anal tical tools% problems, actors, social norms, processes and nodal points# :he 6"F !as developed in the conte1t of the research programme 3''> 3orth7=outh,A22B and on the basis of a critiMue of e1isting approaches to governance# 5easuring governanceAeditB 0ver the last decade,A!henRB several efforts have been conducted in the research and international development communit in order to assess and measure the Mualit of governance of countries all around the !orld# 5easuring governance is inherentl a controversial and political e1ercise# " distinction is therefore made bet!een e1ternal assessments, peer assessments and self7assessments# (1amples of e1ternal assessments are donor assessments or comparative indices produced b international non7governmental organisations# "n e1ample of a peer assessment is the "frican &eer >evie! 5echanism# (1amples of self7assessments are countr 7led assessments that can be led b government, civil societ , researchers andPor other sta/eholders at the national level# 0ne of these efforts to create an internationall comparable measure of governance and an e1ample of an e1ternal assessment is the 9orld!ide 6overnance <ndicators pro;ect, developed b members of the 9orld .an/ and the 9orld .an/ <nstitute# :he pro;ect reports aggregate and individual indicators for more than 222 countries for si1 dimensions of governance% voice and accountabilit , political stabilit and lac/ of violence, government effectiveness, regulator Mualit , rule of la!, control of corruption# :o complement the macro7level cross7countr 9orld!ide 6overnance <ndicators, the 9orld .an/ <nstitute developed the 9orld .an/ 6overnance =urve s, !hich are countr 7level governance assessment tools that operate at the micro or sub7national level and use information gathered from a countr Us o!n citi@ens, business people and public sector !or/ers to diagnose governance vulnerabilities and suggest concrete approaches for fighting corruption# " ne! 9orld 6overnance <nde1 *96<,A21B has been developed and is open for improvement through public participation# :he follo!ing domains, in the form of indicators and composite inde1es, !ere selected to achieve the development of the 96<% &eace and =ecurit , >ule of $a!, Human >ights and &articipation, =ustainable )evelopment, and Human

)evelopment# "dditionall , in 222+ the .ertelsmann Foundation published the =ustainable 6overnance <ndicators *=6<,, !hich s stematicall measure the need for reform and the capacit for reform !ithin the 0rganisation for (conomic 'o7operation and )evelopment *0('), countries# :he pro;ect e1amines to !hat e1tent governments can identif , formulate and implement effective reforms that render a societ !ell7eMuipped to meet future challenges, and ensure their future viabilit # A22B (1amples of countr 7led assessments include the <ndonesian )emocrac <nde1, monitoring of the 5illennium )evelopment 6oal + on Human >ights and )emocratic 6overnance in 5ongolia and the 6ross 3ational Happiness <nde1 in .hutan# =eat of governmentAeditB =ee% capital cit for details and list of national capitals for each countr Ns seat of government# :he seat of government is defined b .re!erNs &olitics as ?the building, comple1 of buildings or cit from !hich a government e1ercises its authorit ?#A23B :he seat of government is usuall located in the capital# <n some countries the seat of government differs from the capital, e#g# in the 3etherlands !here :he Hague is the seat of government and "msterdam is the de ;ure capital of the 3etherlands# <n most, it is the same cit , for e1ample 5osco! as the capital and seat of government of >ussia# <n the -nited 8ingdom, the seat of government is $ondon, the capital, or more specificall the 'it of 9estminster#

6overnance and 6ood 6overnance% Var ing )efinitions 6overnance W:he traditions and institutions b !hich authorit in a countr is e1ercisedX Y 8aufman et al :he !a W Z po!er is e1ercised through a countr Us economic, political, and social institutions#X Y the 9orld .an/Us &>=& Handboo/# W:he e1ercise of economic, political, and administrative authorit to manage a countr Us affairs at all levels# <t comprises mechanisms, processes, and institutions through !hich citi@ens and groups articulate their interests, e1ercise their legal rights, meet their obligations, and mediate their differences#X Y -3)&# )imensions of governance WFundamental aspects of governanceX are% graft, rule of la!, and government effectiveness# 0ther dimensions are% voice and accountabilit , political instabilit and violence, and regulator burden# Y 8aufmann, 8raa and [oido7$obaton 1+++# &ropert rights and rule7based governanceC the Mualit of budgetar \ financial managementC the efficienc of revenue mobili@ationC the efficienc of public e1pendituresC and transparenc , accountabilit and corruption# Y 9orld .an/ '&<" indicators# 6ood governance <t is WZ among other things participator , transparent and accountable# <t is also effective and eMuitable# "nd it promotes the rule of la!#X Y -3)& <t WZ encompasses the role of public authorities in establishing the environment in !hich economic operators function and in determining the distribution of benefits as !ell as the relationship bet!een the ruler and the ruled#X #X Y 0(') *!!!#oecd#orgPdacP, <t is WZ epitomi@ed b predictable, open and enlightened polic ma/ingC a bureaucrac imbued !ith a professional ethosC an e1ecutive arm of government accountable for its actionsC and a strong civil societ participating in public affairsC and all behaving under the rule of la!#X Y 9orld .an/ 1++4% 6overnance% :he 9orld .an/Us (1perience#

5echanisms for assuring good governance have three /e elements% <nternal rules and restraints *for e1ample, internal accounting and auditing s stems, independence of the ;udiciar and the central ban/, civil service and budgeting rules,C WVoiceX and partnership *for e1ample, public7private deliberation councils, and service deliver surve s to solicit client feedbac/,C and 'ompetition *for e1ample, competitive social service deliver , private participation in infrastructure, alternative dispute resolution mechanisms, and outright privati@ation of certain mar/et7driven activities,# Y 9)> 1++7#

<n other cases, the definition of good governance goes further than mechanisms and proposes that good governance be eMuated !ith specific outcomes Y in a >a!lsian sense of assuring that ever one, irrespective of social or economic status, has a voice in governing and receives ;ust, fair, eMuitable treatment# For e1ample, the -3)& notes that% W6ood governance is, among other things, participator , transparent and accountable# <t is also effective and eMuitable# "nd it promotes the rule of la!# 6ood governance ensures that political, social and economic priorities are based on broad consensus in societ and that the voices of the poorest and the most vulnerable are heard in decision7ma/ing over the allocation of development resources#XA1B <n general, this initiative !ill ta/e as a starting point the five dimensions of good governance that !as developed in the 9orld .an/Us 'orruption stud for (urope and 'entral "sia and contained in the .an/Us most recent update of its public sector strateg % public sector management, competitive private sector, structure of government, civil societ participation and voice, and political accountabilit #A2B :his definition goes !ell be ond effective deliver of public services *even if that is a benchmar/ indicator of the Mualit of governance, a lightning rod for public sentiments about government, and a useful starting point for assessing the Mualit of governance,# "nd it can also go !ell be ond the notion of Weconomic governanceX !hich is t picall the focus of most 9orld .an/ !or/ on governance# 0f these dimensions, the most problematic for this !or/ are those of civil societ voice and participation and political accountabilit # Ho!ever, the consensus of the team is that neither better public sector management nor a competitive private sector can be reliabl and sustainabl achieved !ithout voice and accountabilit , especiall in 53" countries !hich t picall score lo! on measures of these indices# Section 2. 3atural7born citi@ens are those !ho are citi@ens of the &hilippines from birth !ithout having to perform an act to acMuire or perfect their &hilippine citi@enship# :hose !ho elect &hilippine citi@enship in accordance !ith paragraph *3,, =ection 1 hereof shall be deemed natural7born citi@ens# Section 3. &hilippine citi@enship ma be lost or reacMuired in the manner provided b la!#