Constellation

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Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the star grouping. For other uses, see Constellation (disambiguation). This article includes a list of references or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations here appropriate. (November 2009)

The constellation !rion is one of the most recogni"able in the celestial sphere. The name is associated ith the region of the star map marked in yello , as ell as ith the pattern of stars ithin this area, marked in green. #n modern astronomy, a constellation is an internationally defined area of the celestial sphere. $istorically, the term as also used to refer to a pattern formed by prominent stars ithin apparent close proximity to one another, and this practice is still common today.

Contents
%hide&

' (efinition ) *oundaries + Proximity

, -onstellation systems across the orld

o o o

,.' .raeco/0oman ,.) -hinese ,.+ #ndian

1 (ark cloud constellations 2 3ee also 4 5otes 6 Further reading

o o o

6.' 7ythology, 3tar 8ore, $istory, 9 :rchaeoastronomy 6.) :tlases 9 -elestial 7aps 6.+ -atalogs

; <xternal links

[edit] Definition
#n collo=uial usage, a constellation is a group of celestial bodies, usually stars, hich appear to form a pattern in the sky. :stronomers today still utili"e the term, though the current system focuses primarily on constellations as grid/like segments of the celestial sphere rather than as patterns. : star/pattern that is not officially classed as a constellation is referred to as an asterism. !ne famous example is the asterism kno n as the *ig (ipper, a term unused by the #nternational :stronomical >nion ?#:>@ as the stars are considered part of the larger constellation of >rsa 7aAor.

[edit] Boundaries
#n ';+B, the boundaries bet een the 66 official constellations ere devised by (elporte along vertical and hori"ontal lines of right ascension and declination. $o ever, the data he used originated back to epoch *'641.B, hich as hen *enAamin :. .ould first made the proposal to designate boundaries for the celestial sphere, a suggestion upon hich (elporte ould base his ork. The conse=uence of this early date is that due to the precession of the e=uinoxes, the borders on a modern star map, such as epoch J)BBB, are already some hat ske ed and no longer perfectly vertical or hori"ontal. This effect ill increase over the years and centuries to come.

[edit] Proximity

The stars ithin a constellation rarely have any substantial astrophysical relationship to each other, and their apparent proximity hen vie ed from <arth disguises the fact that they typically lie light years apart. $o ever, there are some exceptions: the constellation of >rsa 7aAor is almost entirely constituted by stars approximate to one another, a phenomenon kno n as the >rsa 7aAor moving group.

[edit] Constellation systems across the world

[edit] Graeco-Roman
#n the Western orld, the sky of the northern hemisphere is traditionally divided into constellations based on those described by the :ncient .reeks. The first ancient .reek orks hich dealt ith the constellations ere books of star myths. The oldest of these as a poem composed by $esiod in or around the eighth century *-, of hich only fragments survive. The most complete existing orks dealing ith the mythical origins of the constellations are by the $ellenistic riter termed pseudo/<ratosthenes and an early 0oman riter styled pseudo/ $yginus. #n the )nd century :(, the .reek astronomer Ptolemy described the constellations in great detail in his influential ork the Almagest.

[edit] Chinese
ain article! Chinese constellation -hinese constellations are different from the Western constellations due to the independent development of ancient -hinese astronomy !ne difference is that the -hinese counterpart of the ') estern "odiac constellations is the )6 CDiuC ?@ or CmansionsC ?a literal translation@.

[edit] Indian
"ee also! #$otia #n Eedic astrology, the ') "odiac constellations are called raasis. The t elve raasis along the ecliptic correspond directly to the t elve estern star signs. These are ho ever divided into )4 5akshatras, or lunar houses.

[edit] Dark cloud constellations

The C<mu in the sky,C a constellation defined by dark clouds rather than the stars. : estern interpretation ould recognise -rux ?the 3outhern -ross@ above the emuFs head and 3corpius on the left. The head of the emu is the -oalsack. #n the southern hemisphere, it is possible to discern dark patches in the 7ilky Way. 3ome cultures have discerned shapes in these patches and have given names to these Cdark cloud constellations.C 7embers of the #nca civili"ation identified various dark areas or dark nebulae in the 7ilky Way as animals, and associated their appearance ith the seasonal rains.%+& :ustralian :boriginal astronomy also describes dark cloud constellations, the most famous being the Cemu in the skyC hose

-ray astronomy
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Jump to: navigation, search

X-ray astronomy portal

D/rays start at GB.BB6 nm and extend across the electromagnetic spectrum to G6 nm, over hich <arthFs atmosphere is opa=ue. -ray astronomy is an observational branch of astronomy hich deals ith the study of D/ray emission from celestial obAects. D/radiation is absorbed by the <arthFs atmosphere, so instruments to detect D/rays must be taken to high altitude by balloons, sounding rockets, and satellites. D/ray astronomy is part of space science. D/ray emission is expected in sources hich contain an extremely hot gas at temperatures from a million to hundred million kelvins. #n general, this occurs in obAects here the atoms andHor electrons have a very high energy. The discovery of the first cosmic D/ray source in ';2) came as a surprise. This source is called 3corpius D/', the first D/ray source found in the constellation 3corpius. *ased on discoveries in this ne field, 0iccardo .iacconi received the 5obel Pri"e in Physics in )BB). #t as found that the D/ray emission of 3co D/' as 'B,BBB times greater than its optical emission, based on a precise location obtained ith a modulation collimator / a

specific type of coded aperture imager. #n addition, the energy output in D/rays is 'BB,BBB times greater than the total emission of the 3un in all avelengths. #t is no kno n that such D/ray sources are compact stars, such as neutron stars and black holes. The energy source is gravity. .as is heated by the fall in the strong gravitational field of celestial obAects. 7any thousands of D/ray sources are kno n. #n addition, it appears that the space bet een galaxies in a cluster of galaxies is filled ith a very hot, but very dilute gas at a temperature bet een 'B and 'BB megakelvins ?7I@. The total amount of hot gas is five to ten times the total mass in the visible galaxies.

Contents
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' 3ounding rocket flights o '.' D/ray Juantum -alorimeter ?DJ-@ proAect ) *alloons
o o

).' $igh/energy focusing telescope ).) $igh/resolution gamma/ray and hard D/ray spectrometer ?$#0<.3@

+ 0ockoons , D/ray astronomy satellites 1 D/ray telescopes and mirrors 2 D/ray astronomy detectors 4 :strophysical sources of D/rays 6 -elestial D/ray sources ; Proposed ?future@ D/ray observatory satellites 'B <xplorational D/ray astronomy '' Theoretical D/ray astronomy
o o

''.' (ynamos ''.) :stronomical models

') :nalytical D/ray astronomy '+ 3tellar D/ray astronomy

o

'+.' <ta -arinae

o o o o o

'+.) 3tellar coronae '+.+ >nstable inds '+., -oolest 7 d arfs '+.1 3trong D/ray emission from $erbig :eH*e stars '+.2 I giants

', :mateur D/ray astronomy

o o o

',.' :mateur rocketry ',.) :mateur ballooning ',.+ :mateur detectors

'1 $istory of D/ray astronomy '2 7aAor =uestions in D/ray astronomy

o o o

'2.' 3tellar magnetic fields '2.) <xtrasolar D/ray source astrometry '2.+ 3olar D/ray astronomy

'2.+.' -oronal heating problem '2.+.) -oronal mass eAection

'4 <xotic D/ray sources '6 D/ray dark stars '; D/ray dark planetHcomet
o

';.' -omet 8ulin

)B 3ingle D/ray stars )' 0eferences

o

)'.' 3ources

)) <xternal links )+ 3ee also

[edit] !oundin" rocket fli"hts

"ee also! "ounding roc%et &'ra$ astronom$ : detector is placed in the nose cone section of a sounding rocket and launched above the atmosphere. This as first done at White 3ands 7issile 0ange in 5e 7exico ith a E/) rocket on January )6, ';,;. D/rays from the 3un ere detected by the >3: 5aval 0esearch 8aboratory *lossom experiment on board.%'& :n :erobee '1B rocket launched on June '), ';2) detected the first D/rays from other celestial sources ?3corpius D/'@.%)& The largest dra back to rocket flights is their very short duration ?Aust a fe minutes above the atmosphere before the rocket falls back to <arth@ and their limited field of vie . : rocket launched from the >nited 3tates ill not be able to see sources in the southern skyK a rocket launched from :ustralia ill not be able to see sources in the northern sky.

[edit] -ray #uantum Calorimeter $ #C% &ro'ect

: launch of the *lack *rant ; 7icrocalorimeter at the turn of the century as a part of the Aoint undertaking by the >niversity of Wisconsin/7adison and 5:3:Fs .oddard 3pace Flight -enter kno n as the D/ray Juantum -alorimeter ?DJ-@ proAect. #n astronomy, the interstellar medium ?or I!(@ is the gas and dust that pervade interstellar space: the matter that exists bet een the star systems ithin a galaxy. #t fills interstellar space and blends smoothly into the surrounding intergalactic space. The interstellar medium consists of an extremely dilute ?by terrestrial standards@ mixture of ions, atoms, molecules, larger dust

grains, cosmic rays, and ?galactic@ magnetic fields.%+& The energy that occupies the same volume, in the form of electromagnetic radiation, is the interstellar radiation field. !f interest is the hot ioni"ed medium ?$#7@ consisting of coronal gas at 'B2/'B4 I hich emits D/rays. The #37 is turbulent and therefore full of structure on all spatial scales. 3tars are born deep inside large complexes of molecular clouds, typically a fe parsecs in si"e. (uring their lives and deaths, stars interact physically ith the #37. 3tellar inds from young clusters of stars ?often ith giant or supergiant $## regions surrounding them@ and shock aves created by supernovae inAect enormous amounts of energy into their surroundings, hich leads to hypersonic turbulence. The resultant structures L of varying si"es L can be observed, such as stellar ind bubbles and superbubbles of hot gas, seen by D/ray satellite telescopes. The 3un is currently traveling through the 8ocal #nterstellar -loud, a denser region in the lo /density 8ocal *ubble. To measure the spectrum of the diffuse D/ray emission from the interstellar medium over the energy range B.B4 to ' keE, 5:3: launched a *lack *rant ; from White 3ands 7issile 0ange, 5e 7exico on 7ay ', )BB6.%,& The Principal #nvestigator for the mission is (r. (an 7c-ammon of the >niversity of Wisconsin.

[edit] Balloons
ain article! (alloons )or &'ra$ astronom$ *alloon flights can carry instruments to altitudes of up to ,B km above sea level, here they are above as much as ;;.;;4M of the <arthFs atmosphere. >nlike a rocket here data are collected during a brief fe minutes, balloons are able to stay aloft for much longer. $o ever, even at such altitudes, much of the D/ray spectrum is still absorbed. D/rays ith energies less than +1 keE ?1,2BB aJ@ cannot reach balloons. !n July )', ';2,, the -rab 5ebula supernova remnant is discovered to be a hard D/ray ?'1 / 2B keE@ source by a scintillation counter flo n on a balloon launched from Palestine, Texas, >3:. This as likely the first balloon/based detection of D/rays from a discrete cosmic D/ray source.%1&

[edit] )i"h-ener"y focusin" telesco&e

The -rab 5ebula is a remnant of an exploded star. This is the -rab 5ebula in various energy bands, including a hard D/ray image from the $<FT data taken during its )BB1 observation run. <ach image is 2N ide. The high/energy focusing telescope ?$<FT@ is a balloon/borne experiment to image astrophysical sources in the hard D/ray ?)B/'BB keE@ band.%2& #ts maiden flight took place in 7ay )BB1 from Fort 3umner, 5e 7exico, >3:. The angular resolution of $<FT is G'.1F. $<FT makes use of tungsten/silicon multilayer coatings to extend the reflectivity of nested gra"ing/ incidence mirrors beyond 'B keE. $<FT has an energy resolution of '.B keE full idth at half maximum at 2B keE. $<FT as launched for a )1/hour balloon flight in 7ay )BB1. The instrument performed ithin specification and observed Tau D/', the -rab 5ebula.

[edit] )i"h-resolution "amma-ray and hard -ray s&ectrometer $)IR*G!%

$#0<.3 attached to launch vehicle hile balloon is inflated ?';;+@ !ne of the recent balloon/borne experiments as called the $igh/resolution gamma/ray and hard D/ray spectrometer ?$#0<.3@.%4& #t as first launched from 7c7urdo 3tation, :ntarctica in (ecember ';;', hen steady inds carried the balloon on a circumpolar flight lasting for about t o eeks.

[edit] Rockoons

ain article! *oc%oon The rockoon ?a portmanteau of rocket and balloon@ as a solid fuel rocket that, rather than being immediately lit hile on the ground, as first carried into the upper atmosphere by a gas/filled balloon. Then, once separated from the balloon at its maximum height, the rocket as automatically ignited. This achieved a higher altitude, since the rocket did not have to move through the lo er, thicker air layers. The original concept of CrockoonsC as developed by -mdr. 8ee 8e is, -mdr. .. $alvorson, 3. F. 3inger, and James :. Ean :llen during the :erobee rocket firing cruise of the >33 Norton "ound on 7arch ', ';,;.%'&

: 5avy (eacon rockoon Aust after a shipboard launch, July ';12. The (eacon rocket is suspended belo the balloon. From July '4 to July )4, ';12 the >3: 5aval 0esearch 8aboratory ?508@ shipboard launched 6 (eacon rockoons for solar ultraviolet and D/ray observations at G+BO 5 G')'.2O W, south est of 3an -lemente #sland, apogee: ')B km.%6&

[edit] -ray astronomy satellites

ain article! &'ra$ astronom$ satellites

D/ray astronomy satellites study D/ray emissions from celestial obAects. 3atellites, hich can detect and transmit data about the D/ray emissions are deployed as part of branch of space science kno n as D/ray astronomy. 3atellites are needed because D/radiation is absorbed by the <arthFs atmosphere, so instruments to detect D/rays must be taken to high altitude by balloons, sounding rockets, and satellites.

[edit] -ray telesco&es and mirrors

ain article! &'ra$ telescope

The 3 ift D0T contains a gra"ing incidence Wolter # telescope to focus D/rays onto a state/of/ the/art --(. The complete mirror module for the D0T consists of the D/ray mirrors, thermal baffle, a mirror collar, and an electron deflector. To prevent on/orbit degradation of the mirror moduleFs performance, it is be maintained at )B P 1 O-, ith gradients of Q' O- by an actively controlled thermal baffle ?purple, in schematic belo @ similar to the one used for J<T/D. : composite telescope tube holds the focal plane camera ?red@, containing a single --(/)) detector. D/ray telescopes ?D0Ts@ have varying directionality or imaging ability based on glancing angle reflection rather than refraction or large deviation reflection.%;&%'B& This limits them to much narro fields of vie than visible or >E telescopes. The mirrors can be made of ceramic or metal foil.%''& The first D/ray telescope in astronomy as used to observe the 3un. The first D/ray picture of the 3un as taken in ';2+, by a rocket/borne telescope. The utili"ation of D/ray mirrors for extrasolar D/ray astronomy simultaneously re=uires

the ability to determine the location at the arrival of an D/ray photon in t o dimensions and a reasonable detection efficiency.

[edit] -ray astronomy detectors

ain article! &'ra$ astronom$ detectors -ray astronomy detectors have been designed and configured primarily for energy and occasionally for ave/length detection using a variety of techni=ues usually limited to the technology of the time.

This is an image of the instrument called the Proportional -ounter :rray on the 0ossi D/ray Timing <xplorer ?0DT<@ satellite. D/ray detectors collect individual D/rays ?photons of D/ray electromagnetic radiation@ including the number of photons collected ?intensity@, the energy ?B.') to ')B keE@ of the photons collected, avelength ?GB.BB6 to 6 nm@, or ho fast the photons are detected ?counts per hour@, to tell us about the obAect that is emitting them.

[edit] +stro&hysical sources of -rays

ain article! Astroph$sical &'ra$ source 3everal types of astrophysical obAects emit D/rays, from galaxy clusters, through black holes in active galactic nuclei ?:.5@ to galactic obAects such as supernova remnants, stars, and binary stars containing a hite d arf ?cataclysmic variable stars and super soft D/ray sources@, neutron star or black hole ?D/ray binaries@. 3ome solar system bodies emit D/rays, the most notable being the 7oon, although most of the D/ray brightness of the 7oon arises from reflected solar D/rays. : combination of many unresolved D/ray sources is thought to produce the observed D/ ray background. The D/ray continuum can arise from bremsstrahlung, either magnetic or ordinary -oulomb, black/body radiation, synchrotron radiation, inverse -ompton scattering of lo er/energy photons be relativistic electrons, knock/on collisions of fast protons ith atomic electrons, and atomic recombination, ith or ithout additional electron transitions.%')&

This light curve of $er D/' sho s long term and medium term variability. <ach pair of vertical lines delineate the eclipse of the compact obAect behind its companion star. #n this case, the companion is a ) 3olar/mass star ith a radius of nearly , times that of our 3un. This eclipse sho s us the orbital period of the system, '.4 days.

:n intermediate/mass D/ray binary ?#7D*@ is a binary star system here one of the components is a neutron star or a black hole. The other component is an intermediate mass star.%'+& $ercules D/' is composed of a neutron star accreting matter from a normal star ?$R $er@ probably due to 0oche lobe overflo . D/' is the prototype for the massive D/ray binaries although it falls on the borderline, G) 7, bet een high/ and lo /mass D/ray binaries.%',&

[edit] Celestial -ray sources

ain article! Astroph$sical &'ra$ source "ee also! &'+ &'ra$ source The celestial sphere has been divided into 66 constellations. The #:> constellations are areas of the sky. <ach of these contains remarkable D/ray sources. 3ome of them are have been identified from astrophysical modeling to be galaxies or black holes at the centers of galaxies. 3ome are pulsars. :s ith sources already successfully modeled by D/ray astrophysics, striving to understand the generation of D/rays by the apparent source helps to understand the 3un, the universe as a hole, and ho these affect us on <arth. -onstellations are an astronomical device for handling observation and precision independent of current physical theory or interpretation. :stronomy has been around for a long time. Physical theory changes ith time. With respect to celestial D/ray sources, D/ray astrophysics tends to focus on the physical reason for D/ray brightness, hereas D/ray astronomy tends to focus on their classification, order of discovery, variability, resolvability, and their relationship ith nearby sources in other constellations.

This 0!3:T P3P- false/color image is of a portion of a nearby stellar ind superbubble ?the ,rion-*ridanus Bubble@ stretching across <ridanus and !rion. 3oft D/rays are emitted by hot gas ?T G )/+ 7I@ in the interior of the superbubble. This bright obAect forms the background for the Cshado C of a filament of gas and dust. The filament is sho n by the overlaid contours, hich represent 'BB micron emission from dust at a temperature of about +B I as measured by #0:3. $ere the filament absorbs soft D/rays bet een 'BB and +BB eE, indicating that the hot gas

is located behind the filament. This filament may be part of a shell of neutral gas that surrounds the hot bubble. #ts interior is energi"ed by >E light and stellar inds from hot stars in the !rion !*' association. These stars energi"e a superbubble about ')BB lys across hich is observed in the optical ?$S@ and D/ray portions of the spectrum. Within the constellations !rion and <ridanus and stretching across them is a soft D/ray Chot spotC kno n as the ,rion-*ridanus !u&erbubble, the *ridanus !oft -ray *nhancement, or simply the *ridanus Bubble, a )1O area of interlocking arcs of $S emitting filaments.

[edit] Pro&osed $future% -ray obser-atory satellites

ain article! &'ra$ astronom$ satellites There are several proAects that are proposed for D/ray observatory satellites. 3ee main article link above.

[edit] *x&lorational -ray astronomy

ain article! ,-plorational &'ra$ astronom$

>lyssesF second orbit: it arrived at Jupiter February 6, ';;) for a s ing/by maneuver that increased its inclination to the ecliptic by 6B.) degrees. >sually observational astronomy is considered to occur on <arthFs surface ?or beneath it in neutrino astronomy@. The idea of limiting observation to <arth includes orbiting the <arth. :s soon as the observer leaves the co"y confines of <arth, the observer becomes a deep space explorer.%'1& <xcept for <xplorer ' and <xplorer + and the earlier satellites in the series,%'2& usually if itFs going to be a deep space explorer it leaves the <arth or an orbit around the <arth.

[edit] *ta Carinae

ain article! ,ta Carinae

-lassified as a Peculiar star, <ta -arinae exhibits a superstar at its center as seen in this image from -handra. The ne D/ray observation sho s three distinct structures: an outer, horseshoe/ shaped ring about ) light years in diameter, a hot inner core about + light/months in diameter, and a hot central source less than ' light/month in diameter hich may contain the superstar that drives the hole sho . The outer ring provides evidence of another large explosion that occurred over ',BBB years ago. -redit: -handra 3cience -enter and 5:3:. Three structures around <ta -arinae are thought to represent shock aves produced by matter rushing a ay from the superstar at supersonic speeds. The temperature of the shock/heated gas ranges from 2B 7I in the central regions to + 7I on the horseshoe/shaped outer structure. CThe -handra image contains some pu""les for existing ideas of ho a star can produce such hot and intense D/rays,C says Prof. Iris (avidson of the >niversity of 7innesota.%)'& (avidson is principal investigator for the <ta -arina observations by $ubble. C#n the most popular theory, D/ rays are made by colliding gas streams from t o stars so close together that theyFd look like a point source to us. *ut hat happens to gas streams that escape to farther distancesT The extended hot stuff in the middle of the ne image gives demanding ne conditions for any theory to meet.C%)'&

[edit] !tellar coronae

<xperiments ith instruments aboard 3kylab and -opernicus have been used to search for soft D/ray emission in the energy range GB.',/B.)6, keE from stellar coronae.%))& The experiments aboard :53 succeeded in finding D/ray signals from -apella and 3irius ?S -7a@. D/ray emission from an enhanced solar/like corona as proposed for the first time.%))& The high temperature of -apellaFs corona as obtained from the first coronal D/ray spectrum of -apella using $<:! ' re=uired magnetic confinement unless it as a free/flo ing coronal ind.%)+& #n ';24/26 the first stellar D/ray flares ere observed on UR -7i, :( 8eo, <E 8ac, and >E -et in soft D/rays.%),& The thermal nature of the emission for the first explicit D/ray spectra of extrasolar flares as confirmed by the detections of the 2.4 keE Fe IS line.%)+& 8ater in ';44 Proxima -entauri as discovered to be emitting high/energy radiation in the D>E. #n ';46, S -en as identified as a lo /activity coronal source.%)1& With the operation of the <instein observatory, D/ray emission as recogni"ed as a characteristic feature common to a ide range of stars covering essentially the hole $ert"sprung/0ussell diagram.%)1& The 0!3:T

:ll/3ky survey identified tens of thousands of coronal sources.%)1& The <instein initial survey led to significant insights:

D/ray sources abound among all types of stars, across the $ert"sprung/0ussell diagram and across most stages of evolution, the D/ray luminosities and their distribution along the main se=uence ere not in agreement ith the long/favored acoustic heating theories, but ere no interpreted as the effect of magnetic coronal heating, and stars that are other ise similar reveal large differences in their D/ray output if their rotation period is different.%)+&

To fit the medium/resolution spectrum of >D :ri, subsolar abundances ere re=uired.%)+& D/ray activity in solar/like main se=uence stars is strongly correlated ith the period of stellar rotation.%)1& The faster the rotation, the higher the D/ray luminosity. Further, the higher the D/ray activity, the hotter the coronae. 3tar formation regions as a hole, and individual stars such as T Tauri stars have been detected as strong and unexpectedly variable D/ray sources, including the presence of strong flares.%)+& -oronae are ubi=uitous among the stars in the cool half of the $ert"sprung/0ussell diagram.%)+& 3tellar D/ray astronomy is contributing to ard a deeper understanding of

magnetic fields in magnetohydrodynamic dynamos, the release of energy in tenuous astrophysical plasmas through various plasma/physical processes, and the interactions of high/energy radiation ith the stellar environment.%)+&

-urrent isdom has it that the massive coronal main se=uence stars are late/: or early F stars, a conAecture that is supported both by observation and by theory.%)+&

[edit] .nstable winds

.iven the lack of a significant outer convection "one, theory predicts the absence of a magnetic dynamo in earlier : stars.%)+& #n early stars of spectral type ! and *, shocks developing in unstable inds are the likely source of D/rays.%)+&

[edit] Coolest ( dwarfs

*eyond spectral type 71, the classical SV dynamo can no longer operate as the internal structure of d arf stars changes significantly: they become fully convective.%)+& :s a distributed ?or S)@ dynamo may become relevant, both the magnetic flux on the surface and the topology of the magnetic fields in the corona should systematically change across this transition, perhaps resulting in some discontinuities in the D/ray characteristics around spectral class d71.%)+&

$o ever, observations do not seem to support this picture: long/time lo est/mass D/ray detection, E* 6 ?74e E@, has sho n steady emission at levels of D/ray luminosity ?.D@ W 'B)2 ergXsY' ?'B'; W@ and flares up to an order of magnitude higher.%)+& -omparison ith other late 7 d arfs sho s a rather continuous trend.%)+&

[edit] !tron" -ray emission from )erbi" +e/Be stars

$erbig :eH*e stars are pre/main se=uence stars. :s to their D/ray emission properties, some are

reminiscent of hot stars, others point to coronal activity as in cool stars, in particular the presence of flares and very high temperatures.%)+&

The nature of these strong emissions has remained controversial ith models including

unstable stellar inds, colliding inds, magnetic coronae, disk coronae, ind/fed magnetospheres, accretion shocks, the operation of a shear dynamo, the presence of unkno n late/type companions.%)+&

[edit] 0 "iants
The FI -om stars are giants of spectral type I ith an unusually rapid rotation and signs of extreme activity. Their D/ray coronae are among the most luminous ?.D Z 'B+) ergXsY' or 'B)1 W@ and the hottest kno n ith dominant temperatures up to ,B 7I.%)+& $o ever, the current popular hypothesis involves a merger of a close binary system in hich the orbital angular momentum of the companion is transferred to the primary. %)+& Pollux is the brightest star in the constellation .emini, despite its *eta designation, and the '4th brightest in the sky. Pollux is a giant orange I star that makes an interesting color contrast ith its hite Ct inC, -astor. <vidence has been found for a hot, outer, magnetically supported corona around Pollux, and the star is kno n to be an D/ray emitter.%)2&

[edit] +mateur -ray astronomy

-ollectively, amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial obAects and phenomena sometimes ith e=uipment that they build themselves. The >nited 3tates :ir Force :cademy

?>3:F:@ is the home of the >3Fs only undergraduate satellite program, and has and continues to develop the Falcon8aunch sounding rockets.%)4& #n addition to any direct amateur efforts to put D/ ray astronomy payloads into space, there are opportunities that allo student/developed experimental payloads to be put on board commercial sounding rockets as a free/of/charge ride.
%)6&

There are maAor limitations to amateurs observing and reporting experiments in D/ray astronomy: the cost of building an amateur rocket or balloon to place a detector high enough and the cost of appropriate parts to build a suitable D/ray detector.

[edit] +mateur rocketry

-3DTH.oFast sounding rocket launch, 7ay '4, )BB,. "ee also! Amateur roc%etr$ The 0eaction 0esearch 3ociety on 5ovember )+, ';;2 launched a solid fueled rocket, designed by longtime member .eorge .arboden, to an altitude of 6B km ?1B miles@ from *lack 0ock (esert in 5evada.%);& !n 7ay '4, )BB, -ivilian 3pace eDploration Team ?-3DT@ successfully launched the first amateur high/po er rocket into space, achieving an altitude of ''1 km ?4) miles@.%+B&

[edit] +mateur balloonin"

The :mateur 0adio $igh :ltitude *allooning movement is a group of amateurs launching latex eather balloons to altitudes of )1 to +1 km. The usual flight time is around )L+ hours, but experiments ith "ero/pressure balloons, superpressure balloons, and valved latex balloons have extended flight times to more than ), hours. -urrently, payloads consist of tracking e=uipment, sensors, data loggers, cameras, amateur television ?:TE@ transmitters or other scientific experiments. :s yet no one has placed an D/ray detector onboard ith appropriate orienting e=uipment.

[edit] +mateur detectors

--(s are available for detectors and spectrographs.%+'& For normal incidence or glancing angle incidence, the main cost limitation is the telescope D/ray optics.

[edit] )istory of -ray astronomy

ain article! /istor$ o) &'ra$ astronom$ #n ';)4, <.!. $ulburt of the >3 5aval 0esearch 8aboratory and associates .regory *reit and 7erle Tuve of the -arnegie #nstitution of Washington explored the possibility of e=uipping 0obert $. .oddardFs rockets to explore the upper atmosphere. CT o years later, he proposed an experimental program in hich a rocket might be instrumented to explore the upper atmosphere, including detection of ultraviolet radiation and D/rays at high altitudes.C%+)& #n the late ';+Bs, the presence of a very hot, tenuous gas surrounding the 3un as inferred indirectly from optical coronal lines of highly ioni"ed species.%)+& The 3un has been kno n to be surrounded by a hot tenuous corona.%++& #n the mid/';,Bs radio observations revealed a radio corona around the 3un.%)+&

508 scientists J. (. Purcell, -. U. Johnson, and (r. F. 3. Johnson among those recovering instruments from a E/) used for upper atmospheric research above the 5e 7exico desert. This is E/) number 1,, launched January '6, ';1' ?photo by (r. 0ichard Tousey, 508@. The beginning of the search for D/ray sources from above the <arthFs atmosphere as on :ugust 1, ';,6 '):B4 .7T. : >3 :rmy ?formerly .erman@ E/) rocket as part of ProAect $ermes as launched from White 3ands Proving .rounds. The first solar D/rays ere recorded by T. *urnight.%+,& Through the ';2Bs, 4Bs, 6Bs, and ;Bs, the sensitivity of detectors increased greatly during the 2B years of D/ray astronomy. #n addition, the ability to focus D/rays has developed enormously[ allo ing the production of high/=uality images of many fascinating celestial obAects.

[edit] (a'or 1uestions in -ray astronomy

[edit] !tellar ma"netic fields
7agnetic fields are ubi=uitous among stars, yet e do not understand precisely hy, nor have e fully understood the be ildering variety of plasma physical mechanisms that act in stellar environments.%)+&

[edit] *xtrasolar -ray source astrometry

ain article! ,-trasolar &'ra$ source astrometr$ With the initial detection of an extrasolar D/ray source, the first =uestion usually asked is CWhat is the sourceTC :n extensive search is often made in other avelengths such as visible or radio for possible coincident obAects. 7any of the verified D/ray locations still do not have readily discernible sources. D/ray astrometry becomes a serious concern that results in ever greater demands for finer angular resolution and spectral radiance. There are inherent difficulties in making D/rayHoptical, D/rayHradio, and D/rayHD/ray identifications based solely on positional coincidents, especially ith handicaps in making identifications, such as the large uncertainties in positional determinants made from balloons and rockets, poor source separation in the cro ded region to ard the galactic center, source variability, and the multiplicity of source nomenclature.%+1& Dray source counterparts to stars can be identified by calculating the angular separation bet een source centroids and position of the star. The maximum allo able separation is a compromise bet een a larger value to identify as many real matches as possible and a smaller value to minimi"e the probability of spurious matches. C:n adopted matching criterion of ,BC finds nearly all possible Dray source matches hile keeping the probability of any spurious matches in the sample to +M.C%+2&

[edit] !olar -ray astronomy

ain article! "olar &'ra$ astronom$ [edit] Coronal heatin" &roblem #n the area of solar D/ray astronomy, there is the coronal heating problem. The photosphere of the 3un has an effective temperature of 1,14B I%+4& yet its corona has an average temperature of '/) \ 'B2 I.%+6& $o ever, the hottest regions are 6/)B \ 'B2 I.%+6& The high temperature of the corona sho s that it is heated by something other than direct heat conduction from the photosphere.%+;& #t is thought that the energy necessary to heat the corona is provided by turbulent motion in the convection "one belo the photosphere, and t o main mechanisms have been proposed to explain coronal heating.%+6& The first is ave heating, in hich sound, gravitational or magnetohydrodynamic aves are produced by turbulence in the convection "one.%+6& These aves travel up ard and dissipate in the corona, depositing their energy in the ambient gas in the form of heat.%,B& The other is magnetic heating, in hich magnetic energy is continuously built up by photospheric motion and released through magnetic reconnection in the form of large solar flares and myriad similar but smaller events[nanoflares.%,'& -urrently, it is unclear hether aves are an efficient heating mechanism. :ll aves except :lfv]n aves have been found to dissipate or refract before reaching the corona.%,)& #n addition, :lfv]n aves do not easily dissipate in the corona. -urrent research focus has therefore shifted to ards flare heating mechanisms.%+6& [edit] Coronal mass e'ection : coronal mass eAection ?-7<@ is an eAected plasma consisting primarily of electrons and protons ?in addition to small =uantities of heavier elements such as helium, oxygen, and iron@, plus the entraining coronal closed magnetic field regions. <volution of these closed magnetic structures in response to various photospheric motions over different time scales ?convection, differential rotation, meridional circulation@ someho leads to the -7<.%,+& 3mall/scale energetic signatures such as plasma heating ?observed as compact soft D/ray brightening@ may be indicative of impending -7<s. The soft D/ray sigmoid ?an 3/shaped intensity of soft D/rays@ is an observational manifestation of the connection bet een coronal structure and -7< production.%,+& C0elating the sigmoids at D/ray ?and other@ avelengths to magnetic structures and current systems in the solar atmosphere is the key to understanding their relationship to -7<s.C%,+&

[edit] *xotic -ray sources

ain article! Astroph$sical &'ra$ source "ee also! (e &'ra$ binaries

: micro=uasar is a smaller cousin of a =uasar that is a radio emitting D/ray binary, ith an often resolvable pair of radio Aets. 83#^2'O+B+ is a periodic, radio/emitting binary system that is also the gamma/ray source, -.'+1^B'. There are a gro ing number of recurrent D/ray transients, characteri"ed by short outbursts ith very fast rise times ?tens of minutes@ and typical durations of a fe hours that are associated ith !* supergiants and hence define a ne class of massive D/ray binaries: 3upergiant Fast D/ray Transients ?3FDTs@. !bservations made by -handra indicate the presence of loops and rings in the hot D/ray emitting gas that surrounds 7essier 64. : ma"netar is a type of neutron star ith an extremely po erful magnetic field, the decay of hich po ers the emission of copious amounts of high/energy electromagnetic radiation, particularly D/rays and gamma rays.

[edit] -ray dark stars

ain article! Astroph$sical &'ra$ source "ee also! "upergiant (uring the solar cycle, as sho n in the se=uence of images of the 3un in D/rays, the 3un is almost D/ray dark, almost an D/ray variable. *etelgeuse, on the other hand, appears to be al ays D/ray dark. $ardly any D/rays are emitted by red giants. There is a rather abrupt onset of D/ray emission around spectral type :4/FB, ith a large range of luminosities developing across spectral class F. :ltair is spectral type :4E and Eega is :BE. :ltairFs total D/ray luminosity is at least an order of magnitude larger than the D/ray luminosity for Eega. The outer convection "one of early F stars is expected to be very shallo and absent in :/type d arfs, yet the acoustic flux from the interior reaches a maximum for late : and early F stars provoking investigations of magnetic activity in :/type stars along three principal lines. -hemically peculiar stars of spectral type *p or :p are appreciable magnetic radio sources, most *pH:p stars remain undetected, and of those reported early on as producing D/rays only fe of them can be identified as probably single stars. D/ray observations offer the possibility to detect ?D/ray dark@ planets as they eclipse part of the corona of their parent star hile in transit. C3uch methods are particularly promising for lo /mass stars as a Jupiter/like planet could eclipse a rather significant coronal area.C

[edit] -ray dark &lanet/comet

ain article! &'ra$ dar% planet D/ray observations offer the possibility to detect ?D/ray dark@ planets as they eclipse part of the corona of their parent star hile in transit. C3uch methods are particularly promising for lo / mass stars as a Jupiter/like planet could eclipse a rather significant coronal area.C%)+& :s D/ray detectors have become more sensitive, they have observed that some planets and other normally D/ray non/luminescent celestial obAects under certain conditions emit, fluoresce, or reflect D/rays.

[edit] Comet 2ulin

ain article! Comet .ulin

-omet 8ulin as passing through the constellation 8ibra hen 3 ift imaged it on January )6, )BB;. This image merges data ac=uired by 3 iftFs >ltravioletH!ptical Telescope ?blue and green@ and D/0ay Telescope ?red@. :t the time of the observation, the comet as ;;.1 million miles from <arth and ''1.+ million miles from the 3un. 5:3:Fs 3 ift .amma/ray <xplorer satellite as monitoring -omet 8ulin as it closed to 2+ .m of <arth. For the first time, astronomers can see simultaneous >E and D/ray images of a comet. CThe solar ind[a fast/moving stream of particles from the sun[interacts ith the cometFs broader cloud of atoms. This causes the solar ind to light up ith D/rays, and thatFs hat 3 iftFs D0T seesC, said 3tefan #mmler, of the .oddard 3pace Flight -enter. This interaction, called charge exchange, results in D/rays from most comets hen they pass ithin about three times <arthFs distance from the sun. *ecause 8ulin is so active, its atomic cloud is especially dense. :s a result, the D/ray/emitting region extends far sun ard of the comet.%,1&

[edit] !in"le -ray stars

#n addition to the 3un there are many unary stars or star systems throughout the galaxy that emit D/rays. _ $ydri ?.) #E@ is a normal single, post main/se=uence subgiant star, Teff ` 16BB I. #t exhibits coronal D/ray fluxes.%,2& The benefit of studying single stars is that it allo s measurements free of any effects of a companion or being a part of a multiple star system. Theories or models can be more readily tested. 3ee, e.g., *etelgeuse, 0ed giants, and Eega and :ltair.