UNIVERSITATEA LIBER INTERNAIONAL DIN MOLDOVA FACULTATEA DE LITERE CATEDRA FILOLOGIE GERMANIC

Acta didactica
Materialele Seminarului metodologic Interconexiunea paradigmelor didactice i metodologice n predarea limbilor strine din 25 ianuarie 2012
(Ediia a II-a)

CHIINU, 2012

Director publicaie: Ludmila HOMETKOVSKI, conf. univ. dr. Redactor-ef: Inga STOIANOVA, conf. univ. dr. Redacie: Olga DIMO, lect. sup. univ., master Zinaida CAMENEVA, conf. univ. dr. Ghenadie RBACOV, lect. sup. univ., drd. Zinaida RADU, dr. conf. univ. Ana MIHALACHI, conf. univ. dr. Procesare computerizat: Ghenadie RBACOV, lect. sup. univ., drd.

Volumul a fost recomandat spre publicare de Senatul ULIM, Proces-verbal nr. 8 din 24 aprilie 2012. Interconexiunea paradigmelor didactice i metodologice n predarea limbilor strine, seminar metodologic (2012; Chiinu). Interconexiunea paradigmelor didactice i metodologice n predarea limbilor strine : Materialele Seminarului metodologic cu participare intern. din 25 ian. 2012 /dir. publ.: Ludmila Hometkovski; red.-ef: Inga Stoianova. Ch.: ULIM, 2013. 271 p. Antet.: Univ. Liber Intern. din Moldova, Fac. de Litere. Bibliogr. la sfritul art. 100 ex. ISBN 978-9975-101-76-9.37.016:811'243(082) I-58

ULIM, 2012 2

CUPRINS Eufrosinia AXENTI, Claudia PRIGORSCHI, Mihail PRIGORSCHI. La perspective actionelle une mthode cooprative dans le processus denseignement/apprentissage de la langue franaise ...................................................................................................................................... Natalia BEJENU. Rolul i specificul vorbirii ca activitate integratoare n studierea unei limbi strine ........................................................ Andrei BOLFOSU. The Usage of Informational Technologies in the Process of English Language Teaching/Learning...................... Tatiana BUSHNAQ, Zinaida CAMENEVA. Recognizing Phraseological Units while Working with Literature .............................. Zinaida CAMENEVA. Teaching Grammar in a Friendly Way Eleonora CHEIBA. On Teaching a Language........................................... Valentin CIJACOVSCHI. Sinergia lingvistic: pro et contra Valentina CIUMACENCO. Discourse Analysis and ESL Teaching ............................................................................................................................................................ Ina COLENCIUC. Teaching Literature: Approaches to Literary Analysis .............................................................................................................................................................. Margarita DAVER. ................................................................................................................................. Olga DIMO. The World of Money in its Idiomatic Reflection Galina GRINICO. ...................................................................................... Tatiana GRIAC. The Role of Motivation and Favourable Environments in Learning a Foreign Language ............................................ Iurie KRIVOTUROV. ................................................... 3

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Viorica LIFARI. Interjecia i noiunea de concept................................ Ion MANOLI. Lectur i re-lectur, citire i re-citire: dimensiuni psiho-pedagogice ................................................................................................................... Dumitru MELENCIUC. On the Problems of Teaching and Learning of the Grammatical Categories of Mood, Aspect and Anteriority ....................................................................................................................................................... Eleonora MIHAILA. La dimmension didactique de ltat de labstractisation du paradoxe dans le contexte de la littrature franaise du XXI-me sicle ..................................................................................................... Ana MIHALACHI. Educaia intercultural i provocrile lumii contemporane ............................................................................................................................ Cristina MNDRU, Elena POPOVICI. La implementacin de las nuevas technologas en la enseanza de las lenguas extranjeras ...................................................................................................................................................... R. NARANTSETSEG, S. SARANTUYA, G. ARIUNAA. Some Good Ways to Improve the Listening and Speaking Skills of Mongolian Students in English Classrooms ................................................ Rodica NECULCE. Noile tendine de influen a limbii engleze asupra limbii romne ................................................................................................ Daniela PASCARU. Fixarea i consolidarea cunotinelor prin prisma nvmntului individual ....................................................................... . Tatiana PODOLIUC. ............ Zinaida RADU. Unele sugestii despre calitate n traducere (viziune teoretic) .................................................................................................................................. Ghenadie RBACOV. La formation des traducteurs dans le contexte de linternationalisation de lenseignement suprieur 4

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Rodica RIVENCO. Beneficiile nvrii unei limbi strine ......... Alexandra RUSU. , ..................................................................................................................................................................... . ............................................................................................................................................................... Inga STOIANOVA. Subtitling Software in Teaching Audiovisual Translation ................................................................................................................................. Lilia STRUGARI. Dificulti n crearea unui curs FOS ................. Gabriela AGANEAN. Aspecte semantico-lexicale ale terminologiei din domeniul economic ......................................................................................... Vera TABUREANU. Crucial Classroom Management Issues

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LA PERSPECTIVE ACTIONNELLE UNE MTHODE COOPERATIVE DANS LE PROCESSUS DENSEIGNEMENT/ APPRENTISSAGE DE LA LANGUE FRANAISE Eufrosinia AXENTI, matre de confrences, dr., Claudia PRIGORSCHI, matre de confrences, dr., Universit dEtat de Moldavie Mihail PRIGORSCHI, matre de confrences, dr., Universit dEtudes Europennes de Moldavie Lapproche communicative depuis les annes quatre-vingts sous linfluence de lanalyse de discours de la pragmatique ou encore de la linguistique de lnonciation a pour objectif dapprendre communiquer en langue trangre. Selon lapproche communicative, apprendre une langue consiste ne pas crer des habitudes, des reflexes. Les constructions ne doivent fonctionner hors des noncs naturels de communication. Lapproche communicative prsente diverses formes linguistiques pour transmettre un mme message. On prend en compte le niveau du discours et on distingue entre cohsion (les relations existant entre deux noncs) et cohrence (les relations tablies entre les noncs et la situation extralinguistique). Aprs lapproche communicative on est maintenant depuis les annes quatre-vingt-dix dans une nouvelle approche pdagogique, la perspective actionnelle. La perspective actionnelle correspond la prise en compte dun nouvel objectif social li au progrs de lintgration europenne. Il ne sagit plus seulement de communiquer avec lautre mais dagir avec lautre en langue trangre. La perspective privilgie ici est, trs gnralement, de type actionnel en ce quelle considre avant tout lusager et lapprenant dune langue comme des acteurs sociaux ayant accomplir des tches (qui ne sont pas seulement langagires) dans des circonstances et un environnement donns, lintrieur dun domaine daction particulier. Si les actes de parole se ralisent dans des activits langagires, celles-ci sinscrivent elles-mmes lintrieur dactions en contexte social qui seules leur donnent leur pleine signification. Il y a tche dans la mesure o laction est le fait dun (ou de plusieurs) sujet(s) qui y mobilise(nt) stratgiquement les comptences dont il(s) 7

dispose(nt) en vue de parvenir un rsultat dtermin. La perspective actionnelle prend donc aussi en compte les ressources cognitives, affectives, volitives et lensemble des capacits que possde et met en uvre lacteur social [1, p. 15]. Comme le dfinit le texte, on se propose de former un acteur social . Cette conception implique de faire concider lobjectif et les moyens mis en uvre pour faire atteindre cet objectif par les lves. Cest pourquoi on tentera de faire agir lapprenant avec les autres en lui proposant des occasions dactions communes finalit collective. Cest cette dimension denjeu social authentique que diffrencie les co-actions de la simulation, technique de base utilise dans lapproche communicative pour crer artificiellement en classe des situations de simple interaction langagire entre apprenants [ 5, p. 6]. En conformit avec cette approche, on part du principe que lapprenant en langue devient un usager de la langue au mme titre que lusager natif. A cet gard, il ne perd pas sa comptence en langue-culture maternelle. La nouvelle comptence quil est en train dacqurir ne se fait pas indpendamment de la premire. Il nacquiert pas deux faons trangres dagir et de communiquer. Il devient plurilingue et apprend linterculturalit. Les comptences linguistiques et culturelles relatives chaque langue sont modifies par la connaissance de lautre et contribuent la prise de conscience interculturelle, aux habilets et aux savoir-faire [1, p. 40]. Cest pourquoi Puren (op. cit.) propose dutiliser le concept de co-action et donc de parler de perspective co-actionnelle dans la mesure o il ne sagit plus de vivre mais de faire ensemble ou de co-agir pour que llve puisse suivre ses tudes ltranger, faire une partie de sa carrire professionnelle dans un autre pays et mme y travailler. La perspective actionnelle reprend les concepts de base de lapproche communicative et y ajoute le concept de la ralisation des tches dans des diffrents contextes avec lesquels les apprenants doivent se confronter dans la vie sociale. Ainsi la perspective actionnelle essaie de passer du cadre linguistique au cadre social, autrement dit, les apprenants doivent se concentrer non seulement sur les connaissances linguistiques mais aussi sur les capacits dinteractionner avec le groupe, le collectif. La perspective actionnelle se base sur les concepts suivants : 8

- comme apprenant et utilisateur du simple processus denseignement/apprentissage on passe au processus dapprentissage action, o llve est encadr dans des activits qui exigent tant la connaissance de la langue que lutilisation de limagination, des capacits dinteraction avec le groupe ; - lapprenant est considr comme acteur social , membre actif de la socit et cette socit cest la classe ; - au centre des activits on met laccent sur la ralisation des tches, ce qui signifie la mobilisation des comptences et des ressources (stratgiques, cognitives, verbales et non-verbales) pour aboutir une russite dans la communication ; - les actions des lves se ralisent dans un certain milieu et on cre des circonstances qui imitent des situations ; - au centre de lactivit de llve se place le travail en groupe, o a lieu la collaboration et la coopration entre les apprenants et laction revt une forme collective ; - la perspective actionnelle accorde une importance majeure la culture puisque chaque situation est situe dans un milieu social, mais lapprentissage dune langue trangre impose et une interaction avec les autres cultures. En ce qui concerne la priode de transition de lapproche communicative la perspective actionnelle elle est marque par le maintient des lments propres des principes mthodologiques de lapproche communicative avec des lments dordre actionnel. Donc la perspective actionnelle ne remplace pas lapproche communicative, mais elle est une continuit de celle-l parce quelle effectue des diffrentes oprations telles que : - on gnralise les diffrentes formes possibles des actions aux leons ; - on construit des units sur la base de lunit des actions ; - on utilise des documents dans le service de laction et non seulement des tches dans le service des documents; - on dveloppe diffrentes comptences communicatives : comprhension orale et crite expression orale et crite dans le service de laction et non seulement dans le service de la communication ; - on ralise des activits de mdiation entre diverses langues et non seulement de communication dans une seule langue trangre. Le Cadre Europen Commun de rfrence pour les langues (CECRL) place lenseignement/apprentissage dans une perspective 9

de type actionnel, cest--dire que lutilisateur de la langue est considr comme un acteur social qui va agir dans les grands domaines de la vie sociale (personnel, ducationnel, public). Dans chacun de ces domaines il sera confront diffrents contextes . Par exemple, dans sa vie personnelle et relationnelle cest assister un mariage ; dans sa vie professionnelle cest faire un stage de formation etc. Ces contextes dtermineront un certain nombre de situations. Par exemple, assister un mariage o on suppose quon rponde une invitation, quon fasse un cadeau, quon shabille, quon flicite les maris etc. De ces situations dcouleront des tches comme : rdiger un mot dacceptation ou de refus, ou tlphoner pour remercier. Ces tches pourront donc tre langagires : fliciter les jeunes maris, ou non langagires dans un plan de table, et bien sr ces tches mettront en uvre : des savoirs (des rites du mariage du milieu social dans lequel on va voluer) : des savoir-faire (faire un petit discours) ; des savoirtre (tout le monde se rencontre, sembrasse, etc.) ; des savoir-apprendre (la capacit des invits sadapter ces diffrentes situations). Dans lhistoire de la didactique des langues-cultures trangres toutes les mthodologies ont eu leur propre perspective actionnelle : toutes se sont constitues en fonction dun certain agir dusage de rfrence, et il se trouve que la tche dapprentissage de rfrence a toujours t conue dans une relation dhomologie maximale avec cet agir social . En dautres termes, on a toujours privilgi en classe le type de tche qui correspondait le mieux au type daction auquel on prparait les lves [4, p. 39]. Les diffrentes mthodologies qui se sont succdes rpondaient des objectifs diffrents, par exemple, la mthodologie traditionnelle privilgiait la traduction donc elle avait pour action la formation ; la mthodologie directe et la mthodologie active utilisaient laction individuelle ; audio orale et socio-globalo-audio-visuelle la communication, tandis que lapproche communicative prnait pour linteraction et enfin la perspective actionnelle prconise la co-action . Christian Puren (2006) distingue lapproche communicative de la perspective actionnelle en opposant les caractristiques de chacune : les quatre caractristiques de lapproche communicative sont : linchoativit (les conversations ont lieu entre les lves comme sils ne se connaissaient pas avant comme sils navaient rien en commun ; la brivet (dialogues artificiels et courts) ; lautosuffisance (unit 10

de temps de lieu, de personnages et daction dans les conversations) ; lindividualit (communication sur le mode interindividuel). Tandis que la perspective actionnelle privilgie la centration sur le groupe ; lapprenant est un acteur social ; les apprenants accomplissent des actions relles authentiques ; on sencadre dans diffrents projets ; les actions des apprenants sont collectives telles que la prise de la dcision, de la ngociation, la mise en commun et la production. Il ny a plus recours la simulation, mais les tches sont conues comme des projets sociaux. Dans lapproche communicative on cherche recevoir et transmettre le maximum dinformation, en simulant des situations relles dans la classe, alors que dans la perspective actionnelle linformation en fonction de ce que lon fait (slection de linformation pertinente, labandon de celle juge nonpertinente, reprage de celle qui manque) en utilisant la langue dans un but particulier [7]. Comme on a vu la tche est le fondement de la perspective actionnelle. On utilise les tches comme units organisationnelles pour ordonner les objectifs ou encore pour favoriser limplication et la motivation de lapprenant. Lutilisation des tches est considre comme loccasion de crer un contexte social dans lequel les apprenants peuvent sentraner lutilisation de la langue de la vie relle grce linteraction avec des pairs. Quant sa dfinition, une tche est une activit que les apprenants doivent raliser consciemment que se soit des tches complexes ou simples. Par exemple, pour rsumer un document crit les apprenants devront rechercher successivement le sens des mots et des expressions inconnus, slectionner les ides essentielles, les articuler entre elles, rdiger et enfin contrler la correction linguistique en langue, ainsi que ladquation des ides par rapport au texte original [4]. Dici rsulte que la tche communicative est au centre de la perspective actionnelle. Ainsi la tche est un ensemble structur dactivits devant faire sens pour lapprenant en se confrontant un support authentique par des activits de comprhension, de production dinteraction, cest une vise pragmatique tant privilgie par rapport la forme linguistique [2, p. 234]. 11

Pourtant la nature des tches peut tre varie et exiger plus ou moins dactivits langagires [1, p. 121]. Si jusqu' prsent la tche a t conue comme une tche communicative, dans le CECRL au contraire, est dfinie comme tche toute vise actionnelle que lacteur se reprsente comme devant parvenir un rsultat donn en fonction dun problme rsoudre, une obligation remplir, dun but quon sest fix [1, p. 16]. Donc dans cette dfinition la tche ne se situe pas dans le systme de communication, mais dans un systme daction. Le CECRL considre la tche comme un faire social qui ne se limite pas au langagier (exemple de dplacer une armoire). La mission essentielle de llve, acteur de son propre apprentissage, cest de parvenir rsoudre un problme. Ici la tche est lie une activit de transfert, elle mobilise des comptences gnrales individuelles et des comptences communicatives. Voyons quelles sont les caractristiques principales de la tche : - la tche est contextuelle dans une situation authentique ; - elle a un objectif bien dfini et un produit final concret ; - la tche ncessite une stratgie et une planification pralable ; - elle offre llve de la libert pour appliquer en pratique les ressources disponibles. Lexcution dune tche par lapprenant suppose la mise en uvre des comptences donnes, afin de mener bien un ensemble dactions finalises dans un certain domaine avec un but dfini et un produit particulier. Dans la littrature de spcialit on classifie les tches de manire suivante. Tout dabord ce sont : les tches dapprentissages ; Ces tches sont divises en sous-tches lies lobservation de la langue, la conceptualisation, la mmorisation, lautomatisation des formes linguistiques ainsi que de mise en place des stratgies de comprhension et de production o seront utiliss des exercices (apprendre la conjugaison de quelques verbes, en utilisant de petits dialogues) ; la grammaire ou le vocabulaire est abord selon la pdagogie de la dcouverte qui rend lapprenant actif. Cest lui qui doit dduire la rgle partir des activits concrtes dans la socit de la classe. On distingue les tches organises partir de projets. Le projet est ralis par tapes, chacune de ces tapes correspondra 12

 une tche concrte qui permettra de mettre en uvre les lments linguistiques dj connues et den susciter dautres. Un exemple de projet collectif cest lorganisation de la semaine francophone, dun voyage virtuel, etc. Un projet est donc une incitation rechercher des informations en dehors de la classe. Il dbouche sur une ralisation concrte et qui suscite une mulation entre les apprenants. Enfin, ce sont les tches dune simulation partir dune histoire dialogue. Comme support peut tre utilis un article de presse annonant le rachat de lentreprise, le curriculum vitae de quelquun, etc. Ce matriel ne sert pas ni de dclencheur la leon, ni de support pour introduire des matriaux grammaticaux. Ils sont utiliss pour observer les enchanements dialogus, les diffrentes formulations des actes de parole en fonction des variables situationnelles et le comportement des apprenants. La simulation prpare les apprenants raliser une suite de tches spcifiques un voyage virtuel en voiture dans un pays francophone, connatre et prsenter les documents officiels (savoir culturel), savoir sexpliquer en matire de conduite, en cas dincident technique ou de panne (savoir faire, production orale), comprendre les informations concernant la circulation et la mto (comprhension orale), connatre les spcificits franaises en matire de conduite automobile (savoir et savoir comportemental), faire une rclamation pour un service non conforme au cours du voyage (production crite) ; apprendre rserver une chambre dhtel, acheter un billet de train, demander son chemin dans la rue, sadresser au bureau dinformation pour prendre lavion, etc. Ce s actions lui donneront loccasion dtre un vritable acteur dans la socit de parler, et dvelopperont des stratgies dinteractions et lapprenant aurait plus de confiance en soi-mme. Donc, sur la base de la distinction indispensable entre usage et apprentissage la tche cest comme ce que lon fait en tant quapprenant, laction ce que lon fait en tant quusager o la socit est comme domaine dactions finalit sociale et la classe comme domaine de tches finalit didactique (apprentissage/enseignement), comme lieu de conception et de ralisation dactions finalit sociale). Ainsi une tche fournit un contexte, une raison sociale pour acqurir une langue. Elle se prsente comme une srie dactivits qui aboutit un produit final destin tre prsent oralement ou par 13

crit et adresse un public rel. Dune part elle donne un produit, dautre part elle engendre un processus. Ces acquis au niveau des processus sajoutent au produit final. La tche rsulte dun apprentissage coopratif, o les apprenants qui travaillent en petits groupes rencontrent des problmes de communication. Ils essaient dabord de les rsoudre entre eux parce quils rencontrent des difficults et cest le moment quand intervient lenseignant qui peut leur donner quelques pistes, dinterroger les autres groupes. Lenseignant observe les apprenants pour les encourager et pour donner du feed-back. Il installe un climat de confiance, il insiste que tous les apprenants aient des progrs. Finalement, lapprentissage coopratif est une responsabilit partage, parce que chaque membre pourrait prsenter des rsultats et des acquis du travail en commun. Dans la perspective actionnelle de lenseignement/apprentissage des langues, les tches collectives sont privilgies par rapport aux tches individuelles. De cette manire lapprenant peut spanouir et de trouver sa place au sein du groupe tout en mettant en valeur sa personnalit et ses propres comptences. Aussi lapprenant fait preuve dautonomie et assume de la responsabilit. Lobjectif dun groupe collaboratif est ainsi centr sur le processus et non sur le produit final. La coopration et la collaboration se distinguent donc par la nature de lautonomie laisse lapprenant, et par les objectifs diffrents, la premire tant oriente vers le produit, la seconde vers le processus. En effet, on peut constater plus dautonomie de lapprenant dans la coopration, et plus dautonomie du groupe dans la collaboration pour les deux cas vis--vis de lenseignant [3, p. 76]. Par exemple, pour un projet dcriture collective dun conte, chaque groupe a une tche accomplir pour raliser le projet (un groupe a la description des personnages) et dans chaque groupe il peut y avoir une rpartition des tches entre chaque apprenant : un lve va dcrire le personnage malfique, un autre le personnage positif etc. Comme exemple de projet pdagogique, la forme privilgie de la relation entre agir dusage et agir dapprentissage nous propose un projet dorganisation dun voyage virtuel o sont dfinis les objectifs atteindre par les apprenants comme acteurs sociaux assist par Internet. Ce tableau est repris de Christian Rodier avec quelques modifications. 14

BIBLIOGRAPHIE 1. Cadre Europen Commun de Rfrence pour les langues. Apprendre, enseigner, valuer. Paris : Didier, 2001. 2. Cuq J.-P. Dictionnaire de didactique du franais. Paris : Cl Internationale, 2003. 3. Nissen E. Apprendre une langue en ligne dans une perspective actionnelle. Strasbourg : Thse, 2003. 4. Puren Ch. La nouvelle perspective actionnelle de lagir social. www.christianpuren.com (consult 28.02.2012). 5. Puren Ch. Pour une didactique compare des langues-cultures, Etudes de Linguistique Applique N129, Paris, 2003. 6. Rodier Ch. La perspective actionnelle : volution ou rvolution ? www.edufle.net/La-perspective-actionnelle.html (consult 17.02.2012). 7. Rosen E. La perspective actionnelle et lapproche par les tches en classe de langue. In : Le franais dans le monde, Recherches et Applications, no 45, janvier 2009.

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Etapes tre expos Dcouvrir un la langue pays relle francophone

Objectifs actionnels

Objectifs sociaux

Objectifs Objectifs Objectifs Outils utiliss communicatifs linguistiques interculturels

Comptences Comptences sociales linguistiques

Organisation Organiser un dun voyage voyage, virtuel dans un utiliser pays internet francophone Dcrire, sinformer, dfendre un point de vue, convaincre, argumenter Reprer le nom des villes et des lieux visiter Reprer le nom des villes et des lieux visiter savoirs et comptences collectifs et individuels Internet : sites des offices de tourisme, encyclopdies en ligne, moteurs de recherche Travail en groupes, coute, entraide

Travailler ensemble, sappuyer sur les comptences et savoirs individuels et collectifs

1- Choix du pays

Chercher, classer et rapporter des informations

Travailler ensemble, faire un choix parmi plusieurs propositions

Sexprimer en franais, parler dun pays, dfendre un point de vue

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Dcouvrir le pays, les habitudes culturelles

2Choisir des Ngocier dans le Argumenter un Organisation horaires, un groupe pour choix, prsenter du voyage mode de choisir le trajet, un lieu, un transport, un le circuit monument circuit, organiser la prsentation pour la rendre attrayante

savoirs et comptTravail en ences collectifs et groupes, individuels coute, Internet : sites des entraide, agences de voyages, ngociation sites des compagnies ariennes ou ferroviaires, sites des offices de tourisme savoirs et comptences collectifs et individuels Internet : blogues, sites personnels ou officiels des villes et lieux des visites,

Sexprimer en franais, prsenter un lieu ou un monument, prsenter un trajet, expliquer un choix

3- La visite

crire un rcit Ngocier dans le Raconter, dcrire, groupe (pour les exprimer gots et formes gram- motions maticales et lexicales, pour le contenu), scouter, sentraider

ROLUL I SPECIFICUL VORBIRII CA ACTIVITATE INTEGRATOARE N STUDIEREA UNEI LIMBI STRINE Natalia BEJENU, lect. sup. univ., master, Universitatea Liber Internaional din Moldova Audierea, vorbirea, citirea, scrierea sunt activiti integratoare n procesul de studiere a limbilor strine. Sunt producii ale gndirii omeneti traverseaz momente de gndire, descoperire, redescoperire, contientizare, automatizare, atitudine subiectiv, din care e format produsul cognitiv. Audiind, vorbind, scriind i citind dm via acestui produs. Fr aceste activiti actul cunoaterii, nvrii n-ar fi purttorul comunicrii. Vorbirea este o form de manifestare a limbii, cu ajutorul creia are loc procesul comunicrii interpersonale. Aceast activitate este generat de contientizarea necesitii de comunicare n vederea satisfacerii cerinelor psihosociale. Pentru o comunicare interpersonal e nevoie de formarea deprinderilor de vorbire oral i de dezvoltarea fluiditii verbale. Din acest considerent, actul vorbirii presupune stpnirea limbajului la toate nivelurile limbii: fonologic, gramatical, lexical, i sintactic, nlturarea barierelor generale i a inhibiiilor involuntare i desigur, posedarea deprinderilor de gndire n limba de studiu. Vorbirea este o activitate creatoare cu deprinderi totale de limb, care decurge logic, coerent i care, mpreun cu audierea, asigur actul comunicrii verbale. Cu ajutorul ei se vor dobndi, cu mai mult uurin, celelalte deprinderi eseniale: citirea i scrierea. Printre formele de interaciune uman, vorbirea ocup un rol esenial datorit importantelor valene cognitive, formative i reglatoare pe care le comport. i anume: - activeaz procesul de asimilare a sistemului i a subsistemelor limbii ca mijloc de comunicare; - informeaz despre tradiiile, istoria, cultura vorbitorilor limbii int; - solicit procesele intelectuale, crend o stare afectiv, favorabil unei activiti lingvistice de predare/nvare eficiente; - solicit diverse trsturi ale personalitii: intelectuale, morale, estetice, n baza varietii tematice a activitii de vorbire i a modului n care este dirijat; 17

- solicit exersarea organului fonator al vorbirii n scopul asigurrii unei pronunii clare; - activeaz mbogirea vocabularului, nsuirea corect a sensului cuvintelor i introducerea acestora n structuri corecte de limb; - sporete adaptarea rapid a studenilor la specificul limbii; - nltur dificultile de exprimare liber a impresiilor, observaiilor sau a opiniilor; - stimuleaz ncrederea n posibilitile de a relata aspecte din experiena personal. Vorbirea este un proces interactiv care implic mecanisme complexe, fenomene verbale i nonverbale n conformitate cu elementele contextului situaional (sociale, psihologice, culturale). Vorbirea este ,,actul pe care se sprijin o bun parte a predrii: act a crui stpnire constituie unul dintre principalele obiective ale nvrii n domeniul limbajului (Jean-Marie Doutreloux). Dezvoltarea vorbirii include formarea deprinderilor de vorbire monologat i dialogat. Fiecare tip de vorbire are particularitile sale psihologice i lingvistice. Pentru o bun organizare a activitii de vorbire la lecii trebuie luat n considerare faptul c vorbirea are diverse aspecte: imitarea realitii (de ex. alctuirea unui dialog n baza cuvintelor-cheie), simularea activitii de vorbire n situaii reale de comunicare (de ex. jocul de rol) i vorbirea autentic (exprimarea de la persoana I, exprimarea opiniei). Formnd competenele de vorbire, trebuie s tindem spre un nivel de comunicare autentic. Modalitile de formare a vorbirii monologate au, de cele mai multe ori, un caracter de reproducere, pe cnd competenele vorbirii dialogate se bazeaz pe moda litile de producere i reproducere actic. Pentru predarea-nvarea vorbirii dialogate prin modaliti reproductive i productive active pot fi recomandate exerciii de reproducere a unui dialog-model, schimbarea sau includerea unor replici, alctuirea unui dialog n baza unor replici sau a unor cuvinte cheie, ntrebri i rspunsuri,nscenarea dialogului, ncheierea unui dialog, reconstituirea dialogului n baza unor replici dispersate. Dezvoltarea deprinderilor de vorbire la nivel de reproducere poate fi realizat prin expunerea monologat n baza unor modele, unor cuvinte cheie, unui plan, unei scheme logice, unor propoziii, algoritmuri, unui stimul, unor imbolduri verbale etc. 18

Care sunt modalitile productive i reproductive utilizate n procesul dezvoltrii vorbirii dialogate i vorbirii monologate? Exerciiile de acest tip pot avea un caracter creativ neformal. De exemplu, studenilor li se propune s alctuiasc un dialog caracteristic unei anumite situaii de comunicare n cadrul creia se urmrete realizarea unei sarcini comunicative. Pentru aceasta profesorul distribuie fiecrui grup fie ce conin replici corespunztoare situaiilor de vorbire i replici ce nu corespund situaiilor i sarcinilor comunicative. Studenii trebuie s determine nu numai consecutivitatea i logica de dezvoltare a dialogului, dar i s gseasc replicile ce corespund situaiilor (Gid-saw). n ceea ce privete exerciiile productive, acestea sunt ntr-o msur mai mic dirijate de profesor sau de manual. Scopul lor este s-i nvee pe studeni s produc, fr a li se propune un model, replici sau cuvinte-cheie. Aceasta e, de fapt, reproducerea activ, care pune problema ca informaia primit s treac prin filiera opiniei studentului, opinie bazat pe experiena lui de via. ns nu trebuie s se creeze impresia c operaionalizarea tehnicilor productive are o orientare bazat doar pe obiectivul de dezvoltare a capacitilor de vorbire, iar cele reproductive doar pe coninut. n procesul vorbirii fiecare subiect i gsete rolul ntr-o interaciune constant i structurat. Totui acei doi subieci i asum rolul n funcie de msura, care fiecare recunoate i percepe situaia de vorbire. n aceast interaciune apar situaii deschise, ce cuprind replica, dialogul, conversaia, discuia, adic vorbirea dialogat i situaii nchise, fr interlocutor, situaii mai puin active de comunicare, realizate prin povestire, repovestire, memorare, descriere, descoperire, improvizare. Aceasta este vorbirea monologat. Att vorbirea monologat ct i cea dialogat sunt modaliti de nsuire a activitii de vorbire n care scopul principal este formarea i dezvoltarea capacitilor de vorbire. Aceste modaliti pot asigura, n msur mai mic sau mai mare, exersarea liber a actului vorbirii de ctre studeni. Exersarea verbalizrii libere creeaz premisele depirii dificul tilor de adaptare a vorbirii la necesitile de comunicare n limba int, stimuleaz ncrederea studenilor n posibilitatea de a relata aspecte din experiena personal, impresiile i observaiile pe care leau fcut asupra realitii n mijlocul creia triesc i desfoar activitatea. 19

Dialogul este o modalitate de dinamizare a celor mai frecvente structuri verbale care faciliteaz activitatea de vorbire. Dialogul este axat pe un schimb de ntrebri i rspunsuri Pentru nsuirea eficient a vorbirii dialogate e important s se in cont de nivelurile de cunoatere a limbii. Astfel, pentru etapa iniial e recomandabil s fie nsuite: replici complete, expresii de bucurie, de satisfacie, de admiraie, de aprobare sau dezaprobare etc. Putem propune pentru nceput dialoguri cu variate imagini (cas, birou, strad) i i rugm pe studeni s spun cine i despre ce vorbete. Dialogurile scurte pot fi practicate la toate leciile. Este raional ca fiecare student s determine cine sunt participanii la discuie, unde, cnd i despre ce vorbete. Dialogurile incomplete ofer posibilitatea de a continua conversaia. De obicei, adulii gsesc uor continuarea pentru astfel de situaii. De exemplu: La agenia de turism. - Bun ziua. Cu ce v putem ajuta? - Vreau s plec n vacan... - Ce fel de vacan v dorii? Unde i cu ce durat?... Dialogurile propriu-zise sunt nite modele pe care le elaboreaz ntr-o conversaie mai ampl. Activitatea de vorbire ncepe cu anunarea unor subiecte (teme,cu ntrebrile orientate spre formarea i dezvoltarea capacitilor de vorbire. Aadar, putem spune c dialogul ncepe cu ntrebri pregtitoare i se ncheie cu aplicaii practice. S-a demonstrat c ntrebrile au o valoare didactic deosebit. Din aceste considerente, semnalm un grup de ntrebri relevante n formarea competenelor de a ntreine un dialog. ntrebrile deschise ofer posibilitate studentului s se manifeste, s-i prezinte preocuprile, emoiile, opinia despre cele mai interesante evenimente. De exemplu: Ce i place s faci primvara? Acest gen de ntrebri trebuie adresate n funcie de moment i de nivelul de cunoatere al interlocutorului i, astfel, asigurm strategic activitatea de vorbire n cadrul dialogului. Nu se recomand ntrebrile nchise, deoarece ele produc stoparea vorbirii, i aceasta se poate transforma ntr-un interogatoriu. ntrebrile manipulatoare conduc spre o discuie, o conversaie cu interlocutorul. De exemplu: Este adevrat c dorii s facei...? ntrebrile defensive. De exemplu: Doreti s-i spui prerea ta? Sau ce tii despre...? 20

Ce tipuri de ntrebri putem propune, pentru formarea competenelor de a ntreine un dialog? Conversaia este o activitate care const din schimbul viu de preri pentru dezvluirea mai larg a coninutului. Putem avea o conversaie real cu un grup de 30, 20, ba chiar de 15 studeni? E posibil, dar s nu uitm c e nevoie s vorbim cu fiecare student n parte, din cnd n cnd. i putem ntreba despre ceea ce au fcut sau s aflm prerile lor despre evenimentele din actualitate, vremea, un program TV, o grev etc. Putem face aceasta folosind cuvinte nvate la leciile precedente sau la lecia curent. Sau putem vorbi n mod relaxant cu ei, aa cum ne-am dori o conversaie n afara orelor de curs, ncurajndu-i s participe la discuie fra a le fi team de greelile comise. n funcie de nivelul cunotinelor al studenilor, se permit e s folosim n mod intenionat i cuvinte noi. ns acestea nu trebuie s mpiedice nelegerea global a coninutului. ntotdeauna exist lucruri despre care se poate vorbi la nceputul leciei. De exemplu: Profesorul: Ai un costum frumos. Andrei: V place? Profesorul: De la ce magazin l-ai procurat? Acest schimb de replici ne-ar putea conduce spre o conversie despre un magazin de haine care s-a deschis, despre o expoziie i unde, probabil, vor dori s mearg i ali studeni. Uneori putem ncepe o conversaie spunnd: Asear am fost la un concert (spectacol) fantastic. n aceast diminea am o dispoziie excelent etc. Indiferent de faptul dac afirmaiile corespund sau nu realitii, ele vor genera interesul studenilor i-i vor incita la o discuie. Adesea, la sfritul leciei trebuie rezervate un minut sau dou pentru ceva personal. (De exemplu, i ntrebm pe studeni dac vor merge s lucreze la grdin sau ce-i planific pentru sfritul de sptmn). Alteori conversaia poate ncepe pe parcursul leciei, atunci cnd apare o situaie pe care am ntlnit-o n textul studiat. Ce subiecte de conversaie sunt cele mai indicate pentru studeni? Discuia este un schimb de opinii i de idei. Nu ntotdeauna e posibil i necesar s distingem modalitatea de discuie de cea de conversaie. Discuia poate dura 2 min sau 20 de min. Conversaia are loc cu un student i ntregul grup nu particip att de activ la ea. Ce subiecte de discuie le-ai propune unor studeni pasivi? 21

Uneori discuia nu are nevoie de un subiect anume, dac dorim s vorbim cteva minute. Semnalm cteva modaliti care ofer stu denilor posibilitatea de a-i exprima ideile i de a ncepe o discuie. - Audiem un cntec sau o poezie. /Demonstrm un tablou. ntrebri: Este bun? Care este mesajul? ntrebri: Ce prere avei? Este reuit? - Artm un obiect. ntrebri: Care este destinaia lui? Cine l-a confecionat? - Ascultm o scurt succesiune de sunete. ntrebri: Ce s-a ntmplat? Ce va urma? Povestirea, ca form de activitate, condiioneaz actul vorbirii monologate. Pentru a reda coninutul subiectului i a dezvlui valenele multiple ale coninutului, povestirea trebuie s fie plastic, expresiv, folosindu-se intonaia, mimica, gesturile, accentele i pauzele adecvate. Un factor important: povestirea nu trebuie citit. Povestirea poate rmne neterminat i le putem propune cursanilor s o continuie. O form a povestirii care stimuleaz n mare parte activitatea de vorbire a cursanilor este repovestirea. Repovestirea e o treapt spre dezvoltarea vorbirii fluente cu scopul de a relata n mod liber unele ntmplri din viaa cotidian. Repovestirile pot fi organizate conform unui plan pregtit de ctre profesor. Superioritatea nvrii i memorrii contiente este un potenial semnificativ pentru dezvoltarea vorbirii. E demonstrat c memorarea contient este superioar celei mecanice, pentru c materialul nvat contient se va reine n memorie un timp mai ndelungat. Att prin memorarea propriu-zis, ct i prin convorbirile anterior organizate, precum i prin comentarea cuvintelor i expresiilor alese, memorarea este un bun prilej pentru exersarea actului vorbirii. De exemplu: Le prezentm studenilor un tablou. i rugm s-l examineze timp de 2-3 minute atent. Apoi lum tabloul. mprim grupa n 2-3 echipe i solicitm s ne spun ce au memorizat. Dup aceasta le prezentm tabloul, i rugm s alctuiasc un text n lan. Primul spune o propoziie, al doilea spune propozoia colegului plus propoziia sa, al treilea reproduce ce a u spus primii doi plus propoziia sa. Ca rezulat, audiind informaia de cteva ori, cel din urm va putea cu uurin s reproduc tot textul plus propoziia sa. II. E o recapitulare a materiei studiate. Profesorul le prezint unele detalii (un brbat de 35-40 ani, ntr-o sear rece de ianuarie, 22

strada Alba-Iulia...). mprim grupa n 2 echipe i le solicitm s-i aminteasc materia nvat cu cteva lecii n urm. O echip o completeaz pe cealalt. Astfel studenii au posibilitarea de a consolida ceea ce au nvat la leciile precedente. Ce aciuni de memorizare considerai c sunt cele mai eficiente n procesul de studiere? Rolul major n studierea i funcionarea contextului relaional al activitii de vorbire pentru realizarea obiectivelor procesului de predare-nvare a limbilor strine revine proiectrii didactice. Numai printr-o pregtire profesional i o proiectare reuit putem orienta pozitiv procesul interaciunii de predare/nvare. Acest proces trebuie s dirijeze activitatea de vorbire. Factorii contextuali obiectiv/subiectivi care impun selecia, receptarea, valorificarea coninutului, a limbajului, a mijloacelor, a argumentelor, a situaiilor de vorbire poate facilita sau perturba interaciunea dintre actul vorbirii i celelalte activiti integratoare pentru atingerea scopului: a gndi i a vorbi n limba pe care o studiezi. Raporturile interactive dintre elementele procesului de proiectare didactic i caracteristica psihosocial din cadrul contextului de vorbire trebuie s produc: 1. rezultate cognitive (achiziii de cunotine privind sistemul limbii studiate, modificarea i funcionarea cuvintelor n vorbire, formarea limbajului i a deprinderilor de vorbire, dezvoltarea capacitii de percepie, explicaie, nelegere i exprimarea coninuturilor informaionale etc.); 2. rezultate afective (schimbarea strilor emoionale care inhib modul de exprimare n limba strin, modificri de interese i atitudini); 3. rezultate morale. Alte etape de proiectare a activitii de vorbire. Sarcinile lor. Prima etap are drept scop formarea priceperilor de vorbire la studeni n baza obiectivelor de referin: - s-i formeze deprinderi de ntrebuinare a vocabularului activ, s alctuiasc logic propoziii i fraze, cu verbul la prezent, trecut i viitor, s alctuiasc corect un dialog scurt, s realizeze coninutul unui mesaj simplu, s treac informaia audiat prin propriile acte de vorbire, s relateze succint elementele-cheie ale unui eveniment, s realizeze o descriere elementar, s formuleze ntrebri pornind 23

de la informaia scris. - s construiasc logic propoziii i fraze cu verbul la prezent, trecut i viitor. Etapa ni cuprinde elementele pregtitoare: - verbalizarea motivaiei (fr contientizarea scopului nu putem avea anse de reuit deplin), utilizarea evocrilor verbale i a ilustraiilor. - crearea situaiei de problem pentru manipularea sau apropierea de tem cursantul primete o informaie care trezete interesul de cunoatere i de utilizare a actului vorbirii: Mine e srbtoare. Vreau s fiu cea mai atrgtoare pentru soul meu. Vreau o coafur deosebit. Ce voi face?...). Aceast etap se bazeaz pe modaliti de nsuire a vocabularului, a gramaticii, conversaie introductiv, reproducere, ntrebare rspuns, ntrebare-ntrebare, informaie-ntrebare, dialog, situaii de vorbire, diverse exerciii. A doua etap are drept scop dezvoltarea i pefecionarea deprinderilor de vorbire prin realizarea obiectivelor de referin: - s posede un lexic adecvat situaiei de vorbire i temei abordate; - s adreseze eficient ntrebri; - s foloseasc propriile modaliti de exprimare; - s susin i s iniieze dialoguri apreciind i argumentnd cele relatate; - s formuleze i s comunice clar propriile sentimente, opinii, argumente i idei, - s-i adapteze nelegerea i vorbirea la varietatea i complexitatea situaiilor concrete ale vorbirii; - s decodeze, s concentreze i s sintetizeze mesajul de idei pentru a lua notie cu posibilitile ulterioare de reangajare a materialului informaional i prezentarea lui fie verbal, fie n scris. Etapa a doua e marcat prin: - Prezentarea prealabil a elementelor generale, apoi a celor specifice subiectului. Insistena pe structura unitar i apoi prezentar ea elementelor unul cte unul (Vreau s merg la coafor. Vreau s m coafez. Vreau s m fardez. Vreau s-mi fac manichiara...); - Analiza unui element semnificativ. Elementele sunt nelese mai bine prin semnificaiile lor, mai nti se expune o idee sau o problem pentru a i se nelege sensul, principiile de organizare i 24

de soluionare i dup aceea se vor analiza celelalte elemente (coafur, breton, ondulaie etc.); - Aprecierea prin disociere (cercetarea elementelor de legtur). Se mbin ideile, accentundu-se elementele distinctive. Se urmrete identificarea situaiilor intermediare care fac actul vorbirii inteligibil (Privii revistele i alegei varianta potrivit. - Cum dorii s v tundem: scurt, lung?) Etapa a doua se bazeaz pe exerciii lexicale, exerciii de gramatic, dialog, informaie-ntrebare, povestire, descoperire, conversaie, discuie. O alt sarcin a dezvoltrii actului vorbirii n procesul de comu nicare este folosirea ritmului normal de vorbire ncepnd cu prima or. Un limbaj i un ritm natural nltur greutile de ncadrare n limitele posibilitilor de comunicare. Activitatea de la simplu la compus i gradarea dificultilor constituie alt cerin pentru realizarea actului vorbirii fluente. Interaciunile interpersonale din grup trebuie s contribuie la formarea i dezvoltarea unor atitudini favorabile sub forma de competene de vorbire. Competenele de vorbire ca element essenial n posedarea limbii a doua includ fenomene absolut necesare coninutului vorbirii fluente: - accesibilitate; - implicare n realitate; - consecutivitate; - noutate; - orientare psihosocial; - varietate tematic. Ct privete factorii contextuali dezirabili ai activitii de vorbire, trebuie s evideniem: a) gradul de pregtire a participanilor pentru desfurarea activitii de vorbire; b) modul de organizare a activitii; c) relaiile de comprehensiune dintre activitile lingvistice: vorbirea, audierea, scrierea, citirea. Lucrul n grup este foarte important. Pentru studeni este mai bine s se afle la nceput n ambiana celor ce studiaz limba strin. E util s contientizeze c ei nu sunt unicii care ncearc s vorbeasc n limba studiat. Lucrul n grup le ofer, de asemenea, posibilitatea de a se susine reciproc, de a nva din experiena altora i de a face schimb 25

de idei. Scopurile studierii unei limbi strine n grup. 1. Cu ct mai muli studeni sunt n grup, cu att mai necesar este lucrul n grup. 2. Se poate ntmpla ca unul sau doi din studeni s exprime ideile ntregului grup. Dar i ceilali se vor ncadra, pe parcurs dac pro fesorul i va interesa n dezvluirea subiectului de discuie. Ei preiau o anumit experiena verbal. 3. La nceput studenii vor folosi limba matern pentru a-i exprima unele idei. Aceasta e firesc, dac dorii ca ei s comunice. Trebuie s-i nvm pe studeni s vorbeasc folosind mcar minimul de cuvinte pe care l posed. 4. E adevrat c studenii fac greeli, dar ei sunt orientai mai mult spre a-i expune ideile, prerile. S privim i latura pozitiv. n primul rnd, studenii nu fac greeli permanent, ei vorbesc i corect. n al doilea rnd, ei se corecteaz reciproc. Profesorul va corecta doar greelile care denatureaz nelegerea mesajului. Cerinele lucrului n grup. Lucrul n grup impune respectarea anumitor reguli: - mprirea n grupuri ntr-un mod ct mai simplu; - formarea grupurilor mixte; - selectarea cu grij a activitilor pentru lucrul n grup; - demonstrarea rezultatelor. E bine de reinut urmtoarele criterii: - Cnd studentul ncearc s vorbeasc, ncurajai-l. Fii alturi cnd se strduiete, chiar dac vorbirea lui nu este perfect. - Punei n discuie variate teme care suscit interes. Povestii unul altuia istorioare. - Acordai timp pentru a conversa cu fiecare student. Ascultai-l manifestnd interes fa de tot ce are s spun. - Creai condiii ca colegii grupei s se susin unul pe altul n activitatea de vorbire. - Procedai astfel nct studentul s simt plcere vorbind n limba studiat. - Fii tolerant chiar dac exprimarea studenilor nu este absolut. - Oferii-i studentului ocazii de a vorbi i de a-i exprima opinia. - Situaiile cotidiene pot constitui prilejuri favorabile i vor fi eficiente cnd se comunic ntr-un mod firesc i ntr-o atmosfer relaxant. 26

- ncercai s transformai o situaie ordinar ntr-un prilej valoros i captivant pentru nvare. - Folosii adecvat aptitudinile Dvs. de comunicare pentru ca s ajutai studenilor s-i dezvolte aptitudinile de comunicare.
BIBLIOGRAFIE 1. Henrici G. & Riemer C. Einfuhrung in die Didaktik des Unterrichts Deutsch als Fremdsprache, Schneider Verlag, 1998. 2. Siegfried M. Grundlagen der allgemeinen Kommunikationstheorie. Eine Einfuhrung in ihre Grundbegriffe und Methoden. Stuttgart, Verlag Berliner Union GmbH und Stuttgart, 2004. 3. www.methodik.fremdschprachen.de.

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THE USAGE OF INFORMATIONAL TECHNOLOGIES IN THE PROCESS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING/LEARNING Andrei BOLFOSU, Lecturer, MA, Free International University of Moldova The topic of the given paper will never become outdated as the informational technologies continuously change and develop. The teaching techniques develop alongside with the development of new computer science related technologies. The twenty-first century has registered a boost in creation of new software, in the increase of the memory capacity, development of new devices and gadgets that revolutionized the way we live and of course the way we teach and learn. From paper-based instructive materials and encyclopedias we switched to power point presentations, CDs, DVDs and we search in Internet for whatever information we need. From letters that took months to get to the addressee we gradually switched to email and finally we got IRC and social networks. The problems of Informational era development and the implementation of new technologies in education was a subject of many conferences and regulations. The World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) held in Geneva, Switzerland in December 2003 emphasised that we are in the midst of an information revolution, where the accelerating convergence between telecommunications, broadcasting multimedia and information and communication technologies is creating new products and services, as well as redefining ways of conducting business and commerce. The impact upon education and training is only just beginning to be felt, and there is an increasing awareness that changes of paradigm are needed, if the new media are to be used effectively and to the advantage of all [1, p. 12]. The proposed action plan of the WSIS states that, to benefit the world community, the successful and continued growth of the new dynamic brought about by ICTs requires global discussion. It is the aim of the present publication to contribute to this discussion by indicating how language learning and teaching in the 21st century might surf the wave created by the different technical resources now available. Effective implementation will require partnerships with 28

public and private entities, common formats and standardization, development of information resources, databases, knowledge, and information infrastructures that are equally available for all countries and regions. However, for this to happen, the prerequisites for effective use of the new resources for foreign language learning and teaching should be clearly established. Involvement of all the actors is essential from the outset, as the contribution by Graham Davies (Aspects of Technology Enhanced Language Learning: a UK Perspective) in this volume clearly illustrates [1, p. 14]. In a world divided by clashes of cultures and beliefs, the potential of the new media for fostering intercultural understanding and exchange is enormous. In the history of mankind, access to information and knowledge has never been so straightforward at a local, regional, national, or global level. Judicious deployment of ICTs can encourage and sustain cultural and linguistic diversity in individuals and in society in general. Facilitating access to other cultures and languages is the chief goal of the language teaching profession, and using ICT resources effectively in their teaching represents one of the chief challenges facing language teachers today. In their contribution to this study (Modeling a Field-Based Internet Resource for Modern Foreign Language Learning: the Case of RussNet), Dan E. Davidson and Maria D. Lekic demonstrate the potential of ICT-driven language learning, highlighting the flexibility of the media available [5]. One important aspect that has evolved in the study of the use of ICTs in foreign language learning and teaching is that, as a subject area, it differs greatly from most other subject areas in the curriculum: it is both skill-based and knowledge based. In this respect it has more in common with a subject like Music than, for example, History or Geography. This has implications both for the types of hardware and software that are used in FLT/FLL, but also for FLT pedagogy and methodology. Increasingly, reference is made to the need for teachers and learners to acquire the new literacies involved in the appropriate use of the new media. This issue is addressed directly in the article on Web Literacy for Language Teachers by Bernard Moro in this study as well as in the article on Information and Communication Technology in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning an Overview by Anthony Fitzpatrick, and is taken up later by other contributors [2]. 29

From interactivity to passivity Observers have noted that the Internet is moving away from its original model of cooperative communication based on exchange, and tending towards the logic of a mass broadcasting medium, resulting in a concentration of producers and the progressive disappearance of interactivity. This tendency towards passivity in the use of the new media can, we believe, be counterbalanced effectively in an approach to FLT which encourages cooperative, collaborative procedures, where teachers abandon traditional roles and act more as guides and mentors, exploring the new media themselves as learners and thus acting as role models for their learners. Case studies show that there is closer interaction between teacher and students when the new media are employed. Language learners who have experienced this kind of approach are most likely to transfer the skills acquired to their daily practice in the use of the new media in the mother tongue. And, above all, this experience should lead to the development of a user culture, implying appropriate behaviour, which respects other people as well as the diversity of their opinions [3]. At the Geneva summit, and elsewhere, leading figures in politics and education have warned of the dangers of the tendency for the World Wide Web to be dominated by one, or very few, world languages. Gaining access to information and sharing of knowledge is restricted to those who master those languages, as there is still a very low level of linguistic diversity on the Internet. This situation, with English predominating, constitutes a significant obstacle for the majority of the worlds population. Nor is it just content that presents a problem; there is also a dearth of applications and training manuals in the languages of many users. In many cases, taking full advantage of the Internet requires training in a foreign language. In the online discussion forum held prior to the symposium in Geneva, for example, language was identified as the principal barrier to successful use of ICTs [1, p. 49]. Against this background, the importance of foreign language learning and teaching grows commensurately. And the solution is not merely to increase the teaching of English in the world, even if one argues that it has become the lingua franca of education, business, commerce, politics, and most other forms of human interaction on a global scale. For language represents a cognitive universe, and the 30

risk of an excessively dominant language imposing itself brings with it the risk of standardization of expressions and cultural uniformity, albeit for an elite group. The accompanying marginalization of those who do not master the tools to gain access represents an increasing danger to stability and peace. And it should not be forgotten that the preservation of linguistic diversity also implies the promotion of marginalised languages, in particular those, which do not possess written forms of expression. In his article in this study (Of Digital Divides and Social Multipliers: Combining Language and Technology for Human Development), Mark Warschauer demonstrates how the preservation of an endangered language may benefit from using the various tools and methods offered by ICTs [1, p. 50]. For many developing countries, ICTs are considered a critical catalyst to enable the country to leapfrog ahead in technology application, by skipping some stages of development, and becoming a member of the post-industrial society more quickly than would otherwise be possible. In her contribution, Informatizing Foreign Language Teaching in China, Fang Xu shows how tertiary education in China is taking up this challenge in the field of foreign language learning and teaching. She highlights some successes, but underlines the pitfalls which are encountered along the way [4]. In a similar vein, Mounira Soliman (Computer Enhanced Learning in the Egyptian Classroom) depicts problems c.f. the case studies cited in The Impact of Information and Communications Technologies on the Teaching of Foreign Languages and on the Role of encountered in Egypt, where resources are limited and where the morale, motivation and involvement of teaching staff are seen as key factors in the successful introduction of new media. She highlights the impact of using technology on learning outcomes, the effect of integrating web-based and face-to-face instruction as well as the change in the role of instructors and students [4]. Yet, the problems addressed in the contributions from China and Egypt are also mirrored in Andreas Lunds article on Teachers as Agents of Change: ICTs and a Reconsideration of Teacher Expertise. Writing about the impact of ICTs in the highly technologized society of Norway, he observes that teachers still find it difficult to decide how and to what extent such technologies fit into classrooms and other settings of formal schooling. The divide, then, seems to be 31

more in the minds of the actors rather than in specific societal contexts. In all three studies research demonstrated that where ICTs are successsfully implemented, teachers are a crucial factor, if not the most decisive element in their successful integration. The three articles indicate that the new media do not automatically enhance teaching and learning, but actually transform such practices. All show that the conditions favouring successful, innovative and future-oriented ICT practices in foreign language learning and teaching encompass many different levels: classroom, educational organization (school/university), and regional/national level In euphoric descriptions of the educational possibilities offered by ICTs in the information society, it is all too easy to forget that many developing countries, for example in Africa, are ill-equipped to face the challenges raised. Salam Diakite (The Potential of ICTs for Transforming Language Education in Africa) points out that formal education in Africa is one area that still seems to have benefited least from the use of advanced technology, certainly because educational technology requires precise organization, not only in itself, but also for its efficient application within the education system. Again, he sees the key to success in a system which employs professional, well trained teachers, where schools are free to plan their own systems of work, where teachers are autonomous in their classes, and where learners are encouraged to discover and solve problems for themselves. The authors of this study emphasise that the training of teachers should focus on three main areas: on technical aspects of ICTs, on development of content, and on the potential possibilities and challenges of ICTs. The development of distance learning, training and other forms of education and training areas is seen as promising and as part of essential capacity-building programmes, which now no longer need to be confined by geographical or time limits. And it would seem that the field of foreign language learning and teaching lends itself ideally to the much called for promotion of international and regional cooperation in the field of capacity building [1, p. 55]. In advocating the intensive and effective deployment of broadcast and more traditional audio-visual media in Africa, Salam Diakite echoes a demand made at the Geneva summit, where delegates pleaded for a closer integration of the traditional broadcast media with ICTs. 32

They would like to encourage the use of unused wireless capacity, including satellite systems, to improve low-cost connectivity, especially in developing countries. Broadcast radio and television language learning programmes have a long and successful tradition and have much to offer. The experience in the United Kingdom, reported by Graham Davies in Aspects of Technology Enhanced Language Learning: a UK Perspective, may serve as a model for cooperation in this field [1, p. 62]. The potential of ICTs in language education ICTs can expand access to language programmes and improve the quality of teaching and learning in general. The World Wide Web expands the classroom context and provides access to current, up-to-date materials from the country or countries of the target language, offering learners and teachers a plethora of materials in different modes, bringing the foreign culture and language to life and making it more tangible [1, p. 64]. In environments where teaching staff are not able to fulfill all requirements of the curriculum with regard to the skills and knowledge required, ready-made, high quality audio-visual and other programmes may provide sufficient backup for them to offer appropriate courses without having to engage in time-consuming and expensive (re)training. Andreas Lunds article points out that there is a strong tradition of Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) addressing materials, software packages and technologies that aid and promote cognitive development and linguistic performance, but emphasises that we must pay more attention to how technologies are embedded in larger social and cultural practices for them to be truly effective. The professional isolation of teachers may well be relegated to the history books, if they learn how to use the potential for networking, which ICTs offer. The affordances and deployment of multiple media are well illustrated in the contribution by Dan E. Davidson and Maria D. Lekic, where they not only show how different exercises can offer practice in basic skills and how learners may use new information to solve problems, but also how they can bring the Russian-speaking world into the classroom [3]. The positive affordances of ICTs in FLT/FLL have been recognised in most educational contexts; the technology and materials are available, but ongoing training is essential if we are to reap the benefits of the rich learning environment, which ICTs offer for foreign 33

language learning. As training and education become increasingly time and place independent, new models must be found to integrate the new media into a principled approach to teaching and learning, which enriches and supplements traditional materials and well-tried delivery systems in existing institutions. The different contributions in this study show some of the potential of the new technologies for language learning and language teaching. They also warn us of being over-optimistic. Above all, they recommend careful analysis of specific needs for different educational contexts before deploying the media, and advocate conscientious planning at all stages of the introduction and implementation of new programs and programmes [2]. In the end of our paper I would like to share some experience of mine in usage of informational technologies during the English lessons. In the conditions when English classes at non-linguistic specialties are not provided with the necessary equipment such as language classes with a proper equipment like headphones, recorders, video sets, the teachers and students are compelled to search for different solutions to replace this gap. As it was stated above, students and teachers have access to a tremendous database over the internet concerning the educational software that is split into different aspects of the language learning and teaching. For this we need a simple laptop computer that has access to the internet to be brought at English classes. But I am going to talk about the use of smartphones as an educational material within English classes. As far as we know the memory capacity and the performance of the latest smartphones has came to a point where they are much more powerful than some of personal computers were not so long ago. One of the usages of the described devices is the possibility to play different records of the text pronunciation, of comprehension and listening exercises and so forth. But when the listening exercise lacks, we can record the text to be listened and rendered by the students using our voice. I perform such kind of activities with the beginner classes, where the students put their phones in front of the teacher recording his/her voice. Thus, it is much easier for the student to deal with the pronunciation of difficult words. Another use of the smartphones is the capability to install electronic dictionaries of different sorts like monolingual, bilingual and multi34

lingual. In this way students can find out the meaning or the pronunciation of new words. We can easily watch movies and videos of different formats in English provided the phone has enough storage capacity. There are different technologies like allShare, Kies Air etc., that provide the user with the capacity to play the movie directly to the TV-set or computer from the smartphone. On of the latest possibility on smartphones, is the usage of the word processing software to create, edit, process or read textual documents, most commonly we speak about the Microsoft Office suit. In this way students can perform their written tasks faster and with more accuracy. The possibilities of technologies in the process of learning and teaching are many and we are sure that in the upcoming years the technology will get even further reaches, but the will never replace the human teacher who alongside with the knowledge gives the student the warmth of human communication and is able to inspire the learner for learning more than foreseen by the core curriculum.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Fitzpatrick A. Teachers of Foreign Languages. Brussels: European Commission, 2003. 2. http://www.itu.int/wsis/map/index.html5. 3. http://education.yuikee.com.hk/teacher_training. 4. www.wiziq.com/.../2037-Teaching-English. 5. http://www.english4it.com.

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RECOGNIZING PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS WHILE WORKING WITH LITERATURE Tatiana BUSHNAQ, Lecturer, PhD, PSU Ion Creang Zinaida CAMENEVA, Assistant Professor, PhD, Free International University of Moldova Literature and prose are very well-known for the uses of phraseological units. Many authors find it simpler to explain particular situations through phraseological units and phrases. Phraseological units are plentiful in everyday language, yet they remain mysterious, as it is not clear exactly how people learn and understand them. They are of special interest to linguists, psycholinguists, and lexicographers, mainly because of their syntactic and semantic idiosyncrasies as well as their unclear lexical status. Despite a great deal of research on the properties of phraseological units in the linguistics literature, there is not much agreement on which properties are characteristic of these expressions [10]. Recognizing phraseological units is an important part of English speaking, reading, and listening competences. Phraseological units form a heterogeneous class with prototypical examples such as by and large, kick the bucket, and let the cat out of the bag. It is hard to find a single agreed-upon definition that covers all members of this class [3, 5, 4, 11], but they are often defined as sequences of words involving some degree of semantic idiosyncrasy or non-compositionality. Phraseological units are widely and creatively used by speakers of a language to express ideas cleverly, economically, or implicitly and thus appear in all languages and in all text genres [15]. Previous studies focusing on the identification of phraseological unit types have often recognized the importance of drawing on their linguistic properties, such as their semantic idiosyncrasy or their restricted flexibility [3]. Some researchers have relied on a manual encoding of phraseological unit-specific knowledge in a lexicon [9], whereas others have presented approaches for the automatic acquisition of more general (hence less distinctive) knowledge from corpora [13]. Most recent studies focusing on the identification of phraseological and non-phraseological tokens either assume the existence 36

of manually annotated data for a supervised classification [14], or rely on manually encoded linguistic knowledge about phraseological units [8, 12] or even ignore the specific properties of nonliteral language and rely mainly on general purpose methods for the task [2]. A great deal of psycholinguistic literature refers to the effect of context on the interpretation of phraseological units. Thus, recognizing phraseological units in a sentence is important to sentence understanding. A failure in recognizing phraseological units leads to, for example, misunderstanding of the original message [3]. Generally speaking, the more difficult an expression is to understand and the less sense it makes in a given context, the more likely a reader will recognize it as a phraseological unit. Because they do not make sense if interpreted literally [6], the highlighted expressions in the following text are easy to recognize as phraseological units (assuming one is not already familiar with them): E.g.: This can only be done, I believe, by a full and frank airing of the issues. I urge you all to speak your minds and not to pull any punches. We consider that, the very fact that the reader cannot make sense of an expression in a particular context will alert him to the presence of a phraseological unit of some sort. There are two cases in which a phraseological unit can be easily misinterpreted if one is not already familiar with it: (a) Some phraseological units are misleading; they seem transparent because they offer a reasonable literal interpretation and their phraseological meanings are not necessarily signaled in the surroundding text. A large number of phraseological units in English, and probably all other languages, have both a literal and a phraseological meaning, for example go out with (have a romantic relation) and take someone for a ride (deceive or cheat someone in some way). Such phraseological units lend themselves easily to manipulation by speakers and writers who will sometimes play on both their literal and phraseological meanings. In this case, a reader who is not familiar with the phraseological unit in question may easily accept the literal interpretation and miss the play on a phraseological unit. (b) A phraseological unit in the source language may have a very close counterpart in the target language which looks similar on the surface but has a totally or partially different meaning. For example, 37

the phraseological question - Has the cat had/got your tongue? is used in English to urge someone to answer a question or contribute to a conversation, particularly when their failure to do so becomes annoying. Apart from being alert to the way speakers and writers manipulate certain features of phraseological units and to the possible confusion which could arise from similarities in form between source and target expressions, a reader must also consider the collocation environment which surrounds any expression whose meaning is not readily accessible. Phraseological units have individual collocational patterns. They form collocations with other items in the text as single units and enter into lexical sets which are different from those of their individual words. For instance, we may take the phraseological unit to have cold feet. Cold as a separate item may collocate with words like weather, winter, feel, or country. Feet on its own will perhaps collocate with socks, chilblain, smelly, etc. However, having cold feet, in its phraseological use, has nothing necessarily to do with winter, feet, or chilblains and will therefore generally be used with a different set of collocates. Hence, the ability to distinguish senses by collocation is an invaluable asset to a reader of a foreign language. It is often subsumed under the general umbrella of 'relying on the context to disambiguate meanings', which, among other things, stand for using our knowledge of collocational patterns to decode the meaning of a word or a stretch of language. Using our knowledge of collocational patterns may not always tell us what a phraseological unit means but it could easily help us in many cases to recognize a phraseological unit, particularly one which has a literal as well as a non-literal meaning. According to Villada Moiron and Tiedemann, deciding if an expression is phraseological or literal can be done in two ways: by measuring how predictable the meaning of the expression is and by assessing the link between the meaning of the expression as a whole and the cumulative literal meanings of its components. Adam Makkai has proposed five criteria in identifying phraseological units. They are: 1. the presence of at least two free morphemes in a given expression; 38

2. the ability of these morphemes to function with different meanings in more than one environment; 3. the potential ambiguity of all phraseological units of decoding arising from the possibility of literal interpretation; 4. the semantic unpredictability of phraseological units arising from the fact that a phraseological unit has a meaning which cannot be deduced from its component parts; 5. institutionalization [1, p. 243]. The main problem in identifying phraseological units is that some of them show some variations in form and structure. It is no big news to anybody studying phraseological units against large corpora that they are not as fixed or frozen as they are generally assumed to be. Although most phraseological units resist variation in form, some are more flexible than others [3, 6, 5]. Thus, four different types of phraseological unit variations can be distinguished: external phraseological unit breaking, internal phraseological unit breaking, phraseological unit alternation, and phraseological unit clipping. The first two are subcategories of the more general category phraseological unit breaking. In instances of external phraseological unit breaking the phraseological unit has its established form, but it really means something else in a particular context. By comparison, part of the phraseological unit has been changed in internal phraseological unit breaking, but the rest of it is used. As a result, both types of phraseological unit breaking have a punning quality, since the regular phraseological unit can still be recognized in spite of the meaning change. In short, it is the meaning of the phraseological unit that is obviously changed in phraseological unit breaking, while the form is still wholly or largely intact. In phraseological unit alternation there is more substantial variation of the default form, but the focal part still makes it clear that it is meant to convey the same kind of meaning. So in such examples we recognize the phraseological meaning even if the formulation is to a large extent special and new. Finally, phraseological unit clipping means that a part of a phraseological unit has been left out in a way that is not just elliptical. The focal part that remains may have inherited part of the omitted content, but often the meaning of a clipped phraseological unit seems less specific or detailed compared to that of the full phraseological unit. 39

To sum up, we can say that in all the four types of phraseological unit with the variations outlined above, a phraseological unit can be recognized in spite of changes in it. We have drawn the conclusion that the most difficult phraseological units to be recognized are the ones which function like verbs because this type of phraseological expression can be easily modified or can be discontinuously spread over a clause. But with the help of systematic phraseological unit collections and special rules the recognition of a phraseological unit candidate is always possible. The phraseological unit of a language is an atmosphere of thought which pervades the significance of all its words and governs the architecture of all its sentences. Phraseological units appear in the structure of the language as an effect; as a cause, they reside in the experiences and predilections of the speakers of the language. There is a view according to which everything in the natural language is phraseological; both encoding and decoding, from phonology through word-formation up to syntax and semantics, including sayings, proverbs, literature and each individual culture.
1. BIBLIOGRAPHY Birke J. A Clustering Approach for the nearly Unsupervised Recognition of Nonliteral Language. In Proceedings of the 11th Conference of the Europeanm Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics (EACL06), Trento, 2006. p. 329-336. Bushnaq T. Tehnologii communicative de predare a frazeologismelor engleze n nvmntul superior. Chiinu, 2011. Cacciari Cr. The place of Idioms in a Literal and Metaphorical World. In: C. Cacciari and P. Tabossi, Idioms: Processing, Structure, and Interpretation. LEA, Mahwah, NJ, 1993. p. 27-53. Camenev Z., Bushnaq T. Variation and Flexibility within Idiomatic Expressions. Annales Universitatis Apulensis, Series Philologica, 9, Tom 1, Alba Iulia, 2008, p. 107-114. Camenev Z., Bushnaq T. Methodology in Forming the Competences of Phraseological Units Translation from English into Romanian. In: Conferina tiinific Internaional Prioriti actuale n procesul educaional, Chiinu: CEP USM, 2010. p. 55-61. Camenev Z., Bushnaq T. Techniques for Teaching English Phraseological Vocabulary at the University Level. In: Conferina tiinific Internaional Prioriti actuale n procesul educaional, Chiinu: CEP USM, 2010. p. 62-70.

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Colcheter U. et al. Disambiguating Japanese compound verbs. Computer Speech and Language, nr.19, 2005. p. 497-512. Copestake A. Multiword Expressions: Linguistic Precision and Reusability, Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2002), ELRA, 2002. p. 1941-1947. Fazly A., Suzanne S. Automatically Constructing a Lexicon of Verb Phrase Idiomatic Combinations. In: Proceedings of the 11th Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics (EACL06), Trento, 2006. p. 337-344. Glucksberg S. Idiom meanings and allusional content. In: C. Cacciari and P. Tabossi, Idioms: Processing, Structure, and Interpretation. LEA, Mahwah, NJ, 1993. p. 3-26. Hashimoto Ch. Japanese Idiom Recognition: Drawing a line between literal and idiomatic meanings. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Computational Linguistics Association for Computational Linguistics (COLING-ACL06), Sydney, 2006. p. 353-360. Jon P., Fletcher J. Classifying Verb-Particle Constructions by Verb Arguments. In Proceedings of the Second ACL-SIGSEM Workshop on the Linguistic Dimensions of Prepositions and their Use in Computational Linguistics Formalisms and Applications, 2005. p. 200-209. McCarthy D. Detecting a Continuum of Compositionality in Phrasal Verbs. In Proceedings of the ACL-SIGLEX Workshop on Multiword Expressions: Analysis, Acquisition and Treatment, Sapporo, 2003. p. 73-80. Sag I. Multiword Expressions: A Pain in the Neck for NLP. In: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Intelligent Text Processing and Computational Linguistics (CICLing02), Mexico City, 2002. p. 1-15. Smadja Fr. Retrieving Collocations from Text: Xtract. Computational Linguistics, nr. 19(1), 1993. p. 143177.

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TEACHING GRAMMAR IN A FRIENDLY WAY Zinaida CAMENEVA, Assistant Professor, PhD, Free International University of Moldova The word grammar along with perhaps homework has negative connotations in the minds of many persons, students especially. It is necessary to mention that the attitude of the students to grammar of every language is rarely positive, to the English one especially negative because of the difficult system of the tenses of the verbs. Because of this system they consider it very difficult. The aim of language teaching is chiefly the mental advantage of understanding this foreign language system in order to be able to use this language in everyday situations and in communication with people. In modern linguistics the term grammar is used in a wider sense, i.e. as consisting of morphology, syntax [3, p. 12], other scientists consider syntax and vocabulary [2, p. XIV]. When teaching grammar the teachers choice of learning strategies largely depends on three factors: 1) on the grammar item to be taught; 2) on the students age and language proficiency; 3) on their personal characteristics grammar teachers might feel obliged to teach grammar [4, p. 9]. As the students must have a solid grammatical base in the language, the teacher of English must deliver the students the language rules, how to use them in speaking. In order to remember them it is necessary for the students to practice them till they become a habit. In the 60-70 of the last century in connection with Noam Chomskys theory of generative grammar there was a tendency to reduce the role of grammar. Due to this during a long period of time grammar had been a problem of many intensive discussions in the methods of teaching a foreign language in all the institutions especially in those where the foreign language was studied as a specialty. The fact that the number of hours to grammar is small it brought to the increase of the number of mistakes in the learners speech as every moment in the process of studies was dedicated more to reading, listening but not to the grammar productive exercises necessary for the practice of writing, speaking and translating. Theoretical explanation must go hand with the comparative presentation of the 42

English material with the native one being accompanied by many kinds of patterns (structural elements, small sentences, etc.). Many students try to use their native grammar realia to the grammar realia of the language being studied which is not correct because the grammar systems of these two languages English and Romanian do not coincide. The other method the deductive presentation of grammar was recommended to the adult students at colleges and universities for the young students at high school could be scared because of grammar abstractedness. In order to make it easy it was necessary to introduce grammar terminology and the grammar structures. It was very easy to organize such activities because motivating actions was efficient and it gave good results, it concentrated the students attention from the main issue of learning grammar involving them directly in the process of acquisition of lexis. Being taught in this way, grammar becomes easy to learn, it creating the conditions on the side of the students to good habit formation, formation of their linguistic competence as they have selected English as a profession at the Faculty of Foreign Languages. This can be done by using texts inferring the meaning of the structural elements from the context, consulting Internet and dictionaries or other reference sources developing techniques for retaining new vocabulary [1, p. 40]. The main purpose of grammar instruction at the faculty of foreign languages is not only learning of knowledge but also the practical possession of the grammar phenomena of English. Their use in different aspects of speech supposes grammatical receptive and productive skills. In order that education were effective it is necessary to take into consideration all the factors influencing the process of education at the university. All these factors were united into a system named the educational system. The main directions of the increasing of the educational system activity are: - the creation of beneficial psychological climate in order to contribute to the personal qualities of the students, the increasing of their creative activity; 43

- differentiating approach to students; - working out of the instructional materials for the individualization of education; - the usage of the real media (interaction with the native people from the countries of the language studied) by involving the students to take part in different conferences, meetings, forums. Such activities are easy to organize because motivating actions are sufficient and give good results. They concentrate the students attention from the main issues of learning grammar and involve them directly into the process of acquisition. Being taught in this way, grammar becomes easy to learn, creativity on the side of the students leads to good, rapid and lasting habit formation. We tried to overcome some of this resistance to learning grammar. How? Through the use of student centred game activity when the students may internalize the structures of grammar for using them in written or spoken communication. The games provide students with means of accessing grammatical information. The games make boring grammar fun! Games help in memo rizing some details of grammar rules. They inspire the students the necessity to be more careful in writing while performing the grammar exercises. The games improve understanding especially of grammatical usage, sentence construction, grammar terminology, reinforcement of activities through peer review, team work and even group discussions on the grammar rule. There are games for reviewing grammar (f.e. the game on reviewing the forms of the verb to be: Am! a student (a worker, a president, a millionaire, a hairdresser, etc.)?; on the types of questions with wh-; Who am I? what is he? Etc.; Do you want to become a teacher? No, I dont (a driver, a worker, a deputy, a president). Yes, I do). This list of topics may be very big. We think that the teachers do use such games after each grammar topic. The teachers role is to help, to encourage the students, to eradicate their mistakes in grammar We want to offer some well-known classroom activities that may bring students to WANT to learn English grammar. First of all we may use the technique of getting the students write 44

their names on slips of paper you collect the slips and shuffle them in order to have pairs. Some other time you yourself make pairs including a good student in company with a student with poor knowledge of the language. We look for team teaching as an alternative. In a team teaching situation it is necessary to give a special task for each team in order the team to work collaboratively. Team teaching initially requires careful planning. It also demands a climate of mutual trust and risktaking. It is true that communication is the presence of language competence the basis of which are grammar skills. It is necessary to adapt available games and develop new ones to adda some fun and excitement to the learning process. Besides, games are effective teaching tools and have many positive aspects giving the students the possibility to communicate in a relaxed friendly and cooperative environment. Using language games at English grammar classes is very useful and positive. Teachers of grammar should explore games as a means of livening up their classes so that their students look forward to their next English grammar class with enthusiasm. Games are related to the language topics currently being studied. Otherwise playing a game just for fun might have adverse effects on learning and discipline. In conclusion we can say that the students have a sense of satisfaction because they can control their knowledge of grammar by working together and seeing, observing and understanding their mistakes. Collective, collaborative work doesnt hurt them, makes the correction of their mistakes softer, influencing their learning in a team, making it easier.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Camenev Z. et al. Effective Control of the Process of the English Words and Word Combinations Memorization. In.: APLE, Up-to Date Techniques and Strategies in Teaching English. Chiinu, 2011, pp. 40-42. 2. Halliday M.A.K. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London, 1985. 3. Ilyish B. The Structure of Modern English. , - . . 1971. 4. Thompson S. I. An Approach to Teaching Organizational Skills to Adults. English Teaching Forum. Vol. 47, N 2, 2009, pp. 3-17.

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ON TEACHING A LANGUAGE Eleonora CHEIBA, Senior Lecturer, Free International University of Moldova For many years, it seemed that the language teaching profession was engaged in a series of revolutions. Most of these revolutions had their origins in an attempt to reach consensus about the best way the one true way to teach a foreign language. The language teaching profession of the 1990s has been both blessed and challenged by the substantial growth and expansion of knowledge that has taken place in our field in the Republic of Moldova in the past few decades. It has been blessed with a renewal of interest in language learning and a great recognition of its place in the curriculum of the future. We pursue new directions in research and develop more creative ways to enhance learning in the classroom. Being teachers we need to be able to choose wisely among the multitude of options that are presented in the professional literature. As language teachers the question we now have to ask is: how successful the methods we use in teaching a foreign language are. We must know why we think these choices are best. We also need to be willing to be open to new ideas that lead to professional growth and positive change. Increasingly, the language teaching profession, as well as general of education, is faced with accountability issues that call for improved teacher development as a means of improving student learning. This renewed interest in the improvement of teaching seems to stem from the long overdue realization that, given good teaching, chances that learners will learn more are likely to grow. The famous English journalist and economist Walter Bagehot, who lived and worked in the 19th century said that perhaps the most valuable result of all education is the ability to make yourself do the thing you have to do when it ought to be done, whether you like it or not. But we must not forget that in order to be effective, an adult education program should comply with certain principles of adult learning. What are those certain principles of adult learning? As we teach at the Faculty of foreign languages, I can say that our students came 46

here according to their own wish. They will learn better because they themselves choose to get involved in learning foreign languages. Voluntary participation is very important. When decisions are made by others (parents, friends, colleagues, community, etc.) the ownership of the process is lost, and the result can be dismal. Thats why voluntary participation plays a great role in this problem. Another principle of adult learning is mutual respect. Our students need to feel they are respected and valued. We, the teachers, must be powerful motivators and models for our students, if we want them to progress in their learning. Mutual respect is based on the wisdom of the teachers who can bring the student to the task. Thats why mutual respect between teachers and students plays an important role in learning. Another great role in solving this important problem is organizational setting. The ULIM administration supports us not only with funding. Whats more important. It supports with a commitment to helping development and sustaining programs for teachers. We know that our students learn best in situations where they can share and learn from other adults. But one question appears here. Does collaboration happen naturally? Of course, not so often. Thats why the administrators of the Free International University of Moldova (ULIM) make efforts to promote it. In such cases they are sure that the students learn successfully. Every year some students of ULIM go to the USA in looking for a job. There they can communicate with other people in English. In such way they improve their English. As I have mentioned above, students learn best when given a chance to make their own choices. Thats why its very important to offer them a range of options and chances. And this requires a differrentiated approach to professional development. In order to be effective, professional development opportunities have to be rooted in practice which gives the students the chance of practice reflection of what they do. After that they modify their actions, of course if they deem it necessary. A specific learning opportunity can help students better to cope with their everyday lives because they engage in learning when they see it. It happens when motivation exist. The motivation to engage in professional development will depend mostly on the perceived bene47

fits it offers. It means that it is fundamental that professional development initiatives take into account the concerns expressed by teachers. When the teachers are given the opportunity to actively participate in the planning and implementation of the programs the results can be very good. This is self-direction. I consider that principles as: motivation, self-direction, mutual respect, voluntary participation, collaboration, organizational setting, action and praxis should be effective approaches to teachers professsional development. But very few have got the expected results. Thats why an improvement of teacher development as a means of improving student learning is urgently needed. As we realize that learning is an extremely complex process and that learners are individuals with different personalities, styles, and preferences, we must look for a multiplicity of ways to respond to the challenge of teaching. If we want instruction to be effective, techniques and activities need to be chosen intelligently to relate to specific program objectives. I hope my considerations have a great deal in common with the ideas, methods and principles expressed by many of the participants in the present sitting.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Hadley A. O. Teaching Language in Context. Heinle: Heinle Publishers, 2005. 2. Anthony E. M. Approach, Method, and Technique. English Language teaching; 2006, nr. 17. 3. Asher J. Learning Another Language Through Actions: The Complete Teachers Guide. Los Gatos, 2007. 4. John W., Oller Jr. Methods that Work. Boston: Heinle and Heinl Publishers, 2006. 5. Yorkey R. Intercom: English for International Communication. New York, 2006.

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SINERGIA LINGVISTIC: PRO ET CONTRA Valentin CIJACOVSCHI, prof. univ., dr. hab., Universitatea Liber Internaional din Moldova Sinergia sau sinergism (din limba grac synergos ceea ce nseamn de a lucra, de a activa mpreun, aprut appr. n 1660) se refer la fenomenul n care dou sau mai multe influene (doi sau mai muli ageni), activnd mpreun, au un efect mai mare dect cel prezis de cunoaterea numai a efectelor agenilor individuali. De la bun nceput a fost un termen tiinific. Deseori, dar nu ntotdeauna, prezicerea este suma efectelor, fiecruia capabil de a crea independent. Opozit sinergiei este antagonismul, fenomenul unde doi ageni n combinaie au un efect mai slab dect cel prezis de a lor efecte individuale. Sinergismul este de provinien doctrinal filologic (1657) unde se afirm c fiinele vii vor coopera cu graia divin n regenerare. Termenul a nceput s fie utilizat ntr-un sens mai larg neotologic ncepnd cu anul 1925. Sinergie mai poate nsemna: 1. O legtur mutual avantajoas, unde ntregul este mai mare dect suma prilor componente; 2. O stare dinamic n care o aciune combinat este favorizat sumei aciunilor componenilor individuali; 3. O comportare a sistemei luate n ntregul su nepredicat de comportarea prilor componente luate aparte, ce este cunoscut mai bine sub denumirea de comportare corespunztoare eventualitii. Ipoteze teoretice sinergetice Sinergetica este o nou tiin. Definiia c ea reprezint o complexitate de formalizare nu gsete pn azi o aprobare general. O astfel de formulare, ca cerinile computaionale pentru transformarea unui text interpretat, ca un product finisat, ca un model de relaii poate fi luat n consideraie. Orice text ntotdeauna este prezentat ca o funcie a unei multitudini de informaii mprit cu utilizatorul. Complexitatea deseori implic uemtoarele atribute: a) Fenomenul complex const din mai multe pri (uniti sau articole); b) Diferite tipuri de relaii pot fi observate ntre aceste pri; c) Prile produc efecte combinate, adic sinergetice care nu pot fi prevzute. 49

Complexitatea poate fi apreciat ca o pauz de creaie care joac un rol important n domeniul inteligenei artificiale. Era noastr prezint concomitent i vrsta acestei complexiti, acestui fenomen a lumii naturale descoperit de bun seam destul de demult. Discuiile care se poart n jurul acestei probleme de ntreg (whole) i pri (parts), holism i reducionism, pot fi trasate cel puin n perioada istoric dintre atena lui Pericle i Aristotel i urmaii lor din secolele al XIX-lea i XX. n ziua de azi eforturile tiinei seamn de a fi n procesul de a crea o punte de trecere dintre prpastia teoretic, ntre holism i reductionism. S-au depus multe eforturi pentru a obine un control teoretic mai mare asupra complexitii copleitoare de a utiliza fora a supercomputerilor. Albert Einstein a observat muli ani n urm c noi trebuie s depunem eforturi de a simplifica obiectele cu ct se poate mai mult, dar nu de a le face mai simple dect ele pot fi. Simplificarea sau generalizarea teoretic poate servi la identifi carea faptelor-cheie, proprietilor comune sau interrelaiilor importante dintre variantele fenomene. n aceeai msur devine important s ne folosim de un concept care ar cuprinde un larg ir de fenomene i ar putea servi ca o ancor pentru o profund, din punct de vedere teoretic, schem de prezentare a cunotinelor care, la rndul lor, ar putea cataliza prediciile hipotetice. Un alt concept important este cel al ierarhiei. Termenul este utilizat ntr-o varietate de posibiliti. Concomitent fiecare utilizare luat aparte se relev prin conotaiile sale teoretice. n sinergetic aceasta nseamn succesivitatea aciunilor n cursul procesrii automate a textului. Sinergetica prezint n sine un termen specific care foarte des este scpat din vedere, este greit neles sau nu pe deplin neles (uneori exprimat printr-o alt denumire). Sinergetica prezint n sine un termen de o importan funamental a lumii materiale. Sinergetica definit pe larg, cum a fost subliniat mai sus, se refer la un efect de cooperare produs de obiecte care opereaz mpreun, pe scurt, efectul produs de un ntreg este dependent de cel pe care le produc prile luate aparte. n dependen de disciplin (fizic, fizic cantitativ, termodinamic, biofizic, chimie, biologie, microbiologie, biologie molecular, ecologie etc). Sinergetica ca un fenomen multi disciplinar se asociaz cu o terminologie specific corespunztoare: holism, ierarhism, eventualitate, efecte cooperative, simetrice, stabilitate 50

colectiv, integrarea funcional, complementarea, organizarea, reci procitatea, parasitismul, altruismul reciproc, diviziunea muncii, simbolul, succesivitatea etc. Diversitilor sus-menionate corespund i o larg gam de definiii. Se poate considera c o aa situaie ne ajut s nelegem mai profund lumea care ne nconjoar. Sinergia ca atare este o realitate. Efectele sale sunt msurabile, mai bine zis, cantitativ i ne ajut s determinm i alte proprieti a lumii care ne nconjoar. Ipotezele menionate pe scurt satisfcnd, dup prerea noastr, ntr-o oarecare msur interesul nostru pentru coninutul conceptului sinergetic ne vor permite de a ncerca s demonstrm posibilitile pragmatice ale sinergiei n domeniul lingvistic. Computerul i omul. Sinergetica poate fi definit ca o mbinare a forelor umane i forele computerului. Computerul poate procesa datele mult mai repede dect omul, dar primului i lipsete simul practic. Atunci, cnd o persoan se folosete de computer, gndurile sale reprezint n sine date pentru computer, n ultimul ele sunt traduse printr-un proces de prelucrate a unei mari cantiti de date. Dar nainte de aceasta, alte persoane trebuie s elaboreze anumite metode de procesare. Pentru a fi gata de a trece la aceast activitate aceste persoane trebuie s neleag c limba natural (LN) prezint un fenomen deosebit: pe de o parte LN este ceva spiritual, pe de alt parte, ea poate fi materializat i utiizat de om la generarea i per ceperea gndurilor, ideilor i regulilor sale, adic reflectai n realitate.
BIBLIOGRAFIE Cijacovcshi V., Procopciuc V. Lingvistica inginereasc component contemporan al lingvisticii (realitate i perspectiv). Chiinu: ULIM, 2005.

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DISCOURSE ANALYSIS AND ESL TEACHING Valentina CIUMACENCO, Senior Lecturer, MA, Free International University of Moldova Discourse analysis (DA) has been a specialist study, which greatly raise the interest of English teachers. To begin with, it is necessary, firstly, to determine the term discourse. The concept of discourse analysis owes its origin to Zellig Harris. He was the first to introduce it to the scientific community in an influential article in the journal Language. Harris defines discourse analysis as a method for the analysis of connected speech (or writing) that, firstly, goes beyond the limits of a single sentence and, secondly, correlates culture (in a meaning of non-linguistic behavior) and language [1, p. 1]. He argues that the method belongs to formal linguistics and does not take into account the semantics of the elements under analysis. Harris is primarily interested in so called equivalence classes that are ele ments occurring in the identical environments like the middle of autumn and the end of October, and how these patterns are distributed within a given text [ibid., p. 8]. The result of such discourse analysis is presented in the form of a double array, or succession of intervals, containing certain equivalence classes. Despite the fact that Harris possessed foreknowledge of many coming trends in language teaching, it took about twenty-five years for discourse analysis to be mentioned in the educational context. In 1976 Frank Hatt touched on discourse analysis only at the level of name-dropping and pointed out that it is difficult to see how it could help to relate a text to its situational context [2, pp. 56-57]. But two years later Amy Lezberg and Ann Hilferty (1978) published an article in TESOL Quarterly with the promising title Discourse analysis in the Reading Class. The paper describes two applications of discourse analysis: pedagogy and class content; and its target group is intermediate and advanced English as a Second Language /English as a Foreign Language (ESL/EFL) students [3, p.47]. They understand discourse analysis as inducing students to consider introducing and finishing-off the topic, unfolding of the topic, turntaking, and domination/subordination of the participants in the given discourse. 52

In 1983 Brown and Yule published Discourse analysis, that is one of the most cited works in the area of discourse analysis. They state that the analysis of discourse is, necessarily, the analysis of language in use [4, p. 1]. One of the first longer works on discourse analysis fully devoted to language teaching is Guy Cooks Discourse (1989). It was meant to provide important insights for language teachers and to explain how discourse analysis could be applied in various teaching situations. For Cook: Discourse Analysis examines how stretches of language, considered in their full textual, social, and psychological context, become meaningful and unified for their users [5, p.75]. For Fairclough, there is a reciprocality between language and society: Language is a part of society; linguistic phenomena are social phenomena of a special sort, and social phenomena are linguistic phenomena [6, p. 23]. Widdowson states: We may now use the label discourse analysis to refer to the investigation into the way sentences are put to communicative use in the performing of social actions, discourse being roughly defined, therefore, as the use of sentences [7, p. 93]. On the other hand, for Stubbs the term discourse analysis is very ambiguous. It refers mainly to the linguistic analysis of naturally occurring connected spoken or written discourse. Roughly speaking, it refers to attempts to study the organisation of language above the sentence or above the clause, and therefore to study larger linguistic units, such as conversational exchanges or written texts. It follows that discourse analysis is also concerned with language in use in social contexts, and in particular with interaction or dialogue between speakers [8, p. 1]. As Crystal points out: Discourse is a term used in linguistics to refer to a continuous stretch of (especially spoken) language larger than a sentence but within this broad notion, several applications may be found. At its most general, a discourse is a behavioral unit which has a pre-theoretical status in linguistics: it is a set of utterances which constitute any recognisable speech event [9, pp. 114-115]. All in all, the purpose of studying discourse analysis is to describe the conversational structures, that take place in an appropriate context. To sum up, Coulthard comments on the importance of discourse in language study. He states: The major concen of discourse analysis, is the relationship between the discourse and the speakers 53

and hearers by and for whom it is produced a concern with how speakers take the role of hearers, how social roles affect discourse options in terms of who speaks when and what they can talk about, how non-verbal signalling works and how the actual form of utterances is conditioned by the social relationships between the participants [10, p.11]. Discourse Analysis and Second Language Teaching The field of discourse analysis is very broad, but in regard to language teaching it is possible to define five areas: cohesion, coherence, information structure, turn-taking, and critical discourse analysis [11. p. 7]. Despite great interest in discourse analysis, one of the latest authoritative books on teaching second language does not mention discourse analysis as a tool that can be used either by language teacher or language learners [12]. Conscious of this fact it seems pertinent to look closely at how the theory of discourse analysis has been developed over time with respect to considerations relevant to teaching DA to ESL learners. Although this review by no means intends to provide a full coverage of the issue, it attempts to shed some light on the role that discourse analysis has played and is still playing in teaching EFL students. Justification for bringing discourse analysis into the language classroom Even with the most communicative approaches, the second language classroom is limited in its ability to develop learners communicative competence in the target language. This is due to the restricted number of contact hours with the language; minimal opportunities for interacting with native speakers; and limited exposure to the variety of functions, genres, speech events, and discourse types that occur outside the classroom. In ESL classrooms where authentic and quasi-authentic materials are used, students are often confronted with a potentially confusing variety of texts. This can be justified with the pedagogical objective of providing abundant exposure to as many instances as possible of language used in real contexts. It can be argued that such exposure will help students to develop their comprehension and production skills to ensure success in their academic and professional practices. The pedagogical approach suggested is based on a conception of language as a social 54

semiotics, that is, a resource used to transmit essential patterns of a culture realized in the texts produced by the members of that culture [13, p.34]. The task for ESL teachers should be to develop in students an attitude that promotes the exploration and discovery of (1) basic text types, (2) the structure of the values linguistically encoded, and (3) their social function. In the light of this, texts should be viewed as laboratories for analysis, with the ultimate aim being to improve the students overall performance. Emphasized are learner-based theories [14, p. 5]. Such theories generally stress social interaction, critical thinking skills, language awareness and psychological autonomy. Also receiving focus is a process approach that advocates reading-writing connections and the teaching of reading and writing processes together, encouraging their constant interaction, since they are considered to be similar acts of construction and response. DA should be broadly approached so that on completion of their course of studies at university level, students as new language professionals (teachers, material writers, etc.) can decide on the appropriateness of the materials available for classroom and professional use. They should know how to incorporate insights and techniques from applied DA so as to be able to select and produce materials relevant to their own specific situations. Specifically within language teaching situations, DA may be of use when assessing the content of a publication for classroom use or when choosing representative texts to present and practice one particular grammatical or conceptual area. As DA covers and relates in an explanatory fashion a vast domain of knowledge within linguistics, it may be used to enhance the future language professionals theoretical and methodological insights by enabling them to focus on how language is used in order to achieve certain communicative aims. Discourse Analysis: Possibilities for Language Teaching and Learning DA has become a leading discipline in the field of applied linguistic studies, exerting a significant influence on language teaching. Knowledge of it can certainly be very useful for students, trainees and practicing teachers. Discourse analysts look for regularities in patterns and features occurring in stretches of actual language in use, both in the written and spoken modes, so that broad categorizations can be 55

formulated in regards to both the formal and the functional aspects of any given coherent chunk of language. The sorts of questions discourse analysts ask amount to a rationalist, linguistically informed interrogation of a text. The ability to do this type of inquiry can and should be extended to language professionals such as teacher trainers, teachers, and translators. Once an adequate collection of texts has been chosen for intermediate and advanced level students of English (with their academic and future professional needs as the main criteria), a preliminary use of discourse analysis in instruction might consist of gist activities that ask the students to determine subject ma tter. Then, attention could be focused on the vocabulary used throughout, with particular reference to the authors choice of lexical items, register, and use of metaphor and other stylistic devices. In particular, an interesting area to embark on is the analysis of lexical processes in text, including collocation and word reiteration. Depending on the students level, another possibility is to explore the grammatical links that tie the text together. This analysis will reveal the cohesive elements reference, ellipsis, substitution, conjunction as well as the discourse markers and the semantic relationships they convey to make the text hang together as a unified whole. Such an analysis can be used to create word sets which not only highlight target content vocabulary, but can also be used to show how cohesion and coherence are accomplished in the text. Afterwards, pedagogical analysis might turn on some typical syntactic patterns or formal regularities in the linguistic realizations according to the level of proficiency required. Some leading questions include: Are the sentences and structures too complex? Where does the linguistic complexity lie: in the length, the ideas, the information structure within and beyond sentence level? Has the original text been abridged or simplified for teaching purposes? In order to consolidate different linguistic patterns, while analyzing the text, it is interesting to observe both structural and lexical repetition, since these provide conceptual links and a considerable amount of input. Guidelines for classroom work on discourse Bringing discourse analysis into the language classroom cannot be an end in itself but rather a means to make our pedagogic task more efficient and effective in developing the learners communi56

cative competence. This competence must be understood as different sets of knowledge and skills (linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic) that the speaker must make use of in order to produce coherent, unified and socially appropriate messages. According to Lomas, Osoro and Tusn in order to acquire these four types of competence, the learner will have to develop the following skills [15, pp.80-81]: (i) Identify the relevant elements of a communicative situation. (ii) Identify and use different genres, styles and registers. (iii) Use language as an instrument of interpersonal relations, to construct one's thought and to discover and interpret reality. (iv) Identify the value, origin and social function of the different discourse practices. In the rest of this section I will comment on three issues with which the teacher might be confronted when it comes to designing a syllabus based on a discourse approach to language: (1) the segmentation of discourse, (2) sequencing, (3) selection and presentation of instances of language use. 1. The segmentation of discourse When organizing a language curriculum according to a discourse approach we should first distinguish four basic modes: spoken-written, monologic-dialogic. Although these modes can be prototypically defined in terms of specific formal features, we should not conclude that the possibilities of expression of the language users are reduced to four possibilities. Rather, the four basic modes function as the extremes of two axes of variation. Thus, we can have a formal spoken text with typical features of written language, or a monologic text with dialogic features. Depending on the context of use and the intended effect of the message, the speaker/writer will decide, by choosing certain formal features, the position of his/her discourse on the two axes. After the mode, the next level of segmentation of discourse is genre, which can be defined as a socially recognized type of communication with a specific social function which determines both the rhetorical structure and the choice of gammatical and lexical elements. Carter and McCarthy mention a series of core generic functions to organise the syllabus: reporting, narrating, persuading, arguing, describing, instructing, etc. [16, p. 23]. Each of these core generic functions 57

is further subdivided into specific genres. For instance, information report, weather report and progress report are three different realizations of reporting. Each of these realizations adopts a specific register according to the subject matter, the medium and the type of audience. Finally, it is possible to find texts which are the result of generic blends such as reporting and predicting, narrating and arguing or explaining and persuading. The advantage of presenting language use through different genres is that, besides emphasizing the tight relationship between social function and linguistic form, we can situate our text as part of a cultural and textual tradition which is decisive in many cases in order to explain the form and contents of certain ritualized forms of communication. Cook presents a list of discourse types or genres which can be useful to exemplify these kind of genres [17, p. 95]: recipe joke anecdote label poem letter advertisement report message note chat seminar manifesto toast argument The third level of discourse segmentation is that of strategy, through which we can integrate the participants in a communicative event as real actors who decide, according to their goals and the circumstances, what to say and how to say it. The concept of strategy also implies a systematic way of using the language and, in this sense; we can integrate lexico-grammatical choices and socio-cultural constraints in the description and practice of specific verbal actions. In order to define the specific strategies that the syllabus must contain McCarthy and Carter propose the following presyllabus with groups of strategies and questions that can be asked in order to specify different discourse features. The six groups of strategies proposed are the following: 1. Genre-related strategies: most frequent media, modes and genres; patterns of interaction (narrative, problem solution). 2. Coherence-related strategies: topic management, turn-taking, cohesion. 3. Politeness strategies: face, forms of address, reciprocity. 4. Planning strategies: anticipatory strategies (enumeration, cataphoric use of articles and pronouns), sequences of tense, aspect and voice, appropriate degree of creativity and risk-taking. 5. Convergence strategies: informational and cognitive convergence 58

(theme, mood and modality), affective convergence (solidarity routines, agreement/disagreement), shared cultural knowledge. 6. Repair strategies: risks of communicational problems and cultural misunderstandings, self-repair/cooperative repair [ibid., pp. 180181]. 2. Sequencing Another issue that must be faced in the design of a language curriculum has to do with the sequence in which the different elements constituting discourse will be presented. Here we can basically distinguish two main approaches which are based on theories of how we process language: bottom-up and top-down. A bottom-up approach to describing discourse conceives communication as divided into different levels and it proposes an analysis which begins with the smallest units of language (i.e. sounds/letters) and continues through a series of inclusive levels up to the levels of the text or discourse. Cook mentions the following levels: sounds/letters, grammar and lexis, cohesion, conversational mechanisms, discourse function, discourse structure, discourse type, shared knowledge, social relationships [17, p. 80]. In my opinion, many attempts to bring discourse into the language classroom have failed because of this approach, since the teachers feel that they cannot move to the next level until the learners have mastered the previous one and usually the great divide appears betveen the sentence and discourse levels. The alternative approach, known as top-down, considers that language users make sense of discourse by moving from the highest units of analysis to the lowest, starting with background knowledge and expectations about the purpose/contents of the message and the strucrure of the text and looking for confirmation of these at the lower levels. This seems a more realistic approach based on the experience of how we understand difficult discourse: we take some linguistic or situational detail as the cue which allows us to make a general hypothesis which must be progressively confirmed through our analysis (reading/listening) of the text. This second approach seems much more useful in the case of foreign language learning, where subjects already have a great deal of communicative experience in their own language which they must be able to use in order to compensate for deficiencies at lower levels. When we want to understand difficult discourse we usually start with knowledge about the sender, the intended receiver, the 59

purpose, the genre. This knowledge triggers some expectations about the content and form of the text which are confirmed or not through our processing of the text. Rather than choosing between one or the other approach when organizing a syllabus, it is probably better to combine them in what Stanovich defines as interactive-compensatory model [18, p. 37]. According to his model, discourse comprehension is not as simple as moving from higher to lower levels or viceversa. It is an interactive process, in which we use information from more than one level simultaneously, and deficiencies at one level can be compensated for by any other level, independently of its rank. 3. Selection and presentation of instances of language use The presentation of the different instances of language which constitute the basis of the syllabus is also affected by the approach we adopt. McCarthy and Carter propose five main principles which, in their opinion, should be central to discourse-based language teaching: (i) The contrastive principle: Understanding of how language operates in a particular situation/text is increased when it is compared and contrasted with different situations/texts in the foreign language and in the learners first language. (ii) The continuum principle: The series of texts which are produced by a speech community do not constitute clearly separate compartments but a continuum in which the freedom of the user has a very important role when it comes to manipulating, according to his/her intentions, the elements which define the prototypical form of the text. (iii) The inferencing principle: Any sample of real language carries a cultural load which must be taken into account in order to make sense of it. Therefore, it is necessary to devote some effort not only to teaching culture but also to teaching actual procedures to infer meaning. (iv) Familiar to unfamiliar principle: Following Vygotsky and his notion of zone of proximal development, this principle states that effective learning takes place when the starting point is discourse practices with which the learners are familiar, to continue in later stages with discourse practices which are more complex, elaborated and decontextualized [19, p. 91]. (v) The critical principle: Language should also be presented as a means of manipulation and creation of ideology for those who 60

traditionally have more access to the media for verbal communication (governments, bureaucracies, teachers, etc.) [20, p. 23]. By developing their critical capacity to look for traces of ideology beyond language we are empowering our students and helping them to become freer educated citizens. Conclusion My aim in this article has been to explore how the work of discourse analysts can be incorporated into language teaching. The goal of this article was not an attempt to show how discourse can be brought into the classroom but rather how the discourse analysis can help language educators and learners to better understand language use and, therefore, contribute to making the teaching learning experience more effective. It has been my intention to show that discourse analysis can inform language educators from three different points of view: general understanding about language, metalinguistic reflection and syllabus design. Additionally, three specific issues have been presented that need to be taken into account when designing a teaching syllabus based on a discourse approach to language: segmentation, sequencing and selection and presentation of discourse. If we accept that our goal as teachers is essentially to help our learners to become efficient and effective participants in real communicative situations and that this involves more than the knowledge and skills necessary to manipulate the structures of a language, then we must inevitably appeal to a theory of language use that attempts to integrate its social, cognitive and linguistic strands. This is precisely what discourse analysis does in trying to discover the system underlying our verbal productions. A discourse-oriented approach also encourages learners to develop language awareness exploring relationships between form, meaning and use, which enables language learners, inter alia, to grasp the underlying features of the text types. From a cognitive perspective, Grabe argues for building awareness of discourse structure by highlighting key words that signal text structure, identifying a paragraphs function, finding patterns of discourse organization in a text, etc. [21, p. 13]. Finally, a discourse-oriented approach to language teaching allows teachers to evaluate classroom interaction in order to enhance it and 61

achieve a better classroom task design. In conclusion, considering pedagogical implications of discourse analysis, it has become an essential part of language teachers duties, and nowadays language teaching is virtually impossible without adopting a discourse-oriented approach.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. BIBLIOGRAPHY Harris Z. Discourse analysis. In: Language, 1952, vol. 28: 1, pp. 1-30. Hatt F. The reading process: A framework for analysis and description. London: Clive Bingley, 1976. Lezberg A. and Hilferty A. Discourse analysis in the reading class. In: TESOL Quarterly, 1978, vol. 12: 1, pp. 47-55. Brown G. and Yule G. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Cook G. Discourse. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1989. Fairclough N. Language and Power. London: Longman, 1989. Widdowson H. Explorations in Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1979. Stubbs M. Discourse Analysis: The Sociolinguistic Analysis of Natural Language. Basil Blackwell, 1983. Crystal D. A First Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. London: Andre Deutsch, 1980. Coulthard M. An Introduction to Discourse Analysis. London: Longman, 1987. Celce-Murcia M. and Olshtain E. Discourse and Context in Language Teaching: A Guide for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Hudson T. Teaching second language reading. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. Halliday M. Language as Social Semiotic. London: Edward Arnold, 1978. Dickinson L. Self-instruction in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Lomas C. Osoro A, and Tusn A. Ciencias del lenguaje, competencia comunicativa y ensezanza de la lengua. Barcelona: Paids, 1993. Mccarthy M. and Carter R. Language as Discourse: Perspectives for language teaching. London and New York: Longrnan, 1994. Cook G. Discourse. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989. Stanovich K. Toward an interactive cornpensatory rnodel of individual differences in the developrnent of reading fluency. In: Reading Research Quarterly, 1980, 16, pp. 32-71. Vygotsky L. El desarrollo de los procesos psicoldgicos superiores. Barce-

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

19.

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lona: Crtica, 1979. 20. Josep M. Bringing discourse analysis into the language classroom. In: Links & Letters, 1996, vol.3, pp. 77-101. 21. Grabe W. Reading in a second language: Moving from theory to practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

63

TEACHING LITERATURE: APPROACHES TO LITERARY ANALYSIS Ina COLENCIUC, Senior Lecturer, MA, Free International University of Moldova For many university teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL), the study of literature is indispensable because it exposes students to meaningful contexts that are replete with descriptive language and interesting characters. In addition to developing students English language skills, teaching literature appeals to their imagination, develops cultural awareness, and encourages critical thinking about plots, themes, and characters. Besides that, the activities that one can apply with literature lessons easily conform to the student-centered and interactive tenets of Communicative Language Teaching. This article represents a review of six approaches to teaching literature and includes a discussion based on the authors experience. As the field of literary analysis of fiction, drama, and poetry has a long history, many theories exist on how to evaluate and teach literature. Six frequently discussed approaches to literary analysis include: 1) New Criticism, 2) Structuralism, 3) Stylistics, 4) ReaderResponse, 5) Language-Based, and 6) Critical Literacy. Approach 1: New Criticism The New Criticism approach to literary analysis appeared in the United States after World War I. According to this theory, meaning is contained solely within the literary text, apart from the effect on the reader or the authors intention, and the external elements are disregarded when analyzing the work. The readers role is to discover the one correct meaning by a close reading and analysis of formal elements such as rhyme, meter, imagery, and theme. According to Thomson, the world of a literary work is self-contained, and readers must exercise total objectivity in interpreting the text [11, p. 32]. In other words, the social, historical, and political background of the text, as well as the readers reactions or knowledge of the authors intention, distract from and are not relevant to the interpretation of the literary work. The major drawback of New Criticism is that most class activities 64

are dedicated to identifying formal elements and literary devices such as symbolism, metaphors, similes, and irony. This turns the study of literary terms into an end in itself rather than a means to discover the beauty and value of a literary work. This includes looking at the connection between the text and the readers experiences and the historical and sociolinguistic influences that become apparent during the reading process [11, p. 39]. Some scholars who criticize the approach feel that readers inevitably relate to aspects of what they are reading and become subjectively involved with the text. This is why many teachers choose particular texts and communicative teaching methods: to treat reading as a process that requires introducing contents; describing the setting, characters, and plot; relating the text to students experience; and eliciting student opinion and discussion. This can, of course, include the study of literary terms, but it does not make that technique an end in itself but rather a means to discover the beauty and value of a literary works. I believe that the application of the New Criticism approach offers students little enjoyment or recognition of the value of literature, and, perhaps, creates a negative attitude towards literature. One criticism of using literature in the EFL classroom deals with the overuse of what is called the traditional canon those famous, classic, award-winning literary works that often contain language that is difficult to comprehend. This issue especially relates to New Criticism, which typically deals with texts that exemplify the highest literary values. Because this single-minded focus neglects the readers experience, there is little reason to select texts that are suitable to the learners needs or language proficiency. In choosing acceptable texts for the EFL context, there are several things to consider. First is the difficulty of the vocabulary and syntax, and teachers should look for works that match the level they are teaching. Other things that make literature difficult are the historical, social, and political references that add complexity for nonEnglish speakers. Approach 2: Structuralism Structuralism is an approach that gained importance in the 1950s; instead of interpreting a literary text as an individual entity, 65

this approach determines where a literary text fits into a system into a framework that can be applied to all literature [3, p. 21]. Like New Criticism, Structuralism emphasizes total objectivity in examining literary texts and denies the role of readers personal responses in analyzing literature. It requires learners to approach literary texts scientifically and to use their knowledge of structures and themes to place the work into meaningful hierarchical system. According to Cummins, Structuralism does not focus on the aesthetic value of literature, but on the different processes and structures that are involved in the process of meaning [2, p. 20]. Carter and Long summarize the criticism of Structuralism when they write that instead of being concerned with how a literary text renders an authors experience of life and allows us access to human meanings, the structuralist is only interested in mechanical formal relationship, such as the components of a narrative, and treats the literary text as if it were a scientific object [1, p. 183]. This focus on literature as a scientific system rather than as one containing individual and subjective meaning downplays the individuals role in constructing meaning. However, literature should contribute to students personal development, enhance cultural awareness, and develop language skills. Though Structuralism does not make literature more accessible than New Criticism by connecting a work to an overall thematic structure, it over-emphasizes the linguistic systems and codes as the sole determinants of meaning [11, p. 15]. Structuralism therefore is less relevant for the teaching of literature because the EFL learners possess inadequate skills and knowledge to approach the text scientifically, which makes the study of the process useless and results in a lack of motivation for reading literature. Approach 3: Stylistics The Stylistic approach, which appeared in the late 1970s, analyzes the features of literary language to develop students sensitivity to literature. This includes the unconventional structure of literature, especially poetry, where language often is used in non-grammatical and loose manner. Whether these unconventional structures confuse or enhance a learners knowledge of the language is the subject of debate. In this respect one must consider the differences among genres. For example, poetry is often abstract and imaginative, while dialogues 66

in dramas are often very realistic. In the Stylistic approach, the teacher encourages students to use their linguistic knowledge to make aesthetic judgments and interpretations of the texts. Thus the issue of the role of the reader in the process comes up again. According to Rodger [4], the language plays the most important role in deciphering a poems significance, while others such as Moody see the importance of the readers background knowledge, along with close attention to language features, as important to interpreting complex texts that are capable of analysis and commentary from a variety of different points of view [7, p. 23]. One useful model of Stylistics is comparative approach to teaching literature, in which excerpts from literature are compared to extracts from other texts, such as news reports, tourist brochures, or advertisements. This technique illustrates that the language of literature is an independent kind of discourse and teaches students different ways that language can be used. In this way students also build their knowledge of registers the different ways language is used in a particular setting to communicate. Students can compare the registers in a literary work with the registers in non-literary texts, which will help them recognize the differences between literary and non-language and the various ways language is used. Students will learn to appreciate the power and versatility of all types of language to express and complete a range of human feelings and experience. The Stylistic approach is relevant because it clarifies one of the rationales for teaching literature: to highlight the aesthetic value of literature and provides access to the meaning by exploring the language and form of the literary text with a focus on meaning. From my teaching experience, I find that students appreciate literature more when they can explore the beauty of the literary language. For example, when my students read the poem Raven by Edgar Allan Poe, they were excited to discover how the form of the poem reflects the theme of the poem. They found the process of exploring the language style and form of the poem both entertaining and valuable. However, they realized that this analysis was not possible without guidance from the teacher, and they felt they would lack confidence if working alone. If the Stylistic approach is the only method used in the EFL context, some problems do arise. Challenges include the difficulty of 67

recognizing irony in the literature of a foreign culture, language learners communicative competence and lack of experience of and sensitivity to a variety of registers in every day life contexts [9, p. 96]. These problems increase in EFL classroom with limited language resources. In addition, the teacher must be knowledgeable about the terminology of literary devices in order to guide students. Approach 4: Reader-Response The principles of the Reader-Response approach include attention to the role of the reader and a process-oriented approach to reading literature. Reader-Response supports activities that encourage students to draw on their personal experiences, opinions, and feelings in their interpretation of literature. Dias and Hayhoe [4, p.15] point out that it is precisely the role of the reader in the act of reading that has not been sufficiently and properly addressed Reader-Response approach addresses this problem by making the learners active participants in the learning process [3]. The crucial connection between the reader and the text is explained by Rosenblatts theory of literary reading, which describes the transactional relationship between a reader and a poem. The events that take place in a literary work occur at a particular time and place, and different readers react to these events in different ways, depending on their unique interests and experiences. Each reader attaches his or her personal interpretation to a work; thus a poem is an active process lived through during the relationship between a reader and a text and should not be confused with an object in the sense of an entity existing apart from the author or reader [10, p.21]. This perspective emphasizes the two-way relationship between texts and readers, a perspective that has much in common with theories of top-down reading, where students use their schemata or familiarity with the topic from background knowledge and personal feelings to help them understand the work and improve their comprehension and interpretation of new information [1, p. 44]. The Reader-Response approach makes an important contribution to learning by demystifying literature and connecting it to individual experience. Researchers and university teachers support making literature more accessible by activating students background know ledge so they can better predict and decode the language and schemes 68

of literary texts. The Reader-Response approach is also supported because it takes advantage of the crucial fact that emotional reactions from reading a story, poem, or play can be harnessed for classroom instruction [7, p. 32]. I also agree that activating students schemata in reading literature is important and that personalizing the learning experience increases student participation and motivation. In fact, these are core principles that are known to encourage language learning through student-centered and process-oriented activities. Nevertheless, some problems with the Reader-Response approach have been identified, including: - Students interpretations may deviate greatly from the work, making it problematic for the reader to respond and evaluate. - Selecting appropriate materials can be problematic because the level of language difficulty and unfamiliar cultural content may prevent students from giving meaningful interpretations. - The lack of linguistic guidance may hinder students ability to understand the language of the text or respond to it. - The students culture may make them reluctant to discuss their feelings and reactions openly. Approach 5: Language-Based Like the Stylistic approach, the Language-Based approach emphasizes awareness of the language of literature, and it is a basic stage for EFL learners. However, this approach facilitates students responses and experience with literature, and is considered more accessible for language learners than the Stylistic approach [1], [5], [8]. In addition, the Language-Based approach calls for a variety of language instruction activities, including brainstorming to activate background knowledge and make predictions, rewriting the ends of stories or summarizing plots, cloze procedures to build vocabulary and comprehension, and jigsaw readings to allow students to collaborate with others, form opinions, and engage in spirited debates. The point is that literature is an excellent vehicle for methods that result in four-skill language development through interaction, collaboration, peer teaching, and student independence. The teachers role is not to impose interpretation but to introduce and clarify technical terms, to prepare and offer appropriate classroom procedures, and to intervene when necessary to provide prompts or stimuli. 69

The Language-Based approach responds to language students needs in learning literature: they receive the skills and techniques to facilitate access to texts and develop sensitivity to different genres so they can enjoy a piece of literature that relates to their lives. Moreover, this approach meets students needs in learning a language: students communicate in English to improve their language competence; they develop the necessary skills of working in groups; and they become active learners while teachers support and guide them in the learning process. Approach 6: Critical Literacy Critical literacy is drawn from a variety of theories such as critical language studies and educational sociology [6, p.216]. This approach has important implications for teaching both language and literature because it reveals the interrelationship between language use and social power. According to Cummins truth presented in the classroom as knowledge is rooted in a set of power relationships [2, p. 253]. Discourse reflects the power relations in society and, as researchers and practitioners note, the teaching and learning process is not neutral with respect to social realities and intergroup power relations. Regarding the interaction between readers and text, Luke and Freebody state that authors construct a version of the social world; and they position or locate the reader in a social relation to the text and that world [6, p. 223]. The critical approach to teaching and learning attempts to undo the process whereby a premise is accepted because it is repeated, unchallenged, and is part of status quo. A major objective of Critical Literacy is to enable students to unveil this naturalization effect and achieve an understanding of how and why the status quo is presented as obvious and unchangeable [12, p.69]. Critical literacy facilitates students critical awareness about the role of language in producing, maintaining, and changing social relations and power, and it is considered a resource for developing the consciousness about the relationship between language society [7, p. 34]. Another objective of Critical Literacy is to encourage learners to explore how social and political factors shape the language they are learning so that students are more aware of the sociopolitical reasons 70

behind their choice to use certain language varieties [2]. Cummins recommended Critical Literacy model Transformative Pedagogy, a collaborative interaction between students and teachers that leads them to achieve a critical awareness of the sociopolitical use of language and to acquire and use language in a powerful and meaningful way to react to and change social reality. When evaluating the relevance of approaches to teaching English literature to university students, it is useful to consider the following core principles: 1. The place of meaning Meaning is the result of the two-way relationship between texts and readers, depending on readers experience, the reading context, and the difficulty, style, and form of literary language. Meaning is also influenced by how students relate to the authors portrayal of identity, culture, gender, and social class. 2. The purposes of learning The use of literature facilitates language learning because, when it is properly introduced, students enjoy literary style. In addition, they will inevitably forge strong connections with the plots, themes, and ideological assumptions of literature and will become active learners that embrace critical thinking in English. 3. Activities in the classroom The study of literature is amenable to student-centered activities that offer opportunities for collaborative group work such as readertheater, drama, and other projects where English is the common medium of authentic communication. The choice of texts and activities is crucial because these selections will make the difference between passive reading and a literary text. 4. Role of the student Literature has power to create opinions and individual meanings for students; hence, they will typically be the ones to initiate and sustain activities based on the literary themes that resonate with them. This will help students become active classroom participants and will lead to autonomous learning. 5. Role of the teacher The teacher is an important facilitator and guide when it comes to offering a choice of texts and ways to interpret them. Far from being a passive observer, the teacher must plan and prepare to involve 71

students in lessons and encourage them to express their points of view. In conclusion I would say that students motivation in the learning process are often determined by their interest in and enthusiasm for the material use in the class, the level of their persistence with the learning tasks, and the level of their concentration and enjoyment. This type of involvement is something that cannot be imposed; it must come from the materials and lessons that are implemented in the classroom.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Carter R. Long M. Teaching literature. Harlow, UK: Longman, 2001. Cummins J. Language, power and pedagogy. Buffalo, NY: Multilingual Matters, 2000. 3. Davies A., Stratton F. How to teach poetry. London: Heinemann, 1999. 4. Dias P., Hayhoe M. Developing response to poetry. Philadelphia: Open University Press, 1998, p. 177-183. 5. Littlewood W. Literature in the foreign language course / in Literature and language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998, p. 177-183. 6. Luke A., Freebody P. The social practices of reading / in Constructing critical literacy. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton, 2007, p. 185-226. 7. Moody H. Approaches to the study of literature / in Teaching literature overseas: Language-based approaches. Elmsford: NY, Pergamon, 1998, p. 17-36. 8. Nash W. The possibilities of paraphrase in the teaching of literary idiom / in Literature and Language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998, p. 204-209. 9. Ramsaran S. Stress, rhythm and intonation in the study of English literature / in Teaching literature overseas: Language-based approaches. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon , 1998, p. 85-102. 10. Rosenblatt L. The reader, the text, the poem: The transactional theory of the literary work. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1999. 11. Thomson J. The significance and use of contemporary literary theory for the teaching of literature / in Reconstructing literature teaching. Norwood, Australia: Australian Association for the Teaching of English, 2002, p. 3-39. 12. Wallace C. Critical language awareness in EFL classroom / in Critical language awareness. London: Longman, 2001, p. 59-92. 1. 2.

72

 , , . ., 4 : , , . , (), , . , . 70- , , , , , . , , , , , , . - , , learner-centered approach. , [3]. , , , , , , . , 73

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 , , , , , , , . , , , , , , , -. , [5]. , , , , , , . - : , . , , , . - , . . , , : - ; - ( ); - , , .., - [10]. , : 1) ; ; 81

2) . , : (, , ); 3) / [9]. , , .
1. . . . . - . . ., 1996. 275 . 2. . . .: , 1986. 424 . 3. . . .: , 1977. 413 . 4. . . . .: , 1984. 144 . 5. ., ., - . . : . . ., 2001. 256 . 6. . . - . . . . . ., 1992. 186 . 7. . . . . . . . ., 2000. 19 . 8. . . . . - . . ., , 2001. 339 . 9. . . . .: , 1998. 256 . 10. . . - . 1995. 2. c. 31- 42. 11. Dansereau D. Learning Strategies. Learning Strategies. N.Y. by ONeil. 1978. p. 1-29. 12. Oxford R. Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know? Boston. Newbury House. 1990. p. 343.

82

THE WORLD OF MONEY IN ITS IDIOMATIC REFLECTION Olga DIMO, Senior lecturer, MA, Free International University of Moldova Besides its vast economic function, money has always belonged to an important social, psychological, and linguistic category. As a universal means of payment, it is among the most ancient notions implying emotionless precision and accuracy in handling. At the same time, regarded from an attitudinal angle of view, money has always provoked a host of differing and conflicting emotions in people, lying at the bottom of numerous crimes throughout centuries. Old chronicles, ancient and modern judicial documents, and an ocean of fiction and non-fiction literature serve as the source of emotional assessment of the presence or (alas!) absence of material or moral well-being measured with the help of money. Money-related passions in world literature may be compared only to those of the amorous character, and both love and money tend to be lavishly reflected in the linguistic heritage of the worlds languages. The corpus of money-related language (in its literary, terminological and verbal embodiment) differs in richness from nation to nation, being determined by their historical development, social beliefs, and dominant ideology. The latter is not as unimportant as it could seem. In the former USSR, for example, personal money matters were not included into the number of topics for public discussion in the media and literature. Hence, attitudinal connotation skipped the literary stratum of the language, and as a result, Russian speakers just borrowed some and from English (later or ), adding vague / / and -, and Polish as simple nominative means alternative to the Soviet ruble in the plural, plus its qualitative characteristics in its nominative and adjectival functions. Of course, the universal pocket money and pin money were duly borrowed by the Russian language probably from translated fiction, but not too many Soviet husbands would have endowed their working spouses and offsprings with this kind of 83

material assistance. As a result of these socio-political realities, the Russian language and those of the post-Soviet nations are lacking a necessary longstanding prerequisite for the formation of money-related idioms serving as means of linguistic attitudinal assessment of the action or phenomenon reflected by the idiom components. Being emotionally coloured units of, first of all, verbal communication, idiomatic expressions are rich in attitudinal connotations. Thus, money-related idioms when they penetrate into the standard literary stratum of the language studied at schools and universities can impart the students of the language not only linguistic information but also the notion of the socio-psychological assessment of the phenomenon by the speakers of the language under study. In this regard, English, unlike Romanian and Russian, is rich in money-related idioms, recognized and widely used in the media, fiction, and didactic literature in the countries of origin: the USA, UK, Australia, etc. The widest variety of nominal and attitudinal expressions traditionally comes from the USA. The knowledge of these kinds of idioms is valuable for students of economics, as it: - enriches their terminological vocabulary; - expands the general vocabulary; - illustrates everyday life realities of the countries of origin; - demonstrates cross-cultural differences, and - widens the general world outlook, i.e. shows the way people deal with money and characterize it in different situations. The study of idioms stimulates students cognitive activity and ensures emotional evaluation of the linguistic material. It demonstrates the subtleties of business-related situations and the differing attitudes of the speakers and writers to money depending on its source, or destination, or physical properties, etc. In this regard, the easiest way to make students acquainted with and interested in the matter is to ask them to produce a list of expressions dealing with physical properties of money banknotes and coins in their native tongue and to compare it with the simplest English idioms, such as: - Banknotes: rag money (US); soft money/the soft (UK); the green staff (US); long green (US); paper money; 84

- Metal money (coins): hard money; silver money; - Cash = bills +coins: the ready, rhino. The next simple stage may include single-word easily recognizable idioms classified along the following lines: - Vegetables: beans; cabbage; kale ; lettuce; rutabaga ; spuds , - Substances: bone/bones, brass, china, dust, fat, gold, grease, nuggets , oil, plastic, salt, silver, soap, stuff, tin; - Borrowings: gelt (German); mazuma (Hebrew); moola(h) (Oriental); pesos (Spanish) ; shekels (Yiddish); wampum (Amer. Indian). The column on borrowings gives the teacher an opportunity to highlight the notion of American melting pot of ethnic cultures, where many phenomena, besides their standard denominations, also acquired corresponding words from other languages, although in the form of idiomatic expressions. The case may be of interest for members of a multicultural society like that existing in Moldova, demonstrating the elements of partial linguistic and cultural interpenetration. Discussions related to the source of somebodys money are quite natural to any society or social stratum, nowadays with no geographical or ideological limitations. An ordinary persons income is of interest to his/her close environment, but that of a public person may be debated weeks on end, being highlighted in the mass media, whose colloquial language abounds in idioms. Thus, we could classify the existing stock of expressions along the following lines, as money may be obtained: 1. without much effort: - easy /cheap money which can be earned with no difficulty; - money for jam /for old rope very easily earned money. 2. with great effort: - blood money earned with great effort or by enduring hardship (compare: ); - danger money extra salary paid to workers in dangerous jobs. 3. involving a breach of law /dishonestly: - black money any income not reported to avoid paying tax; - filthy lucre obtained dishonestly (compare: ). 4. in the course of business operations: - cheap/easy money which can be borrowed at a low rate of interest; - dear money which has to be borrowed at a high rate of interest; 85

- funk money which is hurriedly or secretly transferred from a country with a turbulent economic or political situation; - hot money which is moved from country to country to get the best returns; - idle /inactive money which is held in the form of cash or current accounts where it does not earn any interest; - mugs money which comes from investors unaware of the risk they are taking; - ready money which is immediately available; - smart money which comes from well-informed investors quite aware of the risk they are taking. The idioms in this section imply strongly-pronounced assessment and attitude of the speaker/writer and refer to the Adj + N type. In the majority of cases the same structure is typical of the sampling on money destination, illustrating the notion of using money. Here, as well, the adjective is easily recognizable and implies a corresponding connotation. The course of English for economists certainly includes the material on money using in business operations and investment, but it usually only touches upon the negative facet of the topic, such as corruption, for example. To make the picture exhaustive, available two-word idioms referring to money destination may be classified in the following way: 1. business operations: - front /seed money an impressive initial sum of money for starting a business; - idle /inactive money which is held in the form of cash or in current accounts where it does not earn any interest; - world money currency or medium of exchange that is widely accepted for the settlement of international debts. 2. investment or gambling: - ooftish money which is available for gambling or investment; - the wherewithal the money and other means needed for a business project. 3. illegal /corruption purposes: - grease money intended for bribery (compare: , ); - hush money which is paid to a person as a bribe for not telling anyone about a crime; - oil /palm oil money intended for bribery; bribe; 86

- slush money /slush fund money set aside for paying bribes. 4. special destinations: - mad money which is saved by a woman against the time when she wants to make an impulsive purchase (not quite a similar meaning in Russian: referring to a very big amount of money, especially referring to payments and prices); - nest-egg money saved for future spending, especially in case of urgent or unforeseen need. Case 3 above prompts an observation that may be of interest: money intended for bribery has a number of idiomatic denominations, whereas there no idioms characterizing funds received as bribes. Psychologically, bribe-takers tend to respect their yield more than bribers who part with it unwillingly but are unable to otherwise resolve this or that problem. As far as the problem of respect for money is touched upon, it should be noted that human attitude to financial means ay vary from positive/neutral to pejorative. Who knows, maybe the latter were coined by people with no money at all... In this regard, the stock of single-word money-related idioms consisting of foodstuffs denominations may also be considered positive, as food is usually the source of positive connotations. Thus, in general lines our classification looks as follows:
POSITIVE / NEUTRAL FOODSTUFFS MISCELLANEA bread ackers dough the necessary gingerbread the needful lolly (UK) nuggets sweets salt rhino (UK) embodiment sugar of power whip-out PEJORATIVE dibs | casino jack | chips dust mean green pelf scratch (signature of the Secretary of the Treasury on a banknote)

Respect of money is closely connected to wealth. However, the idioms related to wealth as a fortune form an independent very interesting compartment which deserves a special study. For the purposes of the present analysis it is better to speak about relatively neutral money in large quantities, that is just the amount of cash: 87

- front /seed money an impressive initial sum of money for starting a business; - green banknotes in large quantities; - loot () a large amount of money; - oof /off wealth; - pelf ( ) wealth. And, last but not least, it is expedient to deal with the topic of banknote denominations according to the nominal. The vast variety of idioms related to just the one-dollar bill (over 25 units) may be selectively classified as follows: 1. animals: buck any male animal (Russian borrowed the plural form bucks and added the Russian plural ending -); clam an eatable mollusk; fishskin; frogskin; skin; 2. eatables: berry; rutabaga; 3. games of chance: ace a card nominal; dib casino chips; 4. other currencies: ducat; peso (Sg.); shekel (Sg.) In this respect British English is lagging behind with only two one-pound-note idioms, such as nicker (label) and quid (a piece of chewing tobacco). Higher nominals also tend to be reflected rather unequally: $5 5 fiver fiver fin /finif handful five-spot horse V (Roman figure V) $10 10 tenner tenner sawbuck (from the Roman figure X, resembling carpenters sawbuck) ten-spot $20 25 double saw / sawbuck pony $50 50 ----half a century half a ton $100 100 C-note (centum) ------88

yard $500 ------$1000 grand big one K (kilo)

500 monkey 1000 grand

Thus it is evident that the world of money in its idiomatic embodiment is a reflection of the human world with its geographic, political, social, ethical and ethno-psychological realities. The wide choice of idiomatic expressions on the topic corresponds to the palette of nuances in meaning native speakers impart on what economists define as just a universal means of payment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Bivol E. Slang and Idioms in Modern English //Analele Universitii Libere Internaionale din Moldova. Seria Filologie, vol. 4, 2006. Chiinu: ULIM, 2007, p. 8-11. 2. Cooper Th. (1998) Teaching idioms // http://idiomagic.com/iditext2.htm 3. Dimo O. //Didactica limbilor strine: strategii i tehnologii educaionale actuale (materialele seminarului metodologic cu participare internaional, 14 ianuarie 2010). Chiinu: ULIM, 2010, p. 25-29. 4. Dimo O. //Aspecte teoretico-practice de predare/nvare a limbilor strine aplicate Materialele seminarului metodologic. Chiinu: ULIM, 2009, p. 19-26. 5. Gibbs R., OBrien J. Idioms and mental imagery: the metaphoical motivation for idiomatic meaning //Cognitive Psychology, vol. 21, 1989, p. 100-138. 6. Nippold M., Taylor C. Judgements of idion familiarity and transparency: a comparison of children and adolescents //Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, vol. 45, April 2002, p. 384-391. 7. Sofronie S., Dimo O. Multilingual and multicultural approach to colour symbolics and colour idioms n teaching modern languages to students of economics. //Lecturi Filologice Nr.3, Chiinu: ULIM, 2006, p. 53-58. 8. . 1000 1000 . , 1996. 9. . . , 1997.

89

10. English Business Dictionary. Hove: Peter Colin Publishers, 1986. 11. Oxford Business. Dicionar de business englez-romn. Bucureti: ALL, 2009. 12. Oxford Idioms Dictionary. Oxford: OUP, 2001. 13. Patra M. et al. Economic and Financial-Banking English-Romanian Dictionary. Chiinu: Litera, 2002.

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 , , , P. , , . , , , , . , , [8, . 67]. , . , . , , , [9, . 43]. , , , , , , , . 91

 . : , , , . [9, . 43]. . , , ( ) . , , , .. , [9, . 44]. . [9, c. 45]. . . , , [9, c. 47]. . . , , , - 92

, . , , , -, , - , , . , . , , , , , . . [8, . 74]. , , , , ( 1).

1. ( . )

( ) ( ) , 93

, : - - ( , ); - ( ); - ; - ; - ( , , ); - () , ; - ; - - [7, . 3]. , , . , , , [1-6] 94

 , , . , , , . , : , (. ). , (. ) , , , (. . ). , , (. . ). , : , (), , , - . . (. . , . . , . . ), . / . , . 2 , . 95

 , , , , , [6]. (The Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity), 2001 , . , XXI : / () , . , , , , 21 [3]. , , , , , [3]. (Common European Framework of Reference for Languages), , , . , (plurilingual) (interculturality). , 96

, . , , [2]. , , , . , (competence that can be acquired), .. . , ( ) . , . , . . (transversal competence) , , , .. () . , [5, . 36]. , . . , , . , (linguistic repertory), , 97

 . , , , [1]. , , , [5]. , , , , , , , [5, .35]. , , , , , .. () [5, . 64]. , (: , , ), (transversal competences) , . , , , , (language awareness), . 98

 , , , () , , .. (acquisition strategies). ( , ..) [5, . 86]. , , , . , , .. . (methods of teaching by competence), , () , . [5, . 83-84]. , , . : 1) ; 2) - , ; 3) , . , 99

 ( ) , , ; 4) - ; ; 5) / ; 6) .
1. Breidbach S. Plurilingualism, democratic citizenship in Europe and the role of English. Council of Europe, 2003. 24 p. 2. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Cambridge University Press, 1999. 260 p. 3. Education in a multilingual world. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2003. 35 p. 4. European Language Portfolio Adult version: revised edition. CILT, the National Centre for Languages, 2002, 2007. 5. Guide for the Development of Language Education Policies in Europe. From linguistic diversity to plurilingual education. Council of Europe, Strasbourg, 2003. 111 p. 6. UNESCO Medium-term Strategy. Contributing to peace and human development in an era of Globalization through education, the sciences, culture and communication. UNESCO, 2002. 61 p. 7. .. - http://www.elitarium.ru/2010/07/14/model_otkrytogo_obrazovanija.html 8. . . 1. .: , 2002. 676 . 9. . . : , , . : , 2002. 224 .

100

THE ROLE OF MOTIVATION AND FAVOURABLE ENVIRONMENTS IN LEARNING A FOREIGN LANGUAGE Tatiana GRIAC, Lecturer, MA, Free International University of Moldova Learning a Foreign Language (FL) is a unique experience as we must take something that is initially unknown and make it a part of who we are. It is a long and a complex process which presupposes not only acquiring learning skills or grammar rules but also adoption of new social and cultural behaviors, thus having a significant impact on the social nature of the learner [10, p. 77]. If asked to identify the most powerful influences on language learning, motivation factors would probably be placed high on most teachers lists. So, first we are to answer what is meant by the term motivation. The understanding of the term motivation is quite broad in that it includes endless range of meanings. Besides, there is a large body of research focused on different motivational theses. From the psychological point of view, motivation is something inside the individual and it acts reciprocally with the environment. It is considered that it stimulates and directs behavior. In common usage to motivate means to provide someone with a strong reason for doing something and it cannot be separated from reinforcement and punishment. Drney defines motivation as an abstract hypothetical concept, that we use to explain why people think and behave as they do [2, p. 1]. The term motivation in the Second language learning context is seen according to Gardner as referring to the extent of which the individual works or strives to learn the language because of the desire to do so and the satisfaction experienced in this activity [3, p. 10]. The next question to be answered with reference to FL learning is: what are different types of motivation? Pioneers in exploring the nature of motivation specific to language study are Lambert and Gardner. Gardner highlights two types of motivation: 1. Instrumental motivation presents practical reasons for learning a FL such as getting a job, achieving higher social status or passing an examination. 2. Integrative motivation implies the interest in getting closer socially to 101

the language community [4]. There is a strong support for the opinion that integrative motivation promotes successful FL learning [8, p. 505]. Other studies contradict this propostion by showing that an individual who is instrumental oriented could be more motivated and experience more success at learning a FL than one who is integratively oriented [7, p. 505-518]. The research carried recently has indicated that it may be impossible in practice to distinguish between the two [9, p. 276]. As to the Republic of Moldova the majority of our students are moved by instrumental motivation having in front of them ambitious career goals. For those intending to immigrate the integrative motivation largely contributes to achievements in learning another language. It is thought that for teachers the other distinctions, i.e., between intrinsic motivation (the urge to engage in the learning activity for its own sake and simply for enjoyment) and extrinsic (motivation that is derived from external incentives) are more useful. Due to the fact that the motivation state of the students is often low and in some cases they lack motivation at all, the teachers have to resort to the type of motivation called carrots (rewards) and sticks (punishment) which is related to extrinsic motives and is considered to be the first step to generate a further intrinsic motivation. Several studies have proved that extrinsic rewards do not produce permanent changes as they undermine the intrinsic value of the task and turn learning from an end into means [5, p. 783]. When speaking about intrinsic motivation we should point out such factors as self- esteem, self-confidence, expectation of success. Our cognitive activity which can exert a considerable influence on the students degree of motivation. By creating a climate of confidence, self-esteem and self-efficiency we can teach our students to attribute their success to effort, ability, and persistence. Another key matter to be cleared up is a motivated learner and his characteristics. Successful learners are not only those good at languages but also those who display certain typical characteristics, most of them clearly associated with motivation: - positive task orientation; - ego involvement; - need for achievement; 102

high aspiration; goal orientation; perseverance; tolerance of ambiguity [6]. A motivated learner is one who is willing or even eager to invest in learning activities and to progress. Everyday classroom activities prove that highly motivated students study regularly and productively in order to take every opportunity to improve their language skills in the FL course. There is some sufficient evidence that part time and free attendance students who have positive motivation and attitudes toward the study of FL are able to control their learning even though they have to study on their own. Expecting the desired results strongly motivated individuals make considerable efforts to get it. In their view the effort determines the result. It has been observed that activities chosen by such students are of average difficulty as they produce more self-assessable feedback. Students with weak motivation make little effort, try to get in few and easy activities and they more often give up when facing failure. It may be explained by the fact that the low-motivated students attribute their success to external rather than internal factors and do not consider effort as its cause. The obstacles in ones cognition could demotivate the individual and demotivated people are normally unsuccessful. Anxiety and low self-efficacy are the two factors that can diminish motivation. Students with high degree of anxiety perform less well and that prevents them on many occasions from showing what they have learnt. It may influence their ability to learn to communicate in FL. In its turn the students self-efficacy is affected. According to Drnei, Those with low self-efficacy perceive task of difficulty as threats. These are people that dwell on their deficiencies and remember the obstacles they encounter when pursuing challenging tasks [1]. Sometimes motivation may be suppressed because of the belief that the task lacks challenging components [11]. Feelings of failure can lead to a self perception of low ability low motivation low effort low achievement. The teacher should take into consideration the students individual learning abilities and personal characteristics and try to minimize the gap between the so called strongly motivated and weakly motivated students. 103

Its time to give up special emphasis to the role of teacher in the context of learners motivational levels. In the language learning the teacher plays the main role. A good teacher should work for creating the condition which may conduct to success by removing the biggest language obstacles from his learners. The teacher should promote and put into practice those motivational strategies which increase the students interest, attention and satisfaction within the FL class. A successful teacher should ask himself such such questions as: - What issues concern his learners? - What topics and things puzzle them? - What problems do they wish he/she could help them solve? The teachers behavior as well as his/her way of organizing the class may cause changes in the students motivation. A good instructor should listen to his/her students with empathy and offer them all possible assistance. If the students like the teacher, they enjoy the class; they are satisfied with their learning experiences and have positive behavioral attitude toward the study of FL regardless of the instructional format (i.e. traditional face-to-face, online, or mixed type). It is also considered that by manipulating and controlling the students motivation the teacher is helping to shape the culture of the learner as well as his personality. The teacher can be influential not only in affecting the students motivation and attitudes but also in creating a positive learning environment in which students study a language with less anxiety. Creating a positive learning environment requires the involvement of learners. By involving learners we mean: - to brainstorm and encourage discussions; - ask questions and solicit feedback; as it is very necessary for the students to reach reasonable communicative competence and the way to it is using FL as much as possible in class. Another way of attracting students is to: - plan hands on work, group and individual projects, and classroom activities; - allow learners to provide input regarding schedules, activities and other events. A positive learning environment can be created through the use of a variety of learning methods. Techniques in the field of FL teaching differ and can be unique learning experiences. They may 104

include audio-visual aids and illustrated lectures to facilitate the learning process. Multimedia learning involves auditory and visual experiences. A collaborative presentation of visual information supplemented by audio-narrative content, for example a video documentary and a Power Point presentation are both activities from which the students will only benefit. Small group activities and group discussions are included in democratic learning models which encourage at large the participation of the least active students. In this concern collaborative learning may be applied as it involves dynamic interaction with other participants (two groups or more) collectively working toward a solution or an end goal. The groups (teams) made up of strong and weak students with assigned distinct tasks by opposing ideas within a team and choosing the best answer may achieve the main objective, thus facilitating an optimal learning experience for all involved. Brainstorming, role-plays and case studies are productive learning methods used in creating positive learning climate. Through implementing problem-solving role playing which presuppose vigorous effort and concentration on the part of FL learners, we can build and develop competence during the learning process. Demonstrations of new practical methods in learning FL and interesting guest speakers who will share their experience in their field of research can motivate students to improve their target language proficiency. A positive learning climate can be created by using very simple rules, which may prove to be very effective, such as: praising students either in private or in front of other participants; using sincere and direct comments; avoiding competition and comparison with others; recognizing appropriate skills while teaching, focusing on improvement and efforts in achieving learning objectives. The effective teacher always remembers to treat his/her students as individuals which means: to remember the names of the students and use them as often as possible; treat the students with respect; recognize the students own career accomplishments. We, teachers, accept that our students have different individual learning styles, vary in their attitudes toward learning in general, and especially foreign languages, experience various levels of success while learning a foreign language. We understand that the difference 105

may be a matter of motivation. The greater is the intensity of motivation, the stronger the desire to learn a FL is. And our main task is to provide the learners with every support that they so greatly need in setting and achieving goals, to make our students more confident in their abilities, and thus more motivated.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Drney Z. Motivational Strategies in the Language Classroom. New York: Cambridge University, Press 2001. 2. Drney Z. The Psychology of the Language Learner: Individual Differences //Second Language Acquisition: L.: Erlbaum, 2005. 3. Gardner R. C. Social Psychology and Language Learning: the Role of Attitudes and Motivation. London: Edward Arnold, 1985. 4. Gardner R. C., Lambert W. E. Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning. Roweley, MA: Newbury House, 1972. 5. Kohn A. Punished by Rewards: the Trouble with Gold Stars, Incentives Plans, As Praise and other Bribes. Boston: Houghton Nifflin, 1983. 6. Naiman N., Frohlich M., Stern H. H. and Todesco A. The Good Language Learner. Ontario: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 1978. 7. Noels K. A. & Clement R. Orientations to Learning German: the effects of language Heritage on Second Language Acquisition, Canadian Modern Language Review, Nr. 45, 1989, p. 245-257. 8. Tremblay P. F. & Gardner R. C. Expanding the Motivation Construct in Language Learning //Modern Language Journal, 1995, Nr. 79, p. 505518. 9. Ur P. A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory. Cambridge University Press, 2005. 10. Williams M. and Robert L. Psychology for Language, Burden, 1997. 11. Zimmerman B. I. Self-Efficacy: An Essential Motive to Learn //Contemporary Educational Psychology, 2000, Nr. 25(1), p. 82-91.

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 , , . . , : 1) ; 2) - , ; 3) . , .. , ( ). , , , . (, , ). , , . . , , . , . : - (, ..) ; - , - ; - , ; - ; - ; 107

- . , , , . , , , . , [ ] . . , - . [1, c. 44]. , , . , , . . , , : , , , , , . , . , , , , , . , , , .. , , . 108

, , . , : , [1, c. 89]. . , , , . , , , [ ], , [IV . . .]. , [1, c. 90]. , [ ] . , . [1, c. 90]. , [1, c. 91]. . . V . .. literatori ludi magistri, [1, c. 91]. , II-I . .. , [1, c. 91]. , , , , , . . , , , , , [1, c. 91]. , , . 109

 , , , . -, , , . : , , [ ], , , , . . - . , , [ ]. , , / . , ( ) ? , , , , . ? [11, c. 34]. . ( ) . , . , - , . (). . . - . [, ] , 110

 . , , [ ] [6, c. 9]. ( . .) , (), . , - , . , , . : [ ] , , [5, c. 492]. , , , , [9, c. 165]. : , ! [: , . 10]. , . -, . () , . , : ( , .. ). , , , , [3, c. 528]. 111

 : [idea], [ideatum], [ideans] [3, c. 529]. . . , , , , , , , , , , [4, c. 110]. . , , , , . . - . , . [ , , ] . , , , . , , , , . . [6, c. 8]. . 112

 , , [6, c. 8], .. / . [ -]. . , , [ , ]. . , . I . , [6, c. 15]. , : . , , . , [ ] , , , . : onsieur l Abb, , , , , . [ . . ] ( ): , . . : 113

 , , onsiur . [ib.] . [] , : - ; [ib.] , -, , , ( ). , , , , , . , (IX ), . , . . I () ( , , ), 80- IX . - , , [ , , -]. . , . , . [], . , . , . [], . , . [], . [], . [][6, c. 27]. . , , . c 114

 . , [ ]. , , . [ ]. VII . ? , [ ], - , , -, , , , [6, c. 11] [8, c. 21]. I . . . [6, c. 28]. . . , . . . , . , - , , . , - , . [6, c. 26]. , - , [] . . , . . 115

 : , , , . ; , , , . [2, c. 10]. . . . : , . [ , ] [10, c. 3]. Limba latin. Manual pentru clasa a VIII : Programa colar prevede predarea la clasa a VIII-a a unor elemente de limb latin. La acest nivel, limba latin nu este privit ca un scop n sine i pentru sine, ci n strns legetur cu limba i istoria naional... n acest p rim an de latin se urmrete nvarea trsturilor fundamentale ale limbii latine, dar nu prin reproducere din memorie, ci prin recunoaterea lor n comporaie cu romna. , , , . : Exerciii: 1) Stabilii cror declinri aparin substantivele mens, librtas, honris, apoi punei le la ablativ singular. 2) Precizai care este expresia conect pentru cei doi ctigtori ai primului loc: ex aequo sau ex equa? Cum se traduce fiecare dintre ele? [13, c. 3]. Latin. 1-re anne : Notre mtode: Ce manuel, conforme aux dernires instructions officieles, est destin aux lves qui commencent ltude du latin en classe de quatrime. Sa conception repose sur les principles gnraux suivants: 116

- prsentation des faits de langue dans des textes suivis; - appel constant lobservation et lactivit inductive des lves; - connaissance obligatoire dun vocabulaire limit, frquemment remploy; - subordination de la morphologie la syntaxe; - progression rigoureuse et rvisions systmatiques; - exercices simples difficults slectionnes et programmes; - ouverture sur les faits de civilisation [14, c. 3]. . . , - , , , . . , . . . . [12, c. 4-6]. , , , , . . - , [ ] , , , , , , , . 117

[6, c. 26]. . [6, c. 26]. , , . , , , , [6, c. 26].

1. . . . .: , 2011. 336 . 2. . . . .- , 1975. 3. . . . : . I . .: , 1982. 656 . 4. . . . : . II . .: , 1982. 576 . 5. .. 4- . 3. .: , 1984. 6. IX-XX . [ . - . . ], . , .: 1972. 320 . 7. . . . , 4. .: , 1975. 8. . . . ., , 1966. 9. . . .: , 1980. 10. . . . . , 2000. 11. . . , Alexandria, 2009. 422 c. 12. . . , . ., 1994. 617 . 13. Blianu V., Marinic C., Poghirc C. Limba latin. Manual pentru clasa a VIII-a. Edit. Didactic i Pedagogic, R.A. Bucureti. 1995. 14. M. de Kisch, J. Cousteix. Latin. 1re anne. Paris: SCODEL-OCDL, 1970.

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INTERJECIA I NOIUNEA DE CONCEPT Viorica LIFARI, conf. univ. dr., Universitatea de Stat din Moldova n cele mai dese cazuri interjecia se asociaz cu o emoie pe care o exprim vorbitorul. Uneori ea este pozitiv, alteori negativ, iar n alte cazuri foarte ambigu. Iat de ce lingvitii pun la ndoial posibilitatea interjeciei de a reda o semnificaie conceptual. n literatura de specialitate savanii se mpart n dou grupe opuse: cei care susin punctul de vedere precum c interjeciua poate reda un concept parial i cei ce exclud noiunea de concept din cadrul interjeciei. Lingvitii sec. XIX considerau interjecia un fenomen paralingvistic: ntre interjecie i cuvnt exist un gol mare. Limba incepe acolo unde se termin interjeciile [5, p. 175]. R. Quirk, S. Greenbaum descriu interjeciile drept cuvinte pur emotive, ce nu particip n structuri sintactice [4, p. 853]. DEX-ul d urmtoarea definiie: parte de vorbire neflexibil care exprim atitudinea afectiv a vorbitorului sau ce imit sunete din realitatea nconjurtoare [8]. Lingvistul L. Schourup consider interjeciile gesturi vocale quazilingvistice folosite pentru a ntruchipa starea mintal a locutorului [citat din 1, p. 101]. ncercnd s clarificm dac interjecia aparine limbii, ntrebare pe care i-o pun mai muli savani, ne vom referi la teoria interjeciilor fundamentat de ctre filosofii epicurei. Ei susin c limbajul s-a format din necesitatea fireasc a oamenilor de a-i exterioriza emoiile i sentimentele [3, p. 49]. Analiznd cteva definiii am observat c lingvitii se refer la interjecii considerndu-le o surs lingvistic de exteriorizare a emoiei. n acest caz apare ntrebarea dac interjecia poate exprima concepte? n literatura de specialitate prerile difer. Lingvistul M. P. Cruz declar c interjeciile, ce pot reda o semnificaie conceptual, fac aceasta parial, reprezentnd un material schematic ce necesit ajustri pragmatice ulterioare [2, p. 241]. Profesorul V. I. Shakhovsky susine c interjeciile nu sunt private de semnificaie conceptual, motivnd c ele se asociaz cu experimentul renumitului biolog Pavlov despre sistemul de semnaluri. 119

Interjeciile nu reprezint expresii arbitrare automatizate ci se asociaz cu anumite situaii emotiv colorate [6, p. 62]. Aceeai noiune de semnaluri sau semne observm la W. Wilson i T. Wharton care consider nterjeciile spontane i involuntare drept semne naturale deoarece ele nu sunt inerent comunicative, ele conin informaie despre starea vorbitorului servind drept dovad a acesteia. Ele pot fi stabile sau instabile n limb sau n procesul de stilizare n cadrul acesteia i astfel nu exist un concept anumit asociat cu aceste interjecii i ele vor fi interpretate pur intuitiv. Pe de alt parte, dac o interjecie e utilizat repetat ea ocup un anumit loc n inventarul lingvistic pentru a exterioriza emoii i sentimente mai mult sau mai puin stabile. Astfel interjeciile capt funcii mai restrnse, bunoar de a purta informaie mai concret atunci cnd se folosete intenionat n comunicare. n momentul n care interjecia capt o astfel de funcie ea devine inerent comunicativ deoarece servete la exprimarea unor scopuri comunicative. n cazul n care interjecia se stabilete n inventarul limbii ea i pierde statutul de semn natural i se transform n semnal [2, p. 260]. Astfel interjeciile care s-au stabilit n limb i devin semnale naturale pot fi asociate cu sensuri specifice ce variaz n gradul su de nesiguran sau nehotrre. La determinarea semnificaiei interjeciei un rol important -l au mijloacele prosodice i cele paralingvistice. Acestea din urm pot confirma informaia purtat de interjecie sau deopotriv sunt apte a o nega. Cu ct mai des o interjecie red o anumit semnificaie, cu att mai des ea se asociaz cu aceasta, iar cu ct mai specific este aceast semnificaie, cu att mai codificate i mai aproape de semnalele naturale poate fi interjecia. n acest caz categoria de semnal natural al interjeciei devine semnal lingvistic [2, p. 261]. Cercettoarea A. Wierzbicka consider c interjeciile au o structur conceptual, ce poate fi descompus, utiliznd termenii: concepte universale i pro-universale, care carteaz sensul universal al interjeciei. Ea explic sensul interjeciilor emotive utiliznd formula I feel X (eu simt X), iar semnificaia interjeciilor volitive fiind I want X (eu vreau X). Astfel structura conceptual a interjeciei wow, propus de A. Wierzbicka este urmtoarea: a) Eu tiu ceva. b) Nici nu m-am gndit c voi putea ti. 120

c) Cred c e foarte bun. d) Eu simt ceva ca rezultat [citat din 2, p. 247]. E lesne de menionat, ns, c semnificaia conceptual a interjeciei wow e foarte difuz. Ea este dependent de context i poate semnala att emoii pozitive, ct i negative. Acest fapt este susinut i de E. Stankiewicz care e de prerea c semantica conceptual a interjeciilor e difuz, minimal, dar exist [citat din 6, p. 63]. Dac unele interjecii au un cadru semantic mai larg i pot fi utilizate n variate contexte, altele sunt foarte concrete i se folosesc n condiii anumite, bunoar interjecia bravo fiind strigat dup vizionarea unui spectacol, a unui meci de fotbal sau alt joc; ar fi straniu s auzi alas sau oops etc. n acest context. n cazul n care exist restricii la utilizarea interjeciilor putem oare spune c ele nu denot coninut conceptual [2, p. 252]. Conversia este un mijloc rspndit de formare a cuvintelor n limba englez. Astfel deseori n yahoo ntlneti cuvntul wow n calitate de verb. Alte verbe de acest fel sunt pooh-pooh, tut-tut, care, de asemenea s-au format de la interjecii. Odat formndu-se ele iau ngustat semnificaia redat pe care au concretizat-o n partea de vorbire nou format i n cazul lui wow se asociaz cu situaia de mirare. De aici observm potenialul egal al interjeciei i al verbului de a reda o situaie. Pe de alt parte verbul a aprut de la o semnificaie mai des rspndit a interjeciei wow ceea ce nu confirm abilitatea acesteia de a reda un concept parial. Un alt fapt care indic posibilitatea interjeciei de a reda semni ficaia conceptual este sensul pe care -l poart interjeciile dintr-o anumit limb. Un copil nva s utilizeze nterjeciile mpreun cu limba matern. Asta presupune c ele se asociaz cu un anumit sens, context sau situaie. Dac vorbim de tipurile de interjecii i formarea cuvintelor e lesne de observat c unele interjecii deriv de la alte pri de vorbire, numindu-se interjecii secundare. De exemplu: thanks, shit, hell, bloody etc. Odat ce cuvintele n discuie provin din alte categorii cum ar fi verbul, substantivul, care posed coninut semantic, aceste interjecii pot conine o parte din coninutul conceptual la care se refer ca rezultat a procesului metonimic sau metaforic [2, p. 245]. S comparm: Higgins: I wonder where the devil my slippers are! (Pygmalion, G. B. Shaw, Actul III) i The devil is not as black 121

as it is painted. n exemplul din Pygmalion interlocutorul, utiliznd cuvntul devil, -i exprim starea de iritare i nerbdare deoarece nu-i poate gsi papucii de camer, iar n urmtorul enun substantivul devil red conceptul de necurat n mod literal. Cercettorul T. Wharton vine cu un ir de argumente pentru a nega ideia c interjecia are semnificaie conceptual: e dependent de context i servete doar ca un indiciu. Unele interjecii s unt asemntoare ipetelor (un element din discursul spontan), altele sunt foarte culturale. El consider c n contextul ow, I feel pain, interjecia e de prisos, ea doar accentueaz informaia din enunul I feel pain. Dup T. Wharton interjeciile nu redau noiunea de concept deoarece ele nu contribuie la condiia de adevr a enunului pe care -l nsoesc. Dac interjecia ar reda noiunea de concept ar fi posibil de a verifica adevrul sau falsificarea informaiei din propoziie, de aceea T. Wharton propune s considerm interjecia indicator explicativ, ce conine informaie despre atitudinea interlocutorului n timpul actului de comunicare [5, p. 174]. ns observm i interjecii care denumesc o stare sau sim, bunoar n cazul nghiirii unei tablete cu gust neplcut englezii, de obicei, utilizeaz interjecia Yuk!, care nu nsoete un oarecare enun i nici nu exprim o atitudine a interlocutorului fa de cele spuse pentru c nu spune altceva nimic. Prin urmare deosebim dou tipuri de inter jecii: cele ce exprim o atitudine fa de cele spuse i cele care denumesc o stare sau sentiment a celui ce pronun interjecia respectiv. n limba rus se utilizeaz interjecia br-r-r-r-r, dac omului -i este frig i el/ea vrea s-i spun despre asta interlocutorului sau. Desigur el/ea ar putea spune: mi-i frig, dar, n acest caz, efectul pragmatic i emotiv al propoziiei ar fi altul. Astfel observm posi bilitatea acestei interjecii de a reda noiunea de frig, ea fiind sinonimic cu enunul mi-i frig, ns aparinnd stilului colocvial. Savantul T. Wharton deasemenea mparte interjeciile n dou grupe, prima include interjecii ce produc sunete din natur, iar a doua conine sunete lingvistice, deci primele sunt semnaluri naturale, pe cnd ultimele reprezint semnaluri lingvistice [5, p. 174]. O greeal comis de savani atunci cnd se face o concluzie despre posibilitatea interjeciei de a reda un concept este c majoritatea cercettorilor se axeaz pe aceeai interjecie, bunoar wow. Dup prerea noastr nu e suficient a analiza doar un tip de interjecii. 122

Dup cum am observat exist mai multe clasificri, ce trebuie luate n vedere la analiza acestei pri de vorbire. Referindu-ne la interjeciile primare ele pot fi grupate n naturale (onomatopeice) i lingvistice, pe cnd cele secundare sunt numai lingvistice. De la unele interjecii primare onomatopeice deriv alte pri de vorbire cu un anumit sens, tot aici se include i wow. T. Wharton critic analiza semantic propus de A. Wierzbicka pentru interjecia wow i propune explicaia sa: n Aha! You are here interlocutorul e mirat c eu sunt aici, pe cnd n Wow! You are here nterlocutorul are o mare placere c eu sunt aici. Dup prerea noastr interjecia aha denot o constatare a faptului, locutorul e n ateptarea persoanei i iat ca ea a venit, iar n Wow! You are here, interjecia wow red o mirare plcut a locutorului, el/ea nu s-a ateptat s-l/s-o vad aici. Dicionarul Collins Cobuild English Language ne d patru semnificaii ale interjeciei aha n dependen de context: 1) rspuns ca semn de comprehensiune, 2) pentru a exprima satisfacie fa de un obiect, 3) pentru a exprima triumf cnd te simi superior, 4) ca rspuns la o intrebare cnd vrei s sugerezi c e mult de spus [7, p. 30], iar pentru wow gsim doar o singur semnificaie cnd eti foarte surprins de ceva n acelai dicionar [7, p. 1692]. Cercettorul T. Wharton propune s folosim codificarea proce dural i nu pe cea conceptual vorbind despre interjecii, cu referin la D. Blakemore care o folosete pentru a explica semnificaia cuvintelor de legtur n discurs. Dup D. Blakemore acestea nu denot concepte ci ajut la procesul deductiv i uureaz procesul de nelegere ngustnd spaiul de cutare al receptorului i indicndu-i direcia n care trebuie cutat semnificaia intenionat [5, p. 192]. Alte preri despre semnificaia conceptual a interjeciei se refer la legtura ei cu intonaia i mijloacele paralingvistice. Suntem de acord c mijloacele prosodice pot schimba sensul interjeciei, iar expresia feei sau gesturile concretizeaz semnificaia acesteia, ns problema aceasta nu a fost scopul articolului de fa. E evident faptul c fr a lua n consideraie aceste elemente analiza exemplelor ce conin variate interjecii e incomplet, dar asta se refer la dialoguri din vorbirea spontan despre care intenionm s discutm n perspectiv. n ceea ce urmeaz intenionm s comentm unele exemple selectate din literatura artistic englez pentru a putea confirma sau contrazice cele relatate de savanii menionai mai sus. 123

n unul din articolele anterioare am studiat cuvintele afective din Pygmalion de G.B. Shaw unde am constatat c aceeai interjecie folosit de Eliza Doolittle pe parcursul piesei avea semnificaie diferit, ea -i exprima diferite atitudini fa de cele spuse utiliznd interjecia compus Ah-ah-ah-ah-ah-ow-ow-oooo! I aint dirty I washed my face and hands afore I come, I did. (Actul II), aici sensul redat e [+Indignare] i [+Opunere]. Utiliznd aceeai nterjecie Eliza -i exprim starea ei de [+Emotivitate] i [+Bucurie] n momentul cnd i se aduc haine noi: Mrs. Pearce: Now, Eliza. The new things have come for you to try on. Liza: Ah-ow-oo-ooh! (Actul II). Aceast interjecie arat atitudinea Elizei fa de cele spuse, dar n afara contextului ea e lipsit de orice semnificaie conceptual. Dac analizm separat componentele ei observm c Ah se asociaz cu [+Plcere], [+Surpriz], [+nelegere] i ow indic [+Surpriz], [+Durere], [+Implorare] [9]. n alte cazuri interjecia dat red [+Regret], bunoar: Ah, I always spoilt my lot! (Lawrence D.H. Sons and Lovers, p. 340). Prin urmare exemplele analizate din Pygmalion nu au confirmat posibilitatea interjeciei de a semnifica un concept. n urma analizei interjeciilor Ah! i Oh! din A Modern Comedy de J. Galsworthy, cartea 2-a am observat semnificaia difuz a lor, bunoara semnificaia de [+Regret] i [+Disperare] n anumite contexte: Oh, hell! And he the master of the house! (p. 41); Ah! Seen better days, I should say. (p. 33); Ah! Go on, Mr. Mersey: In this way gentlemen, you will save at least three thousand a year to your rate-payers (p. 49). n alte contexte aceleai interjecii se utilizeaz pentru a atrage atenia interlocutorului la cele spuse, fiind folosite drept semnale ele nu conin o anumit semnificaie, de exemplu: Ah! did you happen to use this word? (p. 77); Well, sir? Ah! said Soames. I want to speak to you. Youve got a traitor in the camp. (p. 38); Ah! young Mont! he said: Sit down (p. 49). Deseori Oh sau Ah insoesc rspunsul afirmativ sau negativ pentru a le intensifica respectiv, bunoar: Oh! yes! (p. 82); Oh! no, my dear (p. 73); Oh! no, please dear (p. 185). Semul de [+Mirare] poate fi redat de interjecia Oh, de exemplu: Oh! You still grow things in this country? (p. 29); Oh! but you must. (p. 59); Oh! did you! And they heard you? (p. 77); n acest caz mirarea e exprimat i la nivel de suprafa: Oh! said Michael, in some surprise (p. 175). 124

Unul din argumentele savanilor de ce interjecia nu poate reda o semnificaie conceptual este faptul c ele nu pot fi nlocuite prin sinonime. Am observat, ns, n unele cazuri c interjeciile ce redau o stare fizic sau psihic pot fi substituite prin enunuri (vezi exemplul cu br-r-r-r), acestea servind drept sinonime. n exemplele selectate, alturi de alte cazuri, am ntlnit contexte n care interjecia Oh! poate fi nlocuit cu sintagma Im sorry (to hear that), de exemplu: Oh, dear! (p. 186) sau Oh! I dont know (p. 254). Uneori Oh red [+Interes] din partea interlocutorului, bunoar: We wanted that in 1824, said Michael. Oh! And nowadays? (p. 31); Oh! said Soames. If a cat had nine, how many lives had a pig? (p. 181). n concluzie putem spune, c interjecia este o parte de vorbire ce se mparte n mai multe tipuri: deosebim interjecii primare, secundare, simple, compuse, derivate, onomatopeice. Fiecare grup de interjecii are specificul su. Interjeciile primare onomatopeice pot fi substituite prin sinonime i de aceea au posibilitatea de a reda o semnificaie conceptual, ele se mai asociaz cu limbajul copiilor mici. nterjeciile primare de tipul Ah, Oh etc. se utilizeaz n contexte i sunt dependente de ele avnd semnificaie variat, deci acestea nu pot reda un concept. Interjeciile secundare redau semnificaia de concept parial, prelund-o de la partea de vorbire de la care s-au format. Iar interjeciile primare de la care deriv alte prti de vorbire au tendina de a-i ngusta cadrul semantic pentru a forma un verb nou i redau un concept parial.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. BIBLIOGRAFIE Aijmer K. Interjection in a Contrastive Perspective. Emotion in Dialogic Interaction. //google.md/books, 2004. 25.07.2011 Cruz M. P. Might Interjections Encode Concepts? More Concepts than Answers, Lodz Papers in Pragmatics 5.2, 2009, p. 241-270. Oglind E., Cerches G. Lingvistica general. Compendiu, Chiinu: CEP USM, 2008. Quirk R., Greenbaum S., Leech G., Svartvik J. A University Grammar of English. London, 1985. Wharton T. Interjections, Language and the Showing/Saying Conti nuum. www.google.md/search 20.06.2011. . . : . : , 2008. Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary. London and Glasgow, 1990. dexro.ro/cauta.php, 20.07.2011. www.englishclub.com/grammar/interjections.htm 19.07.2011.

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LECTUR I RE-LECTUR, CITIRE I RE-CITIRE: DIMENSIUNI PSIHO-PEDAGOGICE Ion MANOLI, prof. univ., dr. hab., Universitatea Liber Internaional din Moldova Nu poi citi o carte, o poi doar reciti Vladimir Nabokov, Lectures on Literature Cuvntul lectur cu toate derivatele sale a lectura (v. tr.), relectura (v. tr.), relectura (n. f.), relecturare, relectura (n. f.), n limbajul curent are mai multe sensuri. Pedagogul-filolog are nevoie de o terminologie mai strict i mai pronunat la acest capitol, mai ales atunci cnd e vorba de: 1) a citi un text pentru interpretarea i exegeza textual; 2) a citi un roman, o nuvel, o oper literar, dictat de programul de studii universitare; 3) a citi o tire, o informaie la postul intern de radio al universitii, a citi o oper literar ca divertisment, etc. n literatura de specialitate avem surse fundamentale n caracter teoretic, care abordeaz subiectul lecturii relecturii, interpretrii reinterpretrii, care conin bibliografii detaliate. A se vedea bibliografia sumar de la sfritul articolului. Dimensiunile pedagogice i psihologice ale acestui subiect sunt pe nedrept evitate i puin elucidate de specialiti. Ne-am dori ca n acest articol s supunem analizei subiectul respectiv anume sub acest unghi de vedere: care sunt demensiunile psiho-pedagogice ale lecturii. Citirea, recitirea operilor literare este un subiect cu feele sale antice, dar le cunoate i pe cele moderne. Viziunea cea mai general a acestui proces o gasim la scriitorul francez Georges Prec: Fiecare cuvnt era la locul lui, iar crile depnau o poveste pe care o puteai urmri; puteai reciti i recitind, s rentlneti, ndemnat de siguran c vei da peste aceleai cuvinte, impresia avut prima oar. Pentru mine, pcerea aceasta n-a disprut niciodat; nu citesc mult, ns nam ncetat s-i recitesc pe Flaubert i Jules Verne, pe Rousseau i Kafka, pe Leiris i Queneau; i recitesc i resimt de fiecare dat aceeai plcere, fie c reparcurg douzeci de pagini, trei capitole sau 126

ntreaga carte; o plcere a complexitii, a complicitii sau mai ales i plus a regsirii legturilor de rudenie (G. Prec, W ou le Souvenir de lenfance). Este clar c Prec vorbete despre un text care aduce plcere, despre textul de plcere: acela care mulumete, umple, d eforie i consisten sentimental; acela care vine din cultur, nu rupe i nu se rupe de la ea, este legat de o practic confortabil a lecturii (R. Barthes, Plcerea textului, p. 15). Textul citit, interpretat ori comentat de un scriitor este un text de desftare: acela care te pune n stare de pierdere, acela care te nal ori te discurajaz, care te aduce la bucurie ori plictiseal, care face s se cltine temeiurile istorice, culturale, psihologice, ale cititorului, consistena gusturilor sale, a valorilor i a amintirelor sale, pune n criz raportul su cu limbajul. Ce se ntmpl cnd textul este citit de un student de la filologie, care este obligat s lectureze textul nu pentru a primi pur i simplu plcere, ci pentru a-l pregti multilateral (ca s evitm cuvntul fundamental). El este obligat de profesor, de program, de valoarea instructiveducativ a cursului: 1. s discifreze tainele lexicale, morfo-sintactice, frazeologice ale textului; 2. s elaboreze un plan detaliat al schemei de interpretare /exegez a textului (les grandes lignes de plan n concepia lui J. Thoraval); 3. s precizeze cadrul textului n care are loc aciunea i desfurarea ei; 4. ntr-o manier sugestiv studentul indic elementele aciunii i ierarhizeaz aceste elemente; 5. stabilete galeria de personaje conform clasificrii acestora n plan tradiional i n viziune modern; 6. definete prile structurale ale textului dup formula develppment de laction apoge dnoncoment; 7. caracterizeaz fiecare personaj n parte i -i stabilete locul acestuia n cadrul textului; 8. face o analiz detaliat a procedeelor stilistice, a stilisticii autorului i textului n general; 9. studiul definitiv se termin cu concluziile de rigoare asupra celor citite interpretate. Exist un scop pe care orice text selectat/neselectat trebuie s-l ating, s se asigure c va fi citit. Textele selectate pentru manualele 127

de interpretare, comentariu, decodare, exegez i hermeneutic textual sunt n mod obligatoriu nu numai citite ci i explicate la diferite nivele. n aceast privin textul nu este prins nici ntr-o dilem. Putem aduga c furnizarea ntrziat a elementelor interesante trebuie realizat cu ndemnare, seductor, prin ntroducerea n momente bine alese a informaiei independent sau intrinsec interesante. Scriitorii cu adevrat mari (Proust, Gide, Colette, Quenenu) exceleaz mai ales la acest capitol: ei sunt capabili de miracole cnd este vorba de detalii1, de concentrarea ateniei cititorului asupra unor mici, dar foarte vii scene de planurile doi sau trei, de digresiuni ce conin revelaii sur prinztoare, de efecte lingvo-stilistice sugestive totul n aa msur nct cititorul uit, pe moment, de ateptrile mai mari create de text de anticiprile sale nerbdtoare, de nevoile de a afla ce se ntmpl mai departe (uneori n afara operei literare). Profesorul universitar responsabil de cursul de interpretare Exegeza textual este obligat sa-i comunice i studentului problemele cele mai importante din punct de vedre al teoriei (re)citirii, (re)lecturii ridicate de temporalitatea complex a lecturii i anume a semnificaiei estetice. El mai informeaz studentul c dup prima lectur a textului reflectat urmeaz o a doua, a treia, pn la a n-a lectur. Tipul acesta ideal de lectur literar (ce poate fi considerat o generalizare a stan dardelor educative luminate ale sec. al XIX-lea, stabilite prin lectura marii proze realiste, de la Dickens i Balzac la Flaubert, Tolstoi i Dostoievski) a fost i rmne interiorizat de cei mai muli dintre noi pn la punctul n care a devenit temelia unora dintre ateptrile noastre cele mai elementare, de obicei neanalizate din sfera lecturii (G. Clinescu, A citi, a reciti, p. 47). Care sunt aceste ateptri? Mai nti ne ateptm, fr a avea vreun dubiu, ca un text literar (fie el chiar un extras) s aib sens, s fie coerent (att din punct de vedere semantic, ct i formal), s fie din punct de vedere sintactic organizat normativ, s conin o dina mic ori o static a lucrurilor, s fie abordate probleme de ordin social, moral, economic, etic etc.
1

Jean Cocteau la acest subiect a zis-o cu mult sens: Les vrais larmes ne nous sont pas tires par une page triste, mais pur le miracle dun mot en place. (Cit a la television par la musicienne Nadia Boulanger).

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Mai presupunem c textul selectat trebuie s transmit, fie i indirect, un mesaj de un fel sau altul, sau cel puin s-l stimuleze pe student s reflecteze la unele teme serioase (viaa, moartea, iubirea, prietenia, dreptatea, natura, trdarea, indiferena, arta etc). Un text literar selecteat pentru analiz trebuie s aib chiar de la nceput o anumit transparen i s devin tot mai transparent pe msur ce este citit i decodat. O alt ateptare semnificativ este ca textul sa ofere mijloace interne pentru depirea dificultilor i problemelor cu care se confrunt studentul. Astfel, nelesul unui cuvnt poetic rar, al unui neologism stilistic, al unui arhaism ori xenism trebuie s poat fi dedus din contextul n care este actualizat (studentul modern nu-i place i nu este deprins s recurg prea des la dicionare, mai ales atunci cnd e vorba despre dicionare rare ori chiar rarisme). Un lucru este cert, nainte de a trece la interpretarea valorilor textuale toate enigmele de ordin lexico-semantic, morfo-sintactic, frazeologic trebuie realizate, toate valorile stilistice trebuie nmnuncheate sau, cel puin, textul trebuie s fie neles la nivelul despre ce este vorba. E posibil ca studentului s-i cad bine uneori s lege singur, n imaginaia sa, firele narative disparate, cu condiia ca opera s-i sugereze un evantai de posibiliti din care s aleag. Este clar de la sine c pn va ajunge la etapa despre care vorbim, studentul este obligat s cunosc un ir de termeni majori, care faciliteaz aciunea lecturii relecturii. Aceti termeni sunt: scrietura (lcriture), textul (le texte), lectura (la lecture), citirea i scrietura (lecture et criture) i, bineneles, termenul magistral literatura (littrature). Un alt micro-ciclu de termeni este cel mai legat de noiunea de autor i narator ca: cel care povestete (le narrataire), personajul (le personnage). Clasificrile cele mai raspndite ale personajelor studentul le gsete n dicionarul de termeni literari att franceze, ct i romneti. Partea cea mai dificil a textului este legat de termenii real i fictiv, real i imaginar, real i mit, real i simbol, etc. La fiction et la vraisemblance iat o corelaie n descifrarea crea studentii ntlnesc cele mai mari greuti. Fiind n cutarea altui real studentul mai c nici nu-i d seama cum cade n mregele simbolurilor. n fine, ne ateptm c, dup ce studentul a reuit s se acordeze la tonul, stilul i modul de interpretare discifrare a imaginaiilor din 129

text, precum i la alte particularitai ale acestuia, lectura s nainteze cu o vitez mai mult ori mai puin constant. Aceast ateptare se sprijin pe experiena metodologic; noi suntem contieni c orice text nou impune de fapt la nceput un ritm de lectur mai lent i mai laborios, dar, odat ce i-a fost neleas logica intern, considerm aproape de la sine neles c lectura poate atinge o vitez mai mare. Este limpede de la sine c a citi a reciti, a interpreta a reinterpreta mai are tangene cu ce fel de oper (text) avem de a face. Trebuie s spunem, c tot ce am menionat mai sus presupune ca este vorba de un text (o oper) canonic sau clasic, deoarece este tiut c textele moderniste sau avangardiste cer o alt viziune i o alt inter pretare. Acest moment a fost observat i analizat detaliat nc n ani i 70 ai sec. XX de Roman Ingarden n lucrrile sale The Literary Work of Art i The Cognition of Literary Work of Art. Abordarea lui Ingarden aproximeaz strns ideologia natural a lecturii, caracteristic culturii seculare (progresist, luminat, contient de dimensiunea temporal) n interiorul creia linearitatea esenial a scrisului/cititului a fost interiorizat pe deplin de un public cititor numeros. Teoreticienii lecturii - re-lecturii pun problema existenei unei prime lecturi virginate, unei lecturi pure (solitare, neinfluinate, imaculate). Suntem gata s-o acceptm fr a o supune analizei. Conceptul de lectur prim virginal, nu rezist analizei citite. Studentul fcnd o prim lectur a textului o concepe mai nti ca una de iniiere , de informare, de aflare despre ce este vorba. Urmeaz lectura de documentare aprofundare cnd e vorba de literatura mare (Stendhal Le Rouge et le Noir; Flaubert Madame Bovary, Balzac Le Pre Goriot) putem pretinde justificat, c fiecare lectur este cea dinti (vezi paradoxul nebokovian din epigraful articolului Nu poi citi o carte, o poi doar reciti). Lucrurile stau firesc, cu totul altfel n cazul textelor lirice scurte. O poezie ca Albatros-ul de Baudelaire poate fi citit i recitit de mai multe ori ntr-o singur edin-lecturile putnd fi suplimentare, tot n aceeai edin, cu consultarea unor comentarii i interpretri critice selectate, de obicei incluse n ediiile critice bune ale poeilor clasici. Astfel, textele-poezie, textele-poeme sunt recitite nu doar din punct de vedere paradigmatic (texte construite anume pentru citire sau ascultarea lor repetat), ci i practic i literal, n aa msur nct, n 130

privina poeziei, distincia dintre prima lectur i relectur este greu de susinut n termeni fenomenologici, tinznd aproape s dobndeasc un caracter pur metodologic-analitic. n acest ultim sens, distincia poate sfri prin a da natere unui veritabil imperativ al relecturii: poezia trebuie re-citit. Aa cum argumenteaz convingtor M. Riffaterre, pentru a citi adecvat o poezie, trebuie s-o citim de dou ori: mai nti ca s discifrm textul unic liniar i s adoptm o atitudine potrivit ctre textul s funci oneze ca i cnd ar fi mimetic, iar apoi ca s-l supunem unei lecturi retroactive sau hermeneutice, n care semnificaia poemului, pn acuma ascuns, s ias la suprafa, dar numai pentru acel lector care reuete s sar peste gardul realului i astfel s ajung, dincolo de mimesis, la un nivel mai nalt de semiosis (Michael Riffaterre, Semiotics of Poetry. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978, p. 5-7). Desigur practicienii lecturii, re-lecturii vor ine cont de postulatele teoreticienilor lecturii, ns anime practicienii au stabilit diferenele ntre textele lirice scurte (citirea i re-citirea textelor-poezie) i textele mai lungi, fie n versuri ori n proz. Elementul timp i face simit prezena n diferite chipuri re-lectura. Adevrata problem a citirii, re-citirii nu este de a recunoate existena unor deosebiri, ba chiar a unui conflict de valori implicate ntre lectura prim i cea secundar a unei opere literare, ci de a decide care dintre ele ne ofer criterii de intrepretare-comentariuexegez mai bune i mai sigure, cu alte cuvinte, creia s i se confirme un statut lingvistic i estetic normativ. Se pare c R. Barthes a rspuns parial la aceast ntrebare tot n plan teoretic. Modelul de recita a lui Barthes poate fi neles cel mai bine ca o nversare, aproape punct cu punct, a opiniei clasice despre prima lectur normativsubiect la care vom reveni.
BIBLIOGRAFIE1 1. Bernard A. A propos de la relecture. In: Semen I: Lecture et lectur. Annales Litteraires de lUniversite de Besancon. 278. Paris: BellesLettres, 1983, p. 83-103.

O bibliografie ampl i actualizat la tema a citi a reciti o gsim n lucrarea lui Matei Clinescu, citat n bibliografia noastr, p. 409-422.

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2. Barthes R. Eseuri critice. Chiinu: Cartier, 2006. 320p. 3. Barthes R. Plcerea Textului. Roland Barthes despre Roland Barthes. Lecia. Chiinu: Cartier, 2006. 227p. 4. Bajard El. Lecture et relecture. In: Francais dans le monde: Revue internationale des professeurs de francais. Paris, 1998, 298, p. 54-56. 5. Clinescu M. A citi, a reciti: Ctre o poetic a (re)lectura. Iai: Polirom, 2007. 430p. 6. Dascalu Cr. Dialectica limbajului poetic. Timioara, 1986. 234 p. 7. Eco U. Interpretation et surinterpretation. Paris: PUF, 2002. 140 p. 8. Ingarden R. The Cognition of the Literary Work of Art, Translated by R. A. Crowley and K. R. Olson. Evanston, III: Northwestern University Press, 1973. 9. Ingarden R. The Literary Work of Art, Translated by G. Grabowicz. Evanston, III: Northwestern University Press, 1973. 10. Linterpretation des textes. Sous la direction de Claude Reichler. Paris: Les Editions de minuit, 1089. 222 p. 11. Milly J. Potique des textes. Paris: Nathan, 1995. 314 p. 12. Patillon Mi. Precis danalyse littraire: Dcrire la posie. Paris: Nathan, 1992, v. 2. 139 p. 13. Riffaterre M. Semiotics of Poetry. Bloominglon: Indiana University Press, 1978. 14. Thoraval J. La dissertation franaise. Explication de texte. Paris: Armand Colin, 1970. 140 p.

132

ON THE PROBLEMS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THE GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES OF MOOD, ASPECT AND ANTERIORITY Dumitru MELENCIUC, Univ. Professor, PhD, Moldova State University In the process of teaching/learning grammatical categories we should analyze the terms used by different linguists to make it easier for students and teachers to better understand the material on the subject. We often find a discrepancy in the units used to denote particular categories and also in the naming or description of the concepts. The terms continuous, durative, progressive, imperfective, imperfect, dynamic, extended aspect, may be regarded as synonyms if the categorical aspectual meaning expresses an action in development parallel to another action or moment of speech. But the terms durative, imperfective, imperfect are used by some linguists to express unfinished actions like in: Peter worked at a book yesterday. I have lived (inclusive present perfect) in London for 20 years and I like it here. Both actions here are not finished. A clear-cut distinction should be made between grammatical and categorial forms as different form categories. Analyzing terms we must clarify whether they denote the same object, or they are used to indicate that a grammatical form may express several categorial forms. The terms are reprehensible when they denote grammatical meanings, such as the notional category of perfective, indefinite, generic, general, etc. aspect. At first sight there is no harm in replacing the term continuous /non continuous aspect in English by perfective vs. imperfective. Perfective is not so easy to distinguish from the lexeme perfect. The term perfective is used to indicate a categorial form of aspect, while perfect is retained to denote the categorial form of anteriority. In this case the system is less convincing than the opposition of continuous /non-continuous. If we take the opposition of perfect aspect vs. progressive aspect then as soon as we come to examples like He had been reading his book for two hours before I came back, we should explain that we cannot have two aspectual categorial forms expressed simultaneously by the same form had been reading to express a finished and an unfinished action simultaneously! Perfect here 133

expresses grammatical anteriority supported and intensified by the lexical anteriority marker before. Anteriority is the main meaning of all the perfect forms. A finished action can be expressed both by perfect and non-perfect forms: I have written a letter and I wrote a letter to him. Both actions are finished. Perfect forms in the oblique mood forms do not always express anteriority: He said he would have come earlier yesterday if he had known; El a spus c ar fi venit (venea) mai devreme ieri, dac ar fi tiut (s fi tiut, dac tia). Here we have a simple action in the past not connected with the present moment. The past perfect form in the indicative mood is polysemantic: it expresses an anterior action to a moment or action on the axis of time, or an anterior action in the future from a moment in the past in clauses of time and condition. As to category of mood various grammar books give different systems of categorical forms: from 2 to 16 categorial forms of mood! This is quite a problem both for teachers and students! Usually they would not accept some other systems, but the one they studied at school or university. The traditional system of 6 categorial forms in English is: indicative, imperative, conditional, subjunctive I, subjunctive II and suppositional to compare with an identical number of moods in Romanian: indicativul, imperativul, condiionalul, optativul, conjunctivul, prezumptivul. A closer inspection of the mood systems displays considerable discrepancies. In Romanian condiionalul and optativul are expressed by homonymous forms and are usually given as one categorial form: condiional-optativul. Their meanings can be expressed in Romanian by several grammatical forms, which are polyfunctional and formally belong to different moods. In English subjunctive I and suppositional are practically stylistic synonyms. The following English example can be rendered by means of different forms, which possess in the given context the same categorial meaning: I should have gone to the meeting if you had told me. Eu m-a fi dus la adunare dac mi-ai fi spus. Eu m duceam la adunare dac mi-ai fi spus. Eu m-a fi dus la adunare dac -mi spuneai. Eu m duceam la adunare dac -mi spuneai. Eu m duceam la adunare s-mi fi spus. Changing the category of affirmation-negation we express the above given by means of indicative mood but some metasemiotic content is lost: I did not go to the meeting because you did (had not told) not tell me, Eu nu mam dus la adunare pentru c nu mi-ai spus. The imperfectul modal in 134

Romanian is naturally used to express aspectual and modal meanings because of the rare use of the durative periphrastic aspectual forms in the language [2, p. 82-85]. While teaching grammatical categories in English and Romanian on the emic and etic levels, we have to take into consideration the fact that morphological oppositions are part of universal or conceptual categories. Modal verbs and modal words, in general, can express modal meanings purely lexically or in combination with grammatical forms (lexico-grammatically). In the example I wish I were a student the modally colored word wish helps to intensify the general grammatical modal meaning by using the form in the secondary clause in the subjunctive II. Subjunctive II can express unreal condition, wish, supposition, desire, unreal preference or comparison, etc. and is usually used after such lexical units as: wish, suppose, if, as if, as though, though, that, so that, lest, for fear, before, ere, however, whatever, till, until, save, saving, in case, unless, even if, even though, whichever, whoever, it is time, it is high time, supposing, whether, etc. For example: If I were you I should stay here; Oh, that the storm were over! He treats me as if (as though) I were a little child. Here he lives happier than if he lived in the country. Even though he had come in time he would not have managed to talk to him. Even if he were here you would not be allowed to see him. It is (high) time you read this book. Supposing you had had enough time yesterday would you have managed to finish the job? Most of the mentioned modal words influence the modality of verbs used in conditional as well as subjunctive II in complex sentences (I should help you if I had time; I should have helped you if I had had time). We can conclude that the lexical element is very important in the use of grammatical categories and categorial forms! [2, p. 110-122]. Subjunctive I and suppositional are usually used after modal words and the modality meaning corresponds to the given lexical unit. Subjunctive I (also named Old subjunctive) is falling in disuse. To a certain extent it is still used in American English. In British English subjunctive I is used in the formal written language in various types of official documents (law, press, parliamentary activity, science and technology, etc,), in poetry and literary prose, in stable expressions (be it so, so be it, if need be, be that as it may, be it said, etc.), in protests, swearing, cursing, etc. Subjunctive I has 2 meanings. 135

In the first meaning it expresses an optative meaning (a wish, a desire) which is not contrary to reality (May he live a hundred years! Let success attend you! Long live the queen!) May, let express modality here and in combination with the main verb they express an optative meaning. Prosodic elements are also important in intensifying the modal meaning, in the last example it is prevailing. The second general meaning of subjunctive I is synonymous with suppositional mood and is expressing a variety of sub-meanings in dependence of de modal word accompanying the main verb (let, may, wish, to request, to be /im/possible, to be agreed, to order, to suppose, to command, to be necessary, to fear, to be feared, to suggest, to insist, to propose, to arrange, to demand, to pass a resolution, to give orders, request, suggestion, to grow terrified, to be afraid, adverbial clauses of purpose introduced by lest, though, although, whatever, whoever, however, etc.). For example: Should you care for a full explanation of the action, you may call any day. Though he (should) make every effort, he cannot succeed. However hard it (should) rain, we shall have to go. Whatever he (should) say, I will not change my mind. We shall start early lest we (should) be late. They grew terrified lest some evil should have befallen on him. A resolution was passed that everybody (should) take part in the work. Orders were given that we (should) start work. We arranged that we (should) meet on Sunday. He proposed that they (should) start. I demand that he (should) come at once. We insisted that he (should be present. It is requested that all (should) be ready by tomorrow. The modal verbs can express modality purely lexically. In grammar books in the group of modal or defective verbs are usually included: must, can, could, may, might, to be, to have, should, would, shall, will, dare, need, used to, ought to, (they have also the function of auxiliary verbs and in speech or used in texts they acquire a grammatical meaning as well. In reality the number of modal verbs is much larger. Thus, verbs like: to insist, to demand, to order, to request, to suppose, to command, to necessitate, etc. express lexical modality. Alongside their lexical modality most of them express an additional grammatical one. For example: I could help (conditional) you tomorrow if I could come (Subj. II) [2, p. 110-122]. Thus, the category of anteriority is expressed in English and Romanian by contextual, lexical and grammatical means. The grammatical 136

means dominate in both English and Romanian languages, while in Russian, the lexical element prevails. Grammatical and categorial forms can be polysemantic, synonymous, homonymous and antonymous [2, p. 85-91]. Thus, conjunctivul in Romanian can be used to express lexical and grammatical supposition, necessity, order, command, insistence: He might have been there. El ar fi putut s fie acolo. I insist (order) that he should be present. Eu insist (ordon) ca el s fie prezent. Condiionalul and optativul in Romanian are expressed by several synonymous grammatical forms, which are polyfunctional and formally belong to different moods: If I had had time I (should) would have come to help you yesterday Dac aveam timp, veneam s te ajut ieri; (imperfectul modal in both cases); Dac a fi avut timp a fi venit s te ajut ieri; (optative, conditional); S fi avut timp a fi venit (veneam) s te ajut ieri (conjunctivul in the secondary clause). In the given example had had time expresses a simple past action not anterior to another action and it is homonymous to had had time used to expresses anteriority to real and unreal actions in the future and past [6, p. 92-100]. Past conditional (perfect form) in English has several homonymous forms: suppositional mood (in the first person), future perfect in the past indicative mood, the modals should and would plus perfect infinitive. For example: He would have come, but he had no time; I should have read the book but I could not find it; I should have come earlier; Should you have time read this book. He promised that he would have come before the beginning of the meeting. There are different interpretations of mood and modality. Attention is often paid either to the form or to content without taking into consideration the phenomena of polysemy, homonymy, synonymy; grammatical, lexical-grammatical, lexical means of expressing the corresponding categorial forms of mood. More complicated systems usually include grammatical, lexical and lexical-grammatical modality. Thus, Barbara Strangs 16 mood system includes: the moods of determination (will), resolution (shall), permissive (may), concessive (might), potential (can), compulsive (must), conditional (would), determinative-conditional (could), etc. the non-finite forms of the verb: the infinitive, the participle, the gerund are declared as moods in some manuals. More compact systems of two or three categorial forms (indicative, imperative, subjunctive) usually combine under one term several categorial and grammatical meanings. The term subjunctive in some grammar books embrace the forms of subjun137

ctive I (Long live the queen!), subjunctive II (If I were you; If I had had time yesterday I would have come), suppositional (I insist that he should be present at the conference), which express completely different categorial meanings. In the most Romanian grammar books we find a system of five categorial forms of mood: indicative, potential or prezumtiv, imperative, conjunctive, condiional-optative. In some manuals the infinitive, the gerunziul, the participle and supinul are added. Difficulties appear when we analyze the forms of potential, conjunctive and condiionaloptative. Here grammatical polysemy grows into homonymy. The forms of present potential (voi fi cntnd, s fi cntnd, ar fi cntnd, a fi cntnd, etc. used in colloquial style) can express aspectual modal meanings of subjunctive II, conditional, indicative, etc.: 1) Se spune, c el ar fi avnd multe lucruri interesante; Dac el ar fi avnd aceast carte, l-a ruga s mi-o mprumute. The forms of prezumtivul or potenialul prezent in Romanian have much in common with those available in the indicative mood in the earlier Romanian and identical with the continuous aspectual forms used in English, Spanish, Portuguese and Italian, Lets give some examples from the History of Moldovan Grammar, by prof. V. Marin (Chisinau, 1970), quoting sources of XVII-XIX centuries [1] and proving the fact that we deal with various categorial forms of mood in the continuous aspect. For example: Era ca oile rtcindu. Au fost avndu prieteug mare cu Ptru Vod [1, p. 36]. Erau trecnd printr-o pdure mare i deas.; Au fost dormind la bisearica lui svetin Benedict [1, p. 83]. i era mergndu i apropiindu-m ctre Damascu, ntru ameadz... [5, p. 90] martorului tu nsumi era stndu[1, p. 91]. The durative action here produces a stronger metasemiotic effect on the reader or listener than the imperfect forms. In the Romance languages aspectual meanings are most often expressed lexically and by the perfective and imperfective opposition. Various durative constructions in Romanian, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese are subservient to the lexical and lexical-grammatical aspectual means and are used in emotional speech for expressivity and emphasis in actions developing in time, intensified by the interaction with lexical and suprasyntactic prosodic means. In the Spanish expressive discourse the continuous forms are often preferred: Estoy hablando (I am talking). Estoy mirando (I am looking at) estas revistas. Juan est comiendo (Juan is eating). 138

Mara est escribiendo una carta (Mary is writing a letter). Los pasajeros estarn llegando (are arriving) a su destino. Ayer estuve repasando (I was revising) la gramtica. Hemos estado nadando (We have been swimming for three hours; notm de 3 ore) tres horas. Maana estar trabajando (I will be working) todo el da en la biblioteca [2, p. 222-224]. Italian examples: Marcovaldo stava portando a spasso la famiglia (At that time Marcovaldo was getting out for a walk with his family. Pietro sta leggendo un libro (Peter is reading a book) [7, p. 167]. The Continuous forms are usually accompanied by lexical durative intensifiers like todo el dia the whole day through interacting with the lexical continuous meanings of the verbs. In Romanian these examples are expressed by imperfectul, constructions with gerunziu or contextual and lexical durative means. The Portuguese construction estar+gerundio also expresses a continuous action: Eu estou estudando na Universidade. (I am studying at the University); Ele estava lendo quando ela me chamou. (He was reading when she called me); Amanha estaremos preparando toda a documentacao (Tomorrow we shall be preparing the documentation) [5, p. 324]. In Spanish, Italian and Portuguese there are other constructions with gerundio expressing aspectual duration. Lexical and grammatical duration in French and German is expressed by imperfect forms, constructions with present participle, grondif and lexical means: He represented for her the reality of things. His conscious was echoing Fleurs comment on Anna Bergfelds letter. Sa conscience rptait lcho des commentaires de Fleur la lettre de Annie Bergfeld. Contiina i repeta ecoul comentariilor lui Fleur la scrisoarea Anei Bergfeld [2, p. 134]. The French imparfait is rendered regularly into English by continuous forms and by past indefinite with lexical duration, though the former are more expressive than the latter. In German, the absence of the continuous forms is compensated by Imperfect and constructions with Partizip Prsens, which normally express a durative aspectual meaning. Er kam lachend die Treppe herunter. He came laughing down the staircase. El venea rznd n jos pe scar. Er erreichte schwimmend das andere Ufer. He reached the other bank swimming. A ajuns inotnd la cellalt mal [3, p. 76]. The category of aspect in English is considered to be expressed purely grammatically, the marked member of the opposition being 139

expressed by continuous forms. A closer inspection show, that the grammatical marked form, in many cases, is intensified by lexical aspectual means, or only the lexical means are used. Here are some examples where both lexical and grammatical aspectual means are used for expressivity or intensification of aspectual meaning. You are seeing this place for the last time. I am hearing it better now. The same event can be described by using either continuous or noncontinuous forms. It much depends on the speakers intention, whether he wants to describe the action in development, extended or just to express an action as very short or habitual, without paying attention to the aspectual marked categorial meaning. The verbs possessing a durative lexical meaning can express continuous aspect both lexically and lexico-grammatically, the latter being aspectually intensified: He looked out of the window. A man stood at the door /I looked out of the window. A man was standing at the door are confronted with imperfect forms both in Russian and Romanian: ; El edea la mas; ; Un brbat sttea la u (Am vzut un brbat stnd la u). In the case of He sat at the table and A man stood at the door the lexical aspectual meaning of sat and stood is durative, and it is intensified by superimposing a grammatical aspectual continuous meaning on the lexical one in was sitting and was standing. The Romanian and Russian equivalents belong to the imperfective aspect and express unfinished and extended actions. The grammatical duration here is supplemented by the lexical one. Even terminative or point-action verbs can be used in the continuous form if the action is repeated or the speaker wants to show the action in development, or to stress the fact that the action lasted during a certain period of time. For example: The boy jumped over the fence /The boy was jumping round the tree. In Romanian we have the same situation: Biatul a srit peste gard /Biatul srea n jurul copacului. There are various points of view that the category of aspect in English is formed by means of the opposition of perfect and continuous forms, which is similar to the perfective and imperfective aspect in the Slavic languages. In this case the sentence I had been working at my article for three hours before he came back would express both forms: perfect and continuous (had been working). According to the rules of categorization a grammatical form of the verb can not express both forms of the same cate140

gorial opposition simultaneously. This confusion may be connected with the fact that the term perfect or perfective is practically ambivalent and may be used to express either a finished action or anteriority. For example: I wrote a letter yesterday and I had written a letter yesterday by five oclock. In both sentences the actions are perfect(ive) in the sense that they are finished, but had written expresses a different perfect meaning, that of anteriority. There are points of view that putandi and sentiendi verbs should not be used in the continuous aspect. A closer inspection of this phenomenon shows that practically all the verbs in English, including the putandi and sentiendi ones can be used in the continuous aspect. Verbs like believe, see, etc. express aspect lexically and they are rarely used in the grammatical continuous form, when there is a necessity to intensify the aspectual meaning, to make it more emphatic, more expressive: But I am seeing you, you are there behind the tree! Am I really hearing what you are saying? He was seeing them robbed. He was seeing them famish hour by hour. He was seeing them die. I am seeing a brown colour. You are seeing this place for the last time. I am hearing it better now. Am I really hearing a voice at last! The same could be said about the habitual and repeated actions, usually accompanied by words possessing a certain durative lexical and aspectual meaning: always, often, constantly, permanently, occasionally, seldom, usually, etc. It has been observed that the English regularly use the grammatical continuous aspect in their speech, to make it more expressive: He is always coming in time. He is always coming late! The choice of the continuous aspect depends only on the action being viewed as a process. This is the universal grammatical meaning of the continuous aspect and this is the only criterion that matters when this or that aspectual form is being chosen. In case of emphasis, when there is a necessity to increase the categorial aspectual meaning English people can ignore the rule: It is important to mention that there is a process of metasemiotic transposition of continuous (durative, imperfect) aspect forms. The emphatic use of seeing and always in the examples above is accompanied by emphatic prosodic means: wide range, high fall, slow tempo, etc. in order to intensify the stylistic connotation. The Russian perfective underlines the fact that the action is finished and the imperfective expresses an action that is not finished 141

and developing in time, the term itself stresses the fact that the action is not finished. Though the English aspectual opposition is practically identical with the Russian one, there is no one to one correspondence. For example, the sentences He sat at the table and He was sitting at the table are confronted with only one equivalent in Russian . In the case of He sat at the table the action itself is prominent, while in He was sitting at the table the process, the fact that the action is extended, developing in time is most important. Their Russian equivalent belongs to the Imperfective aspect and expresses an unfinished and extended action. Discrepancies of this case are observed in the verbs, possessing an imperfect meaning. The verb forms in the sentences He sat at the table and He was sitting at the table in English belong to imperfective forms. There is a certain difference between the two forms. They are both, durative or progressive in meaning, but sat expresses lexical duration, while in was sitting the given lexical duration is intensified by the grammatical one. But from the point of view of grammatical aspect the two verb forms in He sat at the table and He was sitting at the table represent an aspectual opposition of continuous non-continuous aspect. The English passive continuous forms are regularly translated by means of verbs with the particle se and flexion - in Russian to express durative meanings instead of reflexivity. They are used to express a durative action in the passive voice: The house is being built now, The house was being built when we arrived there, The house will be built this time next year Casa se construiete acum (Casa este construit acum), Casa se construia (era construit) cnd am sosit acolo, Casa se va construi (va fi construit) pe timpul acesta anul viitor . , , . The reflexive particle and flexion here gets homonymous meanings of passive voice durative actions [2, p. 110-122]. Analyzing the verbal categories we have observed a phenomenon of transition from grammatical to lexical-grammatical and lexical means of expressing this or that categorial meaning. A good example could serve the category of taxis (anteriority), which undergoes a process of lexicalization in many languages [2, p. 103-109]. The category of gender in English and the category of anteriority (taxis) in Russian can serve as an example of a complete transition. 142

Anteriority in English, Romanian and other European languages is in the process of a similar transition [2, p. 145]. The category of anteriority historically appeared in the result of transposition, when it was necessary to intensify the existing lexical and contextual means by grammatical ones. Now we have a reverse process but on a different level. At the moment the means of expressing future anteriority in both languages slightly differ. English has preserved the Latin system of expressing future actions as seen from a moment in the past. Now lets take some examples: 1.Future from the present moment: I shall have read the text by six oclock (by the time you come home. Eu voi fi citit textul ctre ora ase. In both languages future anteriority is expressed here both grammatically (rarely in Romanian) and lexically. The usual tendency in languages is to simplify redundant forms. The examples, given above, are naturally simplified in both languages, and anteriority can be expressed only lexically or contextually: I shall (will) finish reading the text by six o'clock (by the time you come home). Eu voi termina de citit textui ctre ora ase. Present perfect is used to express future anteriority in clauses of time and condition (substituting future perfect), while perfectul compus in Romanian can be used to express future anteriority only in case of stylistic transposition: Cum am ajuns acas, i telefonez! In the American spoken English there is a tendency of rapprochement of present perfect and past indefinite and the former is often substituted by the latter: Did you ever go to Paris? Did he arrive yet? He never read this book. In the British Standard English present perfect continues to differ regularly from past indefinite in all the meanings. We would like to draw your attention to the fact that it is not enough to state the existence of the category of anteriority or any other categorial system in English and Romanian. Language is permanently changing and all abstract linguistic systems should be checked in practice (texts, speech), otherwise we could find ourselves abusing grammar. Grammatical polysemy, homonymy and synonymy, transposition (stylistic and modal, etc.) are attested in the confronted languages. There is a tendency of regulation and simplification of categorial and redundant grammatical forms. Grammatical anteriority can be regarded as a pedantry, for in situations of ordinary everyday speech it is very easy to do without it, and express the same categorial meaning lexically or contextually. 143

BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Marin V. Z. Gramatica istoric a limbii moldoveneti. Chiinu: Lumina, 1970. 2. Melenciuc D. Comparativistics. Chiinu: CEP USM, 2003. 3. Savin E. Gramatica limbii germane. Bucureti: Editura Maina de scris, 1996. 4. ., E. . Mo: , 1963. 5. . . . : , 1990. 6. ., . . : , 1984. 7. Ka ., T. . : , 1981. 8. E., A., . . Mo: , 1988.

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LA DIMENSION DIDACTIQUE DE LTAPE DE LABSTRACTISATION DU PARADOXE DANS LE CONTEXTE DE LA LITTRATURE DU XXI-ME SICLE Eleonora MIHAILA, matre assistant, master, Universit Libre Internationale de Moldavie Le XX-ime sicle est marqu par un pluralisme esthtique au pied de la lettre: le ralisme, le surralisme, le futurisme, le thatre de labsurde, lexistentialisme, le nouveau roman, qui exploitent pleinement le paradoxe en tant que phnomne de la pense et en tant que figure de pense ou figure magistrale. Michel Butor, le reprsentant notoire du nouveau roman, justifiait larchitecture de la nouvelle esthtique adopte par les nouveaux romanciers: ce ne sont pas mes livres qui sont labyrinthiques, cest la ralit qui est labyrinthique [1, p. 50]. tant donne cette diversit et complexit stylistiques, lobjectif que nous nous sommes propos pour cette communication a t de tracer pour les tudiants des facults de langues trangres un parcours qui faciliterait la comprhension du passage lesthtique et lcriture du XX-ime sicle. Dans cet ordre dides, il serait recommandable de commencer par une dmarche rtrospective tout en considrant litinraire stylistique travers par le paradoxe (allogisme au niveau dune ou de plusieurs propositions; une proposition qui va lencontre de loppinion communment admise (doxa [2, p.70]), de la vraisemblance et qui manque de la logique [3, p. 239]) dans lhistoire de la littrature. Or ledit itinraire comprend les tapes suivantes: 1. ltape axiologique (psycho-archtypale) ltape des mythes, rves, proverbes, qui actualisent le contenu des archtypes; 2. ltape ontologique ltape des Batudes comprises dans la Bible, du roman vnementiel caractris par la sublimation du rel et de limaginaire. Or la littrature de lAntiquit, du Moyen Age et de la Renaissance est trop empresse dtre fidle la ralit. Cest lpoque du roman vnementiel ou du roman histoire [4, p. 25] soumis lhgmonie de lvnement, o le paradoxe en tant que figure stylistique (dlibrment cre) trouve peine sa place. La Renaissance est le point terminal de ltape ontologique, tape o lexistence passionne les plumes, o tout nest que pangyrique 145

lexistence sous toutes ses formes: pripties, verve, panouissement multidirectionnel du potentiel humain. Lors de cette priode exalte le paradoxe demeure cependant ces paramtres archtypaux; 3. ltape de la formalisation smiotique ltape du coloris stylistique [forme] et de lintriorisation [contenu]. Le XVII-ime et le XVIII-ime sicles marquent lapoge de lesprit de raison. Le culte de la raison implique lexploitation au maximum du potentiel cognitif. Or le paradoxe, surnomm coeur de toute pense cratrice [5, p. 14] et mme plus que a: il est lindice et le fruit de cette pense cratrice, linstrument cognitif privilgi au XVII-ime s. Or le paradoxe, fruit de la pense mise en marche et aux prises avec les contradictions, ne tarde pas imprimer son coloris contrariant aux oeuvres de Corneille, Racine, Boileau, La Fontaine, Voltaire. ce point nous avons accd un moment crucial de la thorie volutive du paradoxe. Jusque l envisag dans une optique archtypale, le paradoxe surgit et connat un grand essor sous ses formes primaires dactualisation (de formalisation) loxymore et lantithse , englobes dans la notion de paradoxisme [6, p. 324], qui reprsentent des alliances de mots/ides antithtiques qui paraissent logiquement incompatibles, mais mis en oeuvre avec une telle habilet au sein dune mme proposition que, tout en se combattant, ils frappent lintelligence et dgage seconde vue un sens merveilleusement vrai, souvent profond et toujours nergique [7, p. 324]. 4. ltape de labstractisation, qui constitue lobjet proprementdit de la prsente communication. Une question se veut clairer: si le paradoxe demeure toujours fidle son essence stylistique originelle. Il est vident que son essence stylistique a volu, davantage, il (le paradoxe) a rvolutionne la littrature autant au niveau du contenu quau niveau de la forme. Quest-ce qui sest produit au vrai? Une mtamorphose du statut stylistique du paradoxe. Dans cet ordre dides, Solomon Marcus affirme que le paradoxe nest plus un phnomne marginal et acci dental, il se trouve au coeur de laction et de la pense humaine. Il est devenu une manire de comprendre le monde [8, p. 87]. Or il est mentionner quune prcision simpose ds le dbut: ltape de labstractisation le paradoxe est dpourvu de repres graphiques strictes signalant les paradoxes. Cette mutation se doit la perte du caractre marginal du paradoxe. Le paradoxe touffe dans les para146

mtres restreints de loxymore et de lantithse. Du point de vue formel, le paradoxe nest plus susceptible dtre repr (graphiquement), comme loxymore, la mtaphore, la mtonymie etc Les changements subis par lhumanit dans le social, la politique, lconomique, le culturel sinterconditionnent et se dterminent rciproquement lessence. La littrature reprsente lexpression verbale de la conscience humaine, expression cre au concours dun univers artistique complexe. Or le paradoxe sest empar dun statut de plus en plus autonome au point de se mtamorphoser dans une mentalit. Dsormais, le paradoxe en tant que figure de pense (rthorique classique) ou mtalogisme (norhtorique), tmoigne dune tendance vers labstraction. Le lecteur avis aura mme de plus en plus de peine le reprer graphiquement car les messages mettent dj des mentalits paradoxales. Cest un fait certain que ce passage dun mtasmme un mtalogisme ne sest pas opr sans un moment intermediaire, transitoire. Or dans son trajet vers labstraction, vers llargissement, le paradoxe a connu une poque o sa force expressive et dynamique a t exploite en tant que procd pique (compositionnel). La nouvelle, cest le genre littraire propice par excellence lexplosion inopine et surprenante du paradoxe. Cest la raison qui explique la prdilection de certains auteurs de nouvelles pour le choc final du paradoxe. Or la fin de cette construction: - lapidaire (on embrasse de rgle une vaste tendu de temps sans tomber dans des dtails); - dramatique; - une seule ligne de sujet; - peu de personnages; - choix scupuleux de moyens ou rien nest superflu; - allure prcipit et agencement cors, quest la nouvelle, incombe assez souvent au paradoxe, qui la rend expressive voire dvorante et toujours insolite, imprvue. De cette faon dans Le retour du prisonnier (A. Maurois) le hasard a fait quun malentendu absurde dtruise deux vies au moment o elles allaient se re-confondre (la femme attendait son mari depuis des annes et au moment o il arrive trouve la table deux couverts qui tait dailleurs destins l pour clbrer son retour, sa femme tant alle chercher du chocolat pour lui; il croit sa femme vivre avec un autre homme et disparait mystrieusement). Le paradoxe 147

(labsurde) tensionne au maximum le tragique. Il y a maintenant plus de deux ans depuis ce tragique incident et elle na jamais entendu parler de son mari. La proximit imanente de lquilibre moral, du bonheur et du sentiment de limpossibilit dapporter un changement ce drame exprime lessence du paradoxe. Lintrigue de lHtel de Mendez de M. Druon est galement dclenche au concours dun jeu du hasard la perte dun bracelet, qui a entran toute une raction en chane. Cest l une technique narratologique qui permet au lecteur de saisir les objectifs authentiques de lauteur-narrateur: baffouer les tares de laristocratie en dclin. Cependant lauteur nagit pas ouvertement pour atteindre son but, il le fait par le biais de lironie. Le hasard dclenche un dsordre dans la famille aristocrate qui prend finalement la forme dune querelle gnrale. La fin paradoxale ramne le maudit bracelet en premier plan. Il fut trouv, mais la situation cre tait devenue trop critique, poignante pour pouvoir revenir au normal. Quest-ce quil reste alors de faire? Rire. Le rire en apparence dguise, refoule le drame intrior. Le chanone de Mendez fut alors saisi du plus grand accs de rire quil ait eu depuis le temps lointain des farces du sminaire. Les mmes tares de laristocratie en dclin sont bafoues dans Les grandes familles (M. Druon). Les ambitions dun pre crasent les projets viables de son fils en mme temps que sa vie. Nol Schoudler modle dantipre donne une leon fatale son fils, Franois Schoudler, au terme des longs harclements psychologiques. Le paradoxe acquiert des teintes particulirement expressives quand il est au service du motif ternel de lamour. Quand lamour parle, il est matre, affirmait Marivaux au XVIII-ime sicle. Lamour rend les tres paradoxaux, diffrents du reste du monde. Le couple de Leur chemin (H. Barbusse) est le modle du couple qui ont transform lamour en un culte dans le sens positif du mot. Leur maison brle, les amants partent symboliquement dans la gloire du soleil sans la moindre trace de souci quant leurs pertes matrielles. Ils sont ailleurs, alors ils nont rien vu. Soyons daccord, cest un des paradoxes les plus sublimes. Lamour transforme le monde aux yeux des amants, il est mme capable de donner un cortge funbre lapparence dun cortge nuptial. Ainsi, la mort et la vie paradoxalement se convergent (La marche funbre H. Barbusse). 148

Lamour, cest galement lart de se dtacher volontairement de ltre aim mais non coups de blessures, mais avec des prcautions, des caresses (Tendresse H. Barbusse). Lamour est trop contraint par les conventions et il doit tre touff, mais les deux amants sont trop lis pour se sparer. Alors la femme fait preuve dun sacrifice exceptionnel: elle fait le premier pas vers la sparation et les quatre lettres qui suivent attestent un lucide dtachement, une sparation lente, sreine et cependent pleine daffection sincre. La cinquime lettre annonce la choc paradoxal: la femme tait morte le lendemain mme de leur sparation (vingt ans plus tt) et ces lettres ntaient que les dernires preuves de son amour infini au nom duquel elle avait abandonn sa vie. Dans ce contexte dvastateur la notion maintenant embrasse deux squences temporelles qui sont spares par une vaste tendu de temps: le maintenant du pass et le maintenant du prsent. Ce rapprochement paradoxal du pass et du prsent dans une seule notion confre au message une allure la vie, une vie spare de son bien-aim rappelle les mots de Marin Preda: Cci unde dragoste nu e, nimic nu e [rien nexiste l o lamour nexiste pas]. Les exemples pourraient se succder linfini, limportant est de saisir lessence pique, compositionnelle et voire potique du paradoxe et sa signification inestimable pour la traduction et la mise en relief des valeurs authentiques. Tout cela se doit la dimmension esthtique du paradoxe: Limprvu, la surprise, le contrariant ne tarde pas marquer la fin de la nouvelle: - Je vais me rattraper (Le dernier M. Aym); - Dcampez! Ordonna lhuissier. Interdit, Gorgerin le considrait avec des yeux stupides; Dieu merveill... (Le huissier M. Aym); - Et elle pleura en mme temps de tristesse et de joie (La femme H. Barbusse); - ... Je portai ma main ma croix, je lenlevai de ma poche, comme un objet vol (La croix H.Barbusse); - Lucien fut effray par la faiblesse de son pre et son coeur sattendrit dun sentiment de piti gnreuse (Le proverbe M. Aym). En guise de conclusion, il est invitable de mettre en lumire lnergie dvastatrice du paradoxe dont la ralisation esthtique 149

suprme est de contrarier les esprits afin de les faire voir clair tout en les secouant dans leur engourdissement quotidien. Lcriture laquelle on vient de faire rfrence ci-dessus relve de la littrature traditionnelle (traditionnelle dans le sens quelle respecte les canons littraires existants sans apporter dinnovations essentielles). Le XX-ime sicle marque toutefois un carrefour o se rencontrent les esthtiques classiques et celles modernes ou innovatrices. Le statut stylistique du paradoxe dans le cadre littraire traditionnel se rduit au statut de procd pique. Comment le dfinirons-nous alors dans les systmes esthtiques les plus notoires auxquels le XXime sicle a donn jour? Cest justement ce dont nous allons traiter dans les pages qui suivent. Dans ce but nous nous sommes propos de faire cas des systmes esthtiques les plus significatifs (le choix est biensr subjectif) tout en fixant leurs essences dedans la perspective volutive. Or son but est de justifier le statut de mentalit acquis par le paradoxe. Si lon aborde des critures modernes, nous aimerions faire appel lesthtique de certains crivains et dramaturges, cits ci-dessous, dont loeuvre fait lobjet dtude des cours universitaires. Eugne Ionesco postule la thse de labsurde et cre son thatre sur ce fondement. Cest la voie dans laquelle il sengage afin de combattre le thtre, trop charg de conventions pour tre rel et trouve, exploite dautres modalits pour aborder toujours la ralit amre. Or son intention est de remonter aux sources du thtre par la parodie lextrme du genre. Tout en mlant lhumour aux moyens du burlesque, il cre un thtre de violence violemment comique, violemment tragique un anti-thtre. (voir: La cantatrice chauve, Les rhinicros, Le roi se meurtetc.) Antoine de Saint-Exupry est lauteur dune oeuvre humaniste quil difie sur la conviction paradoxale quon est plus solitaire dans un mgapolis que dans un dsert. Dans ce sens son oeuvre pourrait tre fonde sur la bipolarit solitaire-solidaire. Le rapport paronymique entre ces deux notions est merveilleusement significatif. On pourrait le dcoder de la faon suivante: du solitaire au solidaire et viceversa nest quun pas et lhomme est mme de la faire. Le thme de la solitude dans le mgapolis nest pas vierge dailleurs dans le cadre du XXime sicle (voir: Christiane Rochefort Les petits enfants du sicle, Le Clzio Le dsert, E. Ajar Quelquun aimer). Cepen150

dant la foi inbranlable du pilote-humaniste dans la force humaine hisse les tres humains des hauteurs divines et donc lhomme est finalemant capable dtre responsable et de jouir du luxe des relations humaines. Le XX-ime sicle connat un grand essor du no-humanisme qui se dgage de toute cration littraire dune faon plus ou moins explicite. Dans ce sens, Francis Ponge met les bases dun no-humanisme, tout en prenant paradoxalement le parti des choses dont il cre des images phnomnologiques encyclopdiques sans tre dpourvues toutefois dun lyrisme prtendu naf. Son criture est axe sur lexpression dune vasion allgorique dans le monde des choses avec un verbiage de nuance sensuelle. Le no-humanisme du XX-ime sicle est une raction esthticoartistico-littraire contre le got excessif pour la consommation gastronomique, matrielle etc. qui domine la spiritualit. Toujours dans cette optique, Georges Perec pousse limpratif du chosisme ou de la rification des dimmensions socio-humaines. Dans son roman Les choses il se dresse contre lempire envahissant des choses qui a submin la spiritualit et a provoqu un renversement des valeurs en faveur de celles materielles. Cependant il le fait, paradoxalement, au concours dun loge des choses ralis sur une tonalit hypothtique du vouloire tre et par l cinglante. Les per sonnages subissent eux-mmes (et acceptent consciemment) limpacte nfaste du renversement des valeurs: ils perdent leur individualit et se dpersonnalisent, fait signal par lusage redondant du prenom ils, qualifi par E. Benvniste categorie de la non-personne. La fonction du paradoxe de traduire une vision, une mentalit a t exploite au maximum par les crivains existentialistes. Dans ce sens, Albert Camus statue que lexistence prcde lessence et donc lhomme est libre choisir. Cependant le choc paradoxal ne tarde pas: lhomme nest pas libre tant quil y aura des flaux. Lunique solution de ce dilemme serait dtre hnnete, fait qui consiste bien faire son mtier. Bien que trop circonspect, il est davis finalement quil y a dans les hommes plus de choses admirer que de choses mpriser. Les deux aptres de lhonntet et de la solidarit docteur Rieux et Tarrou accomplissent leurs missions chacun suivant sa voie: Tarrou un intellectuel, prouve un confus dsir 151

dagir en saint sans Dieu (paradoxe!) et Rieux, homme du peuple par sa naissance, prouve cette fraternit obscure des pauvres qui sentraident par des actes et non pas par des paroles. Ainsi dans le dialogue du mdicin et de Tarrou on devine le dialogue de Camus avec Camus dont lessence est axe sur lide de faire de son mieux ce quon doit faire l o le hasard vous a jet. Pourquoi? Sans raison, sans profit. Pour tre daccord avec soi-mme. Pour pouvoir choisir. Lcriture de Georges Bataille est probablement le moment le plus loquent dcriture paradoxale qui se fonde sur une juxtaposition des phrases, dpourvue de cohrence et de motivation logique. La superposition du charnel, du bas et du vulgaire avec le sublime consterne lesprit du lecteur. Il sagit plutt dune absence du style dont les mtaphores brutes et les associations de phrases font penser la technique des surralistes. Dans Le bleu du ciel o le discours direct glisse vers le discours indirect libre, o des niveaux dnonciation sentremlent en dehors de tout rapport logique, tout concourt laccablement du narrateur par des langages et des noncs antithtique afin quil ne soit plus en tat de discerner le ct rel. Le protagoniste du roman Troppmann nincarne pas seulement une conscience malheureuse qui spuise, jusqu friser le mort, en des ivresses, nuits blanches et orgies, il vit le drame atroce du non-discernement, une morale dsaxe du drame de lhtrognit. Le bleu du ciel frappe par lassemblage choquant des fragments disparates, par les ruptures de construction, par les alinas dont la lgitimit demeure inexplique et qui sont marqus par des rapprochements indits et des juxtapositions violentes. Le bleu du ciel constitue un des plus forts exemples dcriture paradoxale qui frise la rvolte du sens et lcroulement des formes. Cest notamment dans ce beau dsordre que rside le caractre subversif de lcriture de Georges Bataille. Cette absence du style rapproche lcriture de Georges Bataille celle de Marquerite Duras, dont lcriture fut qualifie par Julie Kristva comme esthtique de la maladresse. Dans le cas de lcriture de Duras, cest limpossibilit de la cohabitation de la douleur avec la grandiloquence, fait qui lui dicte une allure maladroite. Il y a une mfiance du langage, et davantage de rhtorique (ex: La pluie a cess ; On pleure; La dame dit quelle aime cette petite fille, beaucoup). Or la nouveaut de cette criture rside dans la continuelle 152

tentative de dpasser la parole pour aller lessentiel. Le fait que M. Duras a pratiqu aussi lart cinmatographique sexplique par la mme volont de dpasser les limites du dire. Au terme de cet itinraire qui est loin dtre complet la conclusion simpose que la vision artistique a volu dans le sens dune abstractisation quon pourrait valorifier au concours de limplicite. Cette tendance a pu prendre des formes grce la nature mtalogique du paradoxe, grce sa facult de rvler, de dgager des mentalits, bien que paradoxales. Au bout de cette recherche (que je nestime point exhaustive) sur lvolution de lemploi pique, stylistique et esthtique du paradoxe, je suis enclin de revitaliser la thse que jai mise la tte de cet itinraire et dont la lgitimit ma exclu toute trace du doute: le paradoxe se trouve entran dans un processus dabstractisation plnaire. Ce mouvement dans le sens de labstractisation sopre partir du paradoxe-mtasmme (figure de mots) pour aboutir au paradoxe-mtalogisme (figure de pense) susceptible de dgager des mentalits vhiculant des valeurs aprs avoir jou le rle dun procd pique. Le moment-cl de ce processus rside dans le fait que cette abstractisation concourt dune manire heureuse aborder et mettre en relief les vraies valeurs: le Bien, le Beau, le Vrai et le Juste et voire les replacer leur position adquate au cas o un renversement inopin sopre dans notre faon de les actualiser. Cependant le paradoxe est lexpression parfaite de la coexistence des valeurs et des non-valeurs; il est absolument indispensable de tolrer les dernires en les envisageant comme modles de ce quil ne sied pas de faire. Dans ce sens, cest au paradoxe la noble mission de raccorder les valeurs des modles symboliques authentiques. Au niveau civilisationnel, le paradoxe est lindice de la conscience de la conscience, autrement dit, de lautoconscience, tat psychique suprme qui tmoigne dune lucidit mature, de la facult de sensibiliser lordre du monde et son propre jardin, son for intrior. En tant quinstrument vital de la pense, le paradoxe affirme lhomme en tant que homo cogitans au plus haut degr. Mme si la vie, la ralit seraient paradoxales, lautoconscience va prendre tat des faits et, plus lucide, plus sr de son potentiel, plus convaincu de ce quil a faire, lhomme va se mesurer avec des obstacles quil affranchira 153

seulement lunique condition quil sera en paix avec soi-mme.

BIBLIOGRAPHIE 1. Butor M. in Popescu T. Estetica paradoxismului. Rmnicu Vlcea: Offset Color, 2001. 2. Le Grand Robert en 9 tomes. Tome 7. Montral: 1994. 3. Creta Z., Mares L., Suciu F. Mic dicionar al limbii romne. Bucureti: Editura Demiurg, 1994. 4. Munteanu R. Preludii la o poetica antiromanului. Noul roman francez. Iai: Editura Eminescu, 1995. 5. Popescu T. Estetica paradoxismului. Rmnicu Vlcea: Offset Color, 2001. 6. Morier H. Dictionaire de rhtorique et de potique. Paris: PUF, 1992. 7. Morier H. Dictionaire de rhtorique et de potique. Paris: PUF, 1992. 8. Solomon M. in Popescu T. Estetica paradoxismului. Rmnicu Vlcea: Offset Color, 2001.

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EDUCAIA INTERCULTURAL I PROVOCRILE LUMII CONTEMPORANE Ana MIHALACHI, conf. univ. dr., Universitatea Liber Internaional din Moldova n condiiile globalizrii i relaiilor economice i culturale tot mai intense ntre diverse naiuni, dialogul social, schimbul de idei i informaii nsoite de extinderea fenomenului multiculturalitii, obin o amploare deosebit. Lrgirea Uniunii Europene, nsoit de creterea diversitii lingvistice i culturale plaseaz n mijlocul problemelor sociale, deoarece Europa nu poate fi unit fr o cunoatere mai bun i o nelegere reciproc ntre concetenii si. Societatea contemporan se confrunt cu crize politice i economice, cu conflicte interetnice, soluia crora, dup prerea cercettorilor, se bazeaz n mod fundamental pe procesul de nvmnt, care ar trebui s produc transformri adnci n raport cu specificul fiecrei ri, o nou politic a educaiei pentru creterea calitii acesteea. Un impact mare asupra procesului educaional l are fenomenul migraiei care a luat o deosebit amploare i forme noi. Actualmente migraia e privit dintr-o perspectiv mai larg, n relaiile sale cu dezvoltarea, cu dreptatea social, cu pacea i protecia mediului nconjurtor. n societate survin necesiti particulare pentru crearea relaiilor interculturale, deoarece nenelegerea ntre reprezentanii diferitor etnii, ocul de culturi au fcut s apar ovinismul i rasismul. Consiliul Europei prin Consiliul su de cooperare cultural a influenat difuzarea interculturalitii i cutarea modalitilor implementrii ei n sistemele educative, contribuind la conceptualizarea i punerea sa n practic n diferite ri din Europa. Termenul de intercultural care i face apariia la nceputul anilor 80 ai sec. XX a fost ales datorit sensului bogat al prefixului inter ct i sensului antropologic al cuvntului cultur. Cnd pronunm intercultural nelegem interaciune, reciprocitate, interdependen, solidaritate, precum i recunoaterea valorilor, modurilor de via, a reprezentrilor valorice la care se raporteaz fiinele umane, indivizii sau grupurile n relaiile lor cu semenii i n nelegerea lumii (Rey, 1986). 155

Savantul Fernand Ouellet, specialist n domeniul educaiei interculturale la Universitatea din Sherbrooke, subliniaz c conceptul educaie intercultural desemneaz orice formare sistematic care vizeaz dezvoltarea att la membrii grupurilor majoritare, ct i la cei din grupurile minoritare a unei mai bune nelegeri a situaiei culturale n societile moderne; a unei mai mari capaciti de a comunica cu persoane de culturi diferite; a unei atitudini mai adaptate contextului diversitii culturale i mecanismelor psiho-sociale i a factorilor socio-politici susceptibili s genereze heterofobie i rasism, a unei mai bune capaciti de a participa la interaciunea social creatoare de identiti i de umanitate comun (Ouellet, 1986). Educaia intercultural are ca obiective principale: de a favoriza i a ntri relaiile reciproce ntre diferite societi, precum i ntre grupuri culturale majoritare i minoritare; de a deschide prin parti cularitatea valorilor proprii, intrarea spre valorile universale; de a fi mndri de valorile proprii fr a subaprecia pe cele strine; de a intra n contact cu valori strine fr ur; de a ne cultiva diferenele culturale i de a ne stima unii pe alii pentru c suntem diferii; de a -i cunoate pe alii deoarece aceasta nseamn s ne cunoatem pe noi nine. Educaia intercultural promoveaz cunoaterea i respectarea culturii, adic a tradiiilor, obiceiurilor, literaturii, artei, tiinei i a stilului de via ale comunitilor etnice de ctre toi locuitorii din ara respectiv. Perspectiva intercultural joac un rol din ce n ce mai important n domeniul educaional i anume n predarea limbilor moderne. Problematica interculturalitii este strns legat de ideea deschiderii spre alte limbi, spre alte culturi, spre lume prin intermediul mijloacelor de informare i noilor tehnologii de comunicare. Savantul M. A. Pretceille (1999) consider c n domeniul didacticii limbilor moderne se evideniaz dou mari provocri: 1) trecerea de la monolingvism la plurilingvism; 2) completarea competenelor lingvistice cu cele culturale. n cartea Confusio identitarum autorul, doamna Ana Guu, atenioneaz c Viitorul lingvistic al Europei const n extinderea comunicrii interculturale, care la rndul su, este de neconceput n afara apanajului poliglot. Astzi asistm la o schimbare de generaii, n care una este cel puin bilingv (romn-englez) sau tri-cvadrilingv 156

(romn-englez-francez-rus). Limbile deschid hotarele i orizonturile. (Guu, 45-46). O alt provocare important n domeniul educaiei interculturale const n completarea procesului de studiere a limbilor strine cu nuane noi i anume: a preda discipolilor nu numai limba i cultura poporului respectiv, dar de a arta cum cultura matern a discipolilor intr n interaciune cu cultura poporului limb cruia a studiaz. Educaia intercultural vizeaz o abordare pedagogic a diferenelor culturale i anume dezvoltarea unei educaii pentru toi n spiritul recunoaterii diferenelor ce exist n interiorul aceleiai societi i mai puin o educaie pentru culturi diferite, ceea ce ar presupune staticism i o izolare a grupurilor culturale. Atitudinea intercultural faciliteaz apariia unei sinteze de elemente comune ca fundament al comunicrii i nelegerii reciproce ntre diferite grupuri culturale. coala, acceptnd principii precum tolerana, respectul mutual, egalitatea sau complementaritatea valorilor, va utiliza diferenele spirituale i valorile locale, atandu-le la valorile generale ale umanitii. Sarcina colii de azi este de a forma la elevi o contiin european. nc din clasele primare este de dorit s se cultiveze respectul i solidaritatea fa de cultura altor popoare. n programele colare trebuie introduse cteva valori-cheie: aspiraia ctre democraie, respectarea drepturilor omului, drepturile copiilor, justiia social, echilibrul ecologic, tolerana i pacea, tradiiile culturale, etc. Dup opinia cercettorilor didacticieni educaia intercultural nu este o nou tiin, nici o nou disciplin de studii, ci o nou metodologie ce caut s integreze n procesul de nvmnt datele psihologiei, tiinelor sociale, politicii, culturii, istoriei (Cuco, 2003). Cercettoarea Micheline Rey propune o serie de sugestii de realizare a educaiei interculturale i anume: a) utilizarea bibliotecilor, a centrelor de documentare audio-video pentru consultarea unor lucrri care s corespund obiectivelor educaiei interculturale; b) participarea la evenimentele culturale i srbtori locale, expoziii, serbri pentru descoperirea altor culturi; c) organizarea de ntlniri ntre persoane aparinnd unor culturi diferite, mergnd n vizite, excursii pn la schimburi literare, muzicale, culinare etc.; 157

d) exprimarea solidaritii n raport cu evenimentele locale sau internaionale; e) corespondena colar (desene, casete, e-mail); f) celebrarea Zilei drepturilor copilului (20 noiembrie), a Zilei drepturilor omului (10 decembrie) prin concursuri, expoziii, dezbateri pe teme specifice educaiei interculturale; Pentru o comunicare eficient e necesar de a dezvolta la elevi /studeni competene specifice pentru a percepe lumea vorbitorilor nativi. Dac cu civa ani n urm se privelegiau competenele lingvistice de comunicare i mai puin cele culturale, deoarece se acorda o atenie mai mare mijloacelor de exprimare, funciilor limbii n detrimentul condiiilor culturale prin care aceste funcii se realizeaz i capt semnificaii specifice. Actualmente se susine c competenele interculturale sunt mai importante dect cele interlingvistice. De aceea fiecare elev trebuie s cunoasc cel puin ele mentarele convenii ale societii, limba creia o studiaz i a modului de gndire i de percepere a lumii de ctre vorbitorii nativi. El trebuie s-i dezvolte nite competene socioculturale n rezultatul crora i va mbogi identitatea sa cultural, ceea ce l va ajuta la nelegerea i comunicarea reciproc. Discipolii trebuie s tie s-i mobilizeze toate cunotinele i competenele acumulate n diferite situaii specifice ce leag identitatea cultural a elevului cu cea a interlocutorului strin. Astfel, educaia intercultural devine o strategie de pregtire a societii viitoare n care adaptarea la diversitatea cultural este necesar att pentru grupuri culturale minoritare ct i majoritare. n rezultatul studiului efectuat se poate afirma c educaia inter cultural este imperativul contemporanietii, care va educa oameni mai buni, mai tolerani, mai generoi, mai prietenoi i mai vrednici de a instaura n lume pacea, progresul i prosperitatea.
BIBLIOGRAFIE 1. Cuco C. Pluralismul valoric i exigenele educaiei interculturale. In Didactica Pro, nr. 4-5, 2003. 2. Dasen P., Perregaux Ch., Rey M. Educaia intercultural. Experiene, politici, strategii, Iai: Polirom, 1999. 3. Guu A. Confusio identitarum. Chiinu: ULIM, 2011. 4. Ouellet F. Lducation interculturelle: essai sur le contenu de la formation des matres, Paris: l'Harmattan, 1991. 5. Pretceille M. A. Une pdagogie interculturelle. Paris, 1999.

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LA IMPLEMENTACIN DE LAS NUEVAS TECNOLOGAS EN LA ENSEANZA DE LAS LENGUAS EXTRANJERAS Cristina MNDRU, lector, Elena POPOVICI, lector, Universidad Libre Internacional de Moldavia Hoy en da, el uso del Internet y diversas tecnologas forman los cambios significativos en el mtodo de enseanza y aprendizaje de las lenguas extranjeras. Por lo tanto, el aprendizaje debe ir ms all del aula, incorporando disciplinas y tecnologas avanzadas! Estas tecnologas estn cambiando el mundo que nos rodea, donde el resultado es elevar el nivel educativo y su calidad esencial. Las tecnologas modernas tienen un papel vital en la enseanza y el aprendizaje de idiomas, ya que estas estrategias modernas educativas implementadas en la educacin superior ofrecen propsitos y objetivos primarios durante el proceso instructivo. Al ver que las tecnologas de la informacin y las comunicaciones avanzan cada vez con ms fuerza y que ya se han incorporado a la universidad, se estima que el profesor universitario es el agente idneo y fundamental para hacer uso efectivo y provechoso de las nuevas oportunidades que estas brindan [6, p. 19]. La incorporacin de las Tecnologas de la Informacin y las Comunicaciones, TIC, en la educacin ya ha demostrado la variedad de posibilidades que ofrecen como medio para potenciar en los estudiantes la capacidad de organizacin, las habilidades de bsqueda de informacin, la simulacin de fenmenos sin riesgo para solucionar problemas, el aprendizaje significativo etc. Esta nueva modalidad de enseanza implica cambios conceptuales que resultan retos para la capacidad de los docentes, e incluyen las habilidades prcticas para el diseo de los cursos y su aplicacin. El proceso de asimilacin del uso de las TIC en la enseanza de idiomas necesita la modificacin de conceptos, conocimientos, hbitos y habilidades de docentes y estudiantes, que solo se cambian de modo paulatino. En la sociedad en la que vivimos, la informacin y el conocimiento tienen cada vez ms influencia en el entorno laboral y personal de los ciudadanos; sin embargo, los conocimientos tienen fecha de caducidad. 159

La velocidad a la que se producen las innovaciones y los cambios tecnolgicos exige actualizar permanentemente los conocimientos. El proceso educativo ha cambiado. Antes, una persona pasaba por las distintas etapas del sistema educativo (Educacin Infantil, Primaria, Secundaria, Bachillerato y Formacin Profesional o universitaria) para formarse y poder iniciar su vida profesional. A partir de ah, a excepcin de algunos cursos de actualizacin ofrecidos en su ambiente profesional, se consideraba que ya estaba preparada. En la actualidad, si no quiere quedarse obsoleta, debe continuar su aprendizaje a lo largo de toda su vida. Por lo tanto, la enseanza y el aprendizaje de idiomas a travs de las nuevas tecnologas forman un aspecto cultural de un alto grado, donde las metas esenciales para los estudiantes son aprender y comunicarse, superando al mismo tiempo los bloqueos lingsticos de las lenguas extranjeras [6, p. 35]. A travs del uso contnuo y eficiente de las tecnologas en la educacin, los estudiantes tienen la oportunidad de adquirir capacidades importantes en el rea tecnolgica, donde el papel crtico le corresponde a los maestros [3, p. 7]. En consecuencia, los objetivos alcanzados como resultado de la aplicacin de estas tecnologas son las siguientes: - El estilo de aprendizaje (individual o en pequeos grupos); - Las estrategias de Enseanza (interactiva, centrada en el profesor o estudiante); - El aumento en la participacin de los estudiantes durante las clases, distintos debates, etc.; - El deseo de saber y explorar muchas cosas, aumentando gradualmente la responsabilidad de los estudiantes en el proceso de enseanza; - Crear conocimiento de valor; - Aprender de por vida; - Procesar y usar la informacin efectivamente. De este modo, las tecnologas modernas deben ser una herramienta, un conjunto de mtodos que ayudan a mejorar el desempeo estudiantil y crear un plan de estudios adaptado a las necesidades de la sociedad. Sin embargo, para que la implementacin sea un xito, los profesores deben entender el uso y funcionamiento de estas herramientas tecnolgicas. 160

De todas formas, las tecnologas informativas ms utilizadas con objetivos educativos son [6, p. 62]: - Los vdeos y diversas grabaciones - Los recursos del proyector - Los recursos electrnicos - Los recursos audio (auriculares y la cabina de traduccin) - El ordenador. La integracin tecnolgica en la enseanza y el aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras ofrece a los estudiantes enormes condiciones, porque: - Tienen la oportunidad de interactuar en un idioma extranjero con un pblico autntico; - Los estudiantes pueden interactuar y negociar significados; - Los estudiantes estn involucrados en tareas de aprendizaje autntico; - Los estudiantes tienen suficiente tiempo y retroalimentacin (reacciones y actitudes respecto a determinadas cuestiones y debates); - Los estudiantes son guidados a seguir atentamente el aprendizaje; - Los estudiantes trabajan en una atmsfera con un nivel bajo de tensin y ansiedad; - Los estudiantes aumentan inters por la materia estudiada, solucionando los problemas; - Los estudiantes adquieren mayor confianza en si mismos; - Los estudiantes incrementan su creatividad e imaginacin. Las tecnologas multimedia, internet, ordenador favorecen la aparicin de muchos programas, donde su impacto en el proceso educativo es aumentar en gran medida la calidad y el nivel de enseanza y aprendizaje de los idiomas en la educacin superior [5, p. 2]. - Internet (la red) el acceso, que representa una gran fuente informativa, incorporando datos en todas las reas de lenguas extranjeras, empezando por el alfabeto hasta los diccionarios de alto rendimiento; - Ordenador presentacin de informaciones y procedimientos de trabajo, ejemplos de tareas para el estudiante que se resuelven en lnea; - Los Recursos del Proyector la reproduccin de la informacin de una manera poderosa que capta la atencin de los estudiantes a travs del uso de diferentes imgenes, datos, aspectos valiosos; - El Vdeo la reproduccin de informaciones o noticias, donde los 161

estudiantes pueden escuchar el idioma en vivo, teniendo en cuenta los aspectos de la pronunciacin, gramaticales, lxicos, etc.; - La grabacin audiencia de las noticias, hechos, situaciones en las que los estudiantes tienen que traducir, donde al mismo tiempo tiene lugar el desarrollo de la percepcin auditiva y verbal. Tambin, un papel muy importante le corresponde a los programas Power Point, Table, Messenger, MS Office, Google, porque conducen a la eficacia del proceso de enseanza-aprendizaje, ofrecen entornos avanzados de navegacin, donde los estudiantes y profesores tienen el beneficio de buscar, explorar y utilizar la informacin necesaria en un manera productiva, donde implica un aumento de atencin, informacin y reduccin del tiempo para la formacin instructiva. As que, internet es parte de nuestra vida que sirve como [3, p.10]: - Medio de comunicacin y expresin; - Fuente de informacin y conocimiento; - Soporte didctico para el aprendizaje; - Soporte para el trabajo colaborativo. El uso de las nuevas tecnologas ofrece muchas posibilidades didcticas: fundamentalmente, la motivacin del estudiante, ya que est viviendo un periodo donde las mismas estn presentes en su vida diaria (vdeos, video consolas, mquinas recreativas, juegos). El contexto debe ser creado por los profesores ya que la computadora simplemente es un medio, con sus propias limitaciones y posibilidades. No se puede dudar del enorme impacto positivo que tiene el uso de las tecnologas en los procesos educativos. Los beneficios se traducen en economizar el tiempo; en una individualizacin de las necesidades especficas de cada usuario; en facilitar el aprendizaje de contenidos gracias a una mayor conexin audiovisual, sensorial y secuencial de los temas, materias estudiadas; en acortar distancias geogrficas; en comunicar con rapidez a mltiples personas de manera simultnea; en agilizar la difusin de hallazgos, investigaciones y conocimientos; en la interaccin del estudiante con la experiencia de aprendizaje. Es una forma de estimular la participacin activa del estudiante en el proceso de enseanza [2, p. 748]. Segn los aspectos didcticos de la enseanza podemos destacar la importancia de las siguientes ventajas: - La autenticidad de los materiales que ofrece precisin cientfica, carcter esencial y modernidad en los conocimientos seleccionados; 162

- Actualidad posibilidad de utilizar la Internet para obtener materiales de calidad, autnticos y actuales con un esfuerzo materialmente mnimo; - Flexibilidad el profesor puede elegir una tarea didctica u otra: un ejercicio de habla, escritura o comprensin de un texto oral o escrito; - Autonoma de los estudiantes el uso independiente de las nuevas tecnologas fomenta la libertad y la comodidad de los estudiantes de trabajar individualmente para desarrollar sus habilidades de comunicacin. Con respecto a los aspectos psicolgicos, la motivacin es una de las ventajas de las tecnologas de informacin: - El placer de usar la computadora e Internet durante la clase de lengua extranjera debido a los nuevos programas atractivos; - La adaptacin de los contenidos de la educacin y la tareas docentes de acuerdo a los intereses de la generacin joven; - Aprendizaje autnomo mediante la consulta de las direcciones web, enciclopedias multimedia u otras fuentes, medios de comunicacin y otros materiales electrnicos que constituyen un factor motivador. Hay que mencionar tambin los aspectos de la parte tcnica que incluyen: - La complejidad de las imgenes, secuencias vdeo, grabaciones de audio en los programas multimedia de idiomas que permite escuchar la pronunciacin correcta y acostumbrarse al acento correcto caracterstico de los hablantes nativos; - Amenidad en el colorido, animacin y efectos especiales de los programas de multimedia. El reconocimiento de las ventajas de la enseanza-aprendizaje de lenguas sustentada en el uso de las TIC no debe llevar a un apasionamiento tecnolgico que impida ver algunos puntos crticos. Las dificultades en el aprendizaje de lenguas sustentado en las TIC pueden deberse a errores en el diseo de los materiales o a falta de preparacin pedaggica e informtica en el desempeo de los docentes [8, p. 6]. Segn los factores psicolgicos hay que tener en cuenta las siguientes dificultades: - Obstculos causados por prejuicios, falta de inters, disgusto; - La navegacin por los atractivos espacios de Internet, llenos de 163

aspectos variados e interesantes que inclina a los estudiantes a desviarse de los objetivos de su bsqueda; - Dificultades acerca la utilizacin del teclado, el ratn u otros componentes adicionales. Entre las desventajas referentes a los problemas de salud son: - La sobrecarga causada por la concentracin intensa y sostenida, problemas de visin, dolores musculares, dolores de cabeza, que son sntomas de una enfermedad profesional especficos para cientficos de la computacin y pueden ser experimentados por todas las personas que usan la computadora con frecuencia. Hay que destacar tambin las desventajas que se refieren a los aspectos tcnicos: - El rpido envejecimiento, que es uno de los inconvenientes tcnicos planteados por la tecnologa moderna; - Problemas relacionados con los fallos de hardware y software que normalmente requieren asistencia tcnica especializada; - Prdida de los documentos electrnicos dado a los problemas de negligencia del usuario a la interrupcin de la electricidad o problemas en la red. El uso de las nuevas tecnologas como medio de educacin en la enseanza de idiomas es un factor real de progreso, ayudando a optimizar el proceso de formacin, tanto por la mejora de la calidad del proceso de enseanza-aprendizaje y el aumento de la motivacin de los factores que intervienen en este proceso. Una generalizacin del aprendizaje de idiomas basado en la introduccin de las TIC como parte de un marco metodolgico efectivo podra mejorar las habilidades lingsticas de los estudiantes [1, p. 81]. Como fenmeno actual y en pleno desarrollo, es difcil considerar la implementacin de las nuevas tecnologas framente en perspectiva, pero todo da a suponer que cambiar de manera importante las prcticas sociales, educativas y econmicas de nuestro tiempo. Como tal, la misma no puede ser excluida de las preocupaciones de los docentes, de los padres y de la sociedad en general. Por el contrario debemos abordarla de manera abierta y creativa para mayor provecho de nuestros estudiantes. Aunque la situacin actual de nuestros centros educativos no es la ptima, podemos decir que estamos avanzando con rapidez. Cada vez hay ms centros conectados, ms profesores interesados en el 164

tema y ms estudiantes que llegan con inquietudes derivadas del tema de Internet, aunque slo sea por lo que se oye en los medios de comunicacin [7, p. 17]. Para utilizar las nuevas tecnologas no hace falta tener conocimientos de informtica dado que los programas son relativamente sencillos. Lo que s hace falta en realidad es ms preparacin para el profesorado, con la idea de invertir en la formacin psicolgica, entrenamiento tecnolgico y didctico-metdico. Por lo tanto se requiere una visin pedaggica que responda a las exigencias que impone el nuevo sistema de enseanza-aprendizaje de idiomas con apoyo de las TIC. Es urgente lograr en los profesores de idiomas la capacitacin requerida para la adecuada valoracin y explotacin de las tecnologas. Slo podemos aprender de nuestra prctica docente si creemos en ella y en lo que estamos haciendo. No son las herramientas las que contribuyen a la mejora de la educacin. Es el profesor el que tiene en sus manos la innovacin dentro del aula.
BIBLIOGRAFA 1. Castells M. La Era de la informacin: economa, sociedad y cultura. Vol. I: La sociedad red. Madrid: Alianza, 1997, pp.78-82. 2. Cruz Pinol M., Duque de la Torre I., Gins Suria y Sitman R. Tareas virtuales. Es oro todo lo que reluce en la Internet? Actas del IX Congreso Internacional de SELE, Santiago de Compostela, 1998, pp. 743-751. 3. Llistri J. Nuevas tecnologas y enseanza del espaol como lengua extranjera. ASELE, Actas VIII, 1997. 4. Martn-Laborda R. Las nuevas tecnologas en la educacin. Madrid : Fundacin AUN, 2005, p. 38. 5. Contreras I. N. La ensenanza-aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras y las TICs: el caso del Espanol como Lengua Extranjera (ELE). Area de Lengua Espanola. Departamento de Filologia Espanola. Facultad de Humanidades y CC.EE. Universidad de Jaen. Jaen, Espana. 6. Semenov A. Las tecnologas de la informacin y la comunicacin en la enseanza. Manual para docentes. Cmo crear nuevos entornos de aprendizaje abierto por medio de las TIC. Instituto de Educacin Abierta de Mosc : UNESCO, 2005, pp. 239. 7. Salinas J. Enseanza flexible, aprendizaje abierto. Las redes como herramientas para la formacin. En EDUTEC, Revista Electrnica de Tecnologa Educativa, nm. 10, Febrero 1999. Grupo de Tecnologa Educativa-UiB: Palma de Mallorca, 1999, pp. 17-18.

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SOME GOOD WAYS TO IMPROVE THE LISTENING AND SPEAKING SKILLS OF MONGOLIAN STUDENTS IN ENGLISH CLASSROOMS R. NARANTSETSEG, S. SARANTUYA, G. ARIUNAA, Mongolian University of Science and Technology Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia With the rapid development of technology, marketing and foreign relationships in Mongolia it is required to teach English at much higher levels. In Mongolian University of Science and Technology we have been teaching English since 1992. During our teaching process we have noticed not only good results but also bad points of our methods. Teaching English as a foreign language to Mongolian students is not an easy task for us because the results of learning English depend on both activities of a teacher and students so that as we English teachers always look for effective and advanced ways to give fruitful lessons to our students. Its obvious that todays students needs of learning English are increasing a day by day. According to this our schools of MUST have started a complex improvement with curriculum, lesson design and textbooks since 2004. We used the textbooks ENTERPRISE 1-4 completed by Virginia Evans- Jenny Dooley from 2004-2010. This book has various kinds of listening and speaking exercises. In our opinion, listening and speaking skills are the most important part of communication. In fact, we can say these two skills of our students havent been developed well because of lack of real environment. On the other hand, it depends on the students mental potential, learning efforts and personal qualities (strategic competence, motivation, activity, communicative potential, shyness). Thats why the learner centered approach is very important in Mongolian educational context. In spite of the above mentioned reasons, we teachers are also responsible for innovation of teaching methods and boosting students interests and motivation. Our students did enjoy many types of interesting exercises for listening and speaking included in the textbooks: - listen to texts say true and false information; - choose the correct items say correct reply; 166

- listen to the dialogue act out the dialogue in different situations; - listen the text say missing information (words, phrases); - listen and complete the notes in the table ask and answer the questions using information in the table; - listen and complete the dialogue act it out in pairs; - listen and put the events into correct order tell the story; - listen and match items to pictures describe the pictures; - listen to the sounds say the peoples feelings; - look at the notes and listen and tick the mentioned information ask and answer in pairs; - listen to the short exchanges say where they take places; - listen to the episode (movie, play) who says these things; - read the notes and put then in order then listen and check talk about main ideas; - listen and cross out the inappropriate words talk about the listening item; - look at the pictures and listen say which picture is not mentioned; - listen the report and find the mistakes in it- say the correct one; - read the sentences and put them in the correct chronological order then listen to the tape check your answers talk about it keeping the order. We would like to show you some kinds of exercises done by our students. #1. Listen to the following people talking about their holiday plans, and complete the notes in the table below (Answers are completed in bold)
Name John Where to go Weather Alaska freezing cold and lots of snow Jamaica boiling hot Orkney Islands Scotland warm but changeable Clothes Lots of warm clothes Shorts, Tshirts and swimsuit Clothes for all types of weather Things to do go climbing, skiing and fishing sunbathe on the beach, go scuba diving and sailing Visit historic sites, go to museums go hiking

Sally

Sue and Clive

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# 2. Then, use the notes talk about what they are going to do, as in the example. John is going to Alaska. The weather will be freezing cold, so he is taking lots of warm clothes. He is planning to go climbing, skiing and fishing during his holiday. # 3. Teacher asks about students plan. 1. Where are you going? 2. Who are you going with? 3. How long are you staying there? 4. Where exactly are you staying? 5. What kind of clothes are you taking? 6. What are you doing there? # 4. Ask and answer the questions below about students last holiday. 1. Where did you go? Who did you go with? 2. How long did you stay there? 3. Where exactly did you stay? What were the facilities like? 4. What was the weather/food like? 5. What things did you do? Now we are going to introduce some listening and speaking activities to develop the students English skills in the tutorial work. 1. Teaching some English song as a karaoke in the school English Laboratory. First students listen to the song then teacher explains meanings of some new words. Next teacher asks what the song is about. Students tell their feelings and opinions about the song, who (what music group) it is sung by and what kind of music it is. 2. Teaching some songs by filling missing words. Teacher provides students with the paper having words of the song. Students fill the gaps after listening. Then check their answers. Finally, they talk about the song and sing it. These kinds of exercises have a number of advantages for increasing listening and speaking abilities of students. Our students learn the words of songs much easily and quickly than they learn new words in the usual classroom because we usually choose the songs about love. It expands their vocabulary as well. During learning and singing songs students can own correct pronunciation of words. Moreover, both students and teacher stress out and relax. 168

3.Watching movies in the English Laboratory. Firstly, we would like to explain how to work on the video projects. 1. Students have to watch the film after relevant unit has been taught. Students can watch the film either at school laboratory or at home (borrow cassettes from the school library) following the schedule of tutorial plan. 2. Students complete tasks related to the film given in their workbook. 3. After watching the film teacher makes a discussion among students. Watching the film students get more pleasure as an entertainment as a result they have good motivation to speak in English. Furthermore, they listen to live speeches between heroes, see different speaking manners, peoples emotions and feelings in real situations. We knew that students learned many every day English expressions from the films. For example: My Honey /Oh, my God /My Darling etc. We would like to point out using above types of exercises in our teaching has increased our students listening and speaking skills significantly. Besides teaching English to the students, our English is continuously improved. We are satisfied with teaching one of the International Languages English. We will renovate our teaching methods from a year to year. We hope that will improve our students English knowledge which is very necessary for their future life and career.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Christophersen P. Second Language Learning. Myth and Reality. England, 1973. 2. Evans V. and Jenny Dooley. Enterprise 3, 2004-2010. 3. Gardner R. C.& Lambert W. E. Attitudes and motivation in Language Learning. Rowley. MA. Newbury House, 1972. 4. Grittner F. M. The teacher as Co-Learner: Interest Centered Materials. Student Motivation and the Foreign Language Teacher. Illinois, 1974. 5. Littlewood N. Defining and Developing Autonomy in East Asian contexts. Applied Linguistics 1, 1999.

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NOILE TENDINE DE INFLUEN A LIMBII ENGLEZE ASUPRA LIMBII ROMNE Rodica NECULCE, lector, master, Universitatea Liber Internaional din Moldova Limba romana este o limb vorbit de aproximativ 28 de milioane de oameni, cu origine romanic i foarte similar cu italiana, franceza, portugheza sau spaniola. Istoria ei poate fi urmarit pe parcursul unor anumite perioade istorice pe care le-a traversat. Spre exemplu, cu 2000 de ani n urm, teritoriul de astzi al Romniei a fost locuit de daci. Au ramas din acea perioad cteva cuvinte legate de corpul omenesc i relaiile familiale (ex. cap, mn, picior). ns dacii nu sunt unicii strmoi ai romnilor i a limbii romne. Romanii au jucat un rol important in istoria i dezvoltarea limbii romne atunci cand i au asimilat pe daci ncetul cu ncetul.Un alt exemplu este cel al slavilor care de-a lungul secolelor VII, VIII i IX, slavii au venit pe teritoriul actualei Romnii. Limba lor a influenat limba romn dar slavii au invat i ei limba latin. Fiecare epoc a avut neologismele sale: slavonisme (cuvinte intrate n limb n special prin traducerile de cri bisericeti), grecisme, turcisme (n perioada fanariot), ungurisme (mai ales n perioada stpnirii austro-ungare n Transilvania), franuzisme (mai ales n epoca modern), anglicisme i americanisme mai recent.Oprindu-ne la influena limbii engleze, primul fapt demn de menionat este c vorbim de un fenomen internaional (nu numai european, ci i mondial). mprumutul masiv de termeni angloamericani s-a manifestat dup al doilea rzboi mondial n majoritatea limbilor europene i nu numai. Vorbim de un fenomen explicabil mai ales prin progresul anumitor domenii ale tehnicii. Ne propunem n articolul de fa s tratm acest subiect de strict actualitate din domeniul vocabularului romnesc: avalana de mprumuturi din engleza britanic i american care au invadat limba noastr mai ales n ultimele decenii. E o ptrundere masiv, care continu s creasc ntr -un ritm accelerat, dar care i gsete motivaia n necesitatea de a desemna anumite realiti extralingvistice noi. Vom ncerca n continuare o abordare a problemei sus-numite din perspectiv normativ. Vom viza pe de o parte norma socio-cultural, iar pe de alt parte norma lingvistic. Lund n discuie prima dintre cele dou norme enunate, 170

cea socio-cultural, vom adoptapoziia lui Sextil Pucariu, conform creia vorbim de dou categorii de mprumuturi: necesare i delux. Sunt termeni preluai apoi de ali lingviti ( menionm aici pe Gligor Grui, Theodor Hristea, Adriana Stoichioiu-Ichim .a.), pe care i aplic la problema anglicismelor. Limba se face prin schimbare i ,,moare atunci cnd nceteaz s se schimbe [2]. n prezent, limba romn este foarte influenat de francez si de englez. Totui, n ciuda influenelor primite, limba romna i -a pstrat originea romanic.Este foarte bine tiut faptul c limba este in continu schimbare, schimbare aprut n primul rnd datorit dezvoltrii tehnologice i economice. Societatea, n evoluia ei, este martor a nenumrate transformri n plan istoric, economic, politic i cultural care determin continue schimbri lingvistice, n special la nivelul lexicului. Aceste modificri nu se produc brusc i radical, formele noi de expresie lingvistic coexist cu cele vechi pentru o perioad, asigurndu-se astfel posibilitatea de comunicare ntre generaii. Limba, ca mijloc de comunicare, evolueaz odat cu societatea i acest proces este mai rapid n condiiile extinderii relaiilor ntre popoare i intensificrii circulaiei de idei printre altele datorit dezvoltrii mijloacelor de difuzare a informaiilor de-a lungul vremii. n evoluia istoric a unei limbi (n funcie de raporturile complexe dintre limb i societate), o serie de cuvinte capt sensuri i conotaii noi, conform realitii epocii respective sau dispar complet din uz, fiind nlocuite treptat de alte forme [1]. n evoluia ei, romna a intrat n contact cu diferite limbi ca urmare a stabilirii unor relaii diverse ntre romni i alte popoare sau civilizaii. Astfel romna a asimilat o serie de cuvinte din limbi ca: slav, greac, turc, rus, francez, italian, dovedind o lips de sim tradiionalist i un mare prestigiu a tot ce e strin, o neobinuit putere de adaptabilitate la orice form nou i, nainte de toate, o adevrat pasiune de a-i mbogi limba cu posibiliti nou de exprimare plastic i nebanalizat [5]. Aceste mprumuturi au pus ntotdeauna probleme din punctul de vedere al adaptrii lor la structura lingvistic autohton, dar cele mai multe s-au modelat dup sistemul fonetic i morfologic al limbii romne.Fiecare limb din care romna a preluat cuvinte a produs anumite schimbri (chiar dac de scurt durat) asupra structurii 171

fonetice, gramaticale i lexicale a limbii romne, fiecare influen strin avnd particularitile ei. Limba englez nu aparine familiei de limbi romanice ca italia na i franceza i pune probleme speciale n procesul de adaptare la sistemul fonetic, ortografic i morfologic al limbii romne, ceea ce nu constituie un impediment n mprumutarea cuvintelor din aceast limb.Cea mai recent, influena englez s-a manifestat n limba romn nainte i dup 1945, chiar i n perioada restriciilor impuse de sistemul politic comunist est-european, iar schimbrile radicale ale structurii politice romneti dup evenimentele din 1989 au deschis calea ptrunderii masive a anglicismelor, fenomen datorat practicrii pe scar larg a limbii engleze ca limb internaional de comunicare. Reacii mpotriva extinderii fenomenului de anglicizare s-au manifestat la nivel internaional, cu ecouri i n ara noastr. i astzi sunt voci care acuz vehement fenomenul numit anglomanie, dar urmrind rspndirea celor dou fenomene: globalizare (la nivel socio-economic) i anglicizare (la nivel lingvistic), constatm c aceste tentative de respingere a mprumuturilor din englez sunt ineficiente. Ptrunderea masiv n ultimele decenii a anglicismelor n limbile europene reprezint un fenomen socio-cultural care ia amploare ca urmare a manifestrii unei tendine generale a vorbitorilor de a folosi limba englez n comunicarea internaional. Aceast tendin se manifest diferit pe nivele de cultur i domenii de specialitate. Condiiile social-politice i extinderea relaiilor economico -financiare cu lumea occidental presupun o permanent comunicare ntre specialiti precum i informarea lor, de aceea asistm la ptrunderea masiv a anglicismelor n toate domeniile de activitate. Este vorba nu numai de nclinaia modern de a folosi ct mai multe cuvinte englezeti ci i de nevoia de a utiliza termenii originali, accesibili cunosctorilor n limbajele de specialitate, ntruct ei reprezint cel mai corect anumite noiuni. Fenomenele care se desfoar ntr-un ritm special de alert n lumea contemporan sunt, pe de-o parte, revoluia tehnico-tiinific i tehnic i, pe de alta, procesele economice. Dezvoltarea tehnico-tiinific inegal a popoarelor determin o inegal dezvoltare a limbii n aceste domenii. Pe acest fond general, n contactul dintre limbi, un numr consi derabil de mprumuturi ce denumesc rezultatele tiinei i tehnicii se 172

deplaseaz spre limba care a progresat mai puin n aceste domenii. La rspndirea anglicismelor n general contribuie foarte mult presa scris sau vorbit, care informeaz publicul asupra diferitelor aspecte i evenimente ale vieii sociale, politice, culturale i economice naionale i internaionale, avnd un rol important n modernizarea vocabularului romnesc prin mprumuturi din englez. n perioada actual se manifest o tendin puternic de a extinde folosirea cuvintelor englezeti i n limbajul colocvial. Abundena mprumuturilor de origine englez din terminologia economic romneasc se justific mai ales prin nevoia de a utiliza termeni specializai care nu au corespondent n romn. Mai puine sunt situaiile n care se recurge la traducerea/calchierea construciilor lexicale englezeti din terminologia economic. n ultimii ani, companiile care dezvolt afaceri pe scar internaional folosesc limba englez ca pe un cod unanim cunoscut n relaiile de pe piaa comun a muncii. Lucrarea se bazeaz pe studierea comportamentului anglicismelor n limba romn actual, tratnd diversele lor probleme de adaptare la sistemul lingvistic romnesc, cu referire special la cuvintele din englez utilizate n limbajul economic.n condiiile contemporane ale liberalizrii relaiilor economice pe plan internaional, limbajul economic romnesc evolueaz spectaculos, proces favorizat de tendina actual de internaionalizare a limbajelor.Cercetarea terminologiei economice romneti (din perspectiva influenei engleze exercitate la toate nivelurile limbii) pornind de la multitudinea i diversitatea ipostazelor de utilizare a mprumuturilor din englez demonstreaz dificultile de adaptare la sistemul limbii romne, datorate impor tantelor deosebiri dintre cele dou limbi. Luand drept exemplu influenta limbii engleze, primul fapt demn de menionat este c vorbim de un fenomen internaional (nu numai european, ci i mondial). mprumutul masiv de termeni anglo-americani s-a manifestat dup al doilea rzboi mondial n majoritatea limbilor europene i nu numai.Vorbim de un fenomen explicabil mai ales prin progresul anumitor domenii ale tehnicii. Trebuie subliniat faptul ca aceste imprumuturi si influente sunt necesare, chiar pozitive, atata timp cat nu devin exagerate. mprumutul de termeni anglo-americani reprezint un fenomen desfurat n limba noastr mai ales n ultimele decenii. E o ptrundere 173

masiv, care continu s creasc ntr-un ritm accelerat, dar care i gsete motivaia n necesitatea de a desemna anumite realiti extralingvistice. Un rol foarte important n difuzarea inovaiilor lexicale l are presa, care, pe lng faptul ca este considerat a patra putere n stat, este i un important factor cultural-educativ. Prin larga sa audien, prin autoritatea pe care o impune, presa scris si audiovizuala ia parte la educarea lingvistica a publicului, dar i la diversificarea i difuzarea inovaiilor lexicale. 1. mprumuturile necesare sunt acele cuvinte, sintagme sau uniti frazeologice care nu au un corespondent n limba romn sau care prezint unele avantaje n raport cu termenul autohton. Anglicismele denotative nu au, n general, echivalente n limba romn, ntruct denumesc realiti aprute recent n diferite domenii ale culturii materiale i spirituale. Terminologia economic, financiar, comercial. - Baby-sitter, cu sensul generic de ingrijitor de copii, apare n anunurile publicitare cu un sens specializat ce include tehnici pentru ngrijirea, supravegherea i educarea copiilor precolari i colari. - Drive-in cinema, restaurant sau alt local care ofer servicii clienilor fr ca acetia s-i prseascp mainile, n timpul unei tiri fiind numit i Fast Food la volan. - Duty-free apare ca adjectiv avnd semnificaia de mrfuri cumparate pe aeroporturi, nave sau n avion, la preuri mici, fiind scutite de taxe. n presa actual poate aprea i ca substantiv: taxe de nfiinare a unui duty-free. - Tour-operator companie care organizeaz i vinde vacane prin intermediul unui agent turistic. Terminologia tehnic: - Airbag pern gonflabil destinat s protejeze, n caz de ciocnire, pasagerii de pe locurile din fa ale unui automobil. - Lap-top calculator portabil. - Screening examen medical realizat cu raze X. - A scana verbul din engleza to scan (a examina ceva n detaliu, cu ajutorul unui fascicul de raze X). - Site spatiu, pagina de Internet. - Walkman casetofon portabil cu cti, la care pot fi ascultate din mers nregistrari muzicale. 174

Termeni din domeniul comunicaiilor i presei - Banner fie lung de pnz pe care este scris un mesaj, un slogan. - Clip scurt film publicitar difuzat la televizor. - Hot line linie telefonic prin care publicul poate contacta poliia sau alte servicii pentru a da informaii despre anumite situaii speciale. - Alte exemple: computer, web, e-mail etc. Termeni din domeniul nvmntului i cercetrii: - Curriculum program colara pentru o anumit disciplin. - Grant suma de bani nerambursabila acordata unui cercetator individual, echipe de cercetare, institut de cercetare pentru realizarea, ntr-o perioad de timp determinat, a unei activiti de cercetare tiinific sau a unei activiti conexe activitatii tiinifice. - Training pregtire, instruire. - Item ntrebare, punct dintr-un test. - Master studii aprofundate. Curriculum (chiar dac e un termen latin, noi l-am mprumutat din englez) i derivatul su adjectival curricular. Grant apare des ntrebuinat n cercetarea tiinific, drept urmare el fiind acceptat nterminologia oficial. Master i masterat sunt alte dou exemple care nu mai necesit explicaii. Terminologia sportiv: - Snow-board sportul i suportul cu ajutorul cruia este practicat. - Skateboard sportul practicat cu ajutorul plansei pe role. - Skate patinaj pe role. - Canyoning sport extrem constnd n coborrea pe vile unor toreni din muni. - Alte exemple: fotbal (fotbalist), baschet (baschetbalist), rugby (rugbist), schi, meci, volei, karate, cros, skateboard etc. Domeniul vieii mondene: - Body obiect de lenjerie feminin. - Bodypainting pictur pe corp. - Fan club un grup organizat, ai crui membri admir aceeai persoan. - Party petrecere. - Fashion mod. - Make-up farduri. - Modeling meseria de manechin. n domeniul gastronomiei: fast-food, ketchup, hamburger, hotdog, chips etc. 175

n mod cert numrul domeniilor n care i fac apariia anglicismele denotative este mult mai mare dect cel expus aici, dar intenia nu a fost de a epuiza exemplele, ci de a sublinia diversitatea acestor domenii. Principalul avantaj al utilizrii acestor termeni este caracterul lor internaional, care faciliteaz schimbul de informaii i tehnologii ntre specialiti. Am mai putea aduga: precizia sensului, scurtimea i simplitatea structurii (mass-media n comparaie cu mijloace de comunicare n mas). Avnd funcie denominativ, aceti termeni sunt lipsii de expresivitate. Anglicismele conotative sau stilistice sunt cele care dubleaz un cuvnt romnesc preexistent, cu scopul de a dezvolta anumite nuane stilistice: - party pentru petrecere; - happy-end pentru sfrit fericit; - weekend pentru sfrit de sptmn; - live pentru n direct; - summit pentru ntlnire la vrf etc. Tot n aceast categorie intr i anglicismele ntlnite n varianta colocvial. Cei mai folosii termenin limbajul familiar din perioada actual sunt OK, full i party (anglicisme utilizate nu numai de tineri, ci i de presa actual). Pentru situaia frazeologismelor de tip colocvial dm un singur exemplu: no comment formul consacrat n cadrul interviurilor pentru a se evita rspunsul la o ntrebare. 2. Anglicismele ,,de lux sunt mprumuturi inutile, care in de tendina de ordin subiectiv a unor categorii sociale de a se individualiza lingvistic n acest mod. Avem urmtoarele exemple: advertising (publicitate), band (orchestr), fashion (mod), toast (pine prjit) etc. Dei anglicanismele sunt termeni neadaptai sau incomplet adaptai la sistemul limbii, studiile spcializate au pus n eviden faptul c, prin caracterul lor regulat i repetabil, pot fi considerate ca avnd caracter de norm (fonetic, ortografic, morfologic). 1. Normele ortografice i ortoepice Tendina general a limbii literare actuale este de a pstra mpru muturile din englez intr-o forma ct mai apropiat de cea din limba surs. Pastrarea aspectului din limba de origine reprezint i o condiie a forei de sugestie (presa i limbajul tinerilor). Norma lingvistic presupune mai multe aspecte, unele dintre ele chiar contradictorii. 176

Intenia noastr nu este de a impune o astfel de norm, ci doar de a constata dificultile de adaptare a anglicismelor la sistemul flexionar romnesc, la cel fonetic etc, oscilaiile n scrierea lor, extinderile sau restrngerile de sens i alte asemenea situaii. O manifestare evident de snobism lingvistic este n cazul anglicismelor intrate demult n limb i care sunt ortografiate conform etimologiei lor, dei acestea sunt adaptate fonetic i grafic: interview (pentru interviu), clown (pentru clovn), leader (pentru lider) .a. Acele anglicisme care au ptruns n limba vorbit se ortografiaz fonetic. Cel mai cunoscut exemplu n acest caz este blugi, care s-a adaptat total. n cazul revenirii la scrierea etimologica a unor imprumuturi vechi, perfect similare sub aspect fonetic i grafic reprezinta o dovad de snobism. Exemple clare ntalnim in presa: leaderul, meeting. Tot n presa actual ntalnim tendina de imitare a manierei angloamericane de scriere cu majuscule a cuvintelor din componenta titlurilor (exemplu: Produse Lactate De Cea Mai Inalta Calitate). Probleme de scriere apar adesea n cazul scrierii compuselor englezesti cu sau fara cratima, dar i n utilizarea cratimei n cazul formelor articulare enclitic, flexionate sau derivate: - skateboard i skate-board; - work-shop i workshop; - punk-ist i punkist. 2. Normele morfologice O consecina a ptrunderii masive a cuvintelor din englez ar putea fi subminarea caracterului flexionar al limbii romne prin creterea numrului adjectivelor invariabile i stergerea granielor dintre prile de vorbire. Adaptarea morfosintactic o devanseaz pe cea fonetic i grafic. 2.1. n privina genului la substantive (acestea fiind cele mai numeroase pri de vorbire mprumutate), majoritatea anglicismelor care desemneaz inanimate se ncadreaz n categoria neutrului romnesc: star staruri, cocteil cocteiluri, weekend weekenduri, trening treninguri, meci meciuri etc. Un singur inanimat a trecut la feminin i e acceptat n varianta literar: giac, prin analogie cu jachet, oricum ambele provenite din englezescul jacket (n DEX apare i varianta geac). O situaie intresant apare n cazul unui termen precum miss, care, 177

conform genului natural ar trebui s fie feminin, dar el i formeaz pluralul n uri, la fel ca substantivele neutre. Ne ndeprtm astfel de regula concordanei ntre genul natural i cel gramatical. Anglicisme masculine i feminine sunt mai puine ca pondere, dar nu neglijabile. Ex.: masculine lider, lideri; suporter, suporteri; clovn, clovni; dealer, dealeri etc. feminine stewardes, stewardese; tenismen, tenismene; reporter reportere etc. Exist i substantive mprumutate din englez care nu s-au adaptat morfosintactic. Unele sunt greu adaptabile, altele nu s-au adaptat deloc. Situaii aparte avem cnd vorbitorii romni nu recunosc formele de plural englezeti (desinena -s), iar prin adugarea desinenelor romneti se ajunge la forme cu caracter pleonastic: pungile de snacksuri, ,,bestsellersuri romneti, ,,un pachet de sticksuri etc. (este aa-numitul pleonasm morfologic). Suntem de prere c n cazurile sus-menionate, frecvena utilizrii lor a contribuit la considerarea acestor forme drept corecte. Vom reveni i asupra altor construcii pleonastice pe parcursul lucrrii. Dintre substantivele care nu s-au adaptat sub acest aspect al limbii, menionm pe mass-media. n fapt ntlnim dou situaii diferite la acest termen. n acord cu etimologia (media fiind, aa cum se tie, pluralul cuvntului latinesc medium ,,mijloc) apare acordul la plural. 2.2. Verbele mprumutate din limba englez sunt mai puine dect substantivele, dar la ele adaptarea morfosintactic este obligatorie i se face prin ncadrarea n prima conjugare (cu sufixul -ez la persoana I a indicativului prezent). Astfel avem: a dribla, a accesa, a procesa, a sponsoriza, a implementa, a scana, a lista etc. 2.3. Vom lua n discuie la norma lexico-semantic extinderile de sens, restrngerile, deprecierile i chiar sensurile figurate. 2.3.1. Termenul blugi, trunchiat din englezescul blue jeans (pantaloni strmi, confecionai dintr-un material special, foarte rezisteni, purtai de tineri), i-a lrgit sensul n registrul colocvial, desemnnd materialul specific. Lider apare acum cu sensul generic ,,ef, de frunte, evoluat de la cel de conductor politic, sindical etc. Similar avem pe top, care nu se mai folosete numai n muzic, ci n toate domeniile, cu sensul generic ,,clasament. 2.3.2. Un exemplu pentru restrngerile de sens ar fi know-how 178

(n englez cu sens general ,,cunotine tehnice sau tiinifice), care n limba romn apare drept ,,transfer de tehnologie. 2.3.3. Deprecierea sensului este evident n cazul termenului bini (din englezescul business) folosit colocvial cu sensul binecunoscut ,,afacere dubioas, necinstit. Bini i biniar au conotaii peiorative. 2.3.4. i sensurile figurate sunt utilizate frecvent cu conotaii peiorative. Aa avem: killer,,,puzzle politic, ,,joker electoral, ,,time-out prelungit pentru naintaul Rapidului etc. 2.3.5. Necunoaterea sensului unor anglicisme, graba, neatenia n exprimare genereaz de multe ori construcii pleonastice. Pleonasmele morfologice menionate la 2.2.1. sunt tolerabile, dar pe lng acestea exist i pleonasme lexicale intolerabile datorate cauzelor mai sus menionate. Apar astfel situaii de genul: - naraiunea unui story; - bani cash; - hobby preferat; - bord de conducere. Cele mai multe pleonasme se realizeaz prin alturarea unor termeni n construcii cu caracter redundant, ntruct sensul determinantului este inclus n definiia determinatului (anglicismul). Cel mai des ntlnit pleonasm lexical, n ciuda numeroaselor semnalri rmne mijloace mass-media. 3. Norma lexico-semantic Definirea sensului imprumuturilor se face, in general, printr-un sinonim sau o expresie echivalent romneasc. Anglicanismul mai poate fi introdus in text dupa echivalentul sau romanesc sau, ntr-o maniera jurnalistica, prin alternarea termenilor sinonime n titluri i subtitluri. n asimilarea anglicanismelor putem ntalni diferite capcane: fali prieteni, constructii pleonastice, termeni prost formati.Falsii prieteni desemneaza teremni straini cu forma identica sau foarte apropiata, dar cu semnificatie distincta fata de corespondentele lor romanesti. Exemple: - a acomoda i to accomodate (a asigura cuiva cazarea); - agrement i agreement (acord); - audienta i audience (public) - a observa i to observe (a respecta o lege, o traditie); 179

- suport i support (sprijin financiar). Necunoasterea sensului unor anglicanisme, neatenia, graba sau neglijena genereaz n presa construcii pleonastice. Exemple: - leadership-ul american la conducerea treburilor parlamantare (alaturarea unui anglicanism si a echivalentului sau romnesc); - mijloace mass-media; - hit de mare success; - conducerea managerial a unitii. Termeni prost formai: stripteuz, hipermarket (inutil deoarece dubleaz sensul americanismului supermarket), bisnitman. Exemple de articole din presa scris ce relev avalana mprumuturilor din limba englez: airbag sofer i pasager, Cruise Control, capac mobil portbagaj, ua lateral culisanta dreapta vitrat, etc.(Romnia Liber Luni, 17 Decembrie 2007). Laptop rezistent la ocuri, PDA ignifug, player MP3 pentru surferi: produse de nia, mai rare in magazine.(Evenimentul zilei - 12 Noiembrie 2007). Momentele tensionate s-au tinut lant vineri seara la show-ul Dansez pentru tine, astfel ca, n intervalul orar 20.31-0.55, Pro TV a nregistrat pe publicul comercial cu vrste cuprinse ntre 18 i 49 de ani o medie de audiena de 8,7 puncte de rating si 28,3 cota de piaa. Postul lui Srbu a fost lider detaat in prime -time, Antena 1 nregistrand abia 1,4 puncte de rating i o cota de piaa de 4,4%. (Evenimentul zilei 5 Noiembrie 2007). n concluzie, asistnd la o dezvoltare tehnologic fr precedent, la o interculturalitate n plina dezvoltare, nemaintalnii pn azi, facilitata de numeroasele canale de comunicare i rspndire a ideilor, a cuceririlor tiinifice, a modelelor comportamentale, a tiparelor culturale, att oamenii de cultur, ct i cadrele didactice trebuie s intervin pentru protejarea limbii romne. Un articol privitor la protejarea limbii romne a fost publicat in ziarul Romnia Liber din 16 septembrie 2007 cu titlul Proiect de rezoluie privind protejarea limbii romne, la Parlamentul European. Indiferent de numele iniiatorului, o lege pentru protejarea limbii romne este, cu siguran, necesar. Evident, imprumuturile vor continua s ntre n limba romn, ns suntem datori s ne informam n ceea ce privete 180

utilitatea lor i s ne limitm la cele ce faciliteaza relaiile dintre oameni pentru un schimb mai bun cultural, s facem uz, nu abuz i sa nu le utilizm doar pentru c sunt la moda. Prerea mea n ceea ce priveste aceasta avalana a termenilor din limba engleza este c nu trebuie sa ne lasm n totalitate influenai de mass-media preluand fr a cerceta termeni strini inutili. Bucurndu-se de un mare succes n faa publicului larg, mass-media pune n pericol limba romn prin introducerea de termeni inutili, fr nicio necesitate. Anglicismele sunt o realitate, iar atitudinea vorbitorilor i a spe cialitilor trebuie s fie una raional n aceast privin, cntrind att avantajele, ct i dezavantajele. Acestea din urm nu sunt numeroase, dar exist. Pe de alt parte, ns, putem vorbi i de multe avantaje. Anglicismele nu au determinat o ,,alterare a limbii romne, ci, dimpotriv, au contribuit la permanenta ei nnoire i reconstrucie, la nuanarea ei semantic i stilistic, la modernizarea lexicului. Influena limbii engleze nu trebuie s fie considerat un fenomen negativ, nefiind cu nimic mai periculos dect alte influene strine care s-au manifesta de-a lungul timpului n limba noastr, atta timp ct nu se exagereaz folosirea lor. Adoptarea n vorbire a acestor termeni corespunde unor necesiti de expresie att culturale, ct i sociale (apariia unor realiti extra lingvistice noi, determinat de fapte ce in de progresul umanitii), ct i funcionale (necesitatea existenei n limb a unor termeni care s desemneze aceste realiti noi din viaa oamenilor). Esena limbii este aceea de a se rennoi n permanen. mprumutul din alte limbi reprezint un aspect al creativitii lingvistice prin care limba se schimb, mbogindu-se nencetat pentru a corespunde unor realiti n permanen noi.
BIBLIOGRAFIE 1. Athu Cr. Influena limbii engleze asupra limbii romne actuale. In limbajul economic i de afaceri. Bucureti: Editura Universitara, 2011. 2. Coeriu E. Sincronie, diacronie i istorie. Bucureti: Ed. Enciclopedic, 1997. 3. Gligor Grui Gl. Tendine n evoluia limbii romne, curs de masterat inut la Facultatea de Litere,U.B.B., Cluj -Napoca, anul univ. 2002-2003.

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4. Guu-Romalo V. Corectitudine i greeal. Bucureti: Ed. tiinific, 1972. 5. Hristea Th. Ortografia i ortoepia neologismelor romneti (cu special referire la mprumuturile recente). n: LL, 1995, vol.2 6. Pucariu S. Limba romn I. Privire general. Bucureti, Ed. Minerva, 1976. 7. Stoichitoiu-Ichim A. Vocabularul limbii romane actuale Dinamica, influente, creativitate//http://www.upm.ro/facultati_departamente/stiinte_ litere/conferinte/situl_integrare_europeana. 8. http://www.autorii.com/scriitori/sinteze-literare/originea-si-dezvoltarealimbii-romane-idei-fundamentale. 9. .http://www.editurauniversitara.ro/carte/limba_si_literatura_romana.

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FIXAREA I CONSOLIDAREA CUNOTINELOR PRIN PRISMA NVMNTULUI INDIVIDUAL Daniela PASCARU, lector, Universitatea de Stat din Moldova Adaptarea procesului instructiv-educativ la particularitile de vrst i individuale ale copiilor este conceptul cheie la care s-a ajuns, pornind de la ideea lui J. Amos Comenius, conform creia din instrucia pentru oameni nu trebuie exclus nimeni, dect neoamenii. Acelai autor afirma n secolul al XVII-lea, n opera Didactica Magna, c este imposibil de a gsi o minte att de redus, creia educaia s nu-i poat fi de ajutor. De-a lungul istoriei, sistemul de nvmnt a cunoscut mai multe forme de organizare. Astfel, la nceputurile educaiei ca activitate specific uman, instruirea se desfura individual, situaional i selectiv. Dezvoltarea culturii i a civilizaiei, multiplicarea experienei sociale, creterea populaiei colare, industrializarea etc., toate acestea au dus la faptul ca nvmntul individual s nu mai poat acoperi nevoile reale de educare a cetenilor. Erau necesare noi forme i tehnologii de instruire pentru comuniti mai numeroase, precum i pentru diverse categorii sociale. nvmntul individual este cea mai veche form de organizare a corelaiei profesor-elev. Aceast metod corespunde perioadei n care societatea, pe de o parte, avea nevoie de un numr mic de persoane instruite, iar pe de alt parte, nu dispunea de suficiente cadre specializate pentru instruirea i educaia copiilor. n acest context, organizarea nvmntului revenea prinilor reprezentnd clasele dominante care angajau un profesor sau mai muli spre a-i instrui copiii [5, p. 51], iar metodologia angajat, reflecta situaia creat. Prin urmare, chiar dac n camer nvau mai muli copii, profesorul se ocupa cu fiecare elev n parte [Ibidem]. nvmntul individual evolueaz de la soluia extrem, inaplicabil social, n cadrul creia fiecare profesor lucreaz cu un elev n parte n ritmul acestuia, spre strategiile instruirii difereniate, care angajeaz un ansamblu de procedee de inspiraie curricular, integrate n diferite aciuni didactice organizate frontal sau n grup: fie de munc individuale, teme pentru acas individuale, sarcini de 183

nvare (joc, munc sau creaie) individualizate n mediul colar sau extracolar etc. [5, p. 54]. n ansamblu, nvmntul individual vizeaz procesul de fixare i consolidare a cunotinelor, realizabil prin activiti: cu teme comune, cu teme difereniate pe grupe de nivel sau cu teme difereniate pentru fiecare elev. Activitatea individual realizat/realizabil pe grupe de nivel solicit elevilor rezolvarea prin efort propriu a unor teme difereniate, ca volum i grad de dificultate, n vederea asigurrii succesului colar la standarde de performan minime-medii-maxime, obinute prin ndrumarea permanent a profesorului, cu ndrumarea parial a profesorului ori fr ndrumarea profesorului. Iar activitatea individual realizat/realizabil personalizat propune teme diferite, adaptate particularitilor fizice i psihice i ritmului de munc propriu fiecrui elev. Aceast activitate urmrete progresul necontenit i sistematic al fiecrui elev pe baza propriei lui activiti i eliminarea greelilor ivite pe parcursul instruirii i educrii lui. nvmntul individual prezint urmtoarele avantaje de ordin metodologic: - stimuleaz activitatea independent a elevului, ncrederea n (re)sursele de reuit colar ale acestuia, deschise perfecionrii n sensul educaiei permanente i n sensul autoeducaiei; - stimuleaz activitatea profesorului de cunoatere i de asisten psihopedagogic a fiecrui elev, realizabil pe baza instituionalizrii fielor colare; - stimuleaz activitatea profesorului de proiectare curricular a unor strategii de predarenvareevaluare necesare pentru nsuirea tehnicilor de munc intelectual, eficiente n cadrul fiecrei discipline de nvmnt; - stimuleaz capacitatea profesorului de operaionalizare a unor metode/procedee de instruire integrabile n orice strategie de predarenvareevaluare: munca elevului cu manualul i alte cri, observarea independent, experimentul, tehnicile de instruire programat, tehnicile de instruire asistat pe calculator, fiele de lucru individuale, necesare pentru: verificarea, recuperarea, consolidarea, aprofundarea cunotinelor; dezvoltarea unor capaciti i atitudini relevante la nivelul personalitii elevilor; realizarea unor exerciii graduale, cu coninut difereniat; stimularea muncii 184

de cercetare, de investigaie tiinific (fie de exerciii). n acelai timp, nvmntul individual reprezint activitatea complex i variat de nvare autonom, att pentru ndeplinirea obiectivelor activitii didactice propriu-zise, ct i a activitii extradidactice cu caracter formal preponderent. De asemenea, nvmntul individual constituie metoda fundamental de perfecionare a personalitii i a profesionalitii dup absolvirea colii sau a facultii. Aa cum au demonstrat studiile i cercetrile psihopedagogice, la baza autoeducaiei st studiul individual, iar reuita omului de mine se va axa pe deprinderile i performana de a studia de sine stttor. ns odat cu dezvoltarea progresului tehnic s-au produs schimbri i la nivelul mijloacelor de stocare, prelucrare i transmitere a informaiilor, astfel nct procesul nvmntului individual a fost adaptat noilor necesiti, cum ar fi: microfilmele, internetul, nvarea asistat de calculator etc. Printre obiectivele nvmntului individual putem enumera: a) mbogirea i aprofundarea permanent a cunotinelor teoretice i practice a deprinderilor, priceperilor i abilitilor intelectuale, afective, profesionale; b) dezvoltarea capacitilor, aptitudinilor, atitudinilor intelectuale, profesionale, manageriale etc.; c) nsuirea unor tehnici de formare i perfecionare intelectual, profesional, liber, independent. Programul individual de nvare reprezint o modalitate de proiectare i realizare a nvrii mai complex, fiind realizat prin etapele: - cunoaterea potenialului de nvare personal; - identificarea punctelor care necesit dezvoltare; - formularea obiectivelor de nvare; - planificarea activitilor; - alegerea metodelor; - stabilirea criteriilor de reuit; - realizarea programului. n practic se ntlnesc metode de evaluare a nivelului de pregtire a studenilor att pe parcursul instruirii, ct i la sfritul ei. Cele mai des ntlnite sunt: referatul, eseul, fia de evaluare, chestionarul, investigaia, proiectul, portofoliul. n cadrul acestor metode, studentul este activ, iar profesorul 185

indirect implicat, rolul lui constnd, mai ales, n ghidarea, corectarea i evaluarea studentului. Procesul de studiu este ndrumat de ctre profesor prin temele propuse spre rezolvare studenilor i prin orientarea dezbaterilor finale, care au loc dup rezolvarea temelor. nvmntul individual presupune mai mult implicare din partea studentului, respectiv faptul c acesta citete, conspecteaz, sistema tizeaz materia, reflecteaz, exerseaz i nva fr prezena nemij locit a profesorului. Metodele de lucru individual dezvolt capacitatea de iniiativ a studenilor, independena i activismul lor, i ajut la formarea unei perspective ample asupra materiei de studiu i la nelegerea acesteia n profunzime. De asemenea, ele contribuie la maturizarea psihic a studenilor i pun bazele nsuirii materiei prin nvare, stimuleaz aplicativitatea cursanilor, capacitatea de analiz i sintez. Cursanii i formeaz o perspectiv ampl asupra materiei, pot citi predominant n domeniul care li se pare cel mai atractiv, pot s-i exprime liber opiniile i s le argumenteze. n acelai timp, ei sunt ncurajai s i asume responsabilitatea pentru propriul proces de nvare (ex. sunt contieni de propriile puncte tari i puncte slabe, acioneaz conform feedback-ului primit, propun noi obiective de nvare). Toate activitile de nvare sunt planificate i structurate pentru a promova i a ncuraja nvarea individual centrat pe elev, nvarea n cadrul unui grup sau nvarea n diferite contexte. Studenii primesc, n mod regulat, feedback i informaii privind progresul realizat, informaii despre modul n care pot stabili noi criterii individualizate pentru a acoperi lipsurile n nvare. La fel sunt implicai n evaluarea progresului pe care l realizeaz; evaluarea formativ i feedback-ul sunt folosite pentru planificarea nvrii i pentru monitorizarea progresului studenilor. Obiectivul major al realizrii lucrului individual const n dezvoltarea liber a studentului i formarea personalitii creative care se poate adapta la noile condiii ale vieii, ncurajnd iniiativa i stimulnd creativitatea. Alte obiective specifice urmrite vizeaz: - Independena de studiu studentului i se ofer posibilitatea de a studia n ritmul propriu, n funcie de cunotine, stilul de nvare, interesele, motivaiile i disponibilitile sale; - Reducerea implicrii profesorilor i schimbarea statutului lor: prin existena unei forme alternative de predare, o parte din solicitrile 186

profesorilor sunt preluate de sistemul lucrului individual. Astfel, profesorul nu mai este principalul mijloc de transmitere a informaiilor, preocuprile sale transferndu-se n zona organizrii instruirii i a comunicrii cu studenii; - Raionalizarea timpului de acces la informaie: studentul poate accesa informaia mult mai repede, inclusiv prin intermediul TIC, i poate avea acces rapid la o cantitate de informaii mult mai mare; - Creterea motivrii i interesului studenilor, prin individualizarea procesului de instruire, prin eliminarea restriciilor de timp i spaiu ale sistemelor clasice de instruire n clas i adaptarea la nevoile fiecruia, prin posibilitatea accesului la un numr sporit de surse i informaii relevante pentru tema studiat, prin parti ciparea la jocurile instructive n care se simuleaz spee. Astfel se acord, n mod voluntar, timp suplimentar pentru nvare; - Creterea calitii nvrii, ca urmare a creterii motivrii i interesului; - Evaluarea formativ permanent pentru estimarea progresului i ajustarea traseului de instruire; - Dezvoltarea capacitii de colaborare i lucru n echip, prin folosirea instrumentelor de lucru colaborativ; - Parteneriatul studentprofesor, studentstudent, prin intermediul TIC. Etapa planificrii i organizrii lucrului individual al studenilor este una dintre cele mai importante, deoarece n cadrul ei se creeaz condiiile pentru atingerea obiectivului principal al lucrului individual: dezvoltarea independenei ca trstur personal a studentului. Lucrul individual urmrete: - dezvoltarea personalitii studentului, a capacitilor i a aptitudinilor lui la nivelul potenialului su maxim; - formarea unei personaliti dezvoltate i creative, pregtit pentru autoperfecionarea i recalificarea la nivel superior a specialitilor i a cadrelor tiinifice n diverse domenii; - asigurarea aspiraiilor personalitii n a-i aprofunda i extinde studiile; - pregtirea studentului pentru a-i asuma responsabilitile vieii ntr-o societate liber; - asigurarea unei pregtiri multilaterale cu caracter profesional aplicativ pentru tineretul studios. 187

n prezent, n nvmntul superior, principalul accent este pus pe formarea aptitudinilor fundamentale de autoinstruire, autodezvoltare i reflexie. n acelai timp, un rol primordial trebuie acordat imple mentrii noilor tehnologii didactice, axate pe activitatea individual a studentului, pe diferite metode active de instruire i diverse forme de organizare a procesului de nvmnt, precum i integrarea tehnologiilor didactice cu cele informaionale. Elementele principale de care depinde calitatea procesului de nvmnt sunt: coninutul planurilor de nvmnt i al programelor analitice, calitatea infrastructurii acestea oferind condiii pentru desfurarea procesului de nvmnt. Un element esenial ce determin calitatea procesului educaional este metoda de predare, de formare a abilitilor i de evaluare a cunotinelor. Cu regret, nc se mai acord o atenie deosebit procedeului de reproducere a cunoaterii, nefiind exersate tehnici creative de nvare, iar o bun parte dintre studeni accept acest sistem protector paternalist promovat de unii profesori.
BIBLIOGRAFIE 1. Brown H. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (2nd ed.) Englewood Cliffs, N, J.: Pretice Hall, 1987. 2. Komenius I. A., Didactica magna, 1637. 3. Nicola I. Tratat de pedagogie. Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, R. A. Bucureti, 1996. 4. Petrescu I. C. Metode pentru studiul individualitii. 1931. 5. rcovnicu V. Pedagogia general, Ediia Fclia, 1981 . 6. Witkin H. and I. Berry. Psychological differentiation in cross-cultural perspective. In: Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1975.

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 , . , . . . , . . , . - . , . . , . . , . . . , . , , , . , bh [] , f[]. f : 189

 faba () fero () fiber () fii(imus) ( ) . , , . , [:] fii- imus , : . t . , . rd-ere , . - . . , . , (,,,), , , - (,), - . , , , , , . . , , , , . , .. . : , , . 190

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195

 , , . . , . , , . . , , , , , , , . : . . : . . , . ., , , [4, . 45]. , . [1, .73]. (determiners), , , (a, an, the), (every), (his, everyones, todays, etc.), (this, that, these, those) . , . . , 196

 , , , , . , . . , . , , , , , , . , , . C, .. , , , (subject clause), (predicative clause), (object clause), (attributive clause), (adverbial clause) [9, p.7]. (subordinate clauses) (dependent), (principle or main clauses) (independent) [6, p. 4]. , , : (noun clauses), (adjective clauses) ( adverb clauses) (idem 4). . 197

 , that. that , . , , , . , .. What parents believe is usually what children reject [5, p. 61], The scientists calculated that a million black holes exist in our galaxy (idem 61) The candidate will be whoever can afford to run [5, p. 62]. , . , that. that , I dont suppose we shall hear from him again [2, p. 76]. that , . that . There were no marks or stretches that indicated the lock has been forced or Rankin ushered her to a chair and learner her name was Mrs. Emily Relly [5, p.175]. that He said that , as the mistake had been made irreparable, that it was useless to discuss the subject again [5, p. 176]. B that, 198

 that. And having, finally, come to that, he found that he had heaved the whole thing on to his back, and that he was braced like snowy Atlas, to bear it [2, p. 133]. , that , , , , that . In vain the saleswoman, in her best English with her odd Chicago accent protested that that would completely ruin the chic of the model [2, p. 232]. that , . that , , that , . and gave notice that there would be no further weekly payments, seeing that they would need every penny [2, p. 78]. that , that seeing. that . . . , , that , , .. . - . , , .. , , , .. . He is not noble that has gentle conditions. 199

He plays best that wins. He has but a short lent, that must pay money on Easter. , , , , , , . He that has a fellow-ruler, has an over-ruler. He that knows nothing, doubts nothing. who, whom, whose, which, that when, why. , Ellen Terry,who played all of a Shakespeares heroines, was a celebrated actress for almost fifty years [5, p. 60]. In Connecticut, November is the month when the wild animals and insects retreat to shelter [5, p. 61]. , that. when. . , . I remember the day when I first came to Kiev. day . when , , after, after the time that, before, before the time that. when , 200

 . The time came when I had to change my mind. when . , . What time came? , when , , , I suppose the day will inevitably come when the area will be encrusted with developments, but at present it is deserted and seductive [2, p.122]. There would be only a few nights now when he would have to dine in hall with that odious man [2, p.132]. time, day, occasion , , Later on I will give you instruction concerning next Tuesday, when I will be in Glasgow. because. . , Scientists cannot rule out heaven or hell because they are beyond the reach of empirical investigation. : , , , , . 201

 , : , . , , , . , , , , , . , because , : - And thats why I am here not just because I am your minister, but because I feel like you are a member of my family; - However, because general relativity is the foundation of modern cosmology and astrophysics, and because these magnetic effects are directly relevant to the physics of quasars and rotating black holes, the national Academys Space Science Board in 1981 named the experiment as its highest priority in gravitational physics research [5, p. 45]. - , , , , . probably, partly, mostly, just, only, , , , The modernist movement had largely faded,partly because the war saw many details of some of its leading figures, but also because some parts of it had been tainted [2, p. 12]. , c . , , . . , , 202

 , Complex Object, Complex Subject, Gerundial and Participial Constructions, , , . , , . , . : , : , . , . : , , , . . , , . , . , , He started back and fell against the railings, trembling as he looked up , , , [8, p. 36]. , , , , . , , , , . When she entered the room, the teacher saw the students writing. she 203

 the teacher, . , , , . , : , . , , , . , Whether the Prime Minister will be successful in his plea for an early improvement in world payment arrangements is rather doubtful [4, p. 17]. , . - , . Thousands of Algerians tonight fled from the dead city of Orleansville after a twelve-second earth quake had ripped through Central Algeria, killing an estimated one thousand one hundred people [4, p. 41]. earthquake, thousands of Algerians. , , . . , 12 , . , . , , 204

, , , The group had a record turnover last year. The group is looking to continue its expansion [4, p. 43]. , , . , , . . , - . , . , , , , Emission that pour from the smoke stacks has polluted the area. , , , , . , , . , , . Registration was a nightmare, although I did get the courses. . , . , , - , did get. . They complained that he was conceited; and since he 205

excelled only in matters which to them were unimportant, they asked satirically what he had to be conceited about [4, p. 65]. . complained, was conceited, excelled, were unimportant, asked, had to be conceited about. , , 6 . , , , , They complained, they asked, , that he was conceited; since he excelled only in matters; which to them were unimportant; what he had to be conceited about. , , . During the work-to-rule campaign many saw their efforts wasted because some were induced to work extra hours [4, p. 28]. , that their efforts wasted, . , work-to-the rule campaign , , , . The customers he was trying to impress were more than a little surprised to see him going round in a thick suit, heavy overcoat and fur hat [4, p. 23]. . was trying; were surprised. , , he the customers. . , , . , 206

, , , , . , , . , , , . . , , , , , , , , , .
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UNELE SUGESTII DESPRE CALITATE N TRADUCERE (VIZIUNE TEORETIC) Zinaida RADU, conf. univ. dr., Universitatea Liber Internaional din Moldova Rolul traducerilor, dezbaterile referitor la acest domeniu au devenit subiecte n permanent cutare. Le nombre et la qualit des traductions circulant dans un pays sont un indice du niveau intellectuel et culturel de ce pays, - spunea Jean Delisle n unul din cursurile sale (2010/2011). La fonction baromtre de la traduction permet de connatre les tendances ditoriales dun pays ou dun groupe de pays, son taux dintraduction et dextratraduction. Par intraduction, on entend le nombre douvrages trangers imports, traduits et publis dans un pays par rapport la production nationale; ce nologisme soppose extratraduction terme par lequel on dsigne les livres exports et traduits dans une ou plusieurs langues trangres, - mai adaug Jean Delisle. Henri Meschonnic dezvolta prerea evocata prin: LEurope est ne de la traduction et dans la traduction. [...] En Occident, les grands textes fondateurs sont des traductions (Meschonnic, 1996: 111). Datele statistice din cele mai recente confirm c: 18 din 25 ri unde se public cel mai mare numr de traduceri sunt europene, primele trei fiind Germania, Spania i Frana. Doar pstrnd acest pluralism spiritual efectuat prin traduceri cultura rilor capt dimensiuni de valoare. Pluralism traductologic care constitue o surs de schimb, de inovaie i de creativitate , asemntoare cu fora unei democraii ce rezidu n diversitatea de surse de informaie. Pentru ca acest schimb de informaii, aceast mobilitate de texte multilingve s contribuie la o mbogire multicultural e necesar ca ele s fie de calitate elitar. n traductologie conceptul calitate este un termen de o complexitate semantic rar. n plus de semnificaia sa uzual traducere bun, conceptul calitate dezvolt coninutul semantic n dependen de diferii factori, de diferii parametri intratextuali i extratextuali, lingvistici si extralingvistici. Explicarea acestui fenomen are loc n raport direct cu binomele traducere/traductor; traducere/editor; traductor/ali traductori/ali actori; textul tradus/textul original nobil sau de valoare nesatisfctoare etc. Modalitile prin care se 208

explic calitatea n traducere difer de la un traductolog la altul, n dependen de erudiia i competenele profesionale ale lor, de metodele de traducere (pozitive sau negative), de faptul cum se definete traducerea, ca operaie lingvistic sau multifuncional. Studierea doar sumar a opiniilor referitoare la termenul calitate n traducere mai scoate n eviden o sumedenie de probleme: calitatea cui, a ce? a traductorului, a procesului, a textului tradus; cum, pe baza cror criterii evalum, determinm calitatea; care sunt termenii ntrebuinai pentru a exprima traducerea de calitate; cum evalum textul tradus n mod autonom sau n comparaie cu textul original; calitatea diferitor genuri de texte este aceiai sau posed specificiti pe care traductorii sunt obligai s le ia n consideraie, s le realizeze; care sunt normele a fi respectate pentru asi gurarea, ameliorarea calitii; care sunt actorii ce asigur, perfecteaz, verific, revizuie calitatea; dac ceea ce este considerat calitate n anumite cazuri poate fi i n celelalte situaii, sau criteriile ce condiioneaz calitatea n traducere difer ntr-o anumit msur de la o situaie la alta, de la un gen de text la altul. Exista polemic referitor la rolul lecturilor n asigurarea calitii, caracterul, tipul greelilor, ponderea lor n aprecierea calitii. Conceptul calitate n traducere rmne obiectul unei dezbateri, polemici acerbe. Se mai discut influena condiiilor n care se realizeaz traducerile de calitate, starea psihologic, profesionalismul, responsabilitatea traductorului. O ntrebare de importan este prin ce ci, mijloace e posibil de gestionat, realizat, nuanat calitatea n traducere; dac calitatea este proprie tuturor domeniilor vieii, putem mprumuta unele sugestii i experiene din aceste domenii? Un concept multifactorial, pentru definirea global i stabilirea caracte risticilor crui se cere efort i timp, colaborare a traductorilor i altor reprezentani ai tiinelor umanistice i nu numai. Vom aminti doar cteva sugestii n acest sens. Pe parcursul istoriei au existat multe exigene a fi respectate, care nu erau propuse, elaborate de traductor ca rezultat al muncii sale. Erau mai mult condiionate de anumite concepii ce existau n societate, n domeniul religiei, comerului, economiei. Problema calitii in plan national, gestiunea calitii s-a pus pentru prima dat, dupa cel de al doilea Razboi Mondial n Japonia, unde din 1949 a nceput s fie predat n coli. Au fost nfiinate primele cercuri ale calitii 209

iniiate de profesorul Kaoru Ishikawwa. Tot n Japonia, ncepnd cu anul 1955 au fost organizate o serie de companii radiofonice pentu ca mai apoi datorit importanei lor calitatea i costul ei s devin obiectul unor seminarii itinerante. De acest concept sunt legate o serie de nume celebre, experi n materie, printre care J. M. Juran din Statele Unite, P. Lemaitre din Frana, M. Nixon din Marea Britanie i alii. Au aprut conceptele calitatea total i cea a realizrii, a dezideratului zero defecte. Experiena de a dezbate rezultatele obinute fie n economie, in alte domenii, n traducere, aa cum a avut loc in Japonia, n China, este pozitiv i util. Si merita a fi multiplicata, largita. Ea ar putea contribui la o patrundere mai evident n continutul acestei noiuni. Completeaz semantizarea acestui termen ntrebuinarea lui ntro serie de cliee proprii actului traductologic: calitatea echivalenelor sintactice, semantice, stilistice ntrebuinate n traducere, calitatea lingvistic a traducerii, calitatea tehnic, valoarea (calitatea) cultural, a traducerii, calitatea social a traducerii, calitatea redrii inteniilor, cerinelor, intereselor, necesittilor clienilor, actorilor i comandatarilor puterii; calitatatea condiiilor de timp, calitatea remunerrii, calitatea resurselor documentare i a altor instrumente tehnice. Unii savani francezi mai completeaz aceste imbinari prin: qualit rvisible, qualit livrable, qualit diffusable, qualit matrielle, qualit minimale, qualit exellente, qualit rdactionnelle, technique, factuelle, smantique, des transferts (Gouadec, 2004: 73-74). Esena calitii apreciat ca pozitiv n domeniul traducerii mai este exprimat prin intermediul unei serii de calificative: traducere de calitate, traducere bun, tradu cere perfect, creativ, acceptabil, traducere reuit, traducere ngrijit, fidel, corect, traducere adecvat, elegant, satisfctoare, etc. Calitatea traducerii (rezultat, proces, traductor etc.) conine, subnelege, dup cum vedem, un buchet, un eantion de caliti ale altor concepte. E vorba de o gradaie destul de complicat, de o ie rarhie de valori greu de stabilit, de un eantion de elemente numeroase a fi studiate pentru semantizarea acestui concept. E important faptul dac n traducere se red, se pstreaz toat bogia informional a textului original, dac textul tradus produce acelai efect pentru destinatarul din limba-int, efect identic cu cel al textului-surs pentru destinatarul originalului, dac citind textul tradus se simt valorile originalului adaptate la particularitile limbii 210

int, daca textul tradus parc ar fi fost scris n limba-int, n aceste cazuri putem vorbi despre calitatea acestui text. n traducere, unde analiza fenomenului indicat se afl la nivel de multiple iniieri, unde traducerile realizate sunt prioritare analizei lor, unul din paii efectuai de noi a fost consultarea dicionarelor traductologice, puine la numr, unele surse mai recente, unde sunt incluse definiii ale calitatii. Citm: Ds que le lecteur sinterroge sur la qualit du texte traduit, il se cherche des procdures dvalua tion. Celles de Nida-Taber ont un fondement psycho-sociologique. Ils envisagent lefficacit de la communication, dfinie comme une rception minimale du texte exigeant un effort minimal de dcodage. La deuxime caractristique dune traduction parfaite est sa prcision, cest--dire le respect des intentions de lauteur. Enfin, lquivalence de raction au texte observe chez les rcepteurs en langue de dpart et en langue darrive importe galement leurs yeux. Au cours d une de ses confrences, Nida expliquait que les traducteurs de la Bible interrogeaient rgulirement les rcepteurs du texte, afin den valuer la qualit (Dussart, 1998: 323). n definiie se insist asupra faptului: calitatea include n coninutul su o serie de componeni, elemente, subnelege criterii a fi respectate: efficacit de la traduction comme communication, la prcision de la traduction, le respect des intentions de lauteur, quivalence de raction chez les rcpteurs des LA et LD. Noi constitueni ai calitii sunt pui n eviden n alt definiie: La qualit dune traduction dans un contexte donn telle que percue par un valuateur donn peut [...] tre dfinie comme une somme pondre de lvaluation de facteurs textuels, notamment sa fidlit, sa clart, sa correction linguistique, son style, sa justesse terminologique, sa prsentation graphique etc., et de facteurs extratextuels tels que son cout, le temps mis la raliser, la qualit des rapports avec le traducteur, etc Le poids de chacun de ces facteurs dans lvaluation densemble est dtermin par les prfrences personnelles de lvaluateur dans les circonstances de lvaluation (Gile, 2005: 60). Cantitatea de parametri devine i mai impuntoare dac studiem definiia urmtoare: Orice ntrebare legat cu calitatea unui text tradus implic existena unor proceduri de evaluare i respectarea inteniilor autorului n scopul echivalrii reaciilor receptorului textului -surs i a reaciilor receptorului textului-int. Dac n cazul traducerii literare, 211

critica poate fi doar parial, fiindc autorul este liber s-i aleag strategia de scriitur, n timp ce traductorul se supune, consecutiv sau simultan, constrngerilor originalului sau celor ale editorului ori destinatarului, n cazul traducerii tiintifice se poate vorbi despre o unitate de apreciere comun traductorilor, revizorilor traducerii i evaluatorilor. (Lungu-Badea , 2004, citat dupa Andrei, 2008: 152). Le produit que represente la traduction se caracterise par sa mixit... la dimension textuelle de la traduction nest que sous-ensemble dun ensemble pragmatique plus vaste... les critres de production viennent du dehors. Autrement comment expliquer que ces criteres varient dune epoque a lautre..., dun milieu a l autre..., dun texte a lautre... dun individu a lautre et, pour un meme individu, dun mandat a lautre? Cest dans ce fol magma de variables variables que doit prendre ancrage une reflexion globale sur lvaluation des textes traduits (Larose, 1998: 2). Aceste definiii i nc multe altele sunt axate pe factorii, crite riile ce condiioneaz calitatea i evaluarea.. Cu fiecare definiie apar noi ntrebri legate de calitate n traducere, de metodele care ar putea fi aplicate n aprecierea calitii, de cile, strategiile a fi urmate, normele a fi respectate, de actorii implicai n traducere, n sporirea calitii, de caietul de sarcini, de obiectivele traducerii care sugereaz ideea unor noi cercetri ce ar contribui la descoperirea multiaspec tual a acestui concept. Calitatea n traducere este analizat, determinat pornind de la multiple principii: nivelul de corespundere normelor de traducere, caracterul devierilor contiente sau involuntare de la norm(e). Ea este privit ca condiionat de: nivelul de apropriere semantic cu originalul, de factori pragmatici care influeneaz alegerea variantei traducerii. Studii de profunzime au aprut n ultimii ani, studii care constituie o baz nou n studierea i lrgirea orizontului n proble matica acestui domeniu. n traducere, insistam nc o data, semnul calitii poate fi atribuit, raportat la traductor, la textul surs, la textul int ca rezultat al procesului de traducere, la procesul de traducere, la strategiile de traducere, la folosirea lor cu abilitate n traducere, la limb, claritatea i corectitudinea limbii n textele surs i int, la obiective i rezolvarea lor n textul tradus. Calitatea e frecvent explicat ca ne fiind izolat de insuficien, de defectivitate. Multe rezultate sunt nregi212

strate despre rolul textului-surs n obinerea calitii, despre funcia obiectivelor formulate n procesul de traducere, despre rolul destinatarului, despre misiunea diferitor actori implicai n actul de traducere. Se mai discut tipurile, ponderea greelilor n aprecierea calitii, rolul lecturilor, multor lecturi, revizuiri n echip, etc. Calitatea e obligaiunea traductorului profesionist, responsabil, pe cnd insuficiena, traducerea nesatisfctoare, puin corespun ztoare poate fi condiionat i justificat i de lipsa de competene traducionale ale traductorului, de lipsa de experien dar mai mult i mai frecvent de existena de condiii nefavorabile pentru realizarea traducerilor, lipsa de instrumente necesare traductorului, de obiective formulate de client, de timpul nereal pentru ndeplinirea traducerii, de exigene limitate n elaborarea traducerii, de scopul pentru care este realizat traducerea (pentru publicare, informare sau interese personale, complet sau parial). Exist subiectivism dar i obiectivism. Poate acest factor condiioneaz afirmaia lui Daniel Gouadec despre faptul c putem vorbi de un sistem de calitate (Gouadec, 2004: 117), Daniel Gouadec mai evideniaz n una din lucrrile sale rolul comandatarului (donneur douvrage) subliniind c preocupaia sa major i legitim este calitatea traducerii. Propune un cod imposant pe care orice traductor serios l semneaz, l accept n mod implicit si cteva criterii mai importante n viziunea autorului: - Le respect de toute prescription du donneur douvrage. - Le respect du principe de cohrence terminologique imposant toujours une mme dsignation pour un mme objet ou un mme concept dans lintegralit du document traduit. - Lobligation absolue de comprhension totale de tout segment du texte avant sa traduction. - Le respect des rgles de lart. Il est recommandable, pour prvenir tout dfaut, de contrler la qualit dechantillons avant de donner le feu vert pour chaque traduction et/ou de rdiger un cahier des charges... une pratique courante pour les socits soutraitant des volumes importants de traduction. (Gouadec, 1989: 53). O traducere de calitate trebuie s exprime coninutul textului surs, s pstreze stilul su i s conin formele pe care le utilizeaz un vorbitor nativ al limbii spre care se realizeaz traducerea, precum 213

i o nelegere clar a tonului i a mesajului de ansamblu, cu scopul de a oferi interpretarea corect a elementelor lexicale, a colocaiilor i expresiilor pe care acestea le formeaz, precum i a textului n ansamblu. Dac traductorul a reuit s transmit aceste nuane n textul int ntr-o limb corect din punct de vedere gramatical i sintactic, atunci se presupune c a fost realizat o traducere calitativ. Din nou parametrii lingvistici n asigurarea calitii. Concepia continua s rman ntr-o febril cutare, dezvoltare, precizare. Exist i prerea argumentat c calitatea n traducere depinde, de naltul nivel de responsabilitate a traducatorilor n procesul de traducere, de obiectivele pe care vor s le rezolve, de genul de traductori pe care i reprezint. Exist un numar mic de traductori artiti care in mult la ceea ce fac, i intereseaz mai puin aspectul comercial i astfel au timp s reproduc traduceri de bun calitate (acetia traduc de regul din autorii lor ndrgii). i mai exist i traductori talentai care reuesc s menin ritmul ridicat impus de tarife, producnd totui traduceri de calitate. Un bon traducteur doit bien savoir la langue de lauteur quil traduit, mais aussi encore mieux la sienne propre et jentends par l: non point seulement tre capable de lcrire correctement, mais en connatre les subtilits, les souplesses, les ressources caches, ce qui ne peut guere tre le fait que dun crivain professionnel. On ne simprovise pas traducteur a crit Andr Gide dans une lettre Therive. Gide pensait quil fallait tre crivain professionnel pour exercer le mtier de traducteur. Ideia de a fi scriitor este aplicata si la adresa redactorului. Categoriile de traductori sunt foarte variate n studiile traductologice. Ele pot fi prezentate n studiu special. Ne vom opri doar la o idee din cele mai recente: D.Gouadec menioneaz printre multiplele categorii le traducteur nouveau. Le traducteur nouveau - scrie acest autor, - doit tre capable d`assumer toutes les fonctions rpertories et dcrites ci-dessus et d`tre tout uniment documentaliste, recherchiste, technicien, terminologue, phrasologue, traducteur proprement dit, adaptateur, relecteur, rviseur, gestionnaire de la qualit, postditeur, diteur, infographiste et maquettiste, au besoin rdacteur, toujours concepteur de sites, intgrateur de pages web, oprateur spcialis dans le tratement des fichiers, rdacteur de macrocommandes pour optimiser le matriel trater ou son poste de travail ou ses procdures, ergonome dans les tests de qualification des produits 214

intgrants de la traduction, technicien en informatique dans la gestion de ses matriels et logiciels, technicien-vido si le support du matriau lexige, sous-titreur, surtitreur, localiseur, linguiste (ce qui ne va pas de soi), un tantinet ethnologue (car la communication ne passe vraiment que si lon connat les cultures confrontes par la traduction), planificateur et chef de projets, multiutilisateur daides informatiques diverses, responsables de qualit, bon gestionnaire. (Gouadec, 2002: 70). Valoarea traductorului este o problem social. Competenele lui trebuie s fie enciclopedice. Profesionalismul traductorului n multe ri chiar este evaluat anterior angajrii. En France les entreprises auraient maintenant tendance exiger des candidats traducteurs un diplme de troisime cycle. (Gile, 2005: 22). Despre un caz interesant despre rolul traductorului n realizarea traducerii vorbete Ines Oseki-Depre. E vorba de dou traduceri ale unui poem de Pasternac, analizate de E. Etkind: A B
Mais lage est comme une autre Rome Or tre vieux, cest Rome qui Quand, lasse un jour de boniments Au lieu des chars et des chasses Au lieu de lecture elle somme, L`acte de mourir, et vraiment. Numele traductorului nu este indicat Exige non la comdie Mais que la mise mort se lasse Elsa Triolet, 1965.

Traductorul A, menioneaz I. Oseki Depre, cnd traducea Tragedia btrneii, nu avea dect 25 de ani, traductorul B avea 69 n 1965. Ei au simit diferit imaginile i ritmurile lui Pasternak. Deci chiar i vrsta traductorului poate influena calitatea. On peut mme dire que tout compte, le sexe, lge, ltat physique, le temprament, lexprience vcue, si le traducteur est amoureux, sil est jalou, gai ou sombre, sil est dans son pays ou en exil, sil russit dans la vie. Un texte potique vritable reoit sa coloration de ces nuances (Oseki Depre, 1999: 91). Cine e acel traductor ideal, care realizeaz traduceri de nalt calitate? Dac pentru Antoine Berman, traductorul ideal este Chateaubriand, atunci cnd Efim Etkind l prefer pe Appolinaire i ambii ofer argumente, motivnd preferina. Traductorul este cel ce ndeplinete misiunea lui suprem de a folosi tot ce exist mai de valoare pentru a realiza o traducere de 215

calitate. La responsabilite du traducteur ne saurait se limiter aux lois de la culture cible. Elle doit tre professionnelle, formule et maintenue lgard des normes aussi interculturelles que lest le tr avail du traducteur lui-mme. (Pym, 1997: 65) ...le traducteur nest pas nimporte qui... mais un professionnel. Lexclusivisme professionnel comporte ainsi sa propre valeur en quelque sorte ajoute dont le fonctionnement peut tre dcrit de la faon suivante si un professionnel et un non professionnel traduisent tous deux A par B, voire saccordent sur la mme gamme B 1, 2, 3, ....n, la traduction aura plus de valeur venant du professionnel que du non professionnel parce que le client, celui qui paie, accordera plus de confiance au professionnel. Mme texte, mme travail, diffrentes valeurs. Le professionnel, dit-on vend plus quun produit concret, il fournit un service dont la valeur se compose de facteurs relationnels: image, confiance, autorit, respect) qui souvent plus importants que les traducteurs matriels: texte, dlais, efficacit (ibidem: 71). Exist i alte situaii: traductorul socoate traducerea slab, clientul o apreciaz ca bun i invers, o traducere apreciat ca bun de traductor poat e fi refuzat de client. O traducere considerat de calitate ntr-o epoc poate rmne de calitate mereu, dar poate fi socotit i nvechit. Mai putem vorbi i despre traductorul creator, scopul cruia sunt traducerile de calitate, dar i de traductorul care muncete pentru ai ctiga existena, cnd mai mare importan are cantitatea, volumul textului tradus si nu calitatea. Traductorul devine sclavul acestei situaii i nu folosete mai puin talentul. Robert Dubuc scrie n legatur cu aceast realitate Il est peu de travail qui soit aussi difficile que de bien traduire. Si lon fait ce travail a un dbit industriel il nen rsulte ncessairement quune qualit de srie (Dubuc, 1970: 41). Nu e suficient doar profesionalismul, talentul traductorului, dar i faptul dac el beneficiaz i recurge la tehnologii moderne. Beneficiind de mijloace tehnologice moderne dar i tradiionale, traduc torii reuesc s redea sensul exact al textului surs, respectnd nivelul de limbaj i efectele stilistice. Calitatea n traducere depinde nu numai de traductor dar i de ali parteneri, actori implicai n procesul de traducere, de faptul dac textul pentru traducere este nobil(vezi Bocquet, 2007), de faptul dac autorul i textul a fi tradus sunt iubii de traductor nu sunt impui, dac textul a mai fost 216

tradus, de faptul cum sunt clienii, editorii, revizorii, cititorii, de muli ali parametri i nc de multe criterii de evaluare pe care tiina modern ncepe s le descrie, s le sistematizeze. O traducere reuit va fi ca regul cea care poate s se substituie cu originalul. (Flamand, 1984: 330). Aceasta ideie este prezenta in cercetarile multor traductologi. Cest ce critre daptitude de la traduction remplacer en tout point le texte original que se mesure la qualit dune traduction, qui atteint des lors sa plnitude. (Plassard, 2007: 252). Criteriile de calitate a unei traduceri enunate n Manuel lusage des traducteurs al ONU sunt: a) fidlit loriginal, b) simplicit, c) brievet, d) clart, e) tours naturels, f) propret de lexpression et correction grammaticale, g) locutions et termes trangers, h) emploi des nologismes et j) cohrence terminologique (Plissard, 2007: 259). Lupta de idei continu. Jean-Rene Ladmiral e de prerea c noiunea de traducere model sau de traducere ideal nu exist... (Ladmiral, 1979: 75). E bine ca traductorul s cunoasc sfaturile deja elaborate n practica i teoria traducerii, s le multiplice fiindc obinerea calitii este o sarcin captivant i deloc nu simpl. Modificrile, perfecionrile unei traduceri deja realizate reprezint un sistem mereu deschis de posibiliti infinite. Aceste modificri ilimitate pot fi efectuate doar de traductorul Om, ajutat de instrumente tehnice, care pot permite traductorului s ndeplineasc sarcinile sale n timp mai redus, ntr-un mod mai eficaciu (Bouillon, Clas, 1993). Traducerea mecanic nu va putea rivaliza ca calitate cu cea uman. Traductorul i muli ali actori, fiine vii, contribuie la garantarea calitii n traducere: Lil des lecteurs nest donc pas seul juge dune traduction. Editeurs et agents littraires (et parfois les auteurs euxmmes sont non seulement les commanditaires mais aussi les premiers critiques attentifs dune traduction (Zahaf, 2004: 35). Chiar i cei mai experimentai, pricepui chevronnes traductori sunt n continu dependen de muli ali actori. Putem afirma c ideile ce se refer la calitate n genere i calitatea fiecrui gen de traducere, fiecrui text, fiecrui obiectiv formulat, planificat, calitatea fiecrui traductor sunt n situaie de schimbare, completare continu, multiplicare i precizare, sistematizare i vor rmne obiect de studiu n cercetrile multor savani, care vor prezenta argumentele ce confirm c doar prin aceste traduceri i 217

analize originalul mai triete o via, doar prin aceste analize, confesiuni ale traductorilor, traductorii viitorului vor efectua traduceri de calitate i mai nalt. Doar o mrturisire i o descriere a procesului de creaie n traducerea textelor din partea traductorilor ar ajuta traduc tologii sa formuleze corect rspunsul la ntrebarea Ce nseamn o traducere bun, o traducere de calitate? ns traductorii profesioniti propun n cazuri foarte rare mrturisiri despre starea lor fizic, psihologic n procesul de traducere, despre dificultile i constrngerile pe care le ntlnesc n cutarea echivalenelor, n interpretarea textului-surs, despre cile, despre strategiile folosite n solutionarea lor, informaie ce ar putea constitui coninutul unor surse fundamentale n traductologie.
BIBLIOGRAFIE Andrei D. et al. Dictionar contextual de termeni traductologici francezaromana. Coordonator Maria Tenchea. Timisoara: Editura Universitatii de Vest, 2008. 2. Bocquet Cl. Traduire les textes nobles, traduire les textes ignobles une seule ou deux mthodes. De Schleiermacher au XXI sicle. In: La traductologie dans tous ses tats. Artois: Presses Universit, 2007. 3. Bouillon P., Clas A. La traductique. Montral, Les Presses de l`Universit, 1993. 4. Cary E. La traduction dans le monde moderne. Genve: Librairie de lUniversit, 2000. 5. Dubuc R. Abus de la traduction. Ottawa, Translation, vol.9, n1, p. 411, 1970. 6. Dussart A. Mario Wanduszka ou la stylistique compare dans une perspective europenne. In: Europe et traduction (M. Ballard ed). Artois: Presses de lUniversit dOttawa, 1998. 7. Flamand J. Qu est-ce qu une bonne traduction? Mta, Journal des tra ducteurs, vol. 29, nr. 3, 1984. 8. Gile D. La traduction. La comprendre, l`apprendre. Paris: PUF, 2005. 9. Gouadec D. Faire traduire. Paris: La maison du dictionnaire, 2004. 10. Gouadec D. Le traducteur, la traduction et lentreprise. Paris: Afnor, 1989 11. Larose R. Mthodologie de lvaluation des traductions. Meta, Journal des traducteurs, vol. 43, n2, 1998. 12. Lungu-Badea G. Traducerea tiinific. Repere. www.litere.uvt.ro/documente _pdf/articole/uniterm/uniterm1_2004/glungu.df 1.

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13. Oseki-Depre I. Thorie et pratique de la traduction littraire. Paris: Armand Collin, 1999. 14. Plassard Fr. Lire pour traduire. P : Presses Sorbonne Nouvelle, 2007. 15. Pym A. Pour une thique du traducteur. Artois Presses de lUniversit dOttawa, 1997. 16. Ricoeur P. Sur la traduction. Paris: Bayard, 2004. 17. Zahaf N. Traduction et dition. In: Le Franais dans le monde, n334, juillet-aot, 2004.

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LA FORMATION DES TRADUCTEURS DANS LE CONTEXTE DE LINTERNATIONALISATION DE LENSEIGNEMENT SUPRIEUR Ghenadie RBACOV, drd. Universit Libre Internationale de Moldavie Le Processus de Bologne constitue linstrument primordial pour la rforme de lenseignement suprieur en Europe. Lobjectif capital du Processus, qui est aussi exprim dans la devise de lUnion Europenne lunit dans la diversit , a men la cration de lEspace europen de lenseignement suprieur (European Higher Education Area). La dclaration signe Bologne, la ville o a pris naissance la premire universit, promeut de faon prodigieuse le phnomne de linternationalisation qui pourrait tre qualifi comme un mou vement dunification, dhomognisation de lenseignement universitaire europen. Cest un sujet trs en vogue qui sentrecroise avec dautres phnomnes. On a la globalisation (amricanisme gnralement traduit par mondialisation ) de lenseignement suprieur, dune part, et la rgionalisation, de lautre ; de mme, surtout dans cette partie du globe, on se confronte leuropanisation et il ne faut pas ngliger non plus lapparition de lducation transnationale. Il est question dune tendance qui date depuis 1972, lanne de cration de lUNESCO-CEPES1. Sa tche primaire tait alors celle dencourager la coopration internationale dans lenseignement suprieur pour pouvoir aboutir finalement linternationalisation via ses concepts fondamentaux raffins, diversifis et dsidologiss. Les progrs scientifiques et technologiques des dernires dcennies, qui ont facilit lutilisation de plus en plus intense des moyens de communication un niveau qui dpasse les frontires nationales et
1

LUNESCO-CEPES (Centre Europen pour l'Enseignement Suprieur) a t cr le 21 septembre 1972 Bucarest, Roumanie et a son sige dans le Palais Creulescu. Il favorise la coopration internationale dans le domaine de l'enseignement suprieur entre l'UNESCO et les tats membres de l'Europe centrale, orientale et du Sud-Est avec la participation galement du Canada et des tats-Unis.

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qui ont anim la mobilit acadmique, ont engendr une intensification sans prcdent des interactions entre diffrentes entits sociales, politiques, conomiques, culturelles etc. sur le plan international. Lespace universitaire a t galement saisi par cette effervescence nomme mondialisation par certains scientifiques et internationalisation par dautres. A noter que cette confusion entre mondialisation et internationalisation nest pas si accidentelle comme on le croit. Il existe une certaine relation de type raction-rponse. Ainsi, la mondialisation est-elle dfinie comme une tape vers le march mondial intgr (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987), comme une interconnectivit globale (Held et al., 1999), comme un systme global (Modelski, 2003), une socit globale, un monde sans frontires (Thai et al., 2007), qui se matrialise par un flux de technologies, services et produits, savoirs, hommes, valeurs, ides allant au-del des frontires nationales. Par consquent, linternationalisation de lenseignement est catalyse, dune faon ou dune autre, par la mondialisation. Toutefois, daprs J. Knight (2003), la mondialisation met en pratique un certain type de nivlement global alors que linternationalisation acadmique y ajoute les spcificits de chaque espace culturel, politique, conomique etc. Selon nous il sagit de deux facettes du mme phnomne et dans ce sens nous acceptons plutt lopinion de Jean-Marc Siron [3] qui estime quil existe deux formes de mondialisation : la mondialisation internationale (ou internationalisation) et la mondialisation globale (ou globalisation), distinction qui a t galement propose par Hirst & Thompson (1999). Schmatiquement cette interdpendance entre les deux conceptions peut tre reprsente comme dans la Fig. no. 1. Aprs avoir identifi la diffrence entre ces deux termes, il nous semble judicieux de passer en revue quelques dmarches destines dfinir linternationalisation de lenseignement suprieur. La plupart des auteurs du domaine de lducation (De Wit, Knight, Bhn, Altbach, Sadlak et al.) considrent que le terme internationalisation est le plus adquat pour expliquer ce qui se passe dans le cadre des tablissements denseignement suprieur du point de vue des interactions avec dautres milieux internationaux. Selon Jane Knight linternationalisation est le processus dintgration dune dimension internationale, interculturelle ou globale dans lobjectif, la mission et 221

le fournissement de lducation postsecondaire [5].

Fig. no. 1. Linfluence de la mondialisation globale sur linternationalisation acadmique

Mihai Korka partage lopinion que linternationalisation est un processus par le prisme duquel les systmes nationaux denseignement suprieur et de recherche se croisent lchelle universelle et rgionale pour innover, comprendre, utiliser/valoriser et dissminer de nouveaux rsultats de connaissance dune manire maximale defficacit [6]. Au sens de lUNESCO le phnomne englobe aussi tous les types et les modes de fournissement des programmes denseignement suprieur, des cursus et des services ducationnels (y compris lenseignement distance) o les tudiants se trouvent dans un pays qui est diffrent de celui de ltablissement dlivrant le diplme ou la qualification. Linternationalisation de lenseignement semble avoir une srie de motivations (voir Fig. no. 2), analyses en dtails par J. Knight [4, p. 27-44] : - Les motivations politiques, qui sont lies la position et au rle du pays dans les problmes internationaux tels que la scurit, la stabilit, la paix, les influences idologiques etc. - Les motivations conomiques, qui relvent des objectifs visant les effets conomiques long terme, en contact avec lesquels linternationalisation de lenseignement universitaire est envisage comme une contribution la cration de ressources humaines qualifies ncessaires pour assurer la comptitivit conomique ou aux bnfices conomiques court terme tels les revenus des 222

tablissements denseignement suprieur qui accueillent des tudiants trangers et leffet conomique net dtermin par la prsence des tudiants trangers dans une certaine localit. - Les motivations acadmiques, qui comprennent des objectifs orients vers les fonctions de lenseignement universitaire. Il est important mentionner que la dimension internationale de lenseignement et de la recherche imprime une plus-value au systme de lducation. Les activits vocation internationale sont les catalyseurs de la performance acadmique et du planning institutionnel tout en contribuant ldification dun systme attractif et plus performant par le renforcement du staff universitaire, des technologies et de linfrastructure. - Les motivations culturelles et sociales, qui sont focalises sur le rle et la place de la culture et de la langue du pays aussi bien que sur la comprhension des langues et des cultures trangres. Les diplms qui vont dployer leur activit dans des organisations internationales doivent pouvoir travailler avec diffrentes cultures, avec diffrentes spcificits civilisatrices et socitales, ce qui entrane le dveloppement des capacits en ce qui concerne la pense critique et lesprit analytique.

internationalisation

Fig. no. 2. Les motivations de linternationalisation

Dans loptique de Warner (1992) lagenda dinternationalisation des universits est dtermin par plusieurs approches qui dcoulent de trois modles diffrents quil propose : 1. Le modle comptitif lintroduction des contenus caractre international dans les curricula et dans la vie de campus, ce qui 223

augmente la comptitivit des tudiants, de ltablissement et du pays sur le march global. 2. Le modle libral le but essentiel de linternationalisation cest lauto-dveloppement dans le contexte des changements socitaux et lducation globale pour des relations humaines et citoyennet. 3. Le modle des transformations sociales une comprhension plus profonde des problmes internationaux et interculturels concernant lquit et la justice en sorte que les tudiants puissent acqurir les outils ncessaires pour contribuer aux transformations sociales [8, p. 21]. En Rpublique de Moldavie on pourrait parler dun modle qui porte le nom de lUniversit Libre Internationale (ULIM), institution moldave devenue lexemple de la modernisation universitaire et du passage au systme europen des tudes. Le modle de lULIM sencadre pleinement dans lagenda propos par Warner, il comprend des activits dinternationalisation assez substantielles : - Activits menes au niveau des processus denseignement: mobilit acadmique, dveloppement curriculaire, programmes dtudes par co-diplomation, dlocalisation de diplmes ltranger, recrutement des tudiants internationaux, de lassistance technique et du transfert de savoir. - Activits de recherche: mobilits des enseignants et de chercheurs, participation des rseaux thmatiques europennes et extracommunautaires, lancement dans des projets, recrutement de personnel au niveau international. - Activits ralises au niveau des relations avec la socit : encouragement des partenariats publiques et privs, participation des programmes nationaux et europens de financement. Comme tout phnomne, linternationalisation a ses avantages et ses risques (voir Fig. no. 3). Citons quelques avantages : - La croissance de la comptitivit et de lattractivit de lenseignement suprieur de Rpublique de Moldavie dans lespace europen ; - Plus de chances dinsertion professionnelle des jeunes sur le march intrieur et celui international de travail ; - Lassurance de la qualit et la promotion de la dimension internationale dans lenseignement suprieur ; - Une reconnaissance acadmique et professionnelle des diplmes plus facile ; 224

- Lassurance de la transparence des qualifications accordes par les tablissements denseignement suprieur de Moldavie. En voil certains risques : - La possibilit de perdre une importante ressource du capital humain, cause de la migration et de la circulation des savoirs (la fuite de cerveaux) ; - La redistribution des talents au niveau mondial, ce qui est au dtriment des pays en voie de dveloppement ; - Le risque de perdre lidentit culturelle par la possible McDonaldisation de ceux qui ont fait leurs tudes ltranger et qui peuvent revenir dans leur pays dorigine [1, 2].

Fig. no. 3. Les avantages et les risques de linternationalisation

Comme le montre la figure ci-dessus, la balance est incline plutt vers les avantages, bien que la liste de points faibles et celle de points forts est loin dtre exhaustive. Le sujet qui nous intresse le plus dans cet article cest la formation des traducteurs, car lacte traductif se veut tre, lui aussi, un vecteur dinternationalisation des espaces intellectuels nationaux qui entrane, dans des conjonctures socio-historiques particulires, dautres types de processus. Le mtier de traducteur-interprte est un des plus anciens du monde et tire son origine du besoin de communication des gens qui voulaient sentendre mais qui parlaient des langues diffrentes. Les traducteurs, les interprtes et les terminologues doivent tre fiers de 225

leur profession et affirmer leur statut et leur rle dans le dveloppement social, conomique et culturel du pays. Le XXI-ime sicle est marqu par la mondialisation, nous sommes les tmoins dune migration sensible des personnes aussi bien dans lespace europen quau-del de ses frontires. Aussi la traduction est-elle devenue aujourdhui un pont qui lie plusieurs cultures, civilisations, conomies, personnes etc. Les dernires annes, dans plusieurs villes du monde, les reprsentants des universits qui forment des traducteurs et des interprtes se sont runis lors de nombreuses confrences internationales pour analyser ltat de choses dans ce domaine (par ex. Confrence internationale permanente dInstituts universitaires de traducteurs et interprtes). Les reprsentants de lONU, du Conseil de lEurope et dautres organisations ont signal le fait que le nombre de traducteurs et dinterprtes a sensiblement augment. Prsentons les chiffres du Parlement europen o chaque lu doit pouvoir travailler dans sa propre langue (lUnion europenne compte 23 langues officielles) et les citoyens doivent tre en mesure de suivre les activits parlementaires sans qualification linguistique particulire. La tche des traducteurs est donc titanesque, couvrant runions, procdures, questions, rsolutions, amendements). Pour traduire quelque 100 000 pages chaque mois, 700 traducteurs et 200 assistants travaillent pour le Parlement. J'ai t surprise par le nombre de traducteurs , explique Elisabeth Artner, une stagiaire allemande au sein de la direction gnrale de la traduction. Je savais qu'il devait y en avoir beaucoup mais le nombre rel a dpass mes attentes. Mais maintenant quand je vois la quantit de documents traduire, je comprends parfaitement pourquoi il y en a autant [10]. La premire remarque qui simpose cest que le problme de la formation professionnelle qualitative des jeunes traducteurs est devenu un impratif du temps. Un accent trs important est mis sur le besoin de mettre en uvre un master spcial qui permettrait la formation des traducteurs-interprtes pouvant exercer leur mtier sur le plan international. Quelques programmes de master de ce genre ont t dj mis en place en Roumanie : le Master europen de traductologie terminologie /Master europen dinterprtation de confrence la Facult des Lettres de lUniversit Babes-Bolyai de Cluj et Master europen pour la formation des interprtes de 226

confrences la Facult des langues et littratures trangres de lUniversit de Bucarest. Le rseau le plus connu reste European Masters in Translation (EMT) qui constitue ltiquette de la qualit pour les programmes de traduction au cycle Master. Elle peut tre accorde aux programmes qui runissent les standards de qualit gnralement accepts pour la formation des traducteurs. LEMT a t cr pour assurer une bonne corrlation entre les comptences du diplm (illustres dans la Fig. no. 4) et les exigences de lemployeur, pour promouvoir la coopration et rendre possible lchange des meilleures pratiques. Toute universit de lUE qui offre des programmes de master en traduction peut devenir membre du rseau EMT. A prsent 53 programmes de 19 tats membre et un pays non-membre de lUE font partie dudit rseau. La prochaine demande de candidature est planifie pour 2014. Prsentons maintenant trs en bref le processus de formation des traducteurs la Facult des Lettres de lULIM. La libralisation des relations conomiques a cr de multiples segments sur le march du travail, o lon a besoin des spcialistes philologues qui connaissent plusieurs langues trangres. Il faut mentionner que jusquen 1996 il ny a pas eu une Fig. no. 4. Les comptences dun traducteur conception adquate visant la formation des traducteurs professionnels. Au moment de la fondation de la spcialit de traducteur-interprte lULIM, en Moldavie il existait encore deux facults des langues trangres, lune lUniversit dEtat et lautre lUniversit Alecu Russo de Balti. La cration dune vritable Ecole de traduction a ncessit llaboration des plans dtudes raccords aux standards europens. On y ajoute lquipement des laboratoires (salles audio/vido, salles multimdia, salles de traduction simultane, spcialise, littraire 227

etc.), ce qui rend le processus didactique plus efficace. Aujourdhui, grce la contribution incommensurable de Mme Ana Gutu, ancien doyen, actuel premier vice-recteur, la Facult des Lettres de lULIM est sans doute la structure acadmique numro 1 en matire de formation des traducteurs. Il nous parat important de prsenter ici-bas une srie dactions prioritaires menes dans le cadre de la Facult des Lettres dans lenjeu de linternationalisation universitaire : - Lextension des connexions didactiques et scientifiques avec les centres acadmiques de ltranger ; - La ralisation des stages ltranger, la participation des confrences et sminaires scientifiques et pratiques organiss auprs des reprsentations culturelles des ambassades des USA, dAllemagne, de France en Rpublique de Moldavie ; - La cration de lInstitut de Recherches philologiques et interculturelles (en 2006) ; - Llaboration des portfolios thmatiques pour chaque cours de langue trangre ; - La ralisation des enregistrements audio/vido des sources didactiques trangres les plus modernes ; - Ltablissement des relations de collaboration avec lAlliance Franaise, lAUF, lInstitut Cervants de Bucarest (Roumanie), lInstitut Goethe de Bucarest (Roumanie), le Lectorat AECID en Rpublique de Moldavie, les ambassades etc. ; - Lorganisation et la mise en uvre de La Francopyphonie, projet de rsonnance internationale. En guise de conclusion il faut signaler que le march de la traduction en Rpublique de Moldavie accuse bien des lacunes de toute sorte. Actuellement en Moldavie il y a un march de la traduction qui fait tout le possible pour rpondre aux attentes des partenaires sociaux et des organismes internationaux, mais la qualit et le volume des traductions sont encore trs loin de la qualit existante dans les pays ayants une tradition et une activit professionnelle de longue dure dans ce domaine. Il faut dployer des efforts colossaux afin de minimiser cette discordance et mettre laccent sur la quantit aussi bien que sur la qualit des traductions ralise. Quelles seraient les perspectives davenir ? Les institutions denseignement suprieur de Rpublique de Moldavie doivent en228

courager la cration et la dlivrance dun diplme de Master europen en traduction, qui puissent offrir un programme dtudes conforme aux besoins des compagnies et des organisations europennes. LULIM fait les premiers pas dans ce sens et a envie de mettre en place de nouveaux programmes de master inter-, trans- et pluridisciplinaires. La formation dun traducteur-interprte ne peut pas tre limite seulement la formation universitaire. Le traducteur se forme et volue durant toute sa vie.
BIBLIOGRAPHIE 1. Altbach P. G. Globalization and the University: Realities in an Unequal World n International Handbook of Higher Education, Vol. I, edited by J. J. F. Forest and P. G. Altbach. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer, 2006. 2. Altbach P. G., Reisberg L., Rumbley, L. E. Trends in Global Higher Education: Tracking an Academic Revolution. A Report Prepared for the UNESCO 2009 World Conference on Higher Education. Paris: UNESCO, 2009. 3. Siron J.-M. Linternational nest pas le global. Pour un usage raisonne du concept de globalisation http://www.dauphine.fr/globalisation/ La%20globalisation.pdf (consult le 12.05.2012). 4. Knight J. A. Shared Vision? Stakeholders Perspectives on the Internati onalization of Higher Education in Canada, Journal of Studies in International Education, 1, Spring, 1997, pp. 27-44, 5. Knight J. Updating the definition of Internationalization International Higher Education, Fall 2003, online la: http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp /soe/cihe/newsletter/News33 (consult le 21.07.2012). 6. Korka M. Internaionalizarea o trstur definitorie a Spaiului European de nvmnt Superior. Bucureti: ASE, 2008. 7. Modelski G. Globalization n The Global Transformations Reader: An Introduction to the Globalization Debate. D. Held i A. McGrew, (ed.), Cambridge: Polity Press and Blackwell Publishing, Ltd, 2003. 8. Warner G. Internationalization Models and the Role of the University, International Education Magazine, 1992, p. 21. 9. Thai V. K., D. Rahm J. D. Coggburn. Handbook of Globalization and the Environment. Boca Raton, Florida: Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, 2007. 10. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/fr/headlines/content/20120220STO 38573/html/Tout-savoir-sur-le-m%C3%A9tier-de-traducteur-au-Parlementeurop%C3%A9en (consult le 10.05.2012).

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BENEFIICIILE NVRII UNEI LIMBI STRINE Rodica RIVENCO, lector, master, Universitatea Liber Internaional din Moldova Fascinai de alte civilizaii i culturi sau pur i simplu de nevoie, tot mai muli europeni studiaz limbile strine. Acetia sunt din ce n ce mai contieni de schimbarea pe care le-o aduce cunoaterea limbilor strine n viaa de zi cu zi. Competenele lingvistice i abilitile de comunicare sunt un criteriu de selecie foarte important pentru angajatorii europeni. Cetenii care vorbesc mai multe limbi se pot bucura pe deplin de beenificiile liberei circulaii n cadrul Uniunii Europene i se pot integra mai uor n ara n care studiaz sau muncesc. Trind n era internetului i a globalizrii unde totul circul cu o vitez uimitoare i toate informaiile sunt transmise n limbi strine, fiecare realizeaz necesitatea cunoaterii a cel puin o limb strin. Pentru unii, absolvirea unei specializri la Litere reprezint un paaport pentru un post de traductor. Alii au cu totul alte motivaii: dorina de a cunoate culturi diverse, nevoia de a se integra sau pur i simplu pasiunea pentru o anumit civilizaie. Cunoscnd limbile strine, fie c e una, dou, sau mai multe, vei avea numai de ctigat. Consider nvarea unei limbi strine nu numai necesar pentru dezvoltarea ta, att profesional ct i personal, ci i ca pe un lucru must do n aceast via scurt. nvarea unei limbi strine, schimb literalmente modul n care e vzut lumea [5, p. 64], conform unui studiu, realizat de ctre Panos Athanasopoulos de la Universitatea Newcastle. Acesta a constatat c persoanele bilingve gndesc diferit fa de cei care cunosc o singur limb. Cei mai muli oameni care nva o limb strin, se concentreaz mai mult asupra modului de a realiza diferite lucruri practice, cum ar fi achiziionarea produselor alimentare, pentru a folosi transportul public, cercetrile ns arat c exist conexiuni mult mai profunde care-i fac apariia n timpul procesului de nvare. mpreun cu nvarea cuvintelor i a gramaticii, nvm n mod incontient un mod cu totul nou de a vedea lumea [5, p. 52], spune dr. Athanasopoulos. Exist o strns legtur ntre limb, cultur i cunoatere. Dac nvati limba strin ntr-o sal de clas, v concentrai pe 230

ceva specific, dar cnd nvei s vorbeti o limb strin n mijlocul altor vorbitori ai aceleiai limbi, vei gndi ntr-un mod cu totul diferit. Dac cineva are nevoie de motivaie pentru a nva o limb strin, acesta ar trebui s ia n consideraie factorul internaional. Beneficiile pe care le obinem nu se rezum doar la abilitatea de a comunica ntr-o alt limb, ofer ns informaii valoroase n ce privete cultura i modul de gndire al celorlali. V ajut, de asemenea, la o mai bun nelegere a propriei limbi, i ofer posibilitatea de a reflecta asupra propriei culturi. Oamenii de stiin au descoperit c cei care sunt bilingvi i exerseaz creierul mai bine, aa nct au un risc mai sczut de a suferi de Alzheimer sau demen dect cei care nu tiu dect o singur limb. Cercettorii de la Universitatea York din Canada au realizat un studiu despre impactul pe care l are faptul ca eti bilingv asupra corpului i creierului i au descoperit c persoanele care vorbesc mai mult de o limb pot preveni cu succes Alzheimer-ul. n medie, cineva care este bilingv va suferi de Alzheimer cu 4,3 ani mai trziu dect cineva care nu este bilingv. Se pare c abilitatea de a vorbi dou sau mai multe limbi ajut creierul la fel ca un exerciiu, adic l menine n form.

Tehnici la ndemn
nvarea unei limbi strine a devenit i mai accesibil odat cu dezvoltarea internetului. De fapt, o mare parte dintre cei care ajung s cunoasc o limb strin la nivelul tourist clever au luat primele lecii online, fr profesor, existnd numeroase site-uri de profil. BBC este unul dintre cele mai accesibile site-uri i pune la dispoziie cursuri de francez, italian, spaniol, german, chinez, portughez, greac etc. Leciile se in prin e-mail, de-a lungul mai multor sptmni. nvarea unei limbi strine fr profesor este tot mai uzual O alt surs virtual pentru limbile moderne este OpenLearn, iar cu leciile de aici putei ajunge la un nivel mediu. Sistemul e -learning este utilizat i de firmele care organizeaz cursuri de limbi strine, iar n colile din ar au fost introduse deja cursuri de gen pe calculator. Limbile strine fr profesor se pot nva i printr-un sistem deja tradiional, Pimsleur, ceea ce presupune ascultarea de nregistrri n limba respectiv, repetarea cuvintelor i realizarea de mici conversaii. Numeroase studii realizate n strintate indic faptul c majori tatea copiilor care nva limbi strine au o logic mai bun, sunt mai 231

abili, mai creativi i mai inteligeni dect cei care nu o fac. Cursurile de limbi strine, arat aceleai studii, pot fi folositoare i pentru a nelege noiuni de matematic sau de tiine naturale. n plus, datorit metodelor de nvare aplicate, memoria este din plin exersat. De asemenea, copiii care merg la aceste cursuri devin mai comunicativi i au mai mult ncredere n ei. n plus, nvnd despre alte culturi, ei se adapteaz mai repede la schimbri i devin mai tolerani. Cercettorii mai susin c nvarea unei limbi strine este un mod minunat de a rmne activi din punct de vedere intelectual, chiar i dup ce v-ai finalizat studiile. n plus, persoanelor mai n vrst, care au ajuns la pensie, de pild, li se recomand s nvee o limb strin, alturi de alte exerciii, pentru a-i antrena memoria i pentru a combate diverse afeciuni degenerative precum maladia Alzheimer. Iat ase motive pentru a nva o limb strin: 1. Cunoaterea mai multor limbi strine d mai bine la CV. Vei avea mai multe anse pentru un post de traductor sau de ghid. Bani se mai pot obine i din traduceri fcute n particular. 2. V va ajuta s nelegei n profunzime limba dumneavoastr matern. Pe msur ce vei nva nc o dat diverse timpuri verbale, cuvinte noi, structuri propoziionale i multe altele, vei ajunge s comparai fiecare lecie cu experiena nvrii limbii dumneavoastre primare. 3. nvarea unei alte limbi v va deschide porile ctre un ntreg corpus de opere literare. Chiar dac v plac crile traduse din alte limbi, oricine a studiat o literatur scris ntr-o alt limb v poate spune c nu e acelai lucru cu a citi o oper n limba n care a fost scris. Studiul i nvarea unei alte limbi v va aduce n cele din urm plcerea de a citi o ntreag nou literatur. 4. Studiul unei alte limbi v va aduce i alte oportuniti educaionale. n nvmntul superior exist mai multe posibiliti de a studia ntr-o alt ar, dac nvai o limb strin. 5. Este un mod excelent de a cunoate o alt cultur. Limba are legtur cu tot ceea ce ine de societate i v putei folosi de noile dumneavoastr cunotine pentru a nva i mai multe despre anumite segmente ale culturii care v intereseaz. 6. Nu exist un mod mai bun de a ntlni alte persoane. Limba 232

poate fi o barier dificil de trecut, dar dac v acordai timp pentru a nva o limb strin vei fi surprini de ci oameni vei avea ocazia s ntlnii. n urma unei cercetri realizate de britanici n 270 de agenii matrimoniale, rezultatele arat c aceia care nva o limb strain sunt percepui de sexul opus drept mai atrgtori i mai inteligeni. Cunoaterea unei limbi strine este deosebit de important pentru experiena uman i pentru dialogul intercultural. ntr-o societate att de divers i n continu globalizare, o a doua limb vorbit reprezint cheia succesului integrrii internaionale i ar trebui s fac parte din educaia oricrei persoane, indiferent de vrst. Nu este niciodat prea trziu pentru a nva o limb strin i a profita de perspectivele pe care aceast cunoatere le ofer. nvarea limbilor strine ar trebui s fac parte din activitile din timpul liber, n mod asemntor sportului. In acest sens, tot mai des este promovat ideea nvrii de limbi strine n afara colii i universotilor, insistnd mai ales asupra intensificrii eforturilor n sensul stimulrii studiului lor de ctre aduli. Prin intermediul tot mai multor programe educaionale, cetenii europeni sunt ncurajai s vorbeasc cel puin dou limbi de adopie alte limbi dect limba matern i s le utilizeze pe durata vieii acas sau la serviciu. Un proverb arab care reflect cu adevrat importana nvrii limbilor strine spune: Dac doreti s evii un rzboi, nva o limb [10, p. 7]. Se poate trage astfel concluzia c a nva o limba strin este sinonim cu a crea o punte ntre oameni i culturi, a nelege alte popoare i modul lor de a gndi, a depi barierele culturale.
BIBLIOGRAFIE Bonta I. Pedagogie. Bucureti, 1996. Cristea S. Curriculum pedagogic. Bucureti: E.D.P., 2008. Gerngrass G. Creative Grammar practice, Cmabridge: Cambridge, 1996. Gondiu E. Pedagogie general. Paris: Cartier, 1997. Guilford G. P. The nature of human intelligence. New York, 1967. Herivan M. Educaia la timpul viitor. Bucureti, 1986. Tannebaum A. G. Gifted children: Psychological and educational perspectives. New York, 1993. 8. Oprea O. Didactica Nova. Tehnologie didactic, vol.II. Chiinu, 1992. 9. Roco M. Creativitate i inteligena emotional. Bucureti: Polirom, 2004. 10. www.citatepedia.ro 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

233

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- : - ; - () , ); - ; - , ; - , , ; - , , ; - , ; - . - , - . , : - ; - CD ; - ; - . . : , , . , . , , . [2, p.91] . ( ), , . : - , : weapons = 235

arms; advance = attack; to perform = to carry out, etc. - , : offensive/defensive; combat arm/supporting arm, etc. - , ; - (), , , . ; - , , , ; , , ; - () , - () ; - ( , , , ); - , , (, , , ); - ? ?, ? ( , , , ); - ( , , ) , [3, p. 18-19] . - . , , . 236

 . . . , , , , , winter to winter, . [4, p. 35-38]. , . . . , - , . , . : - . . - . . - , ; . , , , , [2, p. 96-97]. , 1) (like dislike, formal informal, regular irregular), 237

 (appear disappear, employed unemployed); 2) (inform information; manage management; develop development; navigate navigator) (flexible flexibility; happy happiness); 3) (economics economical; science scientific; cloud cloudy). . collocation (word partners). , : - hard work (= difficult physically or mentally) - a hard question (= difficult to answer) - a great success (= very successful) - a great time (= an enjoyable time) - vitally important (= very important) - terribly sorry (= very sorry). . , (agreement, disagreement, expressing likes and dislikes, asking for information, etc) . . . , . , [5, p. 47]. , , , . , 238

 , .
1. : . : , 1997. 2. . . . . . : , 2002. 3. . ., . . . , , 2000. 4. . ., . . . , , 1977. 5. . ., . ., . . . : , 2004. 6. . . . . : , 2002.

239

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: , . , , [3, c. 18]. - (. . ) (. . ) : , , , , , , , , . [2, c. 54]. , , . () () , , . . . [4, c. 52] (non loin de), (loin), (trs loin). , . : ( droite), ( gauche), (tout droit), (en haut), (en bas), (devant), (derrire) .. . , . . , , . , [4, c. 28], . 241

 [4, c. 31]. . , , , , . , , : ( maintenant), (bientt), (longtemps), (dabord), (puis), (aujourdhui), (demain), (hier) .. , . (, , , , ) (, , , ) , . , , , , . - . , . , , . , , , 242

. , , , .. . , . , .. , , . - . . , . , - , . . , .. , , . - (, , , ..) , .

243

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SUBTITLING SOFTWARE IN TEACHING AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION Inga STOYANOVA, Assistant Professor, PhD, Free International University of Moldova In 1927 a new era in the film history began, although silent movies continued to be made until the early 1930s (the talking quickly became a norm). Dubbing and subsequently subtitling rapidly grew in importance in Europe. Although Hollywood responded initially to the language problem by reshooting its films in several languages using foreign authors. That implied the involvement of audiovisual translation (AVT). Audiovisual translation is developing the translation activity in a context characterized by the interaction of text (whether oral or written) with sound and image. The term audiovisual translation refers to both the translation of the format audiovisual and of its contents. With the incipient general shift from analogue to digital television the meaning of the term will inevitably expand, and will no longer refer to a unique translation mode, but rather to an array of possibilities being delivered synchronically. Also, in the digital era the number of available TV channels has grown exponentially, and will presumably carry on growing. Television tailored to mobile phones and portable DVD players is also predicted to make a considerable impact on the way we consume audiovisual programs [2, p. 52]. The main methods of AVT are dubbing, subtitling, voice-over, narration and free commentary. Subtitling is also defined as the process of providing synchronized captions for film and television dialogue [1, p. 67]. Gottlieb defines subtitling as a (1) written, (2) additive (i.e. new verbal material is added in the form of subtitles), (3) immediate, (4) synchronous, and (5) polymedial (i.e. at least two channels are employed) form of translation [5, p. 167]. There is an interesting classification of audiovisual types of translation [3, p. 15]: - Inter-lingual translation/accomplish working with different languages: - subtitling; 245

- dubbing; - voice-over. Intra-lingual (monolingual) subtitles represent the speech of a language into a written form of the same language subtitling for the hard-of-hearing and the deaf Audio description for the blind Live subtitling (e.g. news broadcasts) Subtitling for opera and the theatre.
Type Intralinguistic Subtitles in the same language as in the original film 1 2 The deaf and L2 learners hard hearing Intralinguistic Subtitles in a language different from that of the original film 1 Public in general L2/FL learners Standard subtitling: dialogue in L2, written translation in L1 2 L2 learners

Target audience

Distinguishing character -ristics

Simple transcription Simplification of the original dialogue

Functions

Manily to make the information on TV or in the cinema accessible

Simultaneous representation of original dialogue with a full transcription A useful didactic tool in various languagelearning scenarios

Reverse subtitling: Dialogues in L1, written translation in L2

Reproduction and adaptation of the dialogues into the viewers language, making the FL understandable

Useful for long-term recall of vocabulary and particularly effective with languagelearners at beginner level

Among the advantages of subtitling as a type of translation one can mention: 246

Inexpensiveness; lack of necessity to take a very long time; original soundtrack is preserved; may have a role in language learning; it is better for the hard-of-hearing and the deaf and for immigrants and tourists. The disadvantages of this type are the following: - it contaminates the image; - there is a greater loss of information due to compression; - the attention of the audience is split between image, soundtrack, and subtitles. In the framework of this type of translation there is a transference from oral text to written text. Subtitles exist in two forms. Subtitles are open if the viewer cant remove them from the screen. Open inter-lingual subtitles are used on many foreign language videos as subtitling usually proves a much cheaper option than dubbing. Closed subtitles are designed for a certain group of viewers, and can usually be turned on/off or selected by the viewer examples being teletext pages, US Closed captions (608/708), DVB Bitmap subtitles, DVD/Blu-ray subtitles. Dubbing consists of replacing SL verbal elements on the soundtrack with TL ones, a multiplex process in which the foreign dialogue is adjusted to the mouth movements of the actor in the film [3, p. 9]. Dubbing is essentially teamwork, involving not only a dubbing translator but also a number of actors and technical personnel, which is why dubbing costs are considerably higher than those of subtitling [3, p. 15]. The advantages of dubbing are the following: - it does not distract attention from image; - it is better for children and for people with poor reading skills; - less reduction of the original dialogue compared to subtitling. The disadvantages include: - expensiveness; - it takes more time, loss of the original soundtrack; - the voices of dubbing actors can become repetitive after a while. In the framework of this type of translation there is a transference from oral text to oral text. Voice-over translation is an audiovisual translation technique in 247

which, unlike in dubbing, actor voices are recorded over the original audio track which can be heard in the background. This method of translation is most often used in documentaries and news reports to translate words of foreign-language interviewees. In some countries, most notably in Eastern Europe, it is commonly used to translate all kinds of movies.

Among the advantages of voice-over translation one can state:

- inexpensiveness; - it does not take a long time to make; - may be appropriate to some audio-visual genres (such as documentaries, particularly when it comes to translating the narrators part). Among the disadvantages of this type of translation it should be mentioned that contaminates the original soundtrack, if used in genres such as feature films it may create confusion as to who is speaking. In a free commentary, no attempt is made to faithfully reproduce the original speech. It is rather used as a means of adapting a foreign language program for an audience that speaks a different language. The commentary is an original creation in itself and its content differs from the original programs soundtrack with informat ion being added or taken away [7, p. 82]. Each country cultivates a different tradition of translating films and subscribes to one of the two major modes: dubbing and subtitling as far as cinema translation is concerned, or sometimes to a third, minor, mode voiceover in the case of television translation. The decision as to which film translation mode to choose is by no means arbitrary and stems from several factors, such as historical circumstances, traditions, the technique to which the audience is accustomed, the cost, as well as on the position of both the target and the source cultures in an international context [10, online]. Russia and Poland are using voice-over procedure. Countries using subtitling procedures: Belgium, Cyprus, Croatia, Denmark, Finland, Hungary, Portugal, Sweden, etc. Among the countries using film dubbing procedures are Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and Switzerland. Further we will present several subtitling software available on the web which can be used in teaching EFL. 248

Subtitles always play an important role when watching foreign movies. Without the textual dialog, nobody probably enjoys the movie even if it nice. Most of the movies nowadays do come with subtitles for audiences convenience. However, sometimes these subtitles might be in another language which the viewer is not familiar with. In that case, he/she might need to spend a little and make use of some software applications to translate the subtitles into a familiar language. There are various subtitle translation applications by means of which the viewer can do subtitle translation. Further we present some of the most spread subtitling software. Subtitles Translation Wizard is a user friendly subtitle translation tool which can perform srt translation, sub (MicroDVD format) translation, Sami (.smi) translation, SubViewer (.SUB) translation and SubViewer 2.0 translation. The translation can be easily done with only a few clicks. Besides translating the original subtitles to your preferred language, users can use the application to add and show the subtitles for some movies that have no subtitles. Subtitle Translation Wizard can also be used to edit the translated subtitles by showing the original. Users who want to learn a foreign language can add the original and translated subtitled sentence into a dictionary so that they can review and learn the sentence from time to time. The summary of product features is as below: - translate and edit subtitles, support SubRip(.srt), sub(MicroDVD), Sami(.smi) SubViewer(.SUB) and SubViewer 2.0 formats; - save translated subtitles or mix subtitles that include both original and translated; - merge subtitles; - extract and save subtitled text from original subtitles; - extract and save subtitled text from translated subtitles; - extract and save mix subtitled texts that include both original subtitled text and translated subtitled text; - multi-Language is supported; - abundant subtitled files from internet can be used; - add sentence into dictionary any time; - mini study your dictionary any time; - code schema convert tool is provided; - play subtitles for movies that do not have any subtitles or the kind of subtitles. 249

Similar to Subtitle Translation Wizard, Open Subtitle Translator is another translator which can help to do the subtitles translation work. However, unlike Subtitle Translation Wizard, Open Subtitle Translator is a freeware. This translation program is developed in Java and supports multiple platforms. Open Subtitle Translator works by translating SRT subtitle files line by line.

DivXLand Media Subtitler allows you to create and edit external subtitle files for AVI, MPG, WMV and all type of videos fast and easily. The subtitle creation process consists in using a plain text file 250

containing the dialog lines in sequential order and apply these lines as subtitles into the opened media file during the video playback using just a click. The program includes cutting-edge features to edit and improve existing subtitle files as well. Program features: - create subtitles from plain text files or clipboard contents easily; - instant-preview of the subtitled video without saving; - save partially edited files to resume subtitling process later; - automatic caption timing set and correction; - multiple subtitling modes available; - support for basic text formatting; - support for importing/exporting more than 30 subtitle formats; - keyboard shortcuts for easily controlling the subtitling process; - multi-language spell check feature; - ability to embed sutbtitle files into AVI videos; - ability to extract audio streams from AVI and MPG videos into MP2, MP3 and WAV formats; - quick Start Guide in several languages included as PDF and online; - support for all East Asian and Right-to-Left languages.

Subtitle Workshop is the most complete, efficient and convenient freeware subtitle editing tool. It supports all the subtitle formats you need and has all the features you would want from a subtitle editing 251

program. Subtitle Workshop makes subtitle creating/editing/converting tasks almost a pleasure, the amicable and intuitive interface mixes easy to access menus & must have features with advanced functions and a remarkable speed and stability, drastically reducing subtitle editing time. It includes spell check function and an advanced video preview feature which will ease the task even more. Among its features one can enumerate: - it can handle both time and frame based subtitles; - it can load files in plain text format so that you can set the timings; - it supports reading and writing style tags (bold, italic, underline) and color tags in format which support it; - it supports saving a subtitle in ones custom format; - it has user friendly interface; - it supports multi-language (currently over 35 languages are available); - it can be switched between interfaces to adapt to the users need, you can turn Video Preview Mode on and off and Translator Mode on and off; - it uses Translator mode etc.

Thus, advances in Information and Communication Technologies provide new opportunities for the exploitation of subtitling in language 252

teaching and learning, namely the development of a subtitling software for active learning task-based activities. This tool is intended to give learners the chance to use a special version of a professional environment, not for the purposes of training but for its side benefits. It has also been observed that students of translation attending subtitling courses have improved their linguistic skills. However, only professional subtitling tools have been used and no subtitling software has been designed specifically for language learning with all the shortcomings this entails.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Reich. P. The Film and the Book in Translation. Brno: Masaryk University, 2006. 60 p. 2. Danan M. Captioning and Subtitling: Undervalued Language Learning Strategies. In: Meta, 2004, (1), p. 67 - 80. 3. Dries J. Dubbing and Subtitling: Guidelines for Production and Distribution. Dsseldorf: European Institute for the Media, 1995. 351 p. 4. Luyken G. Overcoming Language Barriers in Television. Dubbing and subtitling for the European Audience. Manchester: The European Institute for the Media, 1991. 256 p. 5. Steiner G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1975. 310 p. 6. Daz J. Subtitling: the long journey to academic acknowledgement. In: The Journal of Specialised Translation, Issue 1, January, 2004, p. 50-70. 7. Gottlieb H. Subtitles, Translation & Idioms. Copenhagen: University of Copenhagen, 1997. 8. Gottlieb H. Screen Translation. Six Studies in Subtitling, Dubbing and Voice-over. Copenhagen: University of Copenhagen, 2001. 198 p. 9. Linde Z. The Semiotics of Subtitling. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. 168 p. 10. Szarkowska Agnieszka The Power of Film Translation // http://translationjournal.net/journal/32film.htm.

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DIFICULTI N CREAREA UNUI CURS FOS Lilia STRUGARI, lect. sup. univ., master Universitatea Liber Internaional din Moldova Trim ntr-o lume plin de schimbri rapide i diverse n toate domeniile i nu n ultimul rnd n domeniul educaiei i al comunicrii. Noile provocri pe care le aduce mondializarea i internaionalizarea n domeniul lingvisticii i care necesit rspunsuri la evoluia nevoilor i prioritilor n nvarea limbilor justific preocuparea profe sorilor pentru elaborarea proiectelor bazate pe respectarea principiilor de baz ale politicii lingistice educative. Multiplicarea posibilitilor de interaciune i de mobilitate n Europa n toate domeniile vieii active pe de o parte, constituirea unui spaiu educativ european, coeziunea social, nelegerea reciproc pe de alt parte, interesul tot mai mare al ntreprinderilor fa de recunoaterea limbii ca i competen profesional sunt realiti necesare n planificarea coerent a predrii limbilor destinat susinerii dezvoltrii unui bun nivel de competene comunicative n acord cu nevoile elevilor/studenilor i ale comunitii socio-economice, asigurrii achiziionrii unei competene interculturale care ar permite recunoaterea i acceptarea diferenelor culturale, ncurajarea pluri lingvismului ca i exprimare a diversitii i bogiei mijloacelor de comunicare (Holtzer, 2004). n acest context, predarea/nvarea unei limbi, - n cazul nostru limba francez este din ce n ce mai mult condiionat de cererea profesional; franceza se nva n scop profesional pentru c este necesar n exercitarea meseriei i se nva doar ceea ce are tangen cu practicarea acesteia. De aici i vine interesul pe care-l manifest profesorii fa de predarea francezei cu obiective specifice, domeniu particular al predrii limbii franceze ca limb strin (L. Danciu). O limb strin nu este doar o achiziionare, ea este un instrument, un loc unde achiziionarea i competenele se ntlnesc i creaz performana. Aceast performan se capt greu, atta timp ct pro fesorul i elevul nu-i definesc clar obiectivele, mijloacele i strategiile ce trebuie elaborate n acest proces care se schimb n dependen de necesiti. Ce trebuie s facem pentru a putea preda FOS? ntrebarea nu este 254

att de simpl cci exist mai muli factori lingvistici i profesionali care vor decide pedagogia FOS. n primul rnd trebuie sa distingem FOS de FLE. Noiunea de FOS a aprut prin anii 50 (Calmy, 2000. De-a lungul timpului aceast noiune a avut mai mult denumiri n funcie de scopurile utilitare i/sau profesionale (Holtzer, 2004) franceza funcional, franceza de specialitate, franceza profesional, franceza n scop profesional. FOS a aprut din nevoia de a adapta predarea FLE (franais langue tragre) unui public adult care dorete s capete sau s-i perfecioneze competenele n limba francez pentru a putea s o utilizeze n activitatea sa profesional sau s fac studii supe rioare n aceast limb. Aceasta este definiia FOS care apare n Dictionnaire de didactique du franais langue trabgre (CLE International, 2004). FOS este conceput pentru a rspunde nevoilor specifice ale elevilor (de obicei acetia sunt aduli care deja sunt angajai n cmpul muncii) i vizeaz nsuirea lingvistic a acestor activiti. Pentru a elabora un curs de FOS, trebuie s inem cont de dou tipuri de dificulti sau sarcini dificile : conceperea unui curs de FOS pe de o parte i frecventarea cursului de FOS pe de alt parte. n cele ce urmeaz mi propun s tratez aceste dificulti din dou aspecte. Dificulti cu care se confrunt conceptorul pe de o parte i dificulti cu care se confrunt elevul pe de alt parte. La moment, conceptorului i lipsete formarea n FOS, acest domeniu fiind deseori ignorat de profesorii de limb francez, mai ales de acei din rile non-francofone. Formrile n acest domeniu sunt nc limitate (Zbardi, 2005). Cel mai des, acestor profesori, care au o pregtire mai mult literar, le vine greu s elboreze un curs de FOS, cci ignor realitatea cursului, publicul, necesitile acestuia, obiectivele, metodologia predrii, etc. Fa n fa cu acest realitate, profesorul adopt dou atitudini: fie refuz s elaboreze acest curs de FOS, fie l elaboreaz fr s cunosc metodologia bazndu-se pe un manual de FOS n domeniul vizat. n acest caz, formarea nu satisface ateptrile elevilor, care pn la urm ajung s abandoneze cursul. O alt problem sau dificultate este absena contactului cu publicul vizat (elevii) nainte de nceperea cursului. Cererea de a concepe o formare vine de obicei din partea unei instituii i conceptorul, de ce la mai multe ori, nu are posibilitatea de a intra n 255

contact cu publicul pentru a putea afla care sunt obiectivele, ateptrile acestuia, ceea ce joac un rol deciziv n eleborarea cursului. Absena contactului direct cu elevii compilc i mai mult sarcina profesorului. n acest caz, profesorul face ipoteze referitor la necesitaile de limb i situaiile vizate. Aceste ipoteze pot fi confirmate sau infirmate doar dup ce cursul a nceput. Aceast situaie l oblig pe profesor s introduc modificri n cursul su, n dependen de realitatea situaiei. Iat de ce este imperativ contactul direct cu publicul vizat sub form de ntlniri, discuii, sondaje, grile, etc. Conceptorul deseori elaboreaz un curs al crui coninut l ignor mai mult sau mai puin, ns poate cunoate alte domenii, de exemplu, dorind s elaboreze un curs de FOS pentru recepionitii de la un hotel, profesorul are deja o imagine a acestui domeniu, cci cu siguran a cltorit peste hotare unde a avut posibilitatea s comunice cu turitii. Cele mai multe manuale de FOS pun accentul anume pe acest tip de discurs n abordarea comunicativ. Dar de exemplu, n cazul elborrii unui curs de FOS pentru oftalmologii non-francofoni care trebuie s asiste la o fromare ntr-un spital francez, profesorul este incapabil s formulze ipoteze referitor la situaiile comunicative cu care se vor confrunta aceti medici. n acest caz, contactul cu publicul vizat, adic cu medicii oftalmologi, n cazul nostru, este inevitabil. Nu este obligatoriu pentru conceptor s cunoasc domeniul n care trebuie s elboreze cursul de FOS, este suficient s se fami liarizeze cu acesta, doar pentru a putea afla structura sa, funcionalitatea, situaiile de comunicare, lexicul recurent. Pentru acesta, conceptorul are la dispoziia sa internetul, revistele de specialitate, poate contacta specialitii n domeniu, poate asista la colocvii, seminare, etc. O alt dificultate cu care se poate confrunta conceptorul unui curs de FOS, este colectarea datelor necesare pentru elaborarea cursului, or de cele mai multe ori acesta este pus n faa unui domeniu nou n raport cu formarea sa. Aceast problem este legat cu prece denta. ntru ajutorul conceptorului vine site-ul fos.com, care propune un ghid de resurse pedagogice care include manuale, reviste, articole, dicionare, CD-Rom-uri, site-uri internet n diversele domenii ale FOS. Conceptorul constat uneori o schimbare a necesitilor publicului vizat pe parcursul formrii sale; acesta din urm ar putea s cear 256

unele teme noi care nu erau prevzute iniial n program. O astfel de situaie l oblig pe conceptor s-i revad cursul i numaidect s introduc anumite schimbri pentru a atinge rezultatele scontate. Pe de alt parte, se impun i dificultile cu care se poate confrunta publicul vizat. n primul rnd, acetia nu au posibilitatea de a alege. Unii elevi ajung s frecventeze cursuri utilitatea crora o ignor, nefiind motivai, ns motivarea este un factor foarte impor tant n procesul de nvare n general, dar mai ales n proce sul de nvare al unei limbi strine. O alt problem este timpul limitat: cei mai muli din persoanele care urmeaz un curs de FOS sunt profesioniti care sunt deja angajai, fapt ce limiteaz timpul care ar putea fi acordat nvrii. Dac instituia n care aceti profesioniti activeaz le propune s frecventeze cursurile de FOS, atunci publicul are timp pentru a nva. Dar sunt i situaii cnd acetia sunt obligai s urmeze cursurile dup o zi grea de munc sau n timpul concediului. i dac nu sunt motivai pentru aceste cursuri de FOS, pn la urm le abandoneaz. Aadar, conceptorul trebuie s in neaprat cont i de timpul limitat pentru nvare al publicului vizat. O dificultate nu mai puin important este deplasarea. De multe ori, elevii sunt obligai s se deplaseze ntr-un loc mai ndeprtat de domiciliul lor sau de locul de munc pentru a qasista la cursurile de FOS, care de obicei, se in n oraele mai mari (la noi n ar, doar la Chiinu). Aceste delpasri iau mult timp, n acest caz sunt propuse formri la distan, pe care publicul le pate urma din orice col al lumii, ceea ce le permite s-i aleag ora cursului n dependen de orarul de lucru. O dificultate de baz ar putea fi i lipsa de surse financiare. Cursurile tradiionale de FOS cost scump avnd n vedere timpul care trebuie acordat nvrii i deplasrile ce trebuiesc fcute. La aceasta se mai adaug programul FOS care vizeaz n special un public foarte limitat (chimie organic, oftalmologie, chirurgie estetic, gestionarea ntreprinderilor, etc.). ntr-o astfel de situaie, conceptorul se afl n faa unui public mic. Rentabilitatea cursurilor este mic pentru conceptor avnd n vedere timpul cheltuit pentru elaborarea cursului (analiza necesitilor, colectarea datelor, pregtirea activitilor comunicative, etc.). Pe de alt parte, publicul pltete scump pentru 257

aceste cursuri deoarece numrul de persoane ce frecventeaz cursul, este restns. i ultima dificultate este cea psihologic. Cea mai mare parte din persoanele care urmeaz cursul de FOS sunt aduli care deja au terminat studiile de ceva vreme (este vorba de responsabili sau funcionari care cu greu se ncadreaz n procesul de nvare). De multe ori, la cursurile de FOS, acetia se afl alturi de tineri car e sunt mai energii, care abia au iit de pe bncile universitilor. Iata de ce ei ezit s asiste la aceste cursuri tradiionale, mulumindu -se cu un manual n domeniul vizat, ceea ce nu satisface necesitile ateptrii. n urma analizei tuturor acestor dificulti i innd cont de fiecare din aceste particulariti, conceptorul poate s purcead la elborarea cursului de FOS, care include trei etape mari: analiza, cercetarea; conceperea, elaborarea; punerea n aplicare i evaluarea (Calmy Bertrand, 2000). n cadrul primei etape se adun toat informaia util referitoare la publicul vizat, contextul i profesorii nsrcinai cu acest proiect. Sinteza acestor informaii permite elaborarea unui caiet de sarcini. Pe parcursul celei de a doua etap, se vizeaz definirea situaiilor n care este utilizat franceza, constituirea unui corpus pentru a putea releva obiectivele de nvare, elaborarea unui program i dosare pedagogice i evaluari. A treia etap este punerea n aplicare a proiectului, cu alte cuvinte nceperea cursului cu elevii. Este important s observm desfurarea procesului, s verificm dac obiectivele fixate au fost atinse i care este gradul de satisfacie al elevilor. La sfrit trebuie s facem o evaluare global a proiectului pentru a putea reaciona n caz de necesitate. Scopul pe care ni l-am pus n acest articol a fost n primul rnd o reflectare asupra dificultilor cu care se confrunt conceptorii de cursuri de FOS pe de o parte i pe de alt parte dificultile ce pot surveni din partea elevilor/publicului vizat. Avnd n vedere aceste dificulti i ncercnd s le nltur, voi ncerca n urmtorul articol s descriu etapele crerii unui curs de FOS, cu elaborarea activitilor n cadrul cursului, evaluarea competenelor publicului vizat, fapt care imi va permite n viitor s pun n aplicare acest proiect car e (la moment este unul teoretic) vizeaz elaborarea unui manual de 258

francez destinat unui public specific, adic studenilor de la limbi strine aplicate la ULIM.
BIBLIOGRAFIE 1. Calmy B., Calmy A.-M. Francais a usage professionnel. Referentiel. Cavilam, Centre audio-visuel de langue moderne, 2000. 2. Holtzer G. Du francais fonctionnel ou frncais sur objectifs specifiques: histoire des nations et pratiques, dans le Francais dans le monde, Recherche et application: de la langue aux metiers, janv. 2004, CLE International et FIPE. 3. Zbardi A. Se former au francais sur objectifs specifiques, CIEP, Sevres, 2005. 4. www.fos.com. 5. http://www.francparler.org/articles/zbardi2005.htm.

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ASPECTE SEMANTICO-LEXICALE ALE TERMINOLOGIEI DIN DOMENIUL ECONOMIC Gabriela AGANEAN, conf. univ., dr., Universitatea de Stat din Moldova Limba, n calitatea sa de instrument esenial de comunicare, se afl ntr-un proces continuu de dezvoltare. Progresul n limb, aspectul su dinamic, schimbrile care se produc n mod permanent se datoreaz, n mare parte, factorilor extralingvistici, ceea ce constituie o tendin de adecvare a limbii la necesitile mereu crescnde de comunicare. Vocabularul unei limbi este cel care ofer cele mai convingtoare argumente c limba progreseaz. n timp, inventarul lingvistic devine tot mai bogat. Marile transformri din societate, schimbrile n modul de via al oamenilor au fost nsoite de numeroase modificri lingvistice care mbogesc i perfecioneaz vocabularul. Evoluia progresiv a vocabularului este determinat de necesitile de exprimare a noilor semnificaii n procesul de cunoatere obiectiv i subiectiv a realitii extralingvistice. Limba este instrumentul de comunicare care identific o societate. Longevitatea unei limbi depinde de aptitudinea ei de a se adapta la toate domeniile de comunicare. O limb redus la o comunicare informal ncepe s-i piard prestigiul i poate disprea. n acest sens, limbajele de specialitate reprezint nite elemente-cheie n dezvoltarea unei limbi ca mijloc de comunicare. Societile moderne trebuie s dispun de o limb actualizat care ar permite comunicarea pe plan internaional. Limba trebuie s posede o terminologie modern, creat prin mijloace proprii sau de mprumut, care s -i permit s fac referin la toate conceptele noi aprute odat cu evoluia societii i progresului tehnologic. Interdependena ntre limba general i limba specializat nu numai c este incontestabil, dar i necesar, avnd n vedere c acest raport constituie o marc a dinamismului lingvistic, a racordrii limbii la necesitile de comunicare a locutorilor si. Natura limbii se constituie astfel nct limba general i limbile de specialitate s coexiste n cadrul unei limbi naturale. Prin limb de specialitate nelegem un ansamblu complet de fenomene lingvistice care se produc n cadrul unei sfere precise de 260

comunicare i sunt limitate la subiectele, inteniile i condiiile specifice (J. M. Klinkeberg). Sporirea rolului limbajelor specializate n comunicarea cotidian a generat apariia i dezvoltarea terminologiei cu statut i caracter specific, interdisciplinar. Terminologia evolueaz odat cu progresul tiinei i a tehnologiei, cu creterea importanei informaiei i a comunicrii. Terminologia contribuie la dezvoltarea limbilor, precum i la realizarea unei comunicri precise ntre specialiti. n condiiile globalizrii, ce afecteaz toate sectoarele vieii politice, economice i culturale ale unei comuniti lingvistice, se produce un intens schimb de valori. De aceea, sensul actual al termenului este primordial, iar terminologia constituie rezultatul concordrii conceptelor i termenilor. Terminologia are un caracter inter- i transdisciplinar (la formarea i funcionarea termenilor este valorificat aportul lingvisticii, informaticii, diverselor domenii de specialitate). Muli termeni din domeniul economic sunt mprumutai din alt e domenii: grafic (margin) marj; margin lending credit marginal; margin of profit marj a profitului; geometrie (spiral) spiral inflaionist: a crete sau a scdea n spiral (despre preuri), downward spiral; economic spiral; transport (engine of growth) mecanismul creterii, Asias engine of growth; medicin shock therapy terapie de oc; symptoms simptome; diagnosis diagnoz; paralysis economic paralysis criz economic; on the mend pe cale de a se recupera; The economy is on the mend economia se redreseaz; World Bank shock therapy terapia de oc a Bncii Mondiale; arhitectur foundation baz, cornerstone piatr de temelie; healthy economic foundation fundament economic sntos; aviaie take-off point decolare; soft landing aterizare uoar; a soft landing rat a creterii suficient pentru evitarea recesiunii, dar destul de sczut pentru a genera o rat a inflaiei nalt i dobnzi mari; navigaie: budgetary ship politic bugetar; Unless the South Africans run a tight budgetary ship Dac Africa de Sud nu va adopta o politic bugetar drastic; geografie landscape peisaj; a more attractive financial landscape un peisaj financiar atractiv; competitive landscape peisajul competitiv. Lund n consideraie faptul c tiina este tot mai accesibil unor mase din ce n ce mai largi ale societii umane, se impune 261

utilizarea unei terminologii clare i adecvate. Prin urmare precizia terminologiei tiinifice este absolut necesar. n limbajele specializate, efortul principal este direcionat spre dezambiguizare. Acest efort trebuie s garanteze comunicarea dintre specialiti, precum i tran sferul de cunotine, s evite neclaritile i erorile de orice fel. Comunicarea e posibil doar atunci cnd un termen este atribuit unui concept sau este prezentat ntr-un mod nonambiguu. n terminologie, monosemia reprezint situaia optim de abordare a relaiei termen-concept. Astfel, la traducerea termenilor monosemantici nu se observ mari dificulti, iar echivalena este total: economic surplus surplus economic; land survey ridicare topografic; real estate proprietate imobiliar etc. Acest fenomen ideal apare rar; nu exist o cale pentru a preveni achiziionarea adiional de ctre termeni a unui coninut prin aplicaii extensive, ceea ce conduce la polisemie. Analiza polisemiei, sinonimiei, antonimiei s-a dovedit relevant n studiul terminologiei economice. n procesul de traducere, polisemia termenilor este un fenomen nefast i impertinent, precum este i sinonimia. n aceste condiii, dezambiguizarea semantic i contextual este o operaie strict necesar pentru terminologia studiat. Polisemia induce n eroare utilizatorul, iar acesta nu poate opera cu termeni concrei, contextuali. Vorbim, aici, de o polisemie intern (regulat): termenul liquidation (1) lichidare, achitare a unei datorii, (2) lichidare a socotelilor, (3) disfiinare (a unei societi), (4) fig. descotorisire, (5) descurcare, desluire. Polisemia apare atunci cnd un termen desemneaz unul sau mai multe concepte care sunt nrudite n anumite privine, cu toate c, n mod necesar, nu aparin aceluiai sistem de concepte. Polisemia se prezint drept un procedeu frecvent de creare a termenilor noi. Fenomenul polisemiei nu este ntotdeauna un factor binevenit (Georgeta Ciobanu). Polisemia termenilor economici cunoate dou forme: 1. polisemie extern (n cazul termenilor utilizai att n lexicul comun, ct i n lexicul specializat; termeni ai vocabularului gen eral cu un sens specializat n vocabularul economic i termeni ai voca bularului economic care au ptruns n lexicul comun prin procesul de determinologizare). Termenul inflation/inflaie semnific n metalimbajul economic: un: 1. fenomen specific perioadei de criz economic, constnd n deprecierea banilor de hrtie aflai n circulaie, care 262

duce la scderea puterii de cumprare a banilor; 2. ce depete necesarul, cu referin la sentimente, obiecte etc. Contextul economic: Experii Fondului estimeaz drept o realizare a Bncii Naionale rata sczut a inflaiei. Contextul publicistic: Inflaia de doleane sacrific operaionalitatea programelor. Termenul security are urmtoarele sensuri: 1. securitate, siguran; 2. garanie, gaj; 3. garant, girant; 4. pl. titluri/ hrtii de valoare. Contextul din limbajul comun: The head of security was a former policeman eful securitii era un fost poliist. Contextul economic: Banks are reluctant to lend without good security Bncile sunt reticente n acordarea de credite fr gaj cu o valoare considerabil; he holds several valuable securities deine cteva titluri de valoare. 2. polisemie intern (n cazul termenilor economici care au mai multe sensuri n domeniul economic). Termenul allowance: 1. Indemnizaie sum de bani care se acord cuiva n afara salariului, destinat s acopere cheltuielile fcute de un angajat n scopul ndeplinirii unei sarcini de serviciu; 2. rabat reducere de pre fa de preul cu amnuntul al mrfii; 3. toleran (admis la greutatea monedelor); 4. reducere; de exemplu: depreciation allowance reducere fiscal pentru amortizare; cost-of-living allowance indexare a salariilor. Raporturile semantice care genereaz polisemia intern sunt diverse i complexe: asociere ntre un sens concret i un sens abstract; asociere ntre un sens intelectual i un sens material/virtual i actual; sensuri paralele (care desemneaz aspecte particulare ale aceleiai noiuni generice); sens generic i sens specific. Sinonimia este un fenomen nefast pentru termeni i, spre deosebire de lexicul uzual, ea nu mbogete, ci mpiedic att comprehensiunea naional a termenului, ct i penetrarea mesajului terminologic chiar ntr-un cerc restrns de specialiti. Termenii economici atest un grad sporit de sinonimie, de exemplu: revizuirecontrol; failure-bankruptcy. This may result in risky decisions and even in eventual failure/ bankruptcy of the bank. Acest lucru poate duce la decizii riscante i chiar la un eventual faliment al bncii. 263

Termenii collateral garanie colateral, colateral pentru un mprumut; security interest dobnd de asigurare (pe care creditorul o primete de pe urma proprietii debitorului pentru asigurarea plii unui credit); guarantee garanie, gir, garant sunt n relaie de sinonimie. Almost all banks require a small business to offer collateral / security interest / guarantee for a loan. Majoritatea bncilor solicit micilor afaceri s ofere o garanie pentru un mprumut; mortgage holder creditor-mortgagee creditor ipotecar. She said that the buy the house from the mortgage holder / motgagee and lease it back. Ea a spus c cumpr casa de la un creditor ipotecar. Sinonimia ca expresie a raporturilor de analogie dintre termeni, trebuie s fie evitat, n principiu, n cadrul limbajului de specialitate financiar-bancar, deoarece contravine nevoii de precizie a exprimrii i poate fi cauza unor interpretri eronate (Georgeta Ciobanu). Antonimia terminologic este mai puin rspndit i este proprie termenilor economici care, din punct de vedere al coninutului noional, desemneaz fenomene, procese economice: purchase-sale, inflationdeflation cumprare-vnzare, inflaie-deflaie etc.; antonimia marcat morfologic (antonime homolexe) prin prefixe i prefixoide: solvency-insolvency solvabilitate-insolvabilitate; antonimia realizat prin termeni nenrudii formal (antonime heterolexe): sale-purchase, export-import, demand-offer vnzare-cumprare, export-import, cerere-ofert etc.; antonimia bazat pe substantive de gen, precum sunt termenii: seller-buyer, debtor-creditor vnztor(oare)-cumprtor(oare), debitor-creditor. Echivalena se refer la aceleai fenomene exprimate n dou sau mai multe limbi. Baza comun ntru determinarea echivalenei rmne a fi definiia. Ea reprezint instrumentul de ncredere pentru estimarea echivalenei. Definirea conceptului are un rol deosebit de important n traducerile specializate. Doar cunoscnd definiiile conceptelor n limba surs i limba int putem fi siguri c termenul a fost tradus corect. Termenul romn antrepozit vamal de tip D poate fi uor tradus prin warehouse type D. Pentru termenii n romn antrepozit vamal de tip A i antrepozit vamal de tip B avem echivalentele warehouse type A, warehouse type B. 264

ns dac vom consulta definiiile vom observa c antrepozitul vamal de tip D din Republica Moldova nu este echivalent cu antrepozitul vamal de tip D din Uniunea European. Codul vamal al Republicii Moldova Nr. 1140 din 02.11.2005 definete antrepozitul vamal de tip D n Republica Moldova n felul urmtor: Antrepozit care este gestionat de organele vamale. n Uniunea European antrepozit vamal de tip D este definit astfel: Antrepozit privat unde doar antrepozitarul poat s depoziteze bunurile, unde antrepozitarul este aceeai persoan ca i depozitarul, dar nu este obligatoriu i proprietarul bunurilor. Comparnd cele dou definiii este clar c sintagma antrepozit vamal de tip D din Republica Moldova nu poate fi echivalent cu warehouse type D din Uniunea European. n limba englez acesta fiind warehouse type F: Antrepozit public unde oricine poate s-i depoziteze bunurile i care este gestionat de organele vamale. Relaiile economice dintre diferite state genereaz armonizarea terminologiei cu cea din Uniunea European n vederea evitrii confuziei conceptuale. Crearea unei baze de date terminologice (BDT) are drept obiectiv realizarea acestei ajustri la nivel internaional. Analiza termenilor demonstreaz utilitatea i importana studierii relaiilor semantice n terminologia economic. Contactul i relaiile dintre unitile lexicale i, respectiv, terminologie e foarte important pentru sensul lor. Termenii cu o frecven mare n pres i chiar n comunicarea obinuit manifest o puternic tendin de determinologizare. Aceasta este susinut i pus n eviden de dezvoltarea unor relaii semantice ca polisemia i sinonimia. Terminologia economic este, n mod particular, dinamic, care se manifest att la nivelul inventarului, ct i al sensurilor. Interferenele unor sensuri specializate cu cele uzuale reprezint o dificultate n decodarea exact a termenilor. Dicionarele (att cele generale, ct i cele economice) au diferite deficiene puse n eviden de analiza ntreprins. n general, cea mai important este c nu in pasul (ca inventar i definiii) cu dinamica domeniului. Se constat dou tendine importante i oarecum contradictorii: pe de o parte, tendina de a dezambiguiza i preciza sensul specializat prin diferite mijloace contextuale, iar pe da alt parte, libertile unor texte din presa de larg circulaie arat i o 265

serie de neutralizri ale termenilor care pot afecta sensul specializat, mai ales din perspectiva definirii lui riguroase. Interesul social larg pentru unii termeni din acest domeniu rspndii prin ntreaga mass-media are consecine directe asupra dinamicii lexico-semantice a lexicului comun. Polisemia unor termeni de baz i impunerea unor sensuri conotative conduc la o mbogire a lexicului comun i a lexicului tiinific interdisciplinar.
BIBLIOGRAFIE 1. Andrianov S. N., Sorokina L. N. Textbook of Economic Translation. Moscow, 1961. 2. Ciobanu G.. Elemente de terminologie. Timioara: Mirton, 1984. 3. Hough J. N. Scientific Terminology. New York, 1953. 4. Newmark P. Approaches to Translation. Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall, 1988. 5. Nida E. A. About Translation: Multilingual Matters. Clevedon, Philadelphia, Adelaide, Multilingual Metters Ltd., 1964.

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CRUCIAL CLASSROOOM MANAGEMENT ISSUES Vera TABUREANU, Senior Lecturer, Moldova State University Classroom management refers to managing the student studying in classroom, the teacher and student's behavior and activity; it is the way teachers organize what goes on in the classroom. It contributes directly to the efficiency of teaching and learning as the most effective activities can be made almost useless if the teacher does not organize them efficiently. But discipline has different meanings. In other words, the teacher adopts certain methods and measures to deal with student's misbehavior issues. There are four basic views of classroom management. The first one is that management should embrace the view of full-scale development. The development of human beings is the basic responsibility of modern education. The second one is that students are the main body of management. Students are the main body of studying, and they are also the main body of their own development. All their independence and difference should receive teachers' respect. Thus, management should embrace the view of democracy and cooperation. Classroom instruction is a bilateral activity between teaching and studying, the process of classroom management, which is not only a kind of special cognitive process, but also is a process of complex psychological experience, it's a process of social practice in a certain space and time scope, it is an interactive process between the teachers and students, teachers and students affect each other. The last but not the least, management should have the view of high effective benefit. The goal of classroom instruction management is spending little time and energy in teaching. Classroom management focuses on three major components: content management, conduct management, and covenant management. Content management does not refer to skills peculiar to teaching a particular subject but rather to those skills that cut across subjects and activities [1, p. 128]. Doyle stressed that the core of instructional management is gaining and maintaining student cooperation in learning activities. Related to content management, Kounin places a special emphasis on instructional management skills, sequencing and 267

integrating additional instructional activities, and dealing with instruction-related discipline problems. Froyen and Iverson state that Content management occurs when teachers manage space, materials, equipment, the movement of people, and lessons that are part of a curriculum or program of studies [1, p. 128]. Conduct management is centered on ones beliefs about the nature of people. By integrating knowledge about human diversity (and individuality, at the same time) into a particular instructional philosophy, teachers could manage their classrooms in a better, more effective way. Researchers have pointed out the importance of assisting students in positive behaviors. In planning classroom management, teachers should consider using an assertive communication style and behavior. In addition, they should always know what they want their students to do and involve them in the respective learning activities, under the general conditions of clearly and explicitly stated schoolwide and classroom rules. According to Iverson and Froyen, conduct management is essential to the creation of a foundation for an orderly, task-oriented approach to teaching and learning, thus leading to granting students greater independence and autonomy through socialization. [1, p. 217]. Conduct management refers to the set of procedural skills that teachers employ in their attempt to address and resolve discipline problems in the classroom [1, p. 181]. An effective conduct management plan should also refer to teacher control and administration of consequences. The following components of such a plan are focused on in this summary: acknowledging responsible behaviors, correcting irresponsible and inappropriate behavior, ignoring, proximity control, gentle verbal reprimands, delaying, preferential seating, time owed, time-out, notification of parents or guardians, written behavioral contract, setting limits outside the classroom, and reinforcement systems. All of these components are presented so they can be identified in examples of best teaching practices. Covenant management stresses the classroom group as a social system. Covenant management focuses on the classroom group as a social system that has its own features that teachers have to take into account when managing interpersonal relationships in the classroom [1, p. 186]. Teacher and student roles and expectations shape the classroom into an environment conducive to learning. In other 268

words, the culture of any given school is unique to that school. However, it is directly influenced by the culture of the larger community whose educational goals are to be met. A strong connection between school and community must be constantly revised and modified according to the requirements of societal dynamism. As schools become very diverse, teachers and students should become aware of how to use diversity to strengthen the school and classroom social group. Concerning content management there are some general guidelines for ordering components of a lesson suggested by P. Ur. The teacher has to: - put the harder tasks earlier; - have quieter activities before lively ones; - think about transitions; - pull the class together at the beginning and the end; - end on a positive note. There are numerous way in which a teacher can vary a lesson: by changing tempo, organization, mode and skills focused in class, difficulty of tasks, discussed topics, mood, stir and settle activities and passive-active tasks. The questioning techniques are important ones, first of all there are numerous reasons for questioning in class: - To provide a model for language or thinking. - To find out something from the learners ( facts, ideas, opinions). - To check or test understanding, knowledge or skill. - To get learners to be active in their learning. - To direct attention to the topic being learned. - To inform the class via the answers of the stronger learners rather than through the teacher's input. - To provide weaker learners with an opportunity to participate. - To stimulate thinking( logical, reflective or imaginative); to probe more deeply into issues; - To get learners to review and practise previously learnt material. - To encourage self-expression. To communicate to learners that the teacher is genuinely interested in what they think. Teachers should apply the following criteria while formulating their questions: clarity, learning value, interest, availability, extension, and teacher reaction. 269

Regarding conduct management P. Ur gives the following recommendations to the teachers: - Prepare more than you need; - Note in advance which component(s) of the lesson you will sacrifice if you find yourself with too little time for everything! - Keep a watch or clock easily visible. - Do not leave the giving of homework to the last minute! - If you have papers to distribute and a large class, do not try to give every paper yourself to every student! - If you are doing group work, give instructions and make sure these are understood before dividing into groups and handing out materials [3, p. 223]. Classroom discipline is the primordial condition of successful teaching. Classroom discipline is a state in which both teacher and learners accept and consistently observe a set of rules about behaviour in the classroom whose function is to facilitate smooth and efficient teaching and learning in a lesson. P. Ur suggests an extensive list of practical hints on classroom management that would work for any teacher and any classroom: - Start by being firm with students, you can relax later. - Get silence before you start speaking to the class. - Know and use the students' names. - Prepare lessons thoroughly and structure them firmly. - Be mobile: walk around the class. - Start the lesson with a bangand sustain interest and curiosity. - Speak clearly. - Make sure your instructions are clear. - Have extra material prepared (e.g. to cope with slower/fasterworking students). - Look at the class when speaking and learn how to 'scan'. - Make work appropriate (to pupils age, ability, cultural background). - Develop an effective questioning technique. - Develop the art of timing your lesson to fit the available period. - Vary your teaching techniques. - Anticipate discipline problems and act quickly. - Avoid confrontations. - Clarify fixed rules and standards and be consistent in applying them. 270

Show yourself as supporter and helper to the students. Don't patronize students treat them with respect. Use humour constructively. Choose topics and tasks that will activate students. Be warm and friendly to the students [3, p. 263]. In conclusion it should be stated that quality educational institutions are defined by teacher effectiveness and student achievement under the auspices of building strong interpersonal skills. In this light, teacher and student relationships are essential to ensuring a positive school and classroom atmosphere. Classroom management discipline problems can be dealt with either on an individual basis (between the teacher and the student) or by group problem solving (class meetings). As mutual trust builds up between the teacher and students, the latter are gradually released from teacher supervision by becoming individually responsible. This is how both educators and students become co-participants in the teaching-learning process, striving to make the most of themselves and their collective experience.
1. BIBLIOGRAPHY Froyen L. A., & Iverson A. M. Schoolwide and classroom management: The reflective educator-leader. Upper Saddle River, NJ: PrenticeHall, 1999. Harmer J. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Pearson Education Limited, 2001. Ur P. A Course in Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press, 2007.

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