SomeKeyManagement Optionsforincreasing SoilOrganicCarbon

Aprimerofpracticalmanagement forthoseinterestedinmanaging soilcarbon

Preparedby AlexMcBratneyandUtaStockmann FacultyofAgriculture,Food&Natural Resources

March2011

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The importance of soil organic carbon in combination with the potential cobenefits of increasing food security, biodiversity and overall ecosystem resilience is commonly termed the winwin of soil carbon sequestration (SCS). SCS can be achieved by increasing the biomass and/or the soil organic carbon component and theirmaintenanceovertime. Following on from the SCS Stakeholder Workshop on 3rd February 2011, we have drawn together, primarily for interested land managers, a list of some management practices that are known to be successful in optimising the accumulation of soil C (N.B. The numbering in this list is not a ranking of most effective practices.). However, soil properties such as texture and mineral suite do play a key role in soil organic carbon stabilization and hence sequestration (i.e. sand less than clay, kaolin less than smectite), as well as the overall environmental conditions prevalent at a site. The following management strategies should therefore only be seen as fitfor purposemanagementoptions. Knownmanagementoptionstoincreasesoilorganiccarbon(SOC): 1. NitrogenfixingplantstendtoaccumulatemoresoilCthanotherplantspecies (i.e. select legume based species in cropping rotations such as chickpea or lucerne) Increased N inputs most likely increase soil C storage by increasing biomass diversity and production and most likely by decreasing the decomposition of soil C. For instance, the metaanalysis of 18 case studiesconfirmedthatNfixingtreespeciesalwaysaccumulatedmore soilC(Binkley,2005).Moreover,astudybyKayeetal.(2000)showed that Nfixers (Albizia compared to Eucalyptus trees) increased the soil NavailabilitybutdecreasedtheavailabilityofsoilP.Nfixersalsotend to add fresh C to the soil which is preferentially decomposed comparedtoolderCstoredinthesoil. 2. Introduction of perennial (crop) species over annual (crop) species when possible Cinputlevelssuchastheadditionofbiomassareessentialtostabilize soil C levels. The use of multiple perennial species expands the duration of the growing season and therefore increases the biomass input above and belowground (i.e. shoot and root C). Moreover, the introductionofperennialplantspeciesreducesthedisturbanceofthe soil and therefore helps to prevent soil erosion and leaching (Luo et al.,2010).

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3. Increasingperenniality For instance, the practice of growing greenmanure crops such as vetch in between the crop growing season. However, this strategy may be limited principally by the availability of water in Australian agricultural systems. The idea is to maintain an active soil biota continually. 4. Retainplant(i.e.cropstubble)residuesonthefieldtomaintainacertainlevel ofbiomassinputtothesoil(freshC) 5. ApplicationofBiochar BiocharorblackCismostlyresistanttomicrobialdecompositionand hasbeenproposedasamethodtopermanentlystoreC(Lehmannet al.,2008).Ithasbeenpostulatedthatthestabilityofbiocharinsoilsis related to its aromatic chemical structure and its ability to persist through different stages of hybridization (Schmidt and Noack, 2000). Its ability to enhance the functionality of agricultural soils depends mostlyonitschemicalpropertieswhichinturndependonthequality of the feedstock, the temperature used during its production, how weathereditisaswellastheinitialqualitiesofthesoilamended(Sohi et al., 2010). The application (rate, method, properties) of biochar to increase SOC therefore needs to be matched to soil and plant requirements. Biochar applications may show profitability under a range of carbon prices and systems (Roberts et al., 2009). However, it is imperative to account for all factors involved (i.e. biomass (waste) availability, production and processing of biochar, soil benefits) to decide on the benefitsofbiocharasasoilamendment. 6. Applicationoforganicwastesareeffective,somemorethanothers The application of (animal) manure is much more beneficial in enhancing soil C than using straw which is one of the main amendmentsusedinAustralia.However,theapplicationofmanureis limitedinAustraliabecauseofproductavailability. 7. Rotationalgrazing Rotational grazing involves the regular movement of animal stock to fresh pastures to maximise the quality of the feed stock (forage pasture)andtoretainplantbiomass.

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8. Pasture cropping, using perennial tropical grasses such as Kikuyu, Rhodes grass or Paspalum andnative perennial grassessuch as Redgrass or Warrego summergrass Pasture cropping involves the planting of winter crops directly into summer growing perennial pastures to benefit from their complementary seasonal growth phases without having a summer fallow. This method has the advantage of extending the growing season and retaining fresh C input levels. However, it may reduce thetotalyieldofthecroppingsystem(BadgeryandMillar,2009). 9. Chooseconservation/notillageoverintensivetillagewhenpossible In general, tillage leads to a decline in SOC stocks. Heavy tillage practices stimulate soil turnover by disturbing the soil physically and enhancing the decomposition of aggregateassociated soil organic carbon and increasing soil respiration (Paustian et al., 2000). Most likely, this practise results in a decrease in the amount of intra aggregate light fraction organic matter and some organomineral organicmatter(protectedCoroldC).Researchhasalsoshownthat the incorporation of plant residues (fresh C) may lead to the decomposition of old C buried at depth through the stimulation of mineralisation rates, activated by microbial nutrient and energy supply (Fontaine et al., 2003). Cultivation methods that potentially exposeoldCtotheatmosphereshouldthereforebeavoided. Conservation/Notillage farming retains biomass residues, which reduces soil erosion, improves infiltration and the waterholding capacityofthesoil. 10. Current models predict that higher yield and higher residue return and therefore increased soil carbon contents, can be achieved by increasing the wateruseefficiencyandyield 11. Some radical agricultural technologies and innovative biological farming practices may be beneficial for soil carbon sequestration (CAVEAT these have notbeenevaluatedsufficientlyusingscientificprotocols) New technologies such as the Canadian BioAgtive TM Emission system have been developed that claim to potentially achieve soil C sequestration. BioAgtives exhaust technology method has been promotedtofertilizethesoilwhilsttilling.Theclaimedbenefitsofthe systemaretostimulatesoilnutrientreleaseanduptakewhichinturn has a positive effect on plant growth, as well as sequestering C

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(resultingfromexhaustfumes)inthesoilasopposedtoreleasingitto theatmosphere. Organic materials containing organic fractions or organisms (i.e. compost teas) and organic materials containing enzymatic activity and/or hormones appear to have a positive effect on soil C levels (QuiltyandCattle,2011). Scientifically tested management practices, which are successful in Australian agriculturalsystemstoincreasesoilCaccumulation. Sanderman et al. (2010) and VandenBygaart et al. (2008) summarized changes in management practices that increased soil carbon levels in Australian and Canadian soils, respectively (Table 1). Luo et al. (2010) reviewed conservation agricultural practices (such as rotation cropping, conservation tillage and stubble retention and irrigation/fertilization)andfoundthatincreasingthecropfrequencyandperenniality and a combination of stubble retention and conservation tillage were the main drivers for soil organic carbon accumulation in the Australian systems studied. One of the major factors that influences the success of soil C accumulation is the increased total production of both above and below ground biomass that is promotedbysomeofthepracticeslisted(i.e.growingperennialplants). TableChangesinmanagementpracticesandtheirinfluenceonsoilC Changeinpractice Soilcarbonincrease (tonnesCperhectareperyear) Australia Croprotation 0.200.04 Stubbleretention 0.190.08 Reducedtillage 0.340.06 Croppingtopasture 0.30to0.60 Canada Intensivetilltonotill 0to0.16 Wheatfallowtocontinuouscropping 0.20to0.30 Annualtoperennials 0.45to0.77

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SoilCmanagementpracticesgoalsweneedtoachieve: a) Weneedtoestablishregionalbaselinevaluesforsoilcarbonunderarangeof management strategies. Different soil types have different soil C baselines under various agricultural practices, for instance, the baseline of soil C in a DermosolislowerthaninaVertosol(Luoetal.,2010). b) Accumulation of C is also gained by increasing the yield. To increase yields and the root/shoot ratio of crops research on genetic improvements is needed. We therefore have to establish/support plant breeding programs whoaimtoenhancecarboncapture. c) We need scientific peerreviewed papers that address the unknowns of biological (i.e. probiotic treatments) or other apparently innovative (i.e. exhaust fume technology method of BioAgtive TM Emissions systems) farming practices. There is anecdotal, but insufficient scientific evidence that these practices have a positive effect on sequestering soil C. We therefore also need modes of assessing innovative farming systems defined and operating. d) Wealsoneedtoimproveourcapabilitytopredictsoilcarbonoutcomes fora rangeofmanagementpractices.

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References Badgery,W.,andMillar,G.(2009).Pasturecropping.Primefacts.NSWDPI875. Binkley, D. (2005). How nitrogenfixing trees change soil carbon. In "Tree Species Effects on Soils: Implications for Global Change" (D. Binkley and O. Menyailo, eds.),pp.155164.Springer,Dordrecht. Fontaine, S., Mariotti, A., and Abbadie, L. (2003). The priming effect of organic matter: a question of microbial competition? Soil Biology and Biochemistry 35,837843. Kaye, J. P., Resh, S., Kaye, M., W., and Chimner, R. A. (2000). Nutrient and carbon dynamics in a replacement series of Eucalyptus and Alzbibia trees. Ecology 81,32673273. Lehmann, J., Skjemstad, J., Sohi, S., Carter, J., Barson, M., Falloon, P., Coleman, K., Woodbury, P., and Krull, E. (2008). Australian climatecarbon cycle feedback reducedbysoilblackcarbon.NatureGeoscience1,832835. Luo, Z., Wang, E., and Sun, O. J. (2010). Soil carbon change and its responses to agricultural practices in Australian agroecosystems: A review and synthesis. Geoderma155,211223. Paustian, K., Six, J., Elliott, E. T., and Hunt, H. W. (2000). Management options for reducingCO2emissionsfromagriculturalsoils.Biogeochemistry48,147163. Quilty, J., and Cattle, S. (2011). Use and understanding of organic amendments in Australianagricultureareview.AustralianJournalofSoilResearch49,126. Roberts, K. G., Gloy, B. A., Joseph, S., Scott, N. R., and Lehmann, J. (2009). Life cycle assessment of biochar systems: Estimating the energetic, economic, and climatechangepotential.EnvironmentalScience&Technology44,827833. Sanderman, J., Farquharson, R., and Baldock, J. (2010). Soil carbon sequestration potential: A review for Australian agriculture. A report prepared for the Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency CSIRO National ResearchFlagships. Schmidt, M. W. I., and Noack, A. G. (2000). Black carbon in soils and sediments: Analysis, distribution, implications, and current challenges. Global BiogeochemicalCycles14,777793. Sohi, S. P., Krull, E., LopezCapel, E., and Bol, R. (2010). A review of Biochar and its use and function in soil. In "Advances in Agronomy, Vol 105", Vol. 105, pp. 4782.ElsevierAcademicPressInc,SanDiego. VandenBygaart, A. J., McConkey, B. G., Angers, D. A., Smith, W., de Gooijer, H., Bentham, M., and Martin, T. (2008). Soil carbon change factors for the Canadian agriculture national greenhouse gas inventory. Canadian Journal of SoilScience88,671680.

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