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Geology
Low-pressure facies series metamorphism in an accretionary sedimentary prism, southern Alaska
Virginia B. Sisson and Lincoln S. Hollister Geology 1988;16;358-361 doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1988)016<0358:LPFSMI>2.3.CO;2

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Low-pressure facies series metamorphism in an accretionary sedimentary prism, southern Alaska


Virginia B. Sjsson,* Lincoln S. Hollister
Department of Geological and Geophysical Sciences, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544

ABSTRACT The low-pressure/high-temperature metamorphism of the Chugach metamorphic complex (Alaska) occurred in an ocean-continent convergence zone. To achieve the high temperatures at a relatively shallow depth in an accretionary prism, we propose the large-scale transport of heat by fluids, which preheated the metamorphic belt by tectonic focusing of fluids followed by injection of melts, both of which were generated downdip in a shallow subduction zone. INTRODUCTION The thermal structure associated with regional metamorphism has been attributed to a steady-state geotherm perturbed by overthrusting (e.g., Thompson and England, 1984), increased heat flow associated with voluminous
*Present address: Department of Geology & Geophysics, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77251.

calc-alkaline intrusions in island arcs (Miyashiro, 1961) and in continental settings (Lux et al., 1986), or increased heat flow from continental rifting (Wickham and Oxburgh, 1985). However, there are several occurrences of low-pressure/high-temperature (low-P/high-7) metamorphic suites for which the increased heat near the Earth's surface is not readily explained by these models. Hudson et al. (1979) and Hud-

son and Plafker (1982) described an occurrence of low-iVhigh -r metamorphism (Chugach metamorphic complex) developed on a regional scale in an accretionary prism at an oceancontinent convergent zone in southern Alaska and, following Marshak and Karig (1977), suggested that the anomalous thermal event might have been induced at a ridge-trench-trench triple junction along the continental margin. On the basis of new, detailed, structural and petrologic data from five localities in the region described by Hudson and Plafker (1982) and new 4 0 Ar/ 39 Ar data (Sisson et al., 1988), we find that the high temperatures in the ocean-continent convergent zone resulted from a combination of heat introduced by extensive horizontal, as well as vertical, transport of fluids followed by felsic

Figure 1. Metamorphic map of Chugach metamorphic complex revised from Hudson and Plafker (1982). Metamorphic zones are defined by first appearance of garnet, cordierite, or sillimanite. Rocks adjacent to complex are upper greenschist facies with chlorite and biotite. Random-dash pattern indicates plutons. Metamorphic temperatures (Cbold numbers) were estimated by using garnet-biotite equilibria (Ferry and Spear, 1978). Metamorphic pressures (kbarboxed or circled numbers) were estimated by using garnet-plagioclase-sillimanite-quartz (Ghent et al., 1979; Newton and Haselton, 1981) and garnet-muscovite-biotite-piagioclase (Ghent and Stout, 1981) geobarometers. Barbed lines indicate thrusts. Inset map shows location of complex relative to accreted terranes (Peninsular/Wrangellia, Chugach, and Prince William; adapted from Jones et al., 1984) in southern Alaska which are separated by Border Ranges fault system (BRFS) and Contact fault system (CFS). 358 GEOLOGY, v. 16, p. 358-361, April 1988

melts, both of which were generated from downdip in the subduction zone and possibly involved subduction of young, hot oceanic crust. GEOLOGIC CONSTRAINTS The Chugach metamorphic complex (Hudson et al., 1979; Hudson and Plafker, 1982; Miller et al., 1984) comprises the eastern part of the Chugach Mountains in southern Alaska (inset, Fig. 1). It is developed in the Maastrichtian and Campanian Valdez Group which is predominantly clastic argillite and graywacke deposited in a trench or deep-sea fan setting (Nielsen and Zuffa, 1982). On the basis of a seismic refraction study across the Chugach terrene, relict oceanic crust may be as little as 10 km below the present erosional level (Fuis et al., 1985; Page et al., 1986). At present, the belt of amphibolite fades rocks is more than 180 km long and averages 25 km in width (Hudson and Plafker, 1982). Parts of the northern and southern borders of the complex are truncated by faults (Fig. 1, inset). These separate the Chugach accretionary complex from younger terranes to the south and older terranes to the north. The core of the complex is migmatitic, and metamorphic grade decreases outward from the core to biotite grade within the area shown in Figure 1. There are both large- and small-scale felsic intrusions throughout the complex; they are most abundant in the core. Anatexis, which occurred locally within the core, generated granitic melts that are compositionally distinct from the felsic intrusive rocks. In this region there are two generations of structures that correlate with the second and third generations of structures observed by Nokleberg et al. (1988) in the Valdez Group along the Richardson Highway. South-verging folds are the first generation recognized. Farther southwest by 600 km, on Kodiak Island, the formation of south-verging folds in a similar setting is related to accretion of sediment by underplating and duplex formation (Sample and Fisher, 1986). The second deformation occurred after accretion of Prince William terrane, because biotite-cordierite grade rocks and plutons occur across the terrane boundary. Metamorphism and melting overlapped in time with development of second-generation north-verging folds, steeply dipping cleavage and schistosity, and near-horizontal east-west fold axes and lineations. Anatectic melts are concentrated in the fold hinges. This stage of deformation resulted in boudinage and folding of the felsic sills that were intruded parallel to the axial planes of southverging isoclinal folds. On the basis of preliminary data of Hudson and Plafker (1982), field relations at five localities studied in detail by Sisson et al. (1988), recent regional mapping of the U.S. Geological Survey, and age determinations, the thermal and tectonic history of the Chugach metamorphic complex is as follows. (1) Thickening of a clasGEOLOGY, April 1988

tic sediment wedge occurred during accretion after deposition of sediment during the Campanian and Maastrichtian (84-66 Ma). This was accompanied by development of southverging folds and by greenschist metamorphism. (2) These sediments were intruded by felsic sills and plutons prior to 53 Ma (hornblende K-Ar and 4 0 Ar/ 3 9 Ar dates). Except for weak foliation at their margins, the sills, which are metres to hundreds of metres thick, are unfoliated. (3) During heating to peak metamorphic temperatures, the later stages of deformation occurred in response to compression of crust weakened on the whole by injected layers of felsic melt. Additional melt then intruded along the present near-vertical foliation. Although the original north-dipping contacts were folded during this stage, excellent three-dimensional exposure allows recognition of the average northerly dip of the sills. The date of the later stage of deformation is constrained by the cooling dates of the sills. (4) Cooling of the plutons and metamorphic rocks through the biotite Ar retention temperature (350 C) occurred between 51 and 47 Ma (biotite K-Ar and ^ A r / ^ A r dates: Winkler and Plafker, 1981; G. Plafker, unpub. data; Sisson et al., 1988).

CONDITIONS OF METAMORPHISM The limits of the Chugach metamorphic complex are defined by disappearance of chlorite and appearance of biotite, cordierite, and/or garnet (Hudson and Plafker, 1982). In the north, the distribution of garnet relative to cordierite may suggest a slightly higher pressure of metamorphism there, possibly related to synmetamorphic thrusting. Andalusite is generally the stable aluminosilicate polymorph. Fibrolite, rare staurolite, and pseudomorphs of sillimanite after andalusite occur in the central zone of the complex. Overall, metamorphism is developed on a large scale, and temperature increases toward the core, but locally high temperatures occur near the contacts of large felsic intrusives (Fig. 1). Total pressure throughout the complex was between 2 and 3 kbar (200-300 MPa) on the basis of mineralogy (andalusite-sillimanite facies series), geobarometry (garnet-plagioclase-aluminosilicate-quartz,garnet-plagioclase-biotite-muscovite), and isochores of associated C02-rich fluid inclusions that pass through the calculated pressures at appropriate temperatures. Thus, amphibolite facies metamorphism occurred at a depth of about 10 km by heating of rocks from

Temperature (C)
Figure 2. Schematic pressure-temperature-time path for core of Chugach metamorphic complex. Arrows marked A and B show individual pressure-temperature paths during garnet growth in northern hanging wall (A) and southern footwall (B). Ages are from 4 0 Ar/ 3 9 Ar data on synmetamorphic tonalite sill with hornblende (square), biotite (circle), and plagioclase (triangle). Horizontal errors are derived from range in estimated argon blocking temperature. Heavy line is schematic pressure-temperature path. Final part of uplift path (dashed line) is unknown: either uplift began after steady-state geothermal gradients were established at 35 Ma, or uplift began before argon closure in biotite. 359

greenschist fades (300-400 C) to maximum temperatures of 600-650 C in the migmatitic core. Depth of burial for greenschist metamorphism is also constrained to be close to 10 km on the basis of the pressure indicated by isochores for synmetamorphic, low-salinity fluid inclusions if we assume entrapment at the temperature of greenschist metamorphism (V. Sisson, unpub. data). Locally, pressure of metamorphism changed during the garnet growth as calculated from garnet zoning profiles by the method of Spear and Selverstone (1983). In some regions, garnets grew during decompression; in other areas, they grew during compression (paths A and B, Fig. 2). It is reasonable to presume that the amphibolite facies metamorphism occurred during thrusting. CAUSE OF INITIAL HIGH THERMAL GRADIENT Most thermal models of subduction zones assume that a steady-state thermal gradient (10 C/km) in the accretionary wedge will result in low temperatures of 100-200 C at a depth of 10 km. Thus, a mechanism must be found to raise the ambient temperature by 200 to 300 C prior to the amphibolite facies metamorphism. Two possibilities are (1) heating of fluids at depth, followed by injection of hot fluids into the accretionary prism, and (2) heating by conduction during subduction either of hot, young oceanic crust or of a spreading ridge (Marshak and Karig, 1977). These two mechanisms may act together: heat may be conducted from young oceanic crust into entrained sediment (Clowes et al., 1987), and this heat may be transported to shallower levels by aqueous fluids liberated by dehydration of layer silicates within the sediment. Other sources of high geothermal gradients, such as conductive heating during burial (Birch et al., 1968), shear heating (Scholz, 1980), heating due to high radiogenic element content, or heating due to overthrusting of hot rocks (Oxburgh and Turcotte, 1974; Crawford and Mark, 1982; Thompson and England, 1984; Hodges and Royden, 1984), can be discounted because the rock properties and geologic setting are not appropriate for these processes. Progressive metamorphism of sediment as it is subducted could lead to release of water. This process may be similar to channelized advective dewatering documented in modern accretionary prisms (e.g., Moore et al., 1987; Ritger et al., 1987). Some support for this mechanism is the widespread occurrence of quartz veins in the greenschist facies part of the Valdez Group. Wood and Walther (1986) and Yardley (1986) calculated fluid:rock ratios of 6:1 to 1.5:1 for other areas with abundant quartz veins. There is evidence for abundant fluid flow through correlative accretionary sediments on Kodiak Island (Myers and Vrolijk, 1985). Either adiabatic or nonadiabatic rapid transport of hot fluids with
360

fluid:rock ratios of 4:1 to 1:1 could have provided sufficient heat to raise the temperature to that of greenschist facies because heat capacity of aqueous fluids is about four times that of average rock. Low-salinity aqueous fluid inclusions observed in several generations of quartz veins from the greenschist region support this model: the first pulse of fluid in each vein was hotter than the country rock, and the fluid temperature cooled following the initial injection (V. Sisson, unpub. data). The subducted oceanic plate may have been quite young at the time of metamorphism. Preliminary thermal modeling (James et al., 1986) shows that subduction of hot oceanic crust that was less than 0.5 m.y. old could have conducted sufficient heat into the overlying sediment within 2 km of the decollement. Hot young oceanic crust would plunge into the mantle at a shallow angle, which would also be consistent with the absence of an island arc in the area at 60-50 Ma (Winkler and Plafker, 1981). However, if subduction of young oceanic crust ceases, there will be a thermal pulse into the overriding plate that may generate the thermal anomaly. CAUSE OF HIGH-TEMPERATURE METAMORPHISM The metamorphic conditions suggest that metamorphic field gradients ranged from 35 C/km on the edge of the complex to 65 C/km in the core. This range in high metamorphic gradients, combined with the age data indicating rapid cooling (Fig. 2), implies that steady-state conductive heat flow was not achieved during metamorphism. Thus, advective or convective mechanisms of heat transport are likely. The injected felsic sills and plutons, although not apparently volumetrically abundant, must

have transported sufficient heat into the section to raise geotherms high enough to form regionally developed andalusite and cordierite. There was not a significantly larger volume of magma that passed through the complex at this time, because there is no eyidence for voluminous volcanism (Winkler and Plafker, 1981). According to Lux et al. (1986), several factors will influence the formation of large-scale metamorphic zones in response to magma injection. For example, shallow-dipping sills will have wider aureoles than would occur around steeply dipping cylindrical plutons. In addition, the initial temperature (300-400 C) of country rock is important to produce regional metamorphism because if the country rock were initially cool, then only narrow contact aureoles would develop. Both criteria are met in the Chugach metamorphic complex. The north-dipping attitudes of the sills suggest that at least some melt originated to the north of the Chugach metamorphic complex. In that the magmas were apparently generated by melting of subducted accretionary wedge sediment (Hudson et al., 1979), it is unlikely that they were generated from directly below within the accretionary prism because known thicknesses of modern accretionary prisms do not exceed about 20 km. This thickness is comparable to the total thickness of the Chugach metamorphic complex when the melts intruded; relict oceanic crust may now be only 10 km below the erosion thickness (Page et al., 1986), and metamorphic conditions imply that intrusion occurred at a depth of 10 km. SUMMARY A N D CONCLUSIONS The Chugach metamorphic complex is a low/Vhigh-T suite in an accretionary prism composed of tectonically thickened clastic sediment.

Figure 3. Schematic de6 5 - 6 0 Ma velopment of low-P/highT metamorphism in ChuHeating by gach metamorphic comAscending Fluids km plex. a: Initially, Valdez (H20,C02,CH4) Group sediments are burand/or ied, deformed, and heated Subduction of by either advection of hot Young Crust fluids or conduction from hot, buoyant, young oceanic crust; heating occurred between 65 and 60 Ma. Deformation involved N thrusting and formation of 6 0 - 5 0 Ma south-verging folds. Hot fluids are represented by Heating by mixtures of H 2 0 , C0 2 , and Intrusion of CH4 found in quartz veins Tonalit and pods (arrows and blobs), b: Additional heating is associated with intrusion of felsic magmas from downdip source. Continued compression causes local development of north-verging folds. Migmatites (dot pattern) form around felsic intrusions (random-v pattern). There is no horizontal scale because amount of shortening is unknown.

GEOLOGY, April 1988 359

The increased heat flow near the Earth's surface is attributed to interrelated mechanisms during ocean/continent accretionary processes (Fig. 3). First, the thickened sedimentary pile was apparently heated, at least in part, by advection of hot fluids that were generated by dehydration of sediment entrained in what was probably a relatively shallow subduction zone involving hot, young oceanic crust. This resulted in regional upper greenschist facies metamorphism. The complex was further heated by felsic magmas, probably generated from farther down the subduction zone, which intruded parallel to a northdipping foliation. The ultimate source of heat for generating fluids and melts is unknown, but the role of young oceanic crust seems likely, considering the possible plate-tectonic setting of the Chugach metamorphic complex during the early Tertiary.

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141st Meridian). Part A, in Silberling, N.J., and Jones, D.L., eds., Lithotectonic terrane maps of the North American Cordillera: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 84-523, p. A1-A12. Lux, D.R., De Yoreo, J.J., Guidotti, C.V., and Decker, E.R., 1986, Role of plutonism in lowpressure metamorphic belt formation: Nature, v. 323, p. 794-797. Marshak, R.S., and Karig, D.E., 1977, Triple junctions as a cause for anomalously near-trench igneous activity between the trench and volcanic arc: Geology, v. 5, p. 233-236. Miller, M.L., Dumoulin, J.A., and Nelson, S.W., 1984, A transect of metamorphic rocks along the Copper River, Cordova and Valdez quadrangles, Alaska, in Reed, K.M., and Bartsch-Winkler, S., eds., The U.S. Geological Survey in Alaska: Accomplishments during 1982: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 939, p. 52-57. Miyashiro, A., 1961, Evolution of metamorphic belts: Journal of Petrology, v. 2, p. 277-311. Moore, J.C., Mascle, A., Taylor, E., and ODP Leg 110 Scientific Staff, 1987, Expulsion of fluids from depth along a subduction-zone decollement horizon: Nature, v. 326, p. 785-788. Myers, G., and Vrolijk, P., 1985, Fluid evolution in an underplated slate belt, Kodiak Island, Alaska: EOS (American Geophysical Union Transactions), v. 66, p. 1095. Newton, R.C., and Haselton, H.T., 1981, Thermodynamics of the garnet-plagioclase-Al2Si05-quartz geobarometer, in Newton, R.C., et al., eds., Thermodynamics of minerals and melts (Advances in physical geochemistry, Volume 5): New York, Springer-Verlag, p. 131-148. Nielsen, T.H., and Zuffa, G.G., 1982, The Chugach terrane, a Cretaceous trenchfill deposit, southern Alaska, in Leggett, J.K., ed., Trench-forearc geology: Sedimentation and tectonics of modern and ancient active plate margins: Oxford, Blackwell, p. 213-227. Nokleberg, W.J., Plafker, G., Wallace, W.K., Winkler, G.R., Lull, J.S., and Roeske, S.M., 1988, Structural analysis of the southern Peninsular and northern Chugach terranes along the TransAlaskan Crustal Transect (TACT), eastern Chugach Mountains, Alaska: Journal of Geophysical Research (in press). Oxburgh, E.R., and Turcotte, D.L., 1974, Thermal gradients and regional metamorphism in overthrust terrains with special reference to the eastern Alps: Schweizerische Mineralogische und Petrographische Mitteilungen, v. 54, p. 641-662. Page, R.A., Plafker, G., Fuis, G.S., Nokleberg, W.J., Ambos, E.L., Mooney, W.D., and Campbell, D.C., 1986, Accretion and subduction tectonics in the Chugach Mountains and Copper River Basin, Alaska: Initial results of the Trans-Alaskan Crustal Transect: Geology, v. 14, p. 501-505. Ritger, S., Carson, B., and Suess, B., 1987, Methane-derived authigenic carbonates formed by subduction-induced pore water expulsion

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was carried out as part of the U.S. Geological Survey Trans-Alaskan Crustal Transect project, which provided the majority of the support; partial support was provided by National Science Foundation Grant EAR 83-19249. We thank George Plafker and Warren Nokleberg (regional geology), Tom James (thermal modeling), Walter Kauzman (properties of aqueous fluids), and Tullis Onstott ( ^ A r / ^ A r age data) for discussion; and Jeff Grambling and Charles Guidotti for helpful reviews of the manuscript.

Manuscript received October 5, 1987 Revised manuscript received December 29, 1987 Manuscript accepted January 7,1988

Reviewers' comments The central theme, that of focusing metamorphic fluids along major structural zones and thus "preheating" the rocks that are later involved in regional metamorphism, is unique and highly innovative. Jeff Grambling Provides a nice argument for low-P/high-T metamorphism in a tectonic setting usually associated only with high-P/low-T metamorphism. Charles Guidotti

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