Approaching Compressor Control Retrofits

Rick McLin
Rockwell Automation
Houston, Texas
Modification of compressor control installations may cause fear and uncertainty in engineers
assigned to the task. After all multivariable, non-linear control systems are not for the faint of
heart. However, compressors are major pieces of capital equipment with long effective
lifespans. This length of service may necessitate one or more control system retrofits due to
control system obsolescence over the life of the compressor. Plant considerations may require a
compressor to be moved to another application or re-rated due to changing process requirements,
either of which may drive the need for a control system retrofit. Whether the retrofit is required
due to changes in the process requirements, or due to control system obsolescence, a compressor
retrofit is an opportunity to improve compressor operation and efficiency.
If a compressor control retrofit becomes necessary the compressor and the process should be
analyzed for opportunities to improve efficiency and provide smoother operations. The major
areas where compressor control improvements can be made are:
- The compressor control algorithms
- Control system interactions (capacity control)
- Field instrumentation
- Valve sizing and selection

Improving the Compressor Control Algorithms
The first area to investigate is the compressor control algorithm itself. If the compressor
installation is over 10 years old it is likely that the control system is based on outdated anti-surge
techniques that may not be as efficient as those that are in common use today. The incredible
improvements in control hardware capabilities allow rigorous models to be used to optimize
compressor performance together with tighter integration of the compressor controls into the
overall process itself. Its no longer necessary to sacrifice process stability to protect the
compressor.
Compressor control algorithms are based on a performance map supplied by the compressor
vendor. These maps always have flow represented along the X-Axis while discharge pressure,
ressure ratio or head are located along the Y-Axis. Engineering units used on the X and Y-Axis
can be (and often are) nearly anything. About the only flow measurement I have not seen is
cubic furlongs per fortnight. Anything else seems to be fair game.

The figure below shows a typical compressor performance map.

Figure 1: Typical Compressor Performance Map
This example is a variable speed machine with its performance shown as polytropic head on the
Y-Axis versus flow on the X-Axis in thousands of cubic feet per minute. Compressor flow and
pressure follow a speed line until a surge point is reached. As the speed of the compressor
changes the flows and pressures change.
The bottom set of curves show the compressor efficiency at the various speeds and flows.
Compressor impellers are normally designed to achieve maximum aerodynamic efficiency near
the center of each speed line. If the compressor is not normally operated near its area of
maximum efficiency then a compressor re-rating should be considered.
The phenomenon of surge
Surge occurs when the kinetic energy imparted into the gas by the impeller is less than the
potential energy in the discharge. When this occurs the flow of gas will reverse direction.
When a compressor approaches the surge point along a speed line flow through the compressor
will reverse direction. This flow reversal happens at the speed of sound, far too fast for
instrumentation to detect, and once started cannot be stopped. A surge cycle will repeat unless
the surge control system intervenes. Repeated surge cycles can seriously damage or even
destroy a compressor. For this reason predicting the onset of surge is essential in modern surge
control algorithms.
What happens during a surge event
Figure 2 below is a representation of a surge event. Only a single speed line is shown for clarity.
Assume initially the compressor is operating at point (1) in the diagram below.

Figure 2: What Happens During Compressor Surge

The compressor is operating at its maximum flow capabilities at point (1). As the discharge
pressure increases the work the compressor must accomplish increases pushing the compressor
operating point along the speed line to point (2). If the discharge pressure continues to increase
the compressor operating point will move to (3) in figure 2. If the control system cannot reduce
the discharge pressure the compressor the operating point will cross the Surge Line and flow will
reverse through the compressor. When the flow is reversed through the compressor the
compressor operating point will rapidly move to point (4) on figure 2. The surge event reduces
the discharge pressure and increases the suction pressure of the compressor. The compressor will
then re-establish forward flow and the operating point will move from point (4) back to point (2).
This cycle will repeat unless the control system can intervene and break the cycle. Total time for
a surge cycle is 1 to 3 seconds, but the flow reverses through the compressor in under a
millisecond. This cycle will repeat until the compressor controls change the operating conditions
to stabilize compressor operation.
Common compressor control algorithms
Minimum Flow Recycle
There are several control approaches to prevent surge in compressors. The oldest and least
efficient is minimum flow recycling. This approach simply picks a flow at which the compressor
can be guaranteed not to surge. If the flow drops below this point the recycle or blow off valve
opens and maintains a redefined minimum flow through the compressor.


Figure 3: Minimum Flow Recycle
This approach can be effective but it is not efficient. When the compressor operates at lower
speeds a large flow is still required to protect the compressor. This approach also does not take
into account changes in gas properties which may alter the compressor surge line
While this approach is not the most efficient it can be useful as a fallback algorithm in an
advanced surge control application. Fallback algorithms are used when field instrumentation
faults prevent an accurate calculation of the compressor operating point. With degraded field
instrumentation minimum flow fallback may be the only practicable control algorithm.
Maximum Discharge Pressure
This approach to surge control relies on the relationship between the maximum achievable
discharge pressures a compressor is able to produce at various temperatures. Discharge pressure
control is commonly used on constant speed packaged air compressors (typically integrally
geared machines) where the suction pressure does not vary. This approach has the advantage of
being extremely inexpensive (read that as cheap) to implement since minimal instrumentation is
required. A discharge pressure transmitter and an ambient temperature measurement are all that
is required. Flow through the compressor is not even measured.
Several compressor maps are supplied by the manufacturer that relates the maximum pressure
the compressor can produce at summer and winter conditions. During the winter when the air is
colder and the air density is higher the compressor can produce a higher discharge pressure
before a surge occurs. In the summer when the air density is lower the compressor cannot
produce as high a discharge pressure. Control is very simple with a discharge pressure PID
having a variable pressure setpoint that is adjusted for ambient temperature.
Unfortunately simplicity often wastes energy and does not provide adequate protection for the
compressor. This approach is often used on packaged air compressors where the surge data is
generic, not specific to a particular machine. Variations in manufacturing require a conservative
approach which results in further inefficiencies.
In addition as the compressor impellers experience wear or intercoolers become fouled, the
maximum discharge pressure the compressor can achieve, decreases. This requires a lower
pressure setpoint to protect the compressor. If ignored compressor damage will occur. Older
packaged compressors often used pneumatic controls. Older pneumatic temperature
measurement was difficult to calibrate and consequently was often ignored by maintenance
personnel. This can result in a pressure setpoint that does not change with temperature which
will result in damage to the compressor. More modern controls, even if ignored, allow for
automatic adjustment of the surge line so once a surge occurs the margin can be adjusted to limit
the number of surge cycles a compressor would experience. Multiple surge cycles can also be
set to trip the compressor to prevent damage.
Delta P vs. h
The Delta P vs. h algorithm, also known as Pressure Rise, was originally developed in the 1970s
when it was observed that the pressure ratio across the compressor closely followed the
measured differential pressure across a flow measurement device. Still widely used, Delta P vs.
h has the advantage of simplicity and low cost. A flow and a differential pressure measurement
across the compressor are all that is required for compressor control. Delta P vs. h is a major
improvement on minimum flow recycle but it still has significant problems. It cannot account
for changes in gas properties and it requires a suction pressure that does not significantly change
during operation.
As control systems have become more advanced it has become possible to implement more
elaborate thermodynamic models for compressor control. Delta P vs. h has largely been replaced
by some form of a compressor head model.
Compressor Head vs. Flow
Compressor head vs. flow is an algorithm that is based on calculating the head produced by the
compressor and plotting it versus the temperature and pressure compensated flow being
produced. Whether the algorithm is based on polytropic or adiabatic head, this approach has the
advantage of being able to accurately predict the compressor operating point at various
temperatures and pressures and has an added benefit of not being affected by changes in the
molecular weight of the gas. The basic equations for this algorithm are shown below.
The basic equation for polytropic head is defined as:
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(
(
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=
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MW
n
n
ZRTs
Ps
Pd
Hp
n
n
*
1
* 1
1

Figure 4: Polytropic Head Equation
Where:
H
p
= polytropic head
P
d
= Discharge Pressure
P
s
= Suction Pressure
T
d
= Discharge Temperature
T
s
= Suction Temperature
n = number of moles of gas in a given pressure/volume
Z = gas compressibility
R = universal gas law constant
MW = molecular weight of the gas
The difficulty with using this equation for surge control is that not all the variables can be
measured directly. Gas compressibility and molecular weight cannot be determined except by
offline analysis.
To eliminate these variables from equation it is necessary to utilize the flow relationships of
differential pressure flow measurement devices. Orifice, venturi, annubar and other head type
measurement devices have flow equations that include terms for molecular weight and
compressibility. The classis orifice equation:
Ps MW
ZRTs h
K Q
*
*
* =

Figure 5: Head Type Flow Measurement Equation
Where:
Q Flow, in appropriate units
h differential pressure across flow measurement device (head)
K Orifice coefficient, dependent on flow units and geometry
The
MW
ZRTs
term is present in both the head and flow equations which are used to generate the
plotting coordinates used on the polytropic head versus flow compressor control map. The
effects of changes in molecular weight, suction temperature and compressibility affect the X and
Y coordinates by the same amount, allowing the generation of compressor maps that are valid for
variable composition gas streams. This approach generates a compressor control map that is
often referred to as a Universal Surge Curve. This approach is valid for all temperatures and
pressures as defined by the manufactures compressor map and accounts for changes in
molecular weight. Changes in gas properties such as the heat capacity ratio can also be
accommodated by incorporating the thermodynamic relationships derived from Charles and
Boyles law.
Control System Interactions (Capacity Control)
An operating compressor is an integral part of the process in which it is installed. Control of the
volume of gas delivered by the compressor is necessary to match process requirements. Capacity
control, while often done by other controllers or a plant wide distributed control system (DCS) is
best handled by the compressor controller.
Modern compressor controllers have the capability to incorporate capacity control. This allows
compressor surge conditions to be factored into the capacity control. The plantwide DCS then
sends a setpoint for the capacity controller which allows compressor protection while meeting
plant requirements. This is accomplished by decoupling. Decoupling (described in more detail
later) prevents a process or capacity controller from pushing a compressor into surge by forcing
it out of its operating envelope. .
Methods of Compressor Capacity Control
Variable speed
The flow rate and discharge pressure a compressor can produce is related to the speed the
compressor is being driven at. The figure below illustrates the movement of the operating point
when the speed is reduced. Reducing the compressor driver speed from point 1 to point 2
reduces the flow produced by the compressor. In this example the pressure ratio across the
compressor does not change, allowing the compressor to supply a lower flow rate at a reduced
speed. Speed control also allows the compressor to stay in its most efficient operating range.
Flow
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

R
a
t
i
o
Surge Line
Speed Lines
Compressor Performance Map
Q
1
Q
2
Speed 1 Speed 2
Pd/Ps
Min Speed
Max Speed

Figure 6: Variable Speed Control
If the speed were lowered rapidly it is possible the compressor would pass the surge line and the
compressor would surge. Having the speed controlled by the compressor controller allows
decoupling to be implemented to protect the compressor from surge.
Inlet guide vanes
Inlet guide vanes are stationary blades with variable pitch that provide a mechanism to alter the
swirl pattern on the inlet flow to a compressor. They are commonly used on fixed speed
compressors to increase the operating range of the compressor. Inlet guide vanes are connected
together with a mechanical linkage so all the guide vanes move together.
Inlet guide vanes can significantly increase the efficiency of the compressor and improve the
turndown ratio of the machine. A compressor performance map for a constant speed compressor
with inlet guide vanes is shown in Figure 7 below. While this map looks similar to a variable
speed map there are significant differences in the control methodology used. The slope of each
guide vane angle line is usually much steeper than a speed line.
Flow
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

R
a
t
i
o
Surge Line
Guide Vane
Angles
Compressor Performance Map
-30 deg
-5 deg
-15 deg
0 deg
5 deg
Pd/Ps
Q1 Q2

Figure 7: Inlet Guide Vane Compressor Map
Guide vanes dramatically alter a compressor performance and special control techniques are used
which take guide vane position into account. Maximum compressor discharge pressure
capabilities vary greatly with guide vane position. For this reason guide vane position feedback
is strongly recommended. If the guide vane position is not accurately reported to the surge
controller due to mechanical problems or incorrect calibration severe damage to the compressor
can result.
Suction or discharge throttling
The least efficient method of compressor capacity control is throttling. Throttling can be used to
lower compressor flow by increasing the pressure ratio the compressor has to achieve which
increases the amount of work the compressor has to do.
Suction throttling is more efficient than discharge throttling at lowering flow across a
compressor since the gas has not been compressed first. Suction throttling reduces the suction
pressure which increases the pressure ratio and hence reduces the flow through the compressor.
Discharge throttling increases discharge pressure which also increases the pressure ratio.

Flow
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

R
a
t
i
o
Surge Line
Speed Lines
Compressor Performance Map
Q
1
Q
2
Speed 1 Speed 2
Pd/Ps 1
Min Speed
Max Speed
Pd/Ps 2

Figure 8: Changing Pressure Ratio Using Throttling
If the compressor installation has a suction throttle valve which is used to decrease suction
pressure, rapid changes in the valve position can push the compressor into surge by increasing
the pressure ratio above the surge line of the compressor. Similarly if the compressor has a
discharge throttle valve which increases discharge pressure, changes in valve position can
increase the pressure ratio above the surge line of the compressor resulting in surge.
Decoupling
In the instances above; Reducing Speed, Changing Inlet Guide Vane Angle or Increasing
Pressure Ratio by Throttling, are actions taken by capacity controllers responding to some
process demand. Decoupling is the technique utilized to protect the compressor against being
forced into surge by capacity controllers. Decoupling temporarily suspends the control action
that is driving the compressor towards an unstable operating area while it establishes recycle
flow to stabilize the compressor. Once the compressor move toward the unstable region is halted
the capacity control action is once again enabled to satisfy the process demand.
Decoupling can only be effectively implemented in the surge controller since the surge controller
determines the compressor operating point and can determine when and how quickly a
compressor is approaching the surge line. Capacity demand from a DCS can be accomplished by
a remote setpoint to the compressor controller which can implement decoupling to protect the
compressor from surge.
Field Instrumentation
Transmitter Speed of Response
The types of transmitters selected can have an enormous impact on the success or failure of a
control retrofit. For compressor applications the speed of response is important for the pressure
and flow measurements. Some smart transmitters on the market today have a very slow response
time and are unsuitable for compressor applications. Response time for transmitters is defined as
the time required for the sensor output to reach 63.2 percent of its final steady state value.

Figure 9: Transmitter Speed of Response

Every effort should be made to obtain flow transmitters with a response time of under 100
milliseconds. Some widely available smart transmitters on the market have response times under
50 milliseconds and a few special transmitters can be found that advertise a response time under
10 milliseconds. There are however some smart transmitters with response times of 350
milliseconds or greater which make them unsuitable for compressor control applications.
Transmitter Location
Compressor installations are particularly susceptible to incorrectly located or installed
instruments. Special care should be taken to insure short impulse lines to transmitters and to
avoid low spots that would allow condensation to collect in the lines. Long impulse lines also
reduce the speed of response of the signal and can seriously impair control functionality.
Temperature and pressures transmitters should be mounted near the compressor suction and
discharge to accurately reflect actual operating conditions.
Flow transmitters can be located in the compressor suction or discharge; however if mounted in
the discharge downstream of any after coolers, temperature and pressure transmitters must be
added and located near the flow measurement. This will insure that proper temperature and
pressure compensation can be implemented.
In general, flow measurement in the compressor suction is more desirable than a discharge
location since suction flow measurement is not dependent on pressure-temperature
compensation. Flow measurement in the compressor discharge also requires more elaborate
fallback strategies upon failure of these other transmitters.
Flow Measurement
Flow measurement for anti-surge control represents a particular challenge for compressor
applications and the correct flow measurement technology must be selected.
Most suppliers of compressor anti-surge control products today utilize a compressor head versus
flow model for compressor anti-surge. This non-linear multivariable approach provides much
more accurate and efficient control than older minimum flow bypass or delta P vs. h techniques
but it requires more process measurements be made to perform the necessary calculations. This
thermodynamic modeling approach promises much more efficient compressor operation but to
be effective it must be carefully applied.
While the various compressor control system manufacturers implementations differ somewhat
they all require a head type flow measurement device. This means that flow measurement
technology based on velocity, such as vortex shedding flow meters, are not appropriate for
compressor control applications.
The most common head type flow measurement devices are:
- Orifice plate
o Advantages
Low cost
High measurement pressure differential
Easily flange mounted in pipeline
o Disadvantages
Higher process pressure loss
- Venturi and Flow Nozzles
o Advantages
Low process pressure loss
Non-plugging
o Disadvantages
Higher cost
Requires the most space for installation
- Annubar
o Advantages
Easy to install
Low process pressure loss
o Disadvantages
Low measurement pressure differential
Each of these flow measurement devices has advantages and disadvantages but all can be used
successfully in compressor applications as long as their particular characteristics are taken into
account. With annubar flow meters care should be taken to insure a large enough differential
pressure can be obtained. Low measurement differential pressures may require special low range
transmitters and the signal to noise ratio of the measurement may become an issue resulting in an
unstable flow signal. In addition low differential pressure range transmitters generally have
slower response speeds due to internal mechanical considerations than transmitters designed to
operate at higher differential pressures.

Valve Sizing and Selection
Valve sizing
Valves should be sized to handle 1-1/2 to 2 times the surge flow. A common error in surge valve
sizing is to select the normal operating pressure ratio and size the valve to handle surge flow
conditions at that point. This allows no margin for error and changing gas compositions may
alter flow across the valve, resulting in inadequate flow even at full open recycle valve position.
Check the valve flow at multiple locations along the surge line. At lower rotational speeds the
pressure ratio across the compressor decreases. The recycle valve should be sized to handle flow
at 1-1/2 to 2 times the surge flow at all the pressure ratios the compressor is expected to see
during operation. The attached figure shows an example.

Figure 10: Valve Sizing
Select a valve with linear characteristics
Equal percentage valves are good at throttling applications but their flow characteristics mean
that when the valve is open 50% only 25% of its maximum flow is achieved. During a surge
event the valve will have to open farther to prevent surge, delaying the increase in flow through
the compressor.
It is quite common on air compressors to use a butterfly valve as a blow off valve to protect the
compressor. Butterfly valves are inexpensive but they have an inherently equal percentage
characteristic. If an equal percentage valve is unavoidable it is possible to modify the valve
positioner (usually with a special cam available from the valve manufacturer) to give the valve
an approximate linear characteristic. If it is not possible to obtain a linear valve or to linearize
the flow using the valve positioner, then a non-linear output to effectively provide a linear
analog output from the controller should be implemented the desired linear flow response.


Figure 11: Valve Characteristics
Quick opening valves establish flow rapidly but their flow characteristics usually result in very
poor throttling abilities. A linear valve trim generally provides the best compromise for surge
control applications.
Valve Full Stroke Speed
A valve stroke speed from full closed to full open should be accomplished in 2 seconds or less.
When approaching surge the most important thing is to provide adequate flow through the
compressor. Speed of response of the entire control loop is essential to prevent surge. All items
should be considered, transmitter response time, controller loop cycle time, valve stroke speed,
and the recycle flow loop volume. Valves with 2 second stroke times are available and should be
used. Boosters can be added to positioners to increase the valve stroke speed.


Managing a Successful Compressor Retrofit
Compressor control system retrofits can be intimidating but they are not impossible to
accomplish if the basic design principles detailed here are followed. The current generation of
PLCs offers amazing performance at a very effective price point. Features that previously were
unavailable together with algorithm execution speeds that are better than made for purpose black
box controllers are available from multiple suppliers.
Compressor control itself is slowly coming out of the realm of a black art to take its place
alongside other complex control applications. Multi-variable non-linear applications will never
be easy, but systems can be designed that improve operations and energy efficiency. These
control applications can be made much easier if fundamental mistakes are not made during the
design phase.