3.

8: FM Modulators

Direct FM is obtained when frequency of the carrier oscillator is modulated by the information signal. Direct FM modulator 1. Varactor diode modulator 2. FM reactance modulators

3.8.1 : Direct FM Modulators

with direct FM, the instantaneous frequency deviation is directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal. schematic diagram of a simple direct FM generator :

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Chapter 3 : Frequency Modulation

3.8.1 : Direct FM Modulators

the tank circuit (L and Cm) is the frequency determining section for a standard LC oscillator. Cm is a capacitor microphone that converts the acoustical energy into a mechanical energy, which is used to vary the distance between the plates of Cm and consequently change its capacitance. as Cm is varied, the resonant frequency is varied. I.e. the oscillator output frequency varies directly with the external sound forces (i.e. direct FM).
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3.8.2 : Varactor diode modulator

Direct FM generator using varactor diode to deviate the frequency of a crystal oscillator :

R1 and R2 develop a DC voltage that reverse bias the varactor diode VD1 and determine the resonant frequency of the oscillator. external modulating signal voltage added or subtracted from the DC bias, which changes the capacitance of the diode and consequently changes the frequency of the oscillation.
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3.8.2 : Varactor diode modulator

positive alternations of the modulating signal increase the reverse bias of VD1, which decrease its capacitance and increase the frequency of the oscillation. negative alternations of the modulating signal decrease the reverse bias of VD1, which increase its capacitance and decrease the frequency of the oscillation. simple to use, stable and reliable but limited peak frequency deviation thus limited use to the low index applications.
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3.8.2: VCO FM Modulator

the use of varactor diode to transform changes in modulating signal amplitude to changes in frequency :

the center frequency for the oscillator :

where fc = carrier frequency L = inductance of the primary winding of T1 C = varactor diode capacitance
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1 fc = 2 LC

(1)

Chapter 3 : Frequency Modulation

3.8.2 : VCO FM Modulator

when a modulating signal is applied, the frequency is

fc =

where f = new frequency C = change in varactor diode capacitance due to modulating signal the change in frequency is

1 2 L(C + C )

(2)

f = fc f

(3)

where f = peak frequency deviation (hertz)

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Chapter 3 : Frequency Modulation

3.8.3 : Indirect FM (Direct PM) Modulator

with indirect FM, the instantaneous phase deviation rather than instantaneous frequency deviation is directly proportional to the modulating signal. I.e. the indirect FM is accomplished by directly changing the phase of the carrier. schematic diagram of an indirect FM modulator using a varactor diode :

DEKC 3343 Communication Engineering Faculty of Electrical Engineering

Chapter 3 : Frequency Modulation

3.8.3 : Indirect FM (Direct PM) Modulator

varactor diode VD1 placed in series with the inductive network (L1 and R1). this combined series-parallel network appears as series resonant circuit to the output frequency from the crystal oscillator. the modulating signal is applied to VD1, which changes its capacitance and subsequently the phase angle of the impedance seen by the carrier also varies, which results in a corresponding phase shift in the carrier. advantage of using indirect FM modulator is it is more stable than the direct modulator. However, it has more distortion in the modulated waveform compared to direct FM.
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3.9 : Frequency Up-conversion

after the modulation, the frequency of the modulated-wave is up-converted to the desired frequency of transmission. 2 basic methods of frequency up-conversion :
heterodyning process frequency multiplication

3.9.1 : Heterodyne Method

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Chapter 3 : Frequency Modulation

3.9.1 : Heterodyne Method

2 inputs to the balanced modulator : angle-modulated carrier and its side frequencies, an also the unmodulated RF carrier signal. the 2 inputs mix nonlinearly in the balanced modulator producing the sum and difference frequencies at its output. the BPF (bandpass filter) is tuned to the sum frequency with a passband wide enough to pass carrier plus the upper and lower side frequencies while the difference frequencies are blocked.

the frequency deviation, rate of change, modulation index, phase deviation and bandwidth are unaffected by the heterodyne process.

f c ( out ) = f c ( in ) + f RF
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3.9.2 : Multiplication method

with multiplication method, the frequency of the modulated carrier is multiplied by a factor of N in the frequency multiplier. frequency deviation, phase deviation and modulation index are also multiplied. However, the rate of the deviation is unaffected (i.e. the separation between adjacent side frequencies remains unchanged). as frequency deviation and modulation index are multiplied, the number of side frequency also increases. Thus, the bandwidth also increases. For modulation index higher than 10, Carsons Rule can be applied

B out = N ( 2 f ) = NB in
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3.10 FM Transmitter
DIRECT FM TRANSMITTER Direct FM transmitters produce an output waveform in which the frequency deviation is directly proportional to the modulating signal. 1. Crosby Direct FM transmitter 2. Phase-Locked-Loop Direct FM transmitter INDIRECT FM TRANSMITTERS 1. Armstrong Indirect FM transmitter
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3.10 : FM Transmitter 3.10.1 : Direct FM Transmitter

Block diagram for a commercial broadcast-band transmitter :

also known as Crosby direct FM transmitter (includes an automatic frequency control AFC loop) the carrier frequency is basically the center frequency of the master oscillator fc = 5.1 MHz, which is multiplied by 18 to produce a final transmission carrier frequency ft = 91.8 MHz.
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3.10.1 : Direct FM Transmitter

the frequency and frequency deviations at the output of the modulator are also multiplied by 18. To achieve maximum deviation allowed for FM stations at antenna (75 kHz), the deviation at the output of the modulator is

f =

75 kHz 75000 = = 4166 . 7 Hz N 18

Chapter 3 : Frequency Modulation 14

DEKC 3343 Communication Engineering Faculty of Electrical Engineering

3.10.1 : Direct FM Transmitter

The modulation index at the output of the modulator, m =

4166.7 fm

For maximum modulating signal frequency allowed for FM (15 kHz)

m=

4166.7 = 0.2778 15000

Thus, modulation index at antenna is m= 0.2778 (18) = 5

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3.10.2 : AFC Loop

for medium and high index FM systems, the oscillator cannot be a crystal type because the frequency at which the crystal oscillates cannot be significantly deviated. as a result, the stability of the oscillator in the direct FM is low. to overcome this problem, AFC loop is used.
with AFC, the carrier signal is mixed in a nonlinear device with the signal from a crystal reference oscillator (the output is down-converted in frequency). the output is then fed back to the input of a frequency discriminator. It is a frequency-selective device whose output voltage is proportional to the difference between the input frequency and its resonant frequency.
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3.10.2 : AFC Loop

if there is a master oscillator frequency drift (resulting in a change of carrier center frequency), the discriminator responds by producing a DC correction voltage. this voltage is added to the modulating signal to automatically adjust the master oscillators center frequency.

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Chapter 3 : Frequency Modulation

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3.11 : Indirect FM Transmitter

Indirect FM transmitters produce an output waveform in which the phase deviation is directly proportional to the modulating signal. Consequently, the carrier oscillator is not directly deviated crystal can be used without use of AFC loop. Block diagram for wideband Armstrong indirect FM transmitter : low frequency sub-carrier fc is phase shifted 90 and fed to a balanced modulator. It is mixed with the modulating signal fm. the output from the balanced modulator is DSBSC wave that is combined with the original carrier in a combining network to produce a low-index, phasemodulated waveform.
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3.11 : Indirect FM Transmitter m ( t ) = V c cos [ c t + m cos( m t ) ] Proof :

By using trigonometric function : cos (A+B) =cos A cos B sin A sin B

m ( t ) = V c [cos( c t ) cos( m cos( m t )) sin( c t ) sin( m cos( m t )) ]

For a small modulation index,

Thus,

cos( m cos( c t )) cos( 0 ) 1 sin( m cos( m t )) m cos( m t )

m ( t ) = V c cos( c t ) V c m sin( c t ) cos( m t )

where Vccos(ct) = original carrier Vcsin(ct ) = phase-shifted carrier cos(mt ) = modulating signal

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3.11 : Indirect FM Transmitter

Ex :
Consider a 200 kHz carrier being phase-modulated with a 15 kHz modulating signal producing modulation index of 0.00096. the frequency deviation at the output of the combining network : f = mfm = 0.00096 x 15000 = 14.4 Hz in order to achieve the required 75 kHz deviation for the FM broadcast at the antenna, the frequency must be multiplied by approximately 5208. However, this would produce a transmission carrier at the antenna of ft = 5208 x 200 kHz = 1041.6 MHz This value is beyond the limits for the commercial FM broadcast band (30 ~ 300MHz).

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Chapter 3 : Frequency Modulation

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3.11 : Indirect FM Transmitter

Ex : (continue)
Let the output waveform of the network is multiplied by 72, producing the following signal, f1 = 72 x 200 kHz = 14.4 MHz m = 72 x 0.00096 = 0.06912 rad f = 72 x 14.4 Hz = 1036.8 Hz this signal is then mixed with a 13.15 MHz crystal-controlled frequency f0 to produce a difference signal f2 with the following characteristics : f2 = 14.4 13.15 = 1.25 MHz (down-converted) m = 0.06912 rad (unchanged) f = 1036.8 Hz (unchanged) the output of the mixer is once again multiplied by 72 to produce the transmit signal with the following characteristics : ft = 72 x 1.25 MHz = 90 MHz m = 72 x 0.06912 rad = 4.98 rad f = 72 x 1036.8 Hz = 74.65 kHz
DEKC 3343 Communication Engineering Faculty of Electrical Engineering Chapter 3 : Frequency Modulation 21

3.11 : Indirect FM Transmitter

with Armstrong transmitter, the phase of the carrier is directly modulated in the combining network producing indirect frequency modulation. the magnitude of peak phase deviation (i.e. the modulation index) is directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal but independent of its frequency (m = KVm). the modulation index remains constant for all modulating signal frequencies of given amplitude.

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Chapter 3 : Frequency Modulation

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3.12 : FM Receiver
Block diagram for a double conversion superheterodyne FM receiver :

the pre-selector, RF amplifier, first and second mixers, and IF amplifier sections of an FM receiver perform same functions as the AM receiver. Automatic Gain Control (AGC) is used to prevent mixer saturation when strong RF signals are received. the peak detector used in AM receiver is replaced by a limiter, frequency discriminator and de-emphasis network.
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3.12 : FM Receiver

Limiter is used to remove amplitude variations caused by noise (which is one of AMs drawback). frequency discriminator (demodulator) extracts the information from the modulated wave. de-emphasis network contributes to the improvement in signal-to-noise ratio. the first IF is a relatively high frequency (often 10.7 MHz) for good image frequency rejection. the second IF is a relatively low frequency (often 455 kHz) that allows the IF amplifiers to have high gain.
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3.13 : FM Demodulator
FM demodulator is a frequency-dependent circuits designed to produce an output voltage that is proportional to the instantaneous frequency at its input. the overall transfer function for the FM demodulator is nonlinear but when operating over its linear range, V (28) Kd = f the output from the FM demodulator is (29)

vout(t ) = Kdf

where vout(t) = demodulated output signal (volts) Kd = demodulator transfer function (volts per hertz) f = difference between input frequency and the centre frequency of demodulator (hertz)

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3.13 : FM Demodulator
the most common circuits used for FM signal demodulation are slope detector, balanced slope detector and PLL demodulator. the slope detector and balanced slope detector are categorized as tuned-circuit frequency discriminator. Ex : For an FM demodulator circuit with a transfer function of Kd = 0.2V/kHz and an FM input signal with 20 kHz of peak frequency deviation, determine the peak output voltage.

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3.14 Advantages of FM compared to AM

All the transmitted power in FM is useful, whereas in AM most of it in the transmitted carrier, which contains no useful information. In FM, it is possible to reduce noise still further by increasing the deviation frequency. FM has the advantage over AM, of providing greater protection from noise for the lowest modulating frequency. FM operate in the upper VHF and UHF frequency ranges, at which there is less effect on noise than in the MF and HF ranges occupies by AM.

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In FM frequency allocation by ITU, guard bands are provided between the adjacent channels to avoid or reduce channel interference. The use of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis in FM will reduce the effect of noise. With emphasis, the highest modulating frequencies are artificially boosted before transmission and correspondingly attenuated after reception. In FM, the transmitted amplitude is constant. This characteristics has the advantages of significantly improving immunity to noise and interference.

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Chapter 3 : Frequency Modulation

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3.15 Disadvantages of FM compared to AM

Since reception is limited to line of sight, the area or reception for FM is much smaller than AM. Equipment for the transmitter and receiver are more expensive and complex. A much wider bandwidth is required by FM, up to 10 times larger than needed by AM. This is the most significant disadvantage of FM.

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Chapter 3 : Frequency Modulation

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