ON

6 WEEKS INDUSTRIAL TRAINING AT

Himachal Road Transport Corporation

SUBMITTED BY:NAME CLASS BRANCH :-VIRENDER KUMAR :-B.Tech. :-MECHANICAL ENGG.

UNIV. ROLL NO. :-80202114084 COLL. ROLL NO. :-4085 BATCH :-2008

ACKNOWLEDGE ENT
This report is a result of my industrial training held at H.R.T.C Workshop,.I thanks to Vivek Lakhanpal ork manager the most important fa!tor for me to !omplete my report su!!essfully. I also thank to the hole orking staff of orkshop spe!ially "al#ir $ingh head me!hani! ho gave me more advan!ed kno ledge during the training period. %ven I ould like thanks to all those men orking on line and ever ready to help to all those trainees like me out there. It as great to see that those people never refused to help us even hatever ere the !ir!umstan!es and hatever they kne a#out the su#&e!t. !IRENDER KU AR

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INDRODUCTION
(s stated in our sylla#us e have prepared our pro&e!t on our industrial training. (s #eing me!hani!al student in present !ontest e need to #e a!)uainted ith pra!ti!al e*posure a#out auto !omponents, industrial field pro!edure and !omprehensive approa!h regarding !on!epts in the !lassroom and their appli!ation involving industrial+field task pro#lem. To have first hand kno ledge industrial !ulture and to mentally prepare them #efore &oining orld of ork servi!e. $o for this very purpose I ant H.R.T.C to interfeed ith orkers thought )ueries. ,n feed#a!k e prepare follo ing report su!h as spe!ifi!ation, various parts et!. Is a#out T(T( and ($H,-( L%.L(/0. ,n feed#a!k e prepared follo ing report. (ll data taken in this report su!h as spe!ifi!ations, various parts et!.are a#out T(T( L1+L1, 121' TC vehi!le #y T%LC, here )uality is the at!h ord.

INDRODUCTION TO WORKSHO"
3

Workshop is a pla!e here various !omponents are repaired and manufa!tured. In the H.R.T.C orkshop the various parts like engine, gear #o*, heel system, differential, #attery et!. (re repaired or tested, for the good and long running of the ve!hile.the testing of vehi!le is also ne!essary for the safety of the people. Therefore in every gap of one year the #uses are pass4 here. It is also a pla!e here the skills of the out !oming engineers and me!hani!s !an #e developed. The effi!ient use of fuel and given resour!es is also taken in to !onsideration. Hen!e orkshop is of utmost importan!e keeping the safety of the passengers and effi!ient management of H.R.T.C.

Int#rnal com$%stion #n&in#

The int#rnal com$%stion #n&in# is an engine in hi!h the !om#ustion of a fuel 5generally, fossil fuel6 o!!urs ith an o*idi7er 5usually air6 in a !om#ustion !ham#er. In an internal !om#ustion engine the e*pansion of the high temperature and pressure gases, hi!h are produ!ed #y the !om#ustion, dire!tly applies for!e to a mova#le !omponent of the engine, su!h as the pistons or tur#ine #lades and #y moving it over a distan!e, generate useful me!hani!al energy. The term internal combustion engine usually refers to an engine in hi!h !om#ustion is intermittent, su!h as the more familiar four8stroke and t o8stroke piston engines, along ith variants, su!h as the Wankel rotary engine. ( se!ond !lass of internal !om#ustion engines use !ontinuous !om#ustion9 gas tur#ines, &et engines and most ro!ket engines, ea!h of hi!h are internal !om#ustion engines on the same prin!iple as previously des!ri#ed.

The internal !om#ustion engine 5or IC%6 is )uite different from e*ternal !om#ustion engines, su!h as steam or $tirling engines, in hi!h the energy is delivered to a orking fluid not !onsisting of, mi*ed ith, or !ontaminated #y !om#ustion produ!ts. Working fluids !an #e air, hot ater, pressuri7ed ater or even li)uid sodium, heated in some kind of #oiler. ( large num#er of different designs for IC%s have #een developed and #uilt, ith a variety of different strengths and eaknesses. 1o ered #y an energy8dense fuel 5 hi!h is very fre)uently petrol, a li)uid derived from fossil fuels6, the IC% delivers an e*!ellent po er8to8 eight ratio ith fe disadvantages. While there have #een and still are many stationary appli!ations, the real strength of internal !om#ustion engines is in mo#ile appli!ations and they dominate as a po er supply for !ars, air!raft, and #oats, from the smallest to the largest. ,nly for hand8held po er tools do they share part of the market ith #attery po ered devi!es.

An a%tomo$il# #n&in# partl' op#n#d and color#d to sho( compon#nts)

Applications
Internal !om#ustion engines are most !ommonly used for mo#ile propulsion in vehi!les and porta#le ma!hinery. In mo#ile e)uipment, internal !om#ustion is advantageous sin!e it !an provide high po er8to8 eight ratios together ith e*!ellent fuel energy density. ;enerally using fossil fuel 5mainly petroleum6, these engines have appeared in transport in almost all vehi!les 5automo#iles, tru!ks, motor!y!les, #oats, and in a ide variety of air!raft and lo!omotives6. Where very high po er8to8 eight ratios are re)uired, internal !om#ustion engines appear in the form of gas tur#ines. These appli!ations in!lude &et air!raft, heli!opters, large ships and ele!tri! generators.

Classi*ication
%ngines !an #e !lassified in many different ays9 "y the engine !y!le used, the layout of the engine, sour!e of energy, the use of the engine, or #y the !ooling system employed. 2

"rincipl#s o* op#ration
R#ciprocatin&+

T o8stroke engine <our8stroke engine $i*8stroke engine 0iesel engine (tkinson !y!le

Rotar'+

Wankel engine

Continuous !om#ustion9 "rayton !y!le9

;as tur#ine =et engine 5in!luding tur#o&et, tur#ofan, ram&et, Ro!ket et!..

En&in# con*i&%rations
Internal !om#ustion engines !an #e !lassified #y their !onfiguration.

,o%r stro-# con*i&%ration

Op#ration

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<our stroke5or ,tto !y!le6 1. Intake '. Compression 3. 1o er :. %*haust (s their name implies, operation of four stroke internal !om#ustion engines have four #asi! steps that repeat ith every t o revolutions of the engine9 1. Inta-#
o Com#usti#le mi*tures are empla!ed in the !om#ustion !ham#er '. Compr#ssion o The mi*tures are pla!ed under pressure 3. "o(#r o The mi*ture is #urnt, almost invaria#ly a deflagration, although a fe systems involve detonation. The hot mi*ture is e*panded, pressing on and moving parts of the engine and performing useful ork. :. E.ha%st o The !ooled !om#ustion produ!ts are e*hausted into the atmosphere

?any engines overlap these steps in time@ &et engines do all steps simultaneously at different parts of the engines.

Com$%stion
(ll int#rnal com$%stion #n&in#s depend on the e*othermi! !hemi!al pro!ess of !om#ustion9 the rea!tion of a fuel, typi!ally ith o*ygen from the air 5though it is possi#le to in&e!t nitrous o*ide in order to do more of the same thing and gain a po er A

#oost6. The !om#ustion pro!ess typi!ally results in the produ!tion of a great )uantity of heat, as ell as the produ!tion of steam and !ar#on dio*ide and other !hemi!als at very high temperature@ the temperature rea!hed is determined #y the !hemi!al make up of the fuel and o*idisers 5see stoi!hiometry6. The most !ommon modern fuels are made up of hydro!ar#ons and are derived mostly from fossil fuels 5petroleum6. <ossil fuels in!lude diesel fuel, gasoline and petroleum gas, and the rarer use of propane. %*!ept for the fuel delivery !omponents, most internal !om#ustion engines that are designed for gasoline use !an run on natural gas or li)uefied petroleum gases ithout ma&or modifi!ations. Large diesels !an run ith air mi*ed ith gases and a pilot diesel fuel ignition in&e!tion. Li)uid and gaseous #iofuels, su!h as ethanol and #iodiesel 5a form of diesel fuel that is produ!ed from !rops that yield trigly!erides su!h as soy#ean oil6, !an also #e used. $ome engines ith appropriate modifi!ations !an also run on hydrogen gas. Internal !om#ustion engines re)uire ignition of the mi*ture, either #y spark ignition 5$I6 or !ompression ignition 5CI6. "efore the invention of relia#le ele!tri!al methods, hot tu#e and flame methods ere used.

T(o stro-# con*i&%ration

(nimated t o stroke engine in operation %ngines #ased on the t o8stroke !y!le use t o strokes 5one up, one do n6 for every po er stroke. $in!e there are no dedi!ated intake or e*haust strokes, alternative methods must #e used to s!avenge the !ylinders. The most !ommon method in spark8ignition t o8 strokes is to use the do n ard motion of the piston to pressuri7e fresh !harge in the !rank!ase, hi!h is then #lo n through the !ylinder through ports in the !ylinder alls. $park8ignition t o8strokes are small and light for their po er output and me!hani!ally very simple@ ho ever, they are also generally less effi!ient and more polluting than their four8stroke !ounterparts. In terms of po er per !mB, a single8!ylinder small motor appli!ation like a t o8stroke engine produ!es mu!h more po er than an e)uivalent four8 stroke engine due to the enormous advantage of having one po er stroke for every 3>CD of !rankshaft rotation 5!ompared to A'CD in a : stroke motor6.

$mall displa!ement, !rank!ase8s!avenged t o8stroke engines have #een less fuel8 effi!ient than other types of engines hen the fuel is mi*ed ith the air prior to s!avenging allo ing some of it to es!ape out of the e*haust port. ?odern designs 5$ari!h and 1aggio6 use air8assisted fuel in&e!tion hi!h avoids this loss, and are more effi!ient than !ompara#ly si7ed four8stroke engines. <uel in&e!tion is essential for a modern t o8 stroke engine in order to meet ever more stringent emission standards. Resear!h !ontinues into improving many aspe!ts of t o8stroke motors in!luding dire!t fuel in&e!tion, amongst other things. The initial results have produ!ed motors that are mu!h !leaner #urning than their traditional !ounterparts. T o8stroke engines are idely used in sno mo#iles, la nmo ers, string trimmers, !hain sa s, &et skis, mopeds, out#oard motors, and many motor!y!les. T o8stroke engines have the advantage of an in!reased spe!ifi! po er ratio 5i.e. power to volume ratio6, typi!ally around 1.2 times that of a typi!al four8stroke engine. The largest internal !om#ustion engines in the orld are t o8stroke diesels, used in some lo!omotives and large ships. They use for!ed indu!tion 5similar to super8!harging6 to s!avenge the !ylinders@ an e*ample of this type of motor is the Wartsila8$ul7er tur#o!harged t o8stroke diesel as used in large !ontainer ships. It is the most effi!ient and po erful internal !om#ustion engine in the orld ith over 2CF thermal effi!ien!y. <or !omparison, the most effi!ient small four8stroke motors are around :3F thermal effi!ien!y 5$(% GCC>:E6@ si7e is an advantage for effi!ien!y due to the in!rease in the ratio of volume to surfa!e area. Common !ylinder !onfigurations in!lude the straight or inline !onfiguration, the more !ompa!t V !onfiguration, and the ider #ut smoother flat or #o*er !onfiguration. (ir!raft engines !an also adopt a radial !onfiguration hi!h allo s more effe!tive !ooling. ?ore unusual !onfigurations su!h as the H, H, I, and W have also #een used. ?ultiple !rankshaft !onfigurations do not ne!essarily need a !ylinder head at all #e!ause they !an instead have a piston at ea!h end of the !ylinder !alled an opposed piston design. "e!ause here gas in8 and outlets are positioned at opposed ends of the !ylinder, one !an a!hieve uniflo s!avenging, hi!h is, like in the four stroke engine, effi!ient over a ide range of revolution num#ers. (lso the thermal effi!ien!y is improved #e!ause of la!k of !ylinder heads. This design as used in the =unkers =umo 'C2 diesel air!raft engine, using at either end of a single #ank of !ylinders ith t o !rankshafts, and most remarka#ly in the /apier 0elti! diesel engines. These used three !rankshafts to serve three #anks of dou#le8ended !ylinders arranged in an e)uilateral triangle ith the !rankshafts at the !orners. It as also used in single8#ank lo!omotive engines, and !ontinues to #e used for marine engines, #oth for propulsion and for au*iliary generators.

Common compon#nts
G

Com$%stion cham$#rs
Internal !om#ustion engines !an !ontain any num#er of !om#ustion !ham#ers 5!ylinders6, ith num#ers #et een one and t elve #eing !ommon, though as many as 3> 5Ly!oming R8AA226 have #een used. Having more !ylinders in an engine yields t o potential #enefits9 first, the engine !an have a larger displa!ement ith smaller individual re!ipro!ating masses, that is, the mass of ea!h piston !an #e less thus making a smoother8 running engine sin!e the engine tends to vi#rate as a result of the pistons moving up and do n. 0ou#ling the num#er of the same si7e !ylinders ill dou#le the tor)ue and po er. The do nside to having more pistons is that the engine ill tend to eigh more and generate more internal fri!tion as the greater num#er of pistons ru# against the inside of their !ylinders. This tends to de!rease fuel effi!ien!y and ro#s the engine of some of its po er. <or high8performan!e gasoline engines using !urrent materials and te!hnology, su!h as the engines found in modern automo#iles, there seems to #e a point around 1C or 1' !ylinders after hi!h the addition of !ylinders #e!omes an overall detriment to performan!e and effi!ien!y. (lthough, e*!eptions su!h as the W1> engine from Volks agen e*ist.

I&nition s'st#m
The ignition system of an internal !om#ustion engines depends on the type of engine and the fuel used. 1etrol engines are typi!ally ignited #y a pre!isely timed spark, and diesel engines #y !ompression heating. Histori!ally, outside flame and hot8tu#e systems ere used, see hot #ul# engine.

SparThe mi*ture is ignited #y an ele!tri!al spark from a spark plug J the timing of hi!h is very pre!isely !ontrolled. (lmost all gasoline engines are of this type. 0iesel engines timing is pre!isely !ontrolled #y the pressure pump and in&e!tor.

Compr#ssion
Ignition o!!urs as the temperature of the fuel+air mi*ture is taken over its autoignition temperature, due to heat generated #y the !ompression of the air during the !ompression stroke. The vast ma&ority of !ompression ignition engines are diesels in hi!h the fuel is mi*ed ith the air after the air has rea!hed ignition temperature. In this !ase, the timing !omes from the fuel in&e!tion system. Very small model engines for hi!h simpli!ity and light eight is more important than fuel !osts use easily ignited fuels 5a mi*ture of kerosene, ether, and lu#ri!ant6 and ad&usta#le !ompression to !ontrol ignition timing for starting and running.

1C

I&nition timin&
<or re!ipro!ating engines, the point in the !y!le at hi!h the fuel8o*idi7er mi*ture is ignited has a dire!t effe!t on the effi!ien!y and output of the IC%. The thermodynami!s of the ideali7ed Carnot heat engine tells us that an IC% is most effi!ient if most of the #urning takes pla!e at a high temperature, resulting from !ompression J near top dead !enter. The speed of the flame front is dire!tly affe!ted #y the !ompression ratio, fuel mi*ture temperature, and o!tane rating or !etane num#er of the fuel. Leaner mi*tures and lo er mi*ture pressures #urn more slo ly re)uiring more advan!ed ignition timing. It is important to have !om#ustion spread #y a thermal flame front 5deflagration6, not #y a sho!k ave. Com#ustion propagation #y a sho!k ave is !alled detonation and, in engines, is also kno n as pinging or %ngine kno!king. $o at least in gasoline8#urning engines, ignition timing is largely a !ompromise #et een a later KretardedK spark J hi!h gives greater effi!ien!y ith high o!tane fuel J and an earlier Kadvan!edK spark that avoids detonation ith the fuel used. <or this reason, high8 performan!e diesel automo#ile proponents, su!h as ;ale "anks, #elieve that ThereLs only so far you !an go ith an air8throttled engine on G18o!tane gasoline. In other ords, it is the fuel, gasoline, that has #e!ome the limiting fa!tor. ... While tur#o!harging has #een applied to #oth gasoline and diesel engines, only limited #oost !an #e added to a gasoline engine #efore the fuel o!tane level again #e!omes a pro#lem. With a diesel, #oost pressure is essentially unlimited. It is literally possi#le to run as mu!h #oost as the engine ill physi!ally stand #efore #reaking apart. Conse)uently, engine designers have !ome to reali7e that diesels are !apa#le of su#stantially more po er and tor)ue than any !ompara#ly si7ed gasoline engine.

,%#l s'st#ms
<uels #urn faster and more effi!iently hen they present a large surfa!e area to the o*ygen in air. Li)uid fuels must #e atomi7ed to !reate a fuel8air mi*ture, traditionally this as done ith a !ar#uretor in petrol engines and ith fuel in&e!tion in diesel engines. ?ost modern petrol engines no use fuel in&e!tion too J though the te!hnology is )uite different. While diesel must #e in&e!ted at an e*a!t point in that engine !y!le, no su!h pre!ision is needed in a petrol engine. Ho ever, the la!k of lu#ri!ity in petrol means that the in&e!tors themselves must #e more sophisti!ated. Car$%r#tor $impler re!ipro!ating engines !ontinue to use a !ar#uretor to supply fuel into the !ylinder. (lthough !ar#uretor te!hnology in automo#iles rea!hed a very high degree of sophisti!ation and pre!ision, from the mid81GECs it lost out on !ost and fle*i#ility to fuel in&e!tion. $imple forms of !ar#uretor remain in idespread use in small engines su!h as la n mo ers and more sophisti!ated forms are still used in small motor!y!les. 11

,%#l in/#ction Larger gasoline engines used in automo#iles have mostly moved to fuel in&e!tion systems 5see ;asoline 0ire!t In&e!tion6. 0iesel engines have al ays used fuel in&e!tion system #e!ause the timing of the in&e!tion initiates and !ontrols the !om#ustion. (utogas engines use either fuel in&e!tion systems or open8 or !losed8loop !ar#uretors. ,%#l p%mp ?ost internal !om#ustion engines no re)uire a fuel pump. 0iesel engines use an all8 me!hani!al pre!ision pump system that delivers a timed in&e!tion dire!t into the !om#ustion !ham#er, hen!e re)uiring a high delivery pressure to over!ome the pressure of the !om#ustion !ham#er. 1etrol fuel in&e!tion delivers into the inlet tra!t at atmospheri! pressure 5or #elo 6 and timing is not involved, these pumps are normally driven ele!tri!ally. ;as tur#ine and ro!ket engines use ele!tri!al systems. Oth#r ,ther internal !om#ustion engines like &et engines and ro!ket engines employ various methods of fuel delivery in!luding impinging &ets, gas+li)uid shear, pre#urners and others. S%p#rchar&#rs and t%r$ochar&#rs ( super!harger is a Kfor!ed indu!tionK system hi!h uses a !ompressor po ered #y the shaft of the engine hi!h for!es air through the valves of the engine to a!hieve higher flo . When these systems are employed the ma*imum a#solute pressure at the inlet valve is typi!ally around ' times atmospheri! pressure or more.

A c%ta(a' o* a t%r$ochar&#r 1'

Tur#o!hargers are another type of for!ed indu!tion system hi!h has its !ompressor po ered #y a gas tur#ine running off the e*haust gases from the engine. Tur#o!hargers and super!hargers are parti!ularly useful at high altitudes and they are fre)uently used in air!raft engines. 0u!t &et engines use the same #asi! system, #ut es!he the piston engine, and repla!e it ith a #urner instead.

"arts

An ill%stration o* s#0#ral -#' compon#nts in a t'pical *o%r stro-# #n&in#. <or a four stroke engine, key parts of the engine in!lude the !rankshaft !onne!ting rod , one or more !amshafts, and valves. <or a t o8stroke engine, there may simply #e an e*haust outlet and fuel inlet instead of a valve system. In #oth types of engines there are one or more !ylinders 5grey and green6, and for ea!h !ylinder there is a spark plug 5darker8grey, gasoline engines only6, a piston 5yello 6, and a !rankpin. ( single s eep of the !ylinder #y the piston in an up ard or do n ard motion is kno n as a stroke. The do n ard stroke that o!!urs dire!tly after the air8fuel mi* passes from the !ar#uretor or fuel in&e!tor to the !ylinder 5 here it is ignited6 is also kno n as a po er stroke. ( Wankel engine has a triangular rotor that or#its in an epitro!hoidal 5figure E shape6 !ham#er around an e!!entri! shaft. The four phases of operation 5intake, !ompression, po er, and e*haust6 take pla!e in hat is effe!tively a moving, varia#le8volume !ham#er.

!al0#s

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(ll four stroke internal !om#ustion engines employ valves to !ontrol the admittan!e of fuel and air into the !om#ustion !ham#er. T o8stroke engines use ports in the !ylinder #ore, !overed and un!overed #y the piston, though there have #een variations su!h as e*haust valves.

"iston #n&in# 0al0#s In piston engines, the valves are grouped into Minlet valvesM hi!h admit the entran!e of fuel and air and Moutlet valvesM hi!h allo the e*haust gases to es!ape. %a!h valve opens on!e per !y!le and the ones that are su#&e!t to e*treme a!!elerations are held !losed #y springs that are typi!ally opened #y rods running on a !amshaft rotating ith the enginesM !rankshaft. Control 0al0#s Continuous !om#ustion enginesJas ell as piston enginesJusually have valves that open and !lose to admit the fuel and+or air at the startup and shutdo n. $ome valves feather to ad&ust the flo to !ontrol po er or engine speed as ell.

E.ha%st s'st#ms

E.ha%st mani*old (ith c#ramic plasma1spra'#d s'st#m Internal !om#ustion engines have to effe!tively manage the e*haust of the !ooled !om#ustion gas from the engine. The e*haust system fre)uently !ontains devi!es to !ontrol pollution, #oth !hemi!al and noise pollution. In addition, for !y!li! !om#ustion engines the e*haust system is fre)uently tuned to improve emptying of the !om#ustion !ham#er. The ma&ority of e*hausts also have systems to prevent heat from rea!hing pla!es hi!h ould en!ounter damage from it su!h as heat8sensitive !omponents, often referred to as %*haust Heat ?anagement.

1:

<or &et propulsion internal !om#ustion engines, the Me*haust systemM takes the form of a high velo!ity no77le, hi!h generates thrust for the engine and forms a !olimated &et of gas that gives the engine its name.

Coolin& s'st#ms
Com#ustion generates a great deal of heat, and some of this transfers to the alls of the engine. <ailure ill o!!ur if the #ody of the engine is allo ed to rea!h too high a temperature@ either the engine ill physi!ally fail, or any lu#ri!ants used ill degrade to the point that they no longer prote!t the engine. Cooling systems usually employ air or li)uid 5usually ater6 !ooling hile some very hot engines using radiative !ooling 5espe!ially some Ro!ket engines6. $ome high altitude ro!ket engines use a#lative !ooling here the alls gradually erode in a !ontrolled fashion. Ro!kets in parti!ular !an use regenerative !ooling hi!h uses the fuel to !ool the solid parts of the engine.

"iston

( piston is a !omponent of re!ipro!ating engines. It is lo!ated in a !ylinder and is made gas8tight #y piston rings. Its purpose is to transfer for!e from e*panding gas in the !ylinder to the !rankshaft via a piston rod and+or !onne!ting rod. In t o8stroke engines the piston also a!ts as a valve #y !overing and un!overing ports in the !ylinder all.

"rop#llin& no22l#
<or &et engine forms of internal !om#ustion engines, a propelling no77le is present. This takes the high temperature, high pressure e*haust and e*pands and !ools it. The e*haust leaves the no77le going at mu!h higher speed and provides thrust, as ell as !onstri!ting the flo from the engine and raising the pressure in the rest of the engine, giving greater thrust for the e*haust mass that e*its.

Cran-sha*t

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( !rankshaft for a : !ylinder engine ?ost re!ipro!ating internal !om#ustion engines end up turning a shaft. This means that the linear motion of a piston must #e !onverted into rotation. This is typi!ally a!hieved #y a !rankshaft.

,l'(h##ls
The fly heel is a disk or heel atta!hed to the !rank, forming an inertial mass that stores rotational energy. In engines ith only a single !ylinder the fly heel is essential to !arry energy over from the po er stroke into a su#se)uent !ompression stroke. <ly heels are present in most re!ipro!ating engines to smooth out the po er delivery over ea!h rotation of the !rank and in most automotive engines also mount a gear ring for a starter. The rotational inertia of the fly heel also allo s a mu!h slo er minimum unloaded speed and also improves the smoothness at idle. The fly heel may also perform a part of the #alan!ing of the system and so #y itself #e out of #alan!e, although most engines ill use a neutral #alan!e for the fly heel, ena#ling it to #e #alan!ed in a separate operation. The fly heel is also used as a mounting for the !lut!h or a tor)ue !onverter in most automotive appli!ations.

Start#r s'st#ms
(ll internal !om#ustion engines re)uire some form of system to get them into operation. ?ost piston engines use a starter motor po ered #y the same #attery as runs the rest of the ele!tri! systems. Large &et engines and gas tur#ines are started ith a !ompressed air motor that is geared to one of the engineMs driveshafts. Compressed air !an #e supplied from another engine, a unit on the ground or #y the air!raftMs (1H. $mall internal !om#ustion engines are often started #y pull !ords. ?otor!y!les of all si7es ere traditionally ki!k8started, though all #ut the smallest are no ele!tri!8start. Large stationary and marine engines may #e started #y the timed in&e!tion of !ompressed air into the !ylinders J or o!!asionally ith !artridges. =ump starting refers to assistan!e from another #attery 5typi!ally hen the fitted #attery is dis!harged6, hile #ump starting refers to an alternative method of starting #y the appli!ation of some e*ternal for!e, e.g. rolling do n a hill. 1>

H#at shi#ldin& s'st#ms

<le*i#le !erami! heat shield !ommonly used on high8performan!e automo#iles These systems often ork in !om#ination ith engine !ooling and e*haust systems. Heat shielding is ne!essary to prevent engine heat from damaging heat8sensitive !omponents. The ma&ority of older !ars use simple steel heat shielding to redu!e thermal radiation and !onve!tion. It is no most !ommon for modern !ars are to use aluminium heat shielding hi!h has a lo er density, !an #e easily formed and does not !orrode in the same ay as steel. Higher performan!e vehi!les are #eginning to use !erami! heat shielding as this !an ithstand far higher temperatures as ell as further redu!tions in heat transfer.

L%$rication s'st#ms
Internal !om#ustions engines re)uire lu#ri!ation in operation that moving parts slide smoothly over ea!h other. Insuffi!ient lu#ri!ation su#&e!ts the parts of the engine to metal8to8metal !onta!t, fri!tion, heat #uild8up, rapid ear often !ulminating in parts #e!oming fri!tion elded together e.g. pistons in their !ylinders. "ig end #earings sei7ing up ill sometimes lead to a !onne!ting rod #reaking and poking out through the !rank!ase. $everal different types of lu#ri!ation systems are used. $imple t o8stroke engines are lu#ri!ated #y oil mi*ed into the fuel or in&e!ted into the indu!tion stream as a spray. %arly slo 8speed stationary and marine engines ere lu#ri!ated #y gravity from small !ham#ers similar to those used on steam engines at the time J ith an engine tender refilling these as needed. (s engines ere adapted for automotive and air!raft use, the need for a high po er8to8 eight ratio led to in!reased speeds, higher temperatures, and greater pressure on #earings hi!h in turn re)uired pressure8lu#ri!ation for !rank #earings and !onne!ting8rod &ournals. This as provided either #y a dire!t lu#ri!ation from a pump, or indire!tly #y a &et of oil dire!ted at pi!kup !ups on the !onne!ting rod ends hi!h had the advantage of providing higher pressures as the engine speed in!reased.

Control s'st#ms

1A

?ost engines re)uire one or more systems to start and shutdo n the engine and to !ontrol parameters su!h as the po er, speed, tor)ue, pollution, !om#ustion temperature, effi!ien!y and to sta#ilise the engine from modes of operation that may indu!e self8 damage su!h as pre8ignition. $u!h systems may #e referred to as engine !ontrol units. ?any !ontrol systems today are digital, and are fre)uently termed <(0%C 5<ull (uthority 0igital %le!troni! Control6 systems.

Di#s#l #n&in#

Di#s#l #n&in#s in a m%s#%m ( di#s#l #n&in# 5also kno n as a !ompression ignition engine and sometimes !apitali7ed as Di#s#l #n&in#6 is an internal !om#ustion engine that uses the heat of !ompression to initiate ignition to #urn the fuel, hi!h is in&e!ted into the !om#ustion !ham#er during the final stage of !ompression. This is in !ontrast to spark ignition engines su!h as a petrol engine 5kno n as a &asolin# #n&in# in /orth (meri!a6 or gas engine 5using a gaseous fuel, not gasoline6, hi!h uses a spark plug to ignite an air8fuel mi*ture. "oth diesel engines and spark ignition engines are modelled #y the ,tto !y!le. The diesel !y!le 1E

5a thermodynami! model slightly different from the ,tto !y!le6 is not to #e !onfused ith the diesel engine, #oth of hi!h ere developed #y Rudolph 0iesel and named after him. The diesel engine has the highest thermal effi!ien!y of any regular internal or e*ternal !om#ustion engine due to its very high !ompression ratio. Lo 8speed diesel engines 5as used in ships and other appli!ations here overall engine eight is relatively unimportant6 often have a thermal effi!ien!y hi!h e*!eeds 2C per!ent. 0iesel engines are manufa!tured in t o stroke and four stroke versions. They ere originally used as a more effi!ient repla!ement for stationary steam engines. $in!e the 1G1Cs they have #een used in su#marines and ships. Hse in lo!omotives, large tru!ks and ele!tri! generating plants follo ed later. In the 1G3Cs, they slo ly #egan to #e used in a fe automo#iles. $in!e the 1GACs, the use of diesel engines in larger on8road and off8road vehi!les in the H$( in!reased. (s of 'CCA, a#out 2C per!ent of all ne !ar sales in %urope are diesel. The orldMs largest diesel engine is !urrently a WNrtsilN marine diesel of a#out EC ?W output. .

Ho( di#s#l #n&in#s (orThe diesel internal !om#ustion engine differs from the gasoline po ered ,tto !y!le #y using highly !ompressed, hot air to ignite the fuel rather than using a spark plug 5compression ignition rather than spark ignition6. In the true diesel engine, only air is initially introdu!ed into the !om#ustion !ham#er. The air is then !ompressed ith a !ompression ratio typi!ally #et een 1291 and ''91 resulting in :C8#ar 5:.C ?1a@ 2EC psi6 pressure !ompared to E to 1: #ars 5C.EC to 1.: ?1a6 5a#out 'CC psi6 in the petrol engine. This high !ompression heats the air to 22C DC 51,C'' D<6. (t a#out the top of the !ompression stroke, fuel is in&e!ted dire!tly into the !ompressed air in the !om#ustion !ham#er. This may #e into a 5typi!ally toroidal6 void in the top of the piston or a pre-chamber depending upon the design of the engine. The fuel in&e!tor ensures that the fuel is #roken do n into small droplets, and that the fuel is distri#uted evenly. The heat of the !ompressed air vapori7es fuel from the surfa!e of the droplets. The vapour is then ignited #y the heat from the !ompressed air in the !om#ustion !ham#er, the droplets !ontinue to vaporise from their surfa!es and #urn, getting smaller, until all the fuel in the droplets has #een #urnt. The start of vaporisation !auses a delay period during ignition, and the !hara!teristi! diesel kno!king sound as the vapor rea!hes ignition temperature and !auses an a#rupt in!rease in pressure a#ove the piston. The rapid

1G

e*pansion of !om#ustion gases then drives the piston do n ard, supplying po er to the !rankshaft. ?odel aeroplane engines use a variant of the 0iesel prin!iple #ut premi* fuel and air via a !ar#uration system e*ternal to the !om#ustion !ham#ers. (s ell as the high level of !ompression allo ing !om#ustion to take pla!e ithout a separate ignition system, a high !ompression ratio greatly in!reases the engineMs effi!ien!y. In!reasing the !ompression ratio in a spark8ignition engine here fuel and air are mi*ed #efore entry to the !ylinder is limited #y the need to prevent damaging pre8 ignition. $in!e only air is !ompressed in a diesel engine, and fuel is not introdu!ed into the !ylinder until shortly #efore top dead !entre 5T0C6, premature detonation is not an issue and !ompression ratios are mu!h higher.

a/or ad0anta&#s
0iesel engines have several advantages over other internal !om#ustion engines9

They #urn less fuel than a petrol engine performing the same ork, due to the engineMs higher temperature of !om#ustion and greater e*pansion ratio. ;asoline engines are typi!ally '2 per!ent effi!ient hile diesel engines !an !onvert over 3C per!ent of the fuel energy into me!hani!al energy. They have no high8tension ele!tri!al ignition system to attend to, resulting in high relia#ility and easy adaptation to damp environments. The a#sen!e of !oils, spark plug ires, et!., also eliminates a sour!e of radio fre)uen!y emissions hi!h !an interfere ith navigation and !ommuni!ation e)uipment, hi!h is espe!ially important in marine and air!raft appli!ations. They !an deliver mu!h more of their rated po er on a !ontinuous #asis than a petrol engine. The life of a diesel engine is generally a#out t i!e as long as that of a petrol engine.due to the in!reased strength of parts used. 0iesel fuel has #etter lu#ri!ation properties than petrol as ell.

Indir#ct in/#ction
(n indire!t in&e!tion diesel engine delivers fuel into a !ham#er off the !om#ustion !ham#er, !alled a pre8!ham#er or ante8!ham#er, here !om#ustion #egins and then spreads into the main !om#ustion !ham#er, assisted #y tur#ulen!e !reated in the !ham#er. This system allo s for a smoother, )uieter running engine, and #e!ause !om#ustion is assisted #y tur#ulen!e, in&e!tor pressures !an #e lo er, a#out 1CC #ar 51C ?1a@ 1,2CC psi6, using a single orifi!e tapered &et in&e!tor. ?e!hani!al in&e!tion systems allo ed high8speed running suita#le for road vehi!les 5typi!ally up to speeds of around :,CCC rpm6. The pre8!ham#er had the disadvantage of in!reasing heat loss to the engineMs !ooling system, and restri!ting the !om#ustion #urn, hi!h redu!ed the effi!ien!y #y 2O1C per!ent. Indire!t in&e!tion engines ere used in small8!apa!ity, high8

'C

speed diesel engines in automotive, marine and !onstru!tion uses from the 1G2Cs, until dire!t in&e!tion te!hnology advan!ed in the 1GECs .Indire!t in&e!tion engines are !heaper to #uild and it is easier to produ!e smooth, )uiet8running vehi!les ith a simple me!hani!al system. In road8going vehi!les most prefer the greater effi!ien!y and #etter !ontrolled emission levels of dire!t in&e!tion. Indire!t in&e!tion diesels !an still #e found in the many (TV diesel appli!ations.

Dir#ct in/#ction
?odern diesel engines make use of one of the follo ing dire!t in&e!tion methods9 0ire!t in&e!tion in&e!tors are mounted in the top of the !om#ustion !ham#er. The pro#lem ith these vehi!les as the harsh noise that they made. <uel !onsumption as a#out 12 to 'C per!ent lo er than indire!t in&e!tion diesels, hi!h for some #uyers as enough to !ompensate for the e*tra noise. This type of engine as transformed #y ele!troni! !ontrol of the in&e!tion pump, pioneered #y <I(T in 1GEE 5Croma6. The in&e!tion pressure as still only around 3CC #ar 53C ?1a@ :,:CC psi6, #ut the in&e!tion timing, fuel )uantity, %;R and tur#o #oost ere all ele!troni!ally !ontrolled. This gave more pre!ise !ontrol of these parameters hi!h eased refinement and lo ered emissions.

Cold (#ath#r
Startin& In !old eather, high speed diesel engines that are pre8!ham#ered !an #e diffi!ult to start #e!ause the mass of the !ylinder #lo!k and !ylinder head a#sor# the heat of !ompression, preventing ignition due to the higher surfa!e8to8volume ratio. 1re8!ham#ered engines therefore make use of small ele!tri! heaters inside the pre8!ham#ers !alled glo plugs. These engines also generally have a higher !ompression ratio of 1G91 to '191. Lo speed and !ompressed air started larger and intermediate speed diesels do not have glo plugs and !ompression ratios are around 1>91. $ome engines use resistive grid heaters in the intake manifold to arm the inlet air until the engine rea!hes operating temperature. %ngine #lo!k heaters 5ele!tri! resistive heaters in the engine #lo!k6 !onne!ted to the utility grid are often used hen an engine is turned off for e*tended periods 5more than an hour6 in !old eather to redu!e startup time and engine ear. In the past, a ider variety of !old8start methods ere used. $ome engines, su!h as 0etroit 0iesel engines and Lister81etter engines, used a system to introdu!e small amounts of ether into the inlet manifold to start !om#ustion. $aa#8$!ania marine engines, <ield ?arshall tra!tors 5among others6 used slo 8#urning solid8fuel M!igarettesM hi!h ere fitted into the !ylinder head as a primitive glo plug. Lu!as developed the Thermostart, here an '1

ele!tri!al heating element as !om#ined ith a small fuel valve in the inlet manifold. 0iesel fuel slo ly dripped from the valve onto the hot element and ignited. The flame heated the inlet manifold and hen the engine as !ranked, the flame as dra n into the !ylinders to start !om#ustion. International Harvester developed a tra!tor in the 1G3Cs that had a A8litre :8!ylinder engine hi!h started as a gasoline engine then ran on diesel after arming up. The !ylinder head had valves hi!h opened for a portion of the !ompression stroke to redu!e the effe!tive !ompression ratio, and a magneto produ!ed the spark. (n automati! rat!het system automati!ally disengaged the ignition system and !losed the valves on!e the engine had run for 3C se!onds. The operator then s it!hed off the petrol fuel system and opened the throttle on the diesel in&e!tion system. Re!ent dire!t8in&e!tion systems are advan!ed to the e*tent that pre8!ham#ers systems are not needed #y using a !ommon rail fuel system ith ele!troni! fuel in&e!tion. G#llin& 0iesel fuel is also prone to waxing or gelling in !old eather@ #oth are terms for the solidifi!ation of diesel oil into a partially !rystalline state. The !rystals #uild up in the fuel line 5espe!ially in fuel filters6, eventually starving the engine of fuel and !ausing it to stop running. Lo 8output ele!tri! heaters in fuel tanks and around fuel lines are used to solve this pro#lem. (lso, most engines have a spill return system, #y hi!h any e*!ess fuel from the in&e!tor pump and in&e!tors is returned to the fuel tank. ,n!e the engine has armed, returning arm fuel prevents a*ing in the tank. 0ue to improvements in fuel te!hnology ith additives, a*ing rarely o!!urs in all #ut the !oldest eather hen a mi* of diesel and kerosene should #e used to run a vehi!le.

Strai&ht1si. #n&in#

''

A $%s #n&in# (ith th# c'lind#r h#ad r#mo0#d3 sho(in& th# pistons in th# si. c'lind#rs o* th# #n&in#
The strai&ht1si. #n&in# or inlin#1si. #n&in# 5often a##reviated I6, L6 or R66 is a si* !ylinder internal !om#ustion engine ith all si* !ylinders mounted in a straight line along the !rank!ase. The single #ank of !ylinders may #e oriented in either a verti!al or an in!lined plane ith all the pistons driving a !ommon !rankshaft@ in vehi!les here this engine is installed in!lined versus verti!al, it is sometimes !alled a slant1si. #n&in#. The straight8si* layout is the simplest engine layout that possesses #oth primary and se!ondary me!hani!al engine #alan!e, resulting in relatively lo manufa!turing !ost !om#ined ith mu!h less vi#ration than engines ith fe er !ylinders.

Air $ra-# 4road 0#hicl#5

Tr%c- air act%at#d disc $ra-#. Air $ra-#s are used in tru!ks, #uses, trailers, and semi8trailers. ;eorge Westinghouse first developed air #rakes for use in rail ay servi!e. He patented a safer air #rake on ?ar!h 2, 1EA'. ,riginally designed and #uilt for use on railroad train appli!ation, air #rakes remain the e*!lusive systems in idespread use. Westinghouse made numerous alterations to improve his air pressured #rake invention, hi!h led to various forms of the automati! #rake and the su#se)uent use on heavier road vehi!les.

Compr#ss#d air $ra-# s'st#m

Compressed air #rake systems are typi!ally used on heavy tru!ks and #uses. The system !onsists of servi!e #rakes, parking #rakes, a !ontrol pedal, an engine8driven air !ompressor and a !ompressed air storage tank. <or the parking #rake, there is a dis! or drum #rake arrangement hi!h is designed to #e held in the MappliedM position #y spring pressure. (ir pressure must #e produ!ed to release these Kspring #rakeK parking #rakes. <or the servi!e #rakes 5the ones used hile driving for slo ing or stopping6 to #e applied, the #rake pedal is pushed, routing the air under pressure 5appro* 1CC81'2psi6 to the #rake

'3

!ham#er, !ausing the #rake to redu!e heel rotation speed. ?ost types of tru!k air #rakes are drum units, though there is an in!reasing trend to ards the use of dis! #rakes in this appli!ation. The air !ompressor air dra s filtered air from the atmosphere and for!es it into high8pressure reservoirs at around 1'C 1$I. ?ost heavy vehi!les have a gauge ithin the driverMs vie , indi!ating the availa#ility of air pressure for safe vehi!le operation, often in!luding arning tones or lights. $etting of the parking+emergen!y #rake releases the pressuri7ed air pressure in the lines #et een the !ompressed air storage tank and the #rakes, thus a!tuating the 5spring #rake6 parking #raking hard are. (n air pressure failure at any point ould apply full spring #rake pressure immediately. "rakes are applied #y pushing do n the #rake pedal. 5It is also !alled the foot valve or treadle valve.6 1ushing the pedal do n harder applies more air pressure. Letting up on the #rake pedal redu!es the air pressure and releases the #rakes. Releasing the #rakes lets some !ompressed air go out of the system, so the air pressure in the tanks is redu!ed. It must #e made up #y the air !ompressor. 1ressing and releasing the pedal unne!essarily !an let air out faster than the !ompressor !an repla!e it. If the pressure gets too lo , the #rakes onMt ork. These large vehi!les also have an emergen!y #rake system, in hi!h the !ompressed air holds #a!k a me!hani!al for!e 5usually a spring6 hi!h ill other ise engage the #rakes. Hen!e, if air pressure is lost for any reason, the #rakes ill engage and #ring the vehi!le to a stop.

Dr%m $ra-#

( drum #rake ith the drum removed as used on the rear heel of a !ar or tru!k. /ote that in this installation, a !a#le8operated parking #rake uses the servi!e shoes. ( dr%m $ra-# is a #rake in hi!h the fri!tion is !aused #y a set of shoes or pads that press against a rotating drum8shaped surfa!e. The term Kdrum #rakeK usually means a #rake in hi!h shoes press on the inner surfa!e of the drum. When shoes press on the outside of the drum, it is usually !alled a !lasp

':

#rake. Where the drum is pin!hed #et een t o shoes, similar to a !onventional disk #rake, it is sometimes !alled a Kpin!h drum #rakeK, although su!h #rakes are relatively rare. ( related type of #rake uses a fle*i#le #elt or K#andK rapping around the outside of a drum, !alled a #and #rake.

S#l*1appl'in& charact#ristic
0rum #rakes have a natural Kself8applyingK !hara!teristi!. The rotation of the drum !an drag either or #oth of the shoes into the fri!tion surfa!e, !ausing the #rakes to #ite harder, hi!h in!reases the for!e holding them together. This in!reases the stopping po er ithout any additional effort #eing e*pended #y the driver, #ut it does make it harder for the driver to modulate the #rakeMs sensitivity. It also makes the #rake more sensitive to #rake fade, as a de!rease in #rake fri!tion also redu!es the amount of #rake assist. 0is! #rakes e*hi#it no self8applying effe!t #e!ause the hydrauli! pressure a!ting on the pads is perpendi!ular to the dire!tion of rotation of the dis!. 0is! #rake systems usually have servo assistan!e 5K"rake "oosterK6 to lessen the driverMs pedal effort, #ut some dis! #raked !ars 5nota#ly ra!e !ars6 and smaller #rakes for motor!y!les, et!., do not need to use servos. /ote9 In most designs, the Kself applyingK effe!t only o!!urs on one shoe. While this shoe is further for!ed into the drum surfa!e #y a moment due to fri!tion, the opposite effe!t is happening on the other shoe. The fri!tion for!e is trying to rotate it a ay from the drum. The for!es are different on ea!h #rake shoe resulting in one shoe earing faster. It is possi#le to design a t o8shoe drum #rake here #oth shoes are self8applying 5having separate a!tuators and pivoted at opposite ends6, #ut these are very un!ommon in pra!ti!e.

S1cam
(n S1cam is part of a #raking system used in heavy vehi!les su!h as tru!ks and heeled ma!hinery. It !onsists of a shaft, usually around : to '2 in!hes long, turned at one end #y means of an air8po ered #rake #ooster ith an M$M shaped !am at the heel end. Turning the shaft pushes the #rake shoes against the drum, produ!ing fri!tion..

!ARIOUS WORKING S6STE S IN AUTO O7ILE

IGNITION S6STE

'2

This system is responsi#le for the ignition of the engine (s e kno that engine re)uire ignition for the star. (le* is used in #uses ,UEL IN8ECTION In&e!tors are used to in&e!t the fuel into the engine !ylinder. TRANS ISSION S6STE Various transmission systems are !lut!h, gear #o*, propeller shaft, and differential. LU7RICATION S6STE L%$rication s'st#m is #mplo'#d *or l%$rication proc#ss) "%rpos# Lu#ri!ants perform the follo ing key fun!tions.

-eep moving parts apart Redu!e fri!tion Transfer heat Carry a ay !ontaminants P de#ris Transmit po er 1rote!t against ear 1revent !orrosion $eal for gasses $top the risk of smoke and fire of o#&e!ts

It redu!es the fri!tional losses. COOLING S6STE Radiator is used to !ool engine and a fan is used &ust #a!k of radiator. Cooling is ne!essary for engine as it goes on heating and this heating !an !ause damage to the engine.

E9HAUST S6STE
This system removes the gases from !ylinder due to hi!h the pro!ess !ontinues. '>

$ilen!er and tur#o are used in diesel engine for the removal of e*haust.

SUS"ENSION S6STE
$uspension system is responsi#le for the smooth drive of vehi!le on road. These are vo#. 0ampers, leaf springs, and air suspension et!.

G#ar $o.
( transmission or &#ar$o. provides speed and tor)ue !onversions from a rotating po er sour!e to another devi!e using gear ratios. In "ritish %nglish the term transmission refers to the hole drive train, in!luding gear#o*, !lut!h, prop shaft 5for rear8 heel drive6, differential and final drive shafts. The most !ommon use is in motor vehi!les, here the transmission adapts the output of the internal !om#ustion engine to the drive heels. $u!h engines need to operate at a relatively high rotational speed, hi!h is inappropriate for starting, stopping, and slo er travel. The transmission redu!es the higher engine speed to the slo er heel speed, in!reasing tor)ue in the pro!ess. Transmissions are also used on pedal #i!y!les, fi*ed ma!hines, and any here else rotational speed and tor)ue needs to #e adapted. ,ften, a transmission ill have multiple gear ratios 5or simply KgearsK6, ith the a#ility to s it!h #et een them as speed varies. This s it!hing may #e done manually 5#y the operator6, or automati!ally. 0ire!tional 5for ard and reverse6 !ontrol may also #e provided. $ingle8ratio transmissions also e*ist, hi!h simply !hange the speed and tor)ue 5and sometimes dire!tion6 of motor output. In motor vehi!le appli!ations, the transmission ill generally #e !onne!ted to the !rankshaft of the engine. The output of the transmission is transmitted via driveshaft to one or more differentials, hi!h in turn drive the heels. While a differential may also provide gear redu!tion, its primary purpose is to !hange the dire!tion of rotation. Conventional gear+#elt transmissions are not the only me!hanism for speed+tor)ue adaptation. (lternative me!hanisms in!lude tor)ue !onverters and po er transformation 5e.g., diesel8ele!tri! transmission, hydrauli! drive system, et!.6. Hy#rid !onfigurations also e*ist.

an%al transmission

'A

A *loor1mo%nt#d &#ar shi*t l#0#r in a mod#rn pass#n&#r car (ith a man%al transmission ( man%al transmission, also kno n as a man%al &#ar$o. or standard transmission 5informally, a Kmanual,K Ksti!k shift,K Kstraight shift,K or Kstraight driveK6 is a type of transmission used in motor vehi!le appli!ations. It generally uses a driver8operated !lut!h, typi!ally operated #y a pedal or lever, for regulating tor)ue transfer from the internal !om#ustion engine to the transmission, and a gear sti!k, either operated #y hand 5as in a !ar6 or #y foot 5as on a motor!y!le6. ( !onventional manual transmission is fre)uently the #ase e)uipment in a !ar, ith the option #eing an automated transmissions su!h as an automati! transmission 5often a manumati!6, semi8automati! transmission, or the !ontinuously varia#le transmission 5CVT6. In a manual hile the driver shifts gears manually, automated transmissions use the the transmissionMs !omputer to !hange gear.

O0#r0i#(
?anual transmissions often feature a driver8operated !lut!h and a mova#le gear sti!k. ?ost automo#ile manual transmissions allo the driver to sele!t any for ard gear ratio 5KgearK6 at any time, #ut some, su!h as those !ommonly mounted on motor!y!les and some types of ra!ing !ars, only allo the driver to sele!t the ne*t8higher or ne*t8lo er gear. This type of transmission is sometimes !alled a se)uential manual transmission. $e)uential transmissions are !ommonly used in auto ra!ing for their a#ility to make )ui!k shifts. ?anual transmissions are !hara!teri7ed #y gear ratios that are sele!ta#le #y lo!king sele!ted gear pairs to the output shaft inside the transmission. Conversely, most automati! transmissions feature epi!y!li! 5planetary6 gearing !ontrolled #y #rake #ands and+or !lut!h pa!ks to sele!t gear ratio. (utomati! transmissions that allo the driver to manually sele!t the !urrent gear are !alled ?anumati!s. ( manual8style transmission operated #y !omputer is often !alled an automated transmission rather than an automatic.

'E

Contemporary automo#ile manual transmissions typi!ally use four to si* for ard gears and one reverse gear, although automo#ile manual transmissions have #een #uilt ith as fe as t o and as many as eight gears. Transmission for heavy tru!ks and other heavy e)uipment usually have at least G gears so the transmission !an offer #oth a ide range of gears and !lose gear ratios to keep the engine running in the po er #and. $ome heavy vehi!le transmissions have do7ens of gears, #ut many are dupli!ates, introdu!ed as an a!!ident of !om#ining gear sets, or introdu!ed to simplify shifting. $ome manuals are referred to #y the num#er of for ard gears they offer 5e.g., 28speed6 as a ay of distinguishing #et een automati! or other availa#le manual transmissions. $imilarly, a 28 speed automati! transmission is referred to as a K28speed automati!.K

Uns'nchroni2#d transmission
The earliest form of a manual transmission is thought to have #een invented #y Louis8 Ren4 1anhard and %mile Levassor in the late 1Gth !entury. This type of transmission offered multiple gear ratios and, in most !ases, reverse. The gears ere typi!ally engaged #y sliding them on their shaftsJ hen!e the term Kshifting gears,K hi!h re)uired a lot of !areful timing and throttle manipulation hen shifting, so that the gears ould #e spinning at roughly the same speed hen engaged@ other ise, the teeth ould refuse to mesh. These transmissions are !alled Ksliding meshK transmissions and sometimes !alled a !rash #o*. ?ost ne er transmissions instead have all gears mesh at all times@ these are referred to as K!onstant8meshK transmissions. In #oth types, a parti!ular gear !om#ination !an only #e engaged hen the t o parts to engage 5either gears or dog !lut!hes6 are at the same speed. To shift to a higher gear, the transmission is put in neutral and the engine allo ed to slo do n until the transmission parts for the ne*t gear are at a proper speed to engage. The vehi!le also slo s hile in neutral and that slo s other transmission parts, so the time in neutral depends on the grade, ind, and other su!h fa!tors. To shift to a lo er gear, the transmission is put in neutral and the throttle is used to speed up the engine and thus the relevant transmission parts, to mat!h speeds for engaging the ne*t lo er gear. <or #oth upshifts and do nshifts, the !lut!h is released 5engaged6 hile in neutral. $ome drivers use the !lut!h only for starting from a stop, and shifts are done ithout the !lut!h. ,ther drivers ill depress 5disengage6 the !lut!h, shift to neutral, then engage the !lut!h momentarily to for!e transmission parts to mat!h the engine speed, then depress the !lut!h again to shift to the ne*t gear, a pro!ess !alled dou#le !lut!hing. 0ou#le !lut!hing is easier to get smooth, as speeds that are !lose #ut not )uite mat!hed need to speed up or slo do n only transmission parts, hereas ith the !lut!h engaged to the engine, mismat!hed speeds are fighting the rotational inertia and po er of the engine. %ven though automo#ile and light tru!k transmissions are no almost universally syn!hronised, transmissions for heavy tru!ks and ma!hinery, motor!y!les, and for dedi!ated ra!ing are usually not. /on8syn!hroni7ed transmission designs are used for several reasons. The fri!tion material, su!h as #rass, in syn!hroni7ers is more prone to ear and #reakage than gears, hi!h are forged steel, and the simpli!ity of the me!hanism improves relia#ility and redu!es !ost. In addition, the pro!ess of shifting a 'G

syn!hromesh transmission is slo er than that of shifting a non8syn!hromesh transmission. <or ra!ing of produ!tion8#ased transmissions, sometimes half the teeth 5or KdogsK6 on the syn!hros are removed to speed the shifting pro!ess, at the e*pense of greater ear. Heavy duty tru!ks often use unsyn!hroni7ed transmissions. ?ilitary tru!ks usually have syn!hroni7ed transmissions, allo ing untrained personnel to operate them in emergen!ies. In the Hnited $tates, traffi! safety rules refer to non8syn!hronous transmissions in !lasses of larger !ommer!ial motor vehi!les. In %urope, heavy duty tru!ks use syn!hroni7ed gear#o*es as standard. $imilarly, most modern motor!y!les use unsyn!hroni7ed transmissions as syn!hroni7ers are generally not ne!essary or desira#le. Their lo gear inertias and higher strengths mean that for!ing the gears to alter speed is not damaging, and the pedal operated sele!tor on modern motor!y!les is not !ondu!ive to having the long shift time of a syn!hroni7ed gear#o*. "e!ause of this, it is ne!essary to syn!hroni7e gear speeds #y #lipping the throttle hen shifting into a lo er gear on a motor!y!le.

S'nchronis#d transmission

Top and sid# 0i#( o* a t'pical man%al transmission3 in this cas# a ,ord Topload#r3 %s#d in cars (ith #.t#rnal *loor shi*t#rs) ?ost modern !ars are fitted ith a syn!hronised gear #o*. Transmission gears are al ays in mesh and rotating, #ut gears on one shaft !an freely rotate or #e lo!ked to the shaft. The lo!king me!hanism for a gear !onsists of a !ollar 5or dog collar6 on the shaft hi!h is a#le to slide side ays so that teeth 5or dogs6 on its inner surfa!e #ridge t o !ir!ular rings ith teeth on their outer !ir!umferen!e9 one atta!hed to the gear, one to the shaft. When the rings are #ridged #y the !ollar, that parti!ular gear is rotationally lo!ked to the shaft and determines the output speed of the transmission. The gearshift lever manipulates the !ollars using a set of linkages, so arranged so that one !ollar may #e permitted to lo!k only one gear at any one time@ hen Kshifting gears,K the lo!king !ollar 3C

from one gear is disengaged #efore that of another engaged. ,ne !ollar often serves for t o gears@ sliding in one dire!tion sele!ts one transmission speed, in the other dire!tion sele!ts another. In a syn!hromesh gear#o*, to !orre!tly mat!h the speed of the gear to that of the shaft as the gear is engaged, the !ollar initially applies a for!e to a !one8shaped #rass !lut!h atta!hed to the gear, hi!h #rings the speeds to mat!h prior to the !ollar lo!king into pla!e. The !ollar is prevented from #ridging the lo!king rings hen the speeds are mismat!hed #y syn!hro rings 5also !alled #lo!ker rings or #aulk rings, ith the latter #eing spelt balk in the H.$.6. The syn!hro ring rotates slightly due to the fri!tional tor)ue from the !one !lut!h. In this position, the dog !lut!h is prevented from engaging. The #rass !lut!h ring gradually !auses parts to spin at the same speed. When they do spin the same speed, there is no more tor)ue from the !one !lut!h, and the dog !lut!h is allo ed to fall in to engagement. In a modern gear#o*, the a!tion of all of these !omponents is so smooth and fast it is hardly noti!ed. The modern !one system as developed #y 1ors!he and introdu!ed in the 1G2' 1ors!he 32>@ !one syn!hronisers ere !alled Porsche-type for many years after this. In the early 1G2Cs, only the se!ond8third shift as syn!hromesh in most !ars, re)uiring only a single syn!hro and a simple linkage@ driversM manuals in !ars suggested that if the driver needed to shift from se!ond to first, it as #est to !ome to a !omplete stop then shift into first and start up again. With !ontinuing sophisti!ation of me!hani!al development, ho ever, fully syn!hromesh transmissions ith three speeds, then four speeds, and then five speeds, #e!ame universal #y the 1GECs. ?any modern manual transmission !ars, espe!ially sports !ars, no offer si* speeds. Reverse gear, ho ever, is usually not syn!hromesh, as there is only one reverse gear in the normal automotive transmission and !hanging gears into reverse hile moving is not re)uired. (mong the !ars that have syn!hromesh in reverse are the 1GG28'CCC <ord Contour and ?er!ury ?ysti)ue, MCC8MC2 Chevrolet Cavalier, ?er!edes 1GC '.381>, the V> e)uipped (lfa Romeo ;TV+$pider 5G1>6, !ertain Chrysler, =eep, and ;? produ!ts hi!h use the /e Venture /V32CC and /V322C units, the %uropean <ord $ierra and ;ranada+$!orpio e)uipped ith the ?TA2 gear#o*, the Volvo E2C, and almost all Lam#orghinis and "?Ws

Int#rnals
Sha*ts
Like other transmissions, a manual transmission has several shafts ith various gears and other !omponents atta!hed to them. Typi!ally, a rear8 heel8drive transmission has three shafts9 an input shaft, a countershaft and an output shaft. The !ountershaft is sometimes !alled a layshaft. In a rear8 heel8drive transmission, the input and output shaft lie along the same line, and may in fa!t #e !om#ined into a single shaft ithin the transmission. This single shaft is 31

!alled a mainshaft. The input and output ends of this !om#ined shaft rotate independently, at different speeds, hi!h is possi#le #e!ause one pie!e slides into a hollo #ore in the other pie!e, here it is supported #y a #earing. $ometimes the term mainshaft refers to &ust the input shaft or &ust the output shaft, rather than the entire assem#ly. In some transmissions, itMs possi#le for the input and output !omponents of the mainshaft to #e lo!ked together to !reate a 191 gear ratio, !ausing the po er flo to #ypass the !ountershaft. The mainshaft then #ehaves like a single, solid shaft, a situation referred to as direct drive. %ven in transmissions that do not feature dire!t drive, itMs an advantage for the input and output to lie along the same line, #e!ause this redu!es the amount of torsion that the transmission !ase has to #ear. Hnder one possi#le design, the transmissionMs input shaft has &ust one pinion gear, hi!h drives the !ountershaft. (long the !ountershaft are mounted gears of various si7es, hi!h rotate hen the input shaft rotates. These gears !orrespond to the for ard speeds and reverse. %a!h of the for ard gears on the !ountershaft is permanently meshed ith a !orresponding gear on the output shaft. Ho ever, these driven gears are not rigidly atta!hed to the output shaft9 although the shaft runs through them, they spin independently of it, hi!h is made possi#le #y #earings in their hu#s. Reverse is typi!ally implemented differently, see the se!tion on Reverse. ?ost front8 heel8drive transmissions for transverse engine mounting are designed differently. <or one thing, they have an integral final drive and differential. <or another, they usually have only t o shafts@ input and !ountershaft, sometimes !alled input and output. The input shaft runs the hole length of the gear#o*, and there is no separate input pinion. (t the end of the se!ond 5!ounter+output6 shaft is a pinion gear that mates ith the ring gear on the differential. <ront8 heel and rear8 heel8drive transmissions operate similarly. When the transmission is in neutral, and the !lut!h is disengaged, the input shaft, !lut!h disk and !ountershaft !an !ontinue to rotate under their o n inertia. In this state, the engine, the input shaft and !lut!h, and the output shaft all rotate independently.

Do& cl%tch
3'

Do& cl%tch#s) Th# &#ar1li-# t##th 4:do&s:3 ri&ht1sid# ima&#s5 #n&a&# and dis#n&a&# (ith #ach oth#r. (mong many different types of !lut!hes, a dog !lut!h provides non8slip !oupling of t o rotating mem#ers. It is not at all suited to intentional slipping, in !ontrast ith the foot8 operated fri!tion !lut!h of a manual8transmission !ar. The gear sele!tor does not engage or disengage the a!tual gear teeth hi!h are permanently meshed. Rather, the a!tion of the gear sele!tor is to lo!k one of the freely spinning gears to the shaft that runs through its hu#. The shaft then spins together ith that gear. The output shaftMs speed relative to the !ountershaft is determined #y the ratio of the t o gears9 the one permanently atta!hed to the !ountershaft, and that gearMs mate hi!h is no lo!ked to the output shaft. Lo!king the output shaft ith a gear is a!hieved #y means of a dog !lut!h sele!tor. The dog !lut!h is a sliding sele!tor me!hanism hi!h is splined to the output shaft, meaning that its hu# has teeth that fit into slots 5splines6 on the shaft, for!ing that shaft to rotate ith it. Ho ever, the splines allo the sele!tor to move #a!k and forth on the shaft, hi!h happens hen it is pushed #y a sele!tor fork that is linked to the gear lever. The fork does not rotate, so it is atta!hed to a !ollar #earing on the sele!tor. The sele!tor is typi!ally symmetri!9 it slides #et een t o gears and has a syn!hromesh and teeth on ea!h side in order to lo!k either gear to the shaft.

S'nchrom#sh

33

S'nchroni2#r rin&s If the teeth, the so8!alled dog teeth, make !onta!t ith the gear, #ut the t o parts are spinning at different speeds, the teeth ill fail to engage and a loud grinding sound ill #e heard as they !latter together. <or this reason, a modern dog !lut!h in an automo#ile has a syn!hroni7er me!hanism or synchromesh, hi!h !onsists of a !one !lut!h and #lo!king ring. "efore the teeth !an engage, the !one !lut!h engages first hi!h #rings the sele!tor and gear to the same speed using fri!tion. ?oreover, until syn!hroni7ation o!!urs, the teeth are prevented from making !onta!t, #e!ause further motion of the sele!tor is prevented #y a blocker 5or baulk6 ring. When syn!hroni7ation o!!urs, fri!tion on the #lo!ker ring is relieved and it t ists slightly, #ringing into alignment !ertain grooves and not!hes that allo further passage of the sele!tor hi!h #rings the teeth together. ,f !ourse, the e*a!t design of the syn!hroni7er varies from manufa!turer to manufa!turer. The syn!hroni7er has to !hange the momentum of the entire input shaft and !lut!h disk. (dditionally, it !an #e a#used #y e*posure to the momentum and po er of the engine itself, hi!h is hat happens hen attempts are made to sele!t a gear ithout fully disengaging the !lut!h. This !auses e*tra ear on the rings and sleeves, redu!ing their servi!e life. When an e*perimenting driver tries to Kmat!h the revsK on a syn!hroni7ed transmission and for!e it into gear ithout using the !lut!h, the syn!hroni7er ill make up for any dis!repan!y in R1?. The su!!ess in engaging the gear ithout !lut!hing !an de!eive the driver into thinking that the R1? of the layshaft and transmission ere a!tually e*a!tly mat!hed. /evertheless, appro*imate rev. mat!hing with clutching !an de!rease the general delta #et een layshaft and transmission and de!rease syn!hro ear.

R#0#rs#
The previous dis!ussion normally applies only to the for ard gears. The implementation of the reverse gear is usually different, implemented in the follo ing ay to redu!e the !ost of the transmission. Reverse is also a pair of gears9 one gear on the !ountershaft and one on the output shaft. Ho ever, hereas all the for ard gears are al ays meshed together, there is a gap #et een the reverse gears. ?oreover, they are #oth atta!hed to their shafts9 neither one rotates freely a#out the shaft. What happens hen reverse is sele!ted is that a small gear, !alled an idler gear or reverse idler, is slid #et een them. 3:

The idler has teeth hi!h mesh ith #oth gears, and thus it !ouples these gears together and reverses the dire!tion of rotation ithout !hanging the gear ratio. In other ords, hen reverse gear is sele!ted, it is in fa!t actual gear teeth that are #eing meshed, ith no aid from a syn!hroni7ation me!hanism. <or this reason, the output shaft must not #e rotating hen reverse is sele!ted9 the !ar must #e stopped. In order that reverse !an #e sele!ted ithout grinding even if the input shaft is spinning inertially, there may #e a me!hanism to stop the input shaft from spinning. The driver #rings the vehi!le to a stop, and sele!ts reverse. (s that sele!tion is made, some me!hanism in the transmission stops the input shaft. "oth gears are stopped and the idler !an #e inserted #et een them. There is a !lear des!ription of su!h a me!hanism in the Honda Civi! 1GG>8 1GGE $ervi!e ?anual, hi!h refers to it as a Knoise redu!tion systemK9 Whenever the !lut!h pedal is depressed to shift into reverse, the mainshaft !ontinues to rotate #e!ause of its inertia. The resulting speed differen!e #et een mainshaft and reverse idler gear produ!es gear noise QgrindingR. The reverse gear noise redu!tion system employs a !am plate hi!h as added to the reverse shift holder. When shifting into reverse, the 2th+reverse shift pie!e, !onne!ted to the shift lever, rotates the !am plate. This !auses the 2th syn!hro set to stop the rotating mainshaft. J5138:6 ( reverse gear implemented this ay makes a loud hining sound, hi!h is not normally heard in the for ard gears. The teeth on the for ard gears of most !onsumer automo#iles are heli!ally !ut. When heli!al gears rotate, there is !onstant !onta!t #et een gears, hi!h results in )uiet operation. In spite of all for ard gears #eing al ays meshed, they do not make a sound that !an #e easily heard a#ove the engine noise. "y !ontrast, most reverse gears are spur gears, meaning that they have straight teeth, in order to allo for the sliding engagement of the idler, hi!h is diffi!ult ith heli!al gears. The teeth of spur gears !latter together hen the gears spin, generating a !hara!teristi! hine. It is !lear that the spur gear design of reverse gear represents some !ompromises 5less ro#ust, unsyn!hroni7ed engagement and loud noise6 hi!h are a!!epta#le due to the relatively small amount of driving that takes pla!e in reverse. The gear#o* of the !lassi! $((" GCC is a nota#le e*ample of a gear#o* ith a heli!al reverse gear engaged in the same unsyn!hroni7ed manner as the spur gears des!ri#ed a#ove. Its strange design allo s reverse to share !ogs ith first gear, and is e*!eptionally )uiet, #ut results in diffi!ult engagement and unrelia#le operation. Ho ever, many modern transmissions no in!lude a reverse gear syn!hroni7er and heli!al gearing.

?anual transmissions are lu#ri!ated ith gear oil or engine oil in some !ars, hi!h must #e !hanged periodi!ally in some !ars, although not as fre)uently as the automati!

32

transmission fluid in a vehi!le so e)uipped. 5$ome manufa!turers spe!ify that !hanging the gear oil is never ne!essary e*!ept after transmission ork or to re!tify a leak.6 ;ear oil has a !hara!teristi! aroma due to the addition of sulfur8#earing anti8 ear !ompounds. These !ompounds are used to redu!e the high sliding fri!tion #y the heli!al gear !ut of the teeth 5this !ut eliminates the !hara!teristi! hine of straight !ut spur gears6. ,n motor!y!les ith K etK !lut!hes 5!lut!h is #athed in engine oil6, there is usually nothing separating the lo er part of the engine from the transmission, so the same oil lu#ri!ates #oth the engine and transmission. The original ?ini pla!ed the gear#o* in the oil sump #elo the engine, thus using the same oil for #oth.

DOU7LE CLUTCH
( do%$l# cl%tch 5also !alled a do%$l# d#cl%tch6 is a driving pro!edure primarily used for vehi!les ith an unsyn!hroni7ed manual transmission. The dou#le !lut!hing te!hni)ue involves the follo ing steps9

The !lut!h pedal is pressed, the throttle is released, and the gear#o* is shifted into neutral. The !lut!h pedal is then released. (s the engine idles ith no load, the R1? ill de!rease until they are at a level suita#le for shifting into the ne*t gear. The driver then depresses the !lut!h again and shifts into the ne*t gear. The hole manoeuvre !an, ith pra!ti!e, take no more than a fra!tion of a se!ond, and the result is a very smooth gear !hange.

an%al transmission shi*tin&

In a gear#o* ith neutral #et een ea!h gear, a typi!al shift a!tually involves t o gear !hanges, on!e into neutral, and again into the ne*t gear. 0uring any shift, dis!onne!ting drive !omponents via a !lut!h properly unloads the engine and transmission of undue pressure applied #y the opposing !omponents. <ully utili7ing the !lut!h for ea!h shift out of, and then into ea!h gear is dou#le !lut!hing. 0ue to the a#sen!e of a neutral spa!ing, dou#le !lut!hing is ill8advised for se)uential gear !hanges, as in a fully se)uential gear#o* su!h as a typi!al motor!y!le. -eeping the !lut!h pedal depressed hile in neutral, as is performed during a typi!al shift, gives more e!onomy of driver motion and effort !ompared to dou#le !lut!hing.

3>

Taken to e*treme, se)uential gear#o* shifts and non8!lut!hed shifts are also very )ui!k and effortless. Ho ever, signifi!ant ear !an take pla!e on the separated !lut!h plates any time the engine and transmission have varying drive loads. In simple terms, ear o!!urs the more the !lut!h has to KslipK to mat!h revolutions #et een the engine and transmission. 0ou#le !lut!hing !an minimi7e this !lut!h plate ear #y en!ouraging

Di**#r#ntial 4m#chanical d#0ic#5

A c%ta(a' 0i#( o* an a%tomoti0# *inal dri0# %nit (hich contains th# di**#r#ntial ( di**#r#ntial is a devi!e, usually #ut not ne!essarily employing gears, !apa#le of transmitting tor)ue and rotation through three shafts, almost al ays used in one of t o ays9 in one ay, it re!eives one input and provides t o outputs88this is found in most automo#iles88and in the other ay, it !om#ines t o inputs to !reate an output that is the sum, differen!e, or average, of the inputs. In automo#iles and other heeled vehi!les, the differential allo s ea!h of the driving road heels to rotate at different speeds, hile for most vehi!les supplying e)ual tor)ue to ea!h of them.

"%rpos#
( vehi!leMs heels rotate at different speeds, mainly hen turning !orners. The differential is designed to drive a pair of heels ith e)ual tor)ue hile allo ing them to rotate at different speeds. In vehi!les ithout a differential, su!h as karts, #oth driving heels are for!ed to rotate at the same speed, usually on a !ommon a*le driven #y a simple !hain8drive me!hanism. When !ornering, the inner heel needs to travel a shorter distan!e than the outer heel, so ith no differential, the result is the inner heel spinning and+or the outer heel dragging, and this results in diffi!ult and unpredi!ta#le handling, damage to tires and roads, and strain on 5or possi#le failure of6 the entire drive train..

3A

,%nctional d#scription

A c%ta(a' dra(in& o* a $%s;s r#ar a.l#3 sho(in& th# cro(n (h##l and pinion o* th# *inal dri0#3 and th# small#r di**#r#ntial &#ars The follo ing des!ription of a differential applies to a KtraditionalK rear8 heel8drive !ar or tru!k ith an KopenK or limited slip differential9 Tor)ue is supplied from the engine, via the transmission, to a drive shaft 5"ritish term9 Mpropeller shaftM, !ommonly and informally a##reviated to Mprop8shaftM6, hi!h runs to the final drive unit and !ontains the differential. ( spiral #evel pinion gear takes its drive from the end of the propeller shaft, and is en!ased ithin the housing of the final drive unit. This meshes ith the large spiral #evel ring gear, kno n as the !ro n heel. The !ro n heel and pinion may mesh in hypoid orientation, not sho n. The !ro n heel gear is atta!hed to the differential carrier or !age, hi!h !ontains the MsunM and MplanetM heels or gears, hi!h are a !luster of four opposed #evel gears in perpendi!ular plane, so ea!h #evel gear meshes ith t o neigh#ours, and rotates !ounter to the third, that it fa!es and does not mesh ith. The t o sun heel gears are aligned on the same a*is as the !ro n heel gear, and drive the a*le half shafts !onne!ted to the vehi!leMs driven heels. The other t o planet gears are aligned on a perpendi!ular a*is hi!h !hanges orientation ith the ring gearMs rotation. In the t o figures sho n a#ove, only one planet gear 5green6 is illustrated, ho ever, most automotive appli!ations !ontain t o opposing planet gears. ,ther differential designs employ different num#ers of planet gears, depending on dura#ility re)uirements. (s the differential !arrier rotates, the !hanging a*is orientation of the planet gears imparts the motion of the ring gear to the motion of the sun gears #y pushing on them rather than turning against them 5that is, the same teeth stay in the same mesh or !onta!t position6, #ut #e!ause the planet gears are not restri!ted from turning against ea!h other, within that motion, the sun gears !an !ounter8rotate relative to the ring gear and to ea!h other under the same for!e 5in hi!h !ase the same teeth do not stay in !onta!t6.

3E

Thus, for e*ample, if the !ar is making a turn to the right, the main !ro n heel may make 1C full rotations. 0uring that time, the left heel ill make more rotations #e!ause it has further to travel, and the right heel ill make fe er rotations as it has less distan!e to travel. The sun gears 5 hi!h drive the a*le half8shafts6 ill rotate in opposite dire!tions relative to the ring gear #y, say, ' full turns ea!h 5: full turns relative to ea!h other6, resulting in the left heel making 1' rotations, and the right heel making E rotations. The rotation of the !ro n heel gear is al ays the average of the rotations of the side sun gears. This is hy, if the driven road heels are lifted !lear of the ground ith the engine off, and the drive shaft is held 5say leaving the transmission Min gearM, preventing the ring gear from turning inside the differential6, manually rotating one driven road heel !auses the opposite road heel to rotate in the opposite dire!tion #y the same amount. When the vehi!le is traveling in a straight line, there ill #e no differential movement of the planetary system of gears other than the minute movements ne!essary to !ompensate for slight differen!es in heel diameter, undulations in the road 5 hi!h make for a longer or shorter heel path6, et!.

Loss o* traction
,ne undesira#le side effe!t of a !onventional differential is that it !an redu!e overall tor)ue O the rotational for!e hi!h propels the vehi!le. The amount of tor)ue re)uired to propel the vehi!le at any given moment depends on the load at that instant O ho heavy the vehi!le is, ho mu!h drag and fri!tion there is, the gradient of the road, the vehi!leMs momentum, and so on. <or the purpose of this arti!le, e ill refer to this amount of tor)ue as the Kthreshold tor)ueK. The tor)ue applied to ea!h driving road heel is a result of the engine and transmission applying a t isting for!e against the resistan!e of the tra!tion at that road heel. Hnless the load is e*!eptionally high, the engine and transmission !an usually supply as mu!h tor)ue as ne!essary, so the limiting fa!tor is usually the tra!tion under ea!h heel. It is therefore !onvenient to define tra!tion as the amount of tor)ue that !an #e generated #et een the tire and the road surfa!e, #efore the heel starts to slip. If the total tra!tion under all the driven heels e*!eeds the threshold tor)ue, the vehi!le ill #e driven for ard@ if not, then one or more heels ill simply spin. If the t o road heels ere driven ithout a differential, ea!h road heel ould #e supplied ith an e)ual amount of tor)ue, and ould push against the road surfa!e as hard as possi#le. The road heel on i!e ould )ui!kly rea!h the limit of tra!tion 5:CC /m6, #ut ould #e una#le to spin #e!ause the other road heel has good tra!tion. The tra!tion of the asphalt plus the small e*tra tra!tion from the i!e e*!eeds the threshold re)uirement, so the vehi!le ill #e propelled for ard.

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With a differential, ho ever, as soon as the Ki!e heelK rea!hes :CC /m, it ill start to spin, and then develop less tra!tion S3CC /m. The planetary gears inside the differential !arrier ill start to rotate #e!ause the Kasphalt heelK en!ounters greater resistan!e. Instead of driving the asphalt heel ith more for!e, the differential ill still symmetri!ally split the total amount of availa#le tor)ue e)ually. S3CC /m is suffi!ient to make the i!e heel to spin, #ut the e)ual amount of S3CC /m is not enough to turn the asphalt heel. $in!e the asphalt heel remains stationary, the spinning i!e heel ill rotate t i!e as fast as #efore. (s the actual tor)ue on both road heels is the same O the amount is determined #y the lesser tra!tion of the i!e heel. $o #oth heels ill get 3CC /m ea!h. $in!e >CC /m is less than the re)uired threshold tor)ue of 'CCC /m, the vehi!le ill not #e a#le to utilise the output from the engine, and ill not move. (n o#server ill simply see one stationary road heel on one side of the vehi!le, and one spinning road heel on the opposite side. It ill not #e o#vious that #oth heels are generating the same tor)ue 5i.e. #oth heels are in fa!t pushing e)ually, despite the differen!e in rotational speed6. This has led to a idely held mis!on!eption that a vehi!le ith a differential is really only Kone8 heel8driveK. In fa!t, a normal differential al ays allo s the transmission of e)ual tor)ue to #oth driven road heels@ unless it is a spe!ifi! type of differential, su!h as lo!king, tor)ue8#iasing, or limited slip type. ( proposed ay to distri#ute the po er to the heels, is to use the !on!ept of &#arl#ss differential, of hi!h a revie has #een reported #y 1rovatidis ,#ut the various !onfigurations seem to !orrespond either to the Ksliding pins and !amsK type, su!h as the T< "8AC availa#le for early VWs, or are a variation of the #all differential. .A.l# .

Train heels are affi*ed to a straight a*le, su!h that #oth heels rotate in unison. This is !alled a heel set. (n a.l# is a !entral shaft for a rotating heel or gear. In some !ases the a*le may #e fi*ed in position ith a #earing or #ushing sitting inside the hole in the heel or gear to allo the heel or gear to rotate around the a*le. In other !ases the heel or gear may #e fi*ed to the a*le, ith #earings or #ushings provided at the mounting points here the :C

a*le is supported. $ometimes, espe!ially on #i!y!les, the latter type is referred to as a spindle.

!#hicl# a.l#s
(*les are an integral stru!tural !omponent of a heeled vehi!le. The a*les maintain the position of the heels relative to ea!h other and to the vehi!le #ody. $in!e for most vehi!les the heels are the only part tou!hing the ground, the a*les must #ear the eight of the vehi!le plus any !argo, as ell as a!!eleration and #raking for!es. In addition to the stru!tural purpose, a*les may serve one or more of the follo ing purposes depending on the design of the vehi!le.

Dri0#9 ,ne or more a*les may #e an integral part of the drive train. ( me!hani!al system 5typi!ally a motor6 e*erts a rotational for!e on the a*le, hi!h is transferred to the heel5s6 to a!!elerate the vehi!le. 7ra-in&9 Conversely a vehi!le may #e slo ed #y applying for!e to #rake the rotation of the a*le. ?ost vehi!lesM #rakes are part of the heel assem#ly and then e*ert tor)ue to the heels dire!tly, #ut engine #raking may still #e effe!ted via the a*le. St##rin&9 The front a*le of most automo#iles is a st##rin& a.l#. The vehi!le is maneuvered #y !ontrolling the dire!tion of the front heelsM rotational a*is relative to the #ody and rear heels.

Dri0# a.l#s

$plines on a front drive a*le. (n a*le that is driven #y the engine is !alled a dri0# a.l#. ?odern front heel drive !ars typi!ally !om#ine the transmission and front a*le into a single unit !alled a transa*le. The drive a*le is a split a*le ith a differential and universal &oints #et een the t o half a*les. %a!h half a*le !onne!ts to the heel #y use of a !onstant velo!ity 5CV6 &oint hi!h allo s the heel assem#ly to move freely verti!ally as ell as to pivot hen making turns.

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In rear heel drive !ars and tru!ks, the engine turns a driveshaft hi!h transmits rotational for!e to a drive a*le at the rear of the vehi!le. The drive a*le may #e a live a*le, #ut modern automo#iles generally use a split a*le ith a differential. $ome simple vehi!le designs, su!h as go8karts, may have a single driven heel here the drive a*le is a split a*le ith only one of the t o shafts driven #y the engine, or else have #oth heels !onne!ted to one shaft ithout a differential.

Loc-in& h%$s
Loc-in& h%$s, also kno n as *r## (h##lin& h%$s are an a!!essory fitted to many four8 heel drive vehi!les, allo ing the front heels to #e manually dis!onne!ted from the front half shafts. ?any four heel drive vehi!les, espe!ially heavy duty :U: tru!ks, do not have a !enter differential or e)uivalent 5e.g., a vis!ous !oupling6, they should only #e used in four heel drive mode hen tra!tion is limited, other ise transmission ind8up !an o!!ur. This is kno n as a part time, four heel drive system. "e!ause of this, many of these vehi!les ill spend most of their time in t o heel drive, and lo!king hu#s allo elements of the drivetrain that are not needed in t o heel drive to #e dis!onne!ted. With the hu#s disengaged and the transmission in 'W0, the hole front a*le and differential are ina!tive. Without lo!king hu#s, the front heels ould turn the front half shafts, hi!h ould turn the front differential and driveshaft. Lo!king hu#s, hen s it!hed appropriately, ill allo the front heels to turn independently of the drivetrain. $uggested #enefits of lo!king hu#s in!lude #etter fuel effi!ien!y, )uieter operation, less vi#ration, and lo er ear. %*a!tly ho great these #enefits are is open to de#ate, ith many feeling that they are out eighed #y the disadvantages #elo . In older vehi!les, manual lo!king hu#s are used to disengage the front heels. This re)uires getting off the vehi!le to engage or disengage the front heels. If road !onditions are irregular, these vehi!les !an #e used in 'W0 mode ith the lo!ks engaged 5#y disengaging :W0 ith the internal lever or s it!h6 and :W0 needs only to #e engaged hen road !onditions re)uire it. In more modern :W0 vehi!les, automati! lo!king hu#s are often used, hi!h as the name implies engage automati!ally hen :W0 is a!tivated from the inside of the vehi!le. The main advantage is that the driver does not need to leave the vehi!le to a!tivate :W0 or drive the vehi!le in 'W0 ith the front a*le engaged. The disadvantage ith this system is that most designs re)uire the vehi!le to move some distan!e 5usually a hole heel turn, normally in a spe!ifi! dire!tion6 in order for the hu#s to engage or disengage 5in many !ases :W0 !an #e engaged ith the vehi!le in movement6. This might not #e possi#le if the vehi!le gets !ompletely stu!k #efore engaging :W0, so automati! hu#s re)uire more !aution on the drivers part. :'

0isadvantages of lo!king hu#s in!lude the fa!t that it is ne!essary to leave the vehi!le to engage them in the manual !ase, and the need to plan ahead and engage :W0 #efore getting stu!k in the !ase of automati! hu#s. It is also !onsidered that the e*posed hu# lo!ks !an #e #roken or damaged #y off road !onditions, rendering :U: useless and leaving the vehi!le stranded. (lso, in some a*le designs 5su!h as those used on older Land Rovers6, the top s ivel #earing !an #e!ome starved of lu#ri!ation, hi!h is normally supplied #y oil hi!h is thro n up #y the a*le, unless the hu#s are lo!ked every fe hundred miles. $in!e lo!king hu#s generally do not re)uire a key to operate, they !an also #e mali!iously lo!ked or unlo!ked #y persons other than the vehi!le o ner.

7all $#arin&
For individual balls that are sometimes called "ball bearings",

Wor-in& principl# *or a $all $#arin&) ( : point angular !onta!t #all #earing

( $all $#arin& is a type of rolling8element #earing that uses #alls to maintain the separation #et een the moving parts of the #earing.

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The purpose of a #all #earing is to redu!e rotational fri!tion and support radial and a*ial loads. It a!hieves this #y using at least t o races to !ontain the #alls and transmit the loads through the #alls. Hsually one of the ra!es is held fi*ed. (s one of the #earing ra!es rotates it !auses the #alls to rotate as ell. "e!ause the #alls are rolling they have a mu!h lo er !oeffi!ient of fri!tion than if t o flat surfa!es ere rotating on ea!h other. "all #earings tend to have lo er load !apa!ity for their si7e than other kinds of rolling8 element #earings due to the smaller !onta!t area #et een the #alls and ra!es. Ho ever, they !an tolerate some misalignment of the inner and outer ra!es. Compared to other rolling8element #earings, the #all #earing is the least e*pensive, primarily #e!ause of the lo !ost of produ!ing the #alls used in the #earing.

Ri0#t
.

Solid ri0#ts ( ri0#t is a permanent me!hani!al fastener. "efore #eing installed a rivet !onsists of a smooth !ylindri!al shaft ith a head on one end. The end opposite the head is !alled the buck-tail. ,n installation the rivet is pla!ed in a pun!hed or pre8drilled hole, and the tail is upset, or bucked 5i.e. deformed6, so that it e*pands to a#out 1.2 times the original shaft diameter, holding the rivet in pla!e. To distinguish #et een the t o ends of the rivet, the original head is !alled the factory head and the deformed end is !alled the shop head or #u!k8tail. "e!ause there is effe!tively a head on ea!h end of an installed rivet, it !an support tension loads 5loads parallel to the a*is of the shaft6@ ho ever, it is mu!h more !apa#le of supporting shear loads 5loads perpendi!ular to the a*is of the shaft6. "olts and s!re s are #etter suited for tension appli!ations. <astenings used in traditional ooden #oat #uilding, like !opper nails and !lin!h #olts, ork on the same prin!iple as the rivet #ut ere in use long #efore the term rivet !ame a#out and, here they are remem#ered, are usually !lassified among the nails and #olts respe!tively.

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SA,ET6 GUIDELINES
To avoid a!!ident and to keep them from happening follo ing safety guidan!e should #e follo ed98 1. 1rovide your attention at most to the =o# and ork )uietly. '. -eep the tools ith in your !onvenient rea!h. 3. "e serous a#out your never in!luding in horseplay or other foolish a!tivities to avoid in&ury to others. :. /ever put sharp o#&e!ts like s!re driver in your po!ket other ise you ill !ut yourself. 2. (l ays ear suita#le !lothes and shoes hile entering the orkshop. >. To provide good drip on the tools or parts al ays ipe e*!ess oil and grease up fly our hand tool. A. To avoid one slipping and falling to the ground due to split of oil, grease or any other li)uid !lean up immediately. E. Compressed air should never #e used to #lo dust from your !lothes. Compressed hose should never #e pointed to any person #e!ause flying parti!les.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

www.google.com www.hrtc.gov.in Daily Diary HRTC workshop manuals http://coysdenver.com/service/powersteering.s html

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