The Interpretation of Symbols In contrast to Edmund Leachs description of ritual as occasional behaviour by particular members of a single culture It is therefore

e in no way, from the anthropologists perspective, a genetic endowment of the species (Leach 1966: 158), Sperber argues that representations that are hard to process cognitively are represented as symbols as a way of remembering the basics of complex ideologies. Therefore, Symbolism participates in the construction of knowledge (Sperber 1974: X11), is rational, and as a system of signs functions as a language if interpreted correctly. As such, Sperber argues that one function of symbolism is social communication, but does not perceive communication as a constitutive function of symbolism as symbolism, by nature, has an unpredictable nature (Sperber 1974: 4-5). His views are validated by Victor Turners detailed ethnography of ritual symbolism among the Ndembu of Zambia. Turner (1967) compiled his interpretation of the properties of ritual symbols from three sources; observable characteristics, those offered by lay informants and ritual specialists, and from his own observations. Turner distinguishes between three levels of meaning in symbols, the exegetical meaning or indigenous interpretation, the operational meaning, how something is actually used in ritual, and the positional meaning in relation to other symbols. Positional meaning can be exampled from the mukula tree, which relates to the color red, and hence is used in rituals symbolizing matriliny, huntsmanship, menstrual blood, and the meat of wild animals. Due to the multiplicity of meanings beyond the purpose of a specific ritual, Turner refers to this tree as a senior or dominant symbol. Turners contribution to the understanding of ritual and symbols and to anthropological analysis is unquestionable. However, the tremendous multivocality of dominant symbols raises the concern that collecting definitions from multiple sources may be problematic. For example, Fernandez has stated that the Star-Spangled Banner means the United States of America and its 50 states, and has developed through many historic stages and stands for purity, valor and uni ty (Fernandez 1965: 917). However, one can speculate on the many different interpretations that may be attributed to this symbol. For example, to the Native American Indian, the red may represent the blood of their tribes, the white; the men who inhabited their land, and the blue, the sky under which their nations once flourished. In countries sympathetic to the American way of life, the flag may represent freedom of speech and democracy, yet to Americas enemies, tyranny

and immorality. The list could continue ad infinitum. If interpretations of a symbol can be so diametrically opposed, it seems implausible that the primary function of symbols can be communication. However, it follows that whatever meaning symbols do communicate, without knowing the intention of the actor, the meaning may be unintelligible (Laidlaw and Humphrey 2006: 276).