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Culture Documents
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Citizenship education in Colombia 477
But citizenship education is not only acquired in the school and family. It is also
learned in the streets and through the media, in the relationships between the State
and civil society and in relationships within the community. These are the life texts
that youth learn to read since they are very young (Colombia. Ministerio de
Educacin Nacional, 2003, pp. 1011). Yet the school presents a suitable environ-
ment in which to reflect on these texts. That is why it is fundamental that all adults
involved in the educational process promote and build real democratic environments
both at home and at school in order to favour the exercise of citizenship competen-
cies. If we want contexts for democratic participation, we must make explicit and
conscious decisions to offer them in daily life interaction with students and families.
For this to happen, the Ministry envisioned that in teaching citizenship education
all the school staff need to: (1) understand the elements that affect socio-moral
behaviour, such as natural impulses, emotional and cognitive development, social
relationships, culture and communication; (2) consider democracy as a way of life
and not only as a form of government (Dewey, 1916); (3) organise themselves as
institutions with the values they want to teach; and (4) articulate and link formal
civic and citizenship education with informal citizenship education, such as that
acquired on the streets and through the media (Colombia. Ministerio de Educacin
Nacional, 2003).
Implementation of the Citizenship Competencies Program
Structure of the citizenship competencies standards
Standards are organised according to approximate levels of development. With the
exception of Grades 13, ages six to nine, which are all covered by the same Stan-
dard, each Standard relates to every two grades. Table 1 presents some examples of
standards and competencies corresponding to Grade 6 and 7 (1213-year-olds).
In order to improve the Standards, the Ministry requests teachers and all those
involved in their implementation to critically analyse and transform them according
to actual classroom practice.
Evaluation strategies
After the publication of the Standards and using the citizenship tests developed in
Bogot (Jaramillo & Bermudez, 2000) the Ministry of Education set out to create
useful assessment tools to help teachers better understand their students behaviour,
attitudes, moral and social reasoning and school and family environments. Maths,
language, natural and social sciences and citizenship tests (called the Saber tests),
taken at the end of Grade 5 (1012-year-olds) and Grade 9 (1416-year-olds), were
developed to give schools general information about their students. The results are
analysed and provided for the whole grade, not for individual students. Part of the
idea of the citizenship tests is to encourage teachers to work with a way of evaluating
citizenship behaviour in order to help them understand the various components of
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citizenship development and, consequently, improve their teaching strategies.
Another aim of the tests is to reveal the general strengths and weaknesses in school
climate, teaching strategies, human relationships and so on, in order to help teachers
and administrative staff prepare their school improvement plans. Schools receive help
from their local Secretariats of Education, which in turn use this information to set
out general support plans for schools. Classroom evaluation strategies, such as devel-
oping evaluation criteria based on students own work, portfolio assessment, rubrics
showing developmentsfor example, in students reasoning, care and communica-
tion skillsare also being developed by Schools of Education, the Secretariats and by
the Ministry. Some questions were also developed for the college entrance examina-
tions in order to make clear that citizenship competencies do matter throughout the
formal educational system.
Support to Secretariats of Education at the regional and local level
In order to guarantee that the Citizenship Competencies Program be accepted and
implemented in most Colombian schools and to ensure its continuity, the Ministry
of Education is currently working with the Secretariats of Education in all regions
and larger cities (with more than 100,000 inhabitants) to try to ensure the consoli-
dation and support of networks of different local agencies. Among these are univer-
sities; structured programs such as those offered by UNICEF, Plan International
and so on; control agencies such as the Defensora del Pueblo [an ombudsman,
particularly when human rights are infringed or violated] or the Personera [legal
representative of the people in the municipality]; interest groups, such as those
formed to defend the environment, human rights and so on; welfare agencies,
churches, NGOs. The main underlying idea is to make future alliances between
governmental and non-governmental groups present in different localities to make
sure that most schools receive assistance, in the form of economic and pedagogical
resources, through the Secretariats, for the development of citizenship competencies
for at least two years. However, in our experience these alliances are not easy to
implement unless there is a prior working relationship between these groups. In
some instances there is deep distrust because of fear of information being used
either by the government or others for political purposes.
Local, state and national forums to make good pedagogical practice public
For some years, the Ministry of Education has been trying to identify local efforts and
good practice. Case studies have been put together of students, classrooms and
schools learning to live together peacefully or participating within their communities
to solve their problems intelligently, cooperatively and empathically so that others
can learn from such experiences. In each locality, schools present their interesting
experiences and select the most powerful to be presented in the capital city of each
state, with the most successful being aired at the national forum. With support from
the Entrepreneurs for Education Foundation, the Ministry undertook the task of
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Citizenship education in Colombia 479
collecting and documenting some examples of good practice and requested experi-
enced journalists to make them public. The book (see Colombia. Ministerio de
Educacin Nacional, 2009c) had an immediate impact and some of its examples
were used for the bright side of the news on TV and in the print media. Demand
was such that the Ministry even published a second edition of the book; yet it is not
clear that these good practice examples have been emulated elsewhere, or that they
have had a direct impact. Nevertheless, we believe that such reference points change
peoples perceptions of what is possible, so that they begin to become more optimistic
about what can be done in schools by enthusiastic and caring teachers who want and
are able to find real alternatives to violence.
The Ministry invited international researchers and teachers to participate in the
national forum to exchange ideas and practices. Workshops took place in seven
Colombian cities (Bogot, Bucaramanga, Cali, Cartagena, Florencia, Manizales and
Medelln) to create the dilogo de saberes [knowledge dialogue] described earlier.
However, the desired long-term relationships between experts and Colombian teach-
ers has only been possible in six cases (out of 45) because of difficulties coordinating
work between governmental and non-governmental groups, lack of political under-
standing of the potential of these alliances, both at the local and the national levels,
poor resources and lack of coordination and follow up at the governmental level.
The Ministry has developed a portfolio of the publications, methodologies and
pedagogical projects of 45 structured, research-based national and international
programs (Colombia. Ministerio de Educacin Nacional, 2003) in order for schools
and Secretariats of Education to choose the most appropriate programs for their
school needs, depending on their PEI and the test results.
Some experiences of citizenship education
It is only possible here to cite three of the many positive examples of work by teachers,
students and communities as part of the Citizenship Competencies Program.
Student government in parallel with the mayor and the city council
The mayor of Florencia, Caqueta rural city in the south-western region of
Colombia with approximately 150,000 inhabitantsthinking that the most effective
way to involve young citizens was to include the voices and opinions of those who
are usually not heard or who feel apathetic about local issues, launched a city-wide
parallel government program to include representatives from all social back-
grounds, neighbourhoods and schools. The mayors office organised discussion
tables where 1215-year-olds from local schools gathered on weekends, every two
weeks for four months, to analyse and discuss their views of students needs.
Students elected spokespersons to represent them; and from amongst these spokes-
persons, students were asked to create a cabinet by voting for a mayor and seven
council officials. In order to make informed decisions students were invited to meet
actual officials and ask them questions about their job and their responsibilities.
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Once the parallel posts were filled, students were asked to return to their communi-
ties and find out their most pressing problems. To do this they were taught how to
create, read and organise statistics into logical information that could be shared and
understood by everyone. This information was crucial when the time came to meet
back at the discussion tables, consider the support for issues and put them to a
vote. Through this experience of parallel government the students were given a
genuine opportunity to participate in governmental decisions with an actual budget
and were held accountable for using it to attend the needs of the communities they
had investigated.
Education for sexuality and the building of citizenship
The main purpose of this program is to educate for sexuality within the same frame-
work as the Citizenship Competencies Program. Understanding sexuality as a social
construction, the program aims to create a supportive environment for the permanent
revision of prejudices and stereotypes about sexuality and concern for human rights.
The programs goal is to support schools in the development of projects in which
students learn how to live a respectful and joyful sexuality and build relationships
where respect towards self and others is in the foreground. Between 2005 and 2007
a pilot project was conducted by the Ministry of Education, with support of the
United Nations Population Fund, in which five Secretariats of Education and 50
schools throughout Colombia participated, each developing their own curriculum
depending on the needs of their communities.
The project started with draft guidelines, enhanced during the pilot experience.
Teachers, students, school administrators and parents participated in the design
and follow up of the program. They had to work out how to impact the whole
school, not only students of certain grades or certain classes, as the curriculum
had to be taught in all curriculum areas, levels of study and extra-curricular activi-
ties. Students dealt with real cases and dilemmas of everyday life so that they
acquired the necessary competencies to develop a life project. In designing their
projects, schools were supported by local education secretariats, universities and
teachers colleges. Everyoneprincipals, teachers, students and parentswas
encouraged and indeed did participate in the construction of this program.
Although there was initial controversy and resistance to the program, it ended by
being successful because of its inclusive approach and grassroots dialogue. Differ-
ences were found between schools, some of which were more reluctant to accept
the voices of all members of the community. Therefore, great effort was made to
build up climates of trust, through the active encouragement of inclusive conversa-
tions and leading groups with representatives of the teachers, parents and
students populations.
The project was evaluated through school-based focus groups with students,
teachers and parents, at the beginning and end of the pilot phase. According to the
evaluation, the project gave communities the opportunity to discuss topics rarely
addressed in school and families, such as the right to choose a gender orientation and
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Citizenship education in Colombia 481
gender equality. At meetings it was not rare to see both an assistant principal and a
parent side by side with adolescents discussing ways to decide the right time to begin
engaging in sexual activities. Adolescents also used this space to engage in conversa-
tions about sexual orientation with their parents, conversations that would have not
been possible nor even thought of if they had not been framed within this program
and the climate of acceptance it created. It was clear to all that a successful project in
citizenship competences must have an impact on the whole school community. Not
only students but also adults have to be influenced in the way they see their sexuality
and thus the way they relate with others. Although the idiosyncrasies and needs of
each community differed, findings from the pilot project resulted in national guide-
lines now being used as a basis for engaging in projects in sexuality and citizenship
construction in other schools and regions (Colombia. Ministerio de Educacin
Nacional, 2009d).
Links with informal citizenship education such as on the streets and with the media
In recent years Bogot, the capital of Colombia, witnessed an informal and very
successful citizenship education program which demonstrates the significance of
creating links with everyday life on the streets and with the media. Antanas Mockus,
a former mayor of Bogot and a mathematician and philosopher who had also been
the President of the National Universitythe largest public university in the coun-
tryturned the city into a social experiment where Bogotanos learned to become
responsible and participating citizens through various imaginative campaigns, such
as the use of mimicry by unhappy faces when the zebra crossing was not used
properly to cross the street and thumbs-up when drivers behaved correctly. People
learned to stand in queues, not to drive under the influence of alcohol, to under-
stand and respect womens rights and so on as the result of media campaigns
demonstrating the advantages of keeping in mind the common good, rather than
personal gain (Harvard Gazette, 2004). Whilst Dr. Mockuss ideas on citizenship
education are no panacea, implementing them certainly showed the importance of
informal education in contributing to any lasting solution to civic and citizenship
education. Many of the lessons learnt have now become part of daily public life in
Bogot and other cities and towns have followed the example of Bogots citizens
behaviour.
A critical appraisal
Citizenship education in any country is a challenge that requires careful program-
ming, tracking and evaluation. In the case of Colombia the challenge is even greater
due to the socio-economic and moral context in which such a program has to be
developed. However, the attempt and attendant risks are worth taking in the light of
the possibilities for a country tired of violence and willing to explore more democratic
ways of problem solving. Here we offer a critical appraisal of the implementation of
the Citizenship Competencies Program and its effectiveness.
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482 R. Jaramillo and J. A. Mesa
It is important to state that at the outset the program faced some initial resistance
and opposition, though these were eventually overcome. From the beginning some
people, mostly from the Teachers Union (Federacin Colombiana de Educadores),
opposed the program as a neo-liberal, neo-conservative product that would reinforce
social differences and injustices and be used to evaluate and fire teachers who were
not seen as conforming sufficiently to the current government point of view (see
Herrera et al., 2005, pp. 7475; 135139). Likewise, some voices denounced
concepts such as standards and competencies as part of a neo-liberal discourse that
had to be resisted. In a few workshops some people tried to sabotage the program
because of these perceived ideological biases, but muchthough certainly not all
of the resistance faded as soon as participants could see: (1) that the team in charge of
the program represented a broad ideological spectrum; (2) that the methodology of
the program was very far from imposing a neo-liberal or neo-conservative view; and
(3) that the program allowed for a broad variety of experiences that could easily
accommodate different ideological views as long as they stayed within democratic
rules.
The program was conceived as a cross-curricular project in which all teachers and
administrators would address their curricular teaching and the structures of the
school from the perspective and principles of the citizenship program. Thus the
program does not have an owner in charge and the danger is, as experience has
shown, that if no one is responsible, nothing may get done. Perhaps, as some critics
may maintain, it would be preferable to stay with traditional civics educationwhich
at least guarantees specific slots in the classroom timetablethan having a program
which nobody champions. Furthermore, if student progress in citizenship competen-
cies is not being monitored by teachers and educational authorities, and if the
programs being implemented are not evaluated in order to see if they are reaching
their goals, the school as a whole can overlook its citizenship task and the student
objectives can be easily forgotten.
Those who developed the Citizenship Competencies Program believe that
everyone in the educational chain needs to understand that active participation in
decision-making processes by everyone in the school community is imperative, that
relationships must be openly discussed and power relationships made transparent in
order to develop lasting citizenship competencies. If teachers and administrators fail
to make a clear statement of the values they wish to live by and if only a few partici-
pate in the decisions that affect the school community, citizenship competencies
will probably be developed only by those fortunate few who intervene and not by
everyonewhich is, after all, what democracy is all about! The same principle of
democracy should also apply at the administrative level, both in relationships with
the Secretariats and with international agencies. This means that the Ministry of
Education needs to listen, carefully examine the issues raised in creating and imple-
menting educational policies and then reach consensus. Many may argue that this is
impossible because the latter democratic approach threatens the hierarchical struc-
ture of the school and the traditional authority of teachers, which are so embedded
in Colombias culture. Changing this culture requires an additional effort. It is not
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Citizenship education in Colombia 483
enough to argue that the Constitution is based on democratic ideals or that it
expressly mandates that its principles be taught in schools. In this regard the Minis-
try has not provided enough training for educators to recognise the challenge and to
change attitudes as required by the program.
Evaluation of the program is a complex problem. In our opinion, in the majority
of Latin American countries we are only just beginning to understand how to
undertake rigorous evaluation at classroom and school levels. It is highly
problematic to assess how well educational policies and programs work and the
extent to which teachers understand their students. In fact, neither teachers nor
educational administrators are used to bringing into play an assessment of school
effectiveness as an information source in order to make decisions affecting curric-
ula. The Inter-American Development Bank, the IEAwith its new ICCS study
(2009)and the Organization of American Stateswith its Inter-American
Program on Education for Democratic Values and Practicesare undertaking the
task of evaluating the Citizenship Education Program, with the help of more experi-
enced countries. The citizenship tests benefited immensely from the analysis and
support of Judith Torney Purta and Jo-Ann Amadeo who, on behalf of IEA, helped
the Bogot testing team and, later, colleagues at the Ministry of Education, to
develop reliable items and valid measurement procedures. Conversely, they valued
the competencies approach we were developing and incorporated a few ideas into
ICCS testing policies. The main evaluation challenges have to do with decision
making and timing. For example, all curriculum areas in the Saber tests were tested
on the same day and the time allocated to testing citizenship competencies (half an
hour at the end of the day) was too short to cover all the competencies. But when
the test was shortened and improved two years later, there were comparability
problems.
Another most serious challenge for the program is that of bureaucratic hindrances.
The need to avoid corruption in government contractsa most important goal
indeedslows down hiring and administrative processes so as to practically paralyse
programs and the citizenship program has been no exception, with consequent delay
in implementation across the country.
Conclusion
Since colonial times, moral education in Colombia has mainly been left in the hands
of the Catholic Church, which has emphasised Christian ethics. However, the
contemporary political and social context, as defined in the New Constitution of
1991, required a new vision that could integrate social and cultural pluralism in the
midst of the political violence that the country continues to suffer. This has meant
moving toward a citizenship education that could create the values and competencies
for a democracy to flourish.
The citizenship program described in this paper has tried to respond to this
challenge. It has recognised that knowledge of facts and concepts is not enough
and that developing competencies is an important way of learning to work with the
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484 R. Jaramillo and J. A. Mesa
different factors that influence moral and political behaviour and develop socially
and personally. The project has emphasised that gaining perspective, being more
empathic, listening carefully and speaking assertively to ensure everyones voice is
heard in conversations towards the common good, can lead to responsible partici-
pation in political matters and an appreciation of how ethnic, gender, social and
age differences can enrich a society. Ultimately, the essence of the program is to
make democracy a way of life and not only a political endeavour. In part, this has
been achieved by developing genuine bottom-up and top-down dialogues, in the
conviction that by listening to others ideas and solutions we arrive at finding
common answers to our challenges; that making power structures transparent and
being consistent by walking the talk when implementing the program with demo-
cratic principles it is possible to be listened to and taken seriously by teachers,
administrators, parents and children.
The program has researched and acknowledged what is already being done in citi-
zenship education in different countries worldwide and has publicised many exam-
ples of positive practice and successful outcomes in the various regions of Colombia.
But there is also a recognition that assessing the development of competencies, in
classroom and school relationships, in family and community encounters with the
school and in the administrative structure, including liaison with international
agencies, will be critical to the sustainability of the program.
Acknowledgement
We wish to thank Rosario Martinez for her insights and comments on the manuscript.
Notes on authors
Rosario Jaramillo is Advisor for the development of a teachers college for peace in
the Mid-Magdalena river region in Colombia, with the Program for Development
and Peace, the Centre for Research on Popular Education and the Teaching for
Understanding Program from Project Zero at the Harvard Graduate School of
Education. She was previously advisor to the Citizenship Competencies Program of
the Ministry of Education in Colombia. Her publications include: What do students
in teaching for understanding classrooms understand? and What do students think
about understanding?, in: M. Stone Wiske (Ed.) Teaching for understanding: a practi-
cal framework (San Francisco, Jossey Bass), 1997; and Cox, C., Jaramillo, R. &
Reimers, F., Education for democratic citizenship in the Americas: an agenda for action
(Washington, DC, Inter-American Development Bank), 2005.
Jos Alberto Mesa, S.J., is President of San Jos School, Barranquilla, after many
years working as teacher and administrator in schools in Colombia. He received
a PhD in philosophy and education from Columbia University, New York, USA.
He participated in the training team for the Citizenship Competencies Program
promoted by the Ministry of Education in Colombia. His publications include:
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Citizenship education in Colombia 485
La tica del cuidado y sus implicaciones en la formacin moral en la escuela
[Caring ethics and its implication for moral education in the school] in Pontifi-
cia Universidad Javeriana (Ed.) La educacin desde las ticas del cuidado y la
compasin [Education viewed from the perspective of the ethics of caring and
compassion](Bogot, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana), 2133, 2005; and Moral
education in the age of individualism (VDM Verlag, Saarbrcken, Germany),
(2008).
Notes
1. The Gini coefficient is an indicator of inequality. It measures the inequality of income
distribution within a country. It varies from zero, which indicates perfect equality, with
every household earning exactly the same, to one, which implies absolute inequality, with a
single household earning a countrys entire income. Latin America is the worlds most
unequal region, with a Gini coefficient of around 0.5; in developed countries the figure is
closer to 0.3.
2. The authors of this article were involved in the program in two respects: Rosario Jaramillo was
the director of the Citizenship Competencies Program at the Colombian Ministry of
Education. She was responsible for: (1) contracting the people that created the program; (2)
coordinating the team in charge of training teachers or implementing the program; and (3)
supervising the evaluation of the program. Jos Mesa was a member of the national team that
trained teachers for the program and, as such, organised and directed several workshops
throughout the country.
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