Gender, Status and Empowerment in Sri Lanka's Export Zones

Gender, Status and Empowerment: A study among women who work
in Sri Lankas Export Processing Zones (EPZs

!"#AL $EP%$&
Peter 'ancock, Sharon (idd)eton, *amie (oore, + "ndika Edirisinghe
Socia) *ustice $esearch ,entre
Edith ,owan -ni.ersity
Austra)ia
%cto/er 0122
AusA"3 4 Gender, Status and Empowerment !ina) $eport
Pro5ect &it)e: Gender, Status and Empowerment: A study among women who work
in Sri Lankas Export Processing Zones (EPZs
3ate: %cto/er 0122
Lead "nstitution: Edith ,owan -ni.ersity, 6estern Austra)ia
!unding: Austra)ian Agency 7or "nternationa) 3e.e)opment (AusA"3
Austra)ian 3e.e)opment $esearch Award 011840122
Pro5ect &eam:
3r Peter 'ancock, ,hie7 "n.estigator, Edith ,owan -ni.ersity
(rs Sharon (idd)eton, $esearch Assistant, Edith ,owan -ni.ersity
(r *amie (oore, $esearch Assistant, Edith ,owan -ni.ersity
(s "ndika Edirisinghe, Pro5ect (anager, ,E#6%$, Sri Lanka
Pro7 Swarna *ayaweera, ,oordinator, ,E#6%$ 4 Sri Lanka (,entre
7or 6omens $esearch
(rs9 ,9 P9 (a)a)goda, 3irector ($esearch, :%", Sri Lanka9
N. Samarappuli, Executi.e 3irector ($esearch, Sri Lankan :oard o7
"n.estment (:%"9
(s ,haithri $anatunge, $esearch Assistant, Sri Lanka
(s *9 #isha *ai)a/deen, $esearch Assistant, Sri Lanka
(s 3arshi &horadeniya, $esearch Assistant, Sri Lanka
(s *anakie A/eywardane, $esearch Assistant, Sri Lanka
(s ;idarshani Perera, $esearch Assistant, Sri Lanka
(s Pu/udu Senaratne, $esearch Assistant, Sri Lanka
(s ,hethana Amarasooriya, $esearch Assistant, Sri Lanka
(r "an Parker, Editoria) (anager
,ontact: 3r Peter 'ancock
Schoo) o7 Socia) Sciences and Psycho)ogy
!acu)ty o7 ,omputing, 'ea)th and Science
Edith ,owan -ni.ersity, *oonda)up ,ampus
Ph: <=2 (1> =?1@ A>1@
!ax: <=2 (1> =?1@ ABA8
Emai): p9hancockCecu9edu9au
i
Ian 1. Introduction P9 is not in contents list (also %of
respondents after 4.2 delete).
Contents
Pro5ect &eam: 99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999i
"an 29 "ntroduction PB is not in contents )ist (a)so Do7 respondents a7ter @90 de)ete9999999999999999ii
,ontents99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999ii
A,E#%6LE3GE(E#&S9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999.
EFE,-&";E S-((A$G999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999992
Background..................................................................................4
Key Findings/Recommendations......................................................5
2. GLOBAL MEA!RE OF EM"O#ERME$%......................................&'
092 'ow is Gender Empowerment measuredH99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999921
090 ,ritiIue o7 the GE( and G3"999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999920
?9 (E&'%3%L%GG J Part %ne and Part &wo99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999992A
@9 !"#3"#GS J PA$& %#E99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999992>
4.& (ntroduction..........................................................................&)
4.2 *emogra+,ics o- res+ondents .................................................&)
4.. Em+/oyment +ro-i/e 0 1uestionnaire res+ondents........................&2
@9?92 &ype o7 7actory and *o/ tit)e9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999992B
@9?90 Garment and &exti)e 6orkers999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999901
@9?9? 'ours o7 work and promotion999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999902
@9?9@ Sa)ary9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999900
4.4 a3ings and money sent ,ome to -ami/y...................................25
A9 !"#3"#GS J PA$& &6%9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999990=
5.& (ntroduction4.........................................................................25
5.2 ummary o- -indings -rom t,e 6ua/itati3e data...........................25
5.. (ncreased decision making in t,e ,ome.....................................22
5.4 (ncreased decision making outside t,e ,ome..............................'
5.5 (ncreased +artici+ation in community and +o/itica/ acti3ities..........&
5.5 "ersona/ Em+o7erment...........................................................2
ii
A9=92 !ee)ings o7 empowerment9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999??
5.8 Re+orted e9+erience o- +u:/ic ,umi/iation...................................4
A9892 ;er/a) a/use in the workp)ace999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999?A
5.) ocia/ inc/usion and e9c/usion...................................................5
A9>92 !ami)y and .i))age inc)usion999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999?8
A9>90 Societa) inc)usion (genera) society9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999?>
A9>9? Exc)usion at the 7ami)y and .i))age )e.e)99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999?>
A9>9@ Exc)usion at the societa) )e.e)9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999?B
=9!"#3"#GS PA$& &'$EE 4 Attitudes and Perceptions o7 Stake 'o)ders999999999999999999999999999@2
5.' Met,odo/ogy.........................................................................4&
=9192 :ackground o7 Participants99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999@2
=9190 Attitudes and Perceptions o7 Stake 'o)ders 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999@2
5.& tatus and em+o7erment at t,e +ersona/ /e3e/ as a resu/t o- -actory
7ork.........................................................................................4&
=9292 Economic condition 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999@2
=9290 3ecision making999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999@0
=929? #ew know)edge99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999@?
=929@ #ew ski))s99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999@?
=929A Li7e sty)e999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999@@
5.2 tatus and em+o7erment at t,e -ami/y /e3e/ as a resu/t o- -actory
7ork.........................................................................................45
5.. tatus and em+o7erment at t,e 7ork +/ace as a resu/t o- -actory
7ork.........................................................................................45
5.4 tatus and em+o7erment at t,e societa/ /e3e/ as a resu/t o- -actory
7ork ........................................................................................48
=9@92 Participation o7 women in community and in po)itica) acti.ities9999999999999999999999999999@>
=9@90 Acceptance 7rom the .i))age999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999@>
=9@9? Perceptions o7 the genera) pu/)ic99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999@>
5.5 ;onc/usion............................................................................5'
891 E(P%6E$(E#& J Po)icy "ssues 7or ,onsideration9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999A2
$E!E$E#,ES 99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999A0
Appendix 2: Pro5ect Kuestionnaire99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999A=
Appendix 0: !ocus Group Kuestions99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999AB
Appendix ?9 List o7 Eey "n7ormants who Participated in the Study9999999999999999999999999999999999999999=2
iii
i.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
&he authors wish to acknow)edge the support 7or this pro5ect 7rom the management and
research teams 7rom /oth the ,entre 7or $esearch on 6omen (,E#6%$ and the :oard o7
"n.estment (:%" in Sri Lanka9 "n particu)ar we wou)d )ike to acknow)edge the exce))ent
work o7 the $esearch Assistants in Sri Lanka who 7aci)itated the data co))ection and
Singha)ese trans)ation o7 the sur.eys and 7ocus groups9
Specia) thanks must a)so go to a)) the women working in Export Processing Zones in Sri
Lanka who took the time to comp)ete the sur.ey or participate in 7ocus groups to share their
experiences9
As a team o7 socia) scientists we a)so warm)y acknow)edge AusA"3 and their Austra)ian
3e.e)opment $esearch Awards (A3$A 7or making research into the rea)ms o7 gender and
de.e)opment possi/)e9 6e a)so want to acknow)edge the pro7essiona)ism and support we
recei.ed 7rom AusA"3 sta779
.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
&his report is /ased on research that was 7unded /y AusA"3s Australian Development
Research Award and conducted /y in.estigators 7rom Edith ,owan -ni.ersity (E,- J
Austra)ia and &he ,entre 7or $esearch on 6omen (,E#6%$ J Sri Lanka9 &he research
samp)ed 0?1@ women /etween 011>40122 who worked in 7actories in Sri Lankas Export
Processing Zones as we)) as 00 key stakeho)ders9 &he research was designed in the /roadest
sense to gi.e .oice to women working in 7actories vis-a-vis gender empowerment9 &he data
they pro.ided was designed to pro.ide a)ternate and empirica) data with regards the )i.ed
experiences o7 women in a de.e)oping nation and who shou)d /e, according to neo4)i/era)ist
thinking, at the 7ore7ront o7 internationa) de.e)opment and the most )ike)y to /e empowered J
simp)y /y recei.ing a regu)ar sa)ary9 &he research was a)so designed to Iuestion the
)egitimacy o7 macro and positi.istic measures o7 gender empowerment used internationa))y
and which 7ocus on /inary census data (comparing womens data to mens9 &his research
7ocused on three important gender4/ased measures, the Gender Empowerment (easure (the
GE(, the G)o/a) Gender Gap "ndex (the GGG", and )ater the rep)acement to the -#3Ps
GE( the Gender Gap "ndex (the G""9 %ur research 7ound that these measures conceptua)ise
gender and empowerment in simp)istic and unrea)istic ways9 &o counter this, this report
pro.ides new insights to the ways in which women experience 7orma) emp)oyment and the
myriad o7 ways in which they are empowered and simu)taneous)y dis4empowered as a resu)t
o7 working in export4oriented 7actories in a Lde.e)oping nation9
&he research c)ear)y showed that women in de.e)oping nations experience Lmodernisation in
comp)ex ways that are in7)uenced strong)y at the nationa) )e.e) /y societa) norms, po)itica)
and media discourse and pu/)ic mores9 &he women who participated in this research were not
simp)y empowered or dis4empoweredM they were not simp)y .ictims or .ictors nor were they
simp)y /enign actors or 7ree agents o7 structura) change9 &heir )i.es, as a resu)t o7 7orma)
emp)oyment, were extraordinari)y comp)ex and one o7 the most important 7indings o7 our
research was that empowerment, as a concept, theory or measurement needs 7urther rigorous
de/ate /e7ore we come to an agreed understanding o7 it9 !urther, we 7ound that attempts to
measure gender empowerment using /inary and macro4/ased census data, where women are
.iewed as separate and measurea/)e o/5ects, di.orced 7rom their 7ami)ies and the society in
which they )i.e, are not he)p7u) in this Iuest9
&his report wi)) show c)ear)y the comp)ex and extraordinary ways in which women were
empowering themse).es and their 7ami)ies, whi)st at the same time 7acing enormous 7orces
that wou)d see them dis4empowered9 &hese inc)uded g)o/a) 7orces o7 neo4)i/era)
de.e)opment, /ut a)so patriarcha) powers within the nation and 7rom harsh working
conditions9 'owe.er, the report does show that wages were used to empower women and
their 7ami)ies, /ut not in the sense that neo4)i/era)ist argue, where empowerment is .iewed as
a gi7t9 %n the contrary, it was through the participants 7ree wi)) and commitment to 7ami)y
and community that wages )ed to empowerment9 "mportant)y, the ma5ority o7 those samp)ed
had de)i/erate and set strategies o7 emp)oyment J they p)anned to work 7or a speci7ic num/er
o7 years and )ea.e 7orma) emp)oyment once a goa) had /een achie.ed, again a 7inding at odds
2
with )i/era)ist notions that 7orma) wages automatica))y )eads to empowerment or common
arguments that 7actory women are simp)y L.ictims in de.e)oping nations9
Arguments that the ma5ority o7 women in de.e)oping nations ha.e /een dis4empowered due
to g)o/a) and nationa) patriarchy are a)so at Iuestion in this report9 ,ertain)y .ery strong
e.idence o7 gender4/ased su/ordination and su/5ugation was e.ident, as was the negati.e
impact o7 patriarchy at nationa), 7actory and community )e.e)s9 'owe.er, the research a)so
7ound that many women were resisting these 7orces and doing so success7u))y9 "n short,
empowerment and dis4empowerment were operating simu)taneous)y 7or the ma5ority o7 the
participants and they reIuired great ski)) and 7ortitude to negotiate the enormous cha))enges
they 7aced9 "7 any conc)usion stands out, it is that the women samp)ed were empowering
themse).es, with the support o7 7ami)y and community, /ut at the wider )e.e)s o7 society they
7aced enormous pro/)ems predominant)y re)ated to a society not ready to a))ow women
economic and socia) 7reedoms taken 7or granted in many de.e)oped nations9
(acro4positi.istic indicators such as the GE(, G"" and GGG" do not capture womens
empowerment or gender ineIua)ity9 &hey must /e supp)emented /y studies such as this which
are a/)e to de).e more deep)y and empirica))y into the ways in which women 7rom .arious
sectors o7 society experience empowerment and ineIua)ity9 "n this sense, this research 7ound
that in the 7orma) 7actory sector in Sri Lanka, women were signi7icant 7inancia) contri/utors
to their 7ami)ys we)) /eing, as we)) as to their community9 6omen were a)so empowered, 7or
examp)e, as a resu)t o7 gaining ski))s in 7actory workM these indicators are not mentioned in
the GGG", GE( or G""9 %n the other hand, women in this study were signi7icant)y dis4
empowered /y societa) su/5ugation, pu/)ic harassment and negati.e stereotyping o7 women
who work in EPZs, again concepts not captured in macro measures9 (ore research is reIuired
to a))ow 7u))er understanding o7 gender empowermentM research which shou)d a)so erode
myths and /reakdown some o7 the societa) /arriers 7aced /y women in Sri Lanka and other
nations9
&he data presented in Parts 2, 0 and ? o7 this report are a com/ination o7 Iuantitati.e and
Iua)itati.e data and pro.ide empirica) and Lgenera)isa/)e resu)ts that are .a)id and rigorous9
&he remarka/)e ways in which ma5or 7indings and themes identi7ied in the 2
st
stage o7 data
ana)ysis were rep)icated in each proceeding part o7 the data ana)ysis was remarka/)e9 &his in
turn pro.ided Ltriangu)ation which was noteworthy and testament to the methodo)ogy and
di)igence o7 the research team9 &hese 7indings are summarised immediate)y /e)ow and in the
!indings sections o7 this report as we)) as in the /ody proper9
"n summary, the research 7ound that either exp)icit)y or imp)icit)y the women samp)ed
experienced empowerment in the 7o))owing waysM
#ew know)edge, experience and attitudes gained 7rom 7orma) 7actory emp)oyment
and associated )i7esty)es away 7rom rura) society (modern training methods,
)eadership ski))s, teamwork, 7inancia) p)anning, pro/)em so).ing, organising, socia)
ski))s, risk awareness, exposure to modern machinery and app)iances, /argaining,
exposure to other cu)tures9
0
Earning signi7icant)y higher incomes than their parents and si/)ings9
Signi7icant 7inancia) contri/utions to their 7ami)y and the a/i)ity to so).e pro/)ems
with regu)ar income9
"ncreased decision making inside the 7ami)y and at societa) )e.e)s in some EPZs9
$egu)ar sa.ings and goa)4oriented emp)oyment strategies9
,oping with )i.ing away 7rom home, )ong hours o7 work and harsh working
conditions9
Exposure to modern production methods9
Positi.e opinion a/out 7actory work and respect 7rom the .i))age and their 7ami)y9
$esi)ience shown /y women despite to pu/)ic humi)iation and harassment9 (any
spoke o7 the strategies they had used to o.ercome their 7ear and humi)iation, such as
a)ways tra.e))ing in groups, ignoring comments and remarks and /eing care7u) not to
react or pro.oke negati.e /eha.iour9
&he research 7ound the 7o))owing were dis4empoweringM
Pu/)ic humi)iation and harassment associated with the EPZs and .iews on young
women in Sri Lanka9
Sexua) harassment in pu/)ic and the workp)ace9
Lack o7 time to engage in community, socia) and po)itica) acti.ities due to )ong
working hours9
'arsh working conditions and )ong working hours in repetiti.e and )ow ski))ed work9
Poor diet and nutrition9
,ontinued exc)usion 7rom decision4making at community and po)itica) )e.e)s9
?
Bac!r"u#$
&his research is an in4depth 7o))ow up to success7u) research conducted in Sri Lanka in
011@N1A (/y 3r P 'ancock9 &he origina) research, conducted in 011@N1A o7 ?81 7actory
women in Sri Lankas EPZs aimed to trace the impact o7 7orma) emp)oyment on womens
status9 &he main 7indings were that 7actory women 7aced signi7icant societa) and community
disempowerment as a resu)t o7 their ro)es as workers9 &his occurred as a direct resu)t o7 the
ways in which the status o7 women is contro))ed and constructed in the nation and to societa)
resistance to moderniOation (and the wide)y he)d /e)ie7 in the associated mora) corruption o7
the #ations women9 &he 011@N1A research was disseminated within Sri Lanka (to the Sri
Lankan :oard o7 "n.estment, Austra)ia and internationa))y9 ,ritica) 7eed/ack 7ocused on the
need to conduct 7o))ow up research on a )arge samp)e to measure the extent to which 7actory
women ha.e /een a/)eNor una/)e to turn their emp)oyment experiences into economic and
socia) empowerment9 &his )ed to care7u) ana)ysis o7 three important gender4/ased measures,
the Gender Empowerment (easure (the GE(, the G)o/a) Gender Gap "ndex (the GGG",
and )ater the rep)acement to the -#3Ps GE( the Gender Gap "ndex (the G""9
&he aims o7 this research were to 7urther measure the extent to which women ha.e /een a/)e
or una/)e to turn their emp)oyment experiences into economic and socia) empowerment9 "n
addition, the study 7ocuses on the appropriateness and app)ica/i)ity o7 using the -nited
#ations 3e.e)opment Programmes (-#3P, Gender Empowerment (easure (GE(
2
, and
the 6or)d Economic !orums G)o/a) Gender Gap "ndex (GGG" as measures o7
empowerment in Sri Lanka9
&he GE( has /een criticised 7or Lunder4conceptua)ising gender, power and womens
empowerment (,harmes + 6ieringa, 011?, 7or ignoring the comp)exities o7 womens )i.es,
particu)ar)y women in rura) and working c)asses, and 7or prescri/ing uni.ersa) norms 7or a))
women in a)) countries ((cGi))i.ray + Pi))arisetti, 2BB>9 &he .a)idity and uti)ity o7 the
GE( ha.e /een Iuestioned /y many researchers, #G%s and po)icy4makers in de.e)oping
and de.e)oped nations9 &he 7act that Sri Lanka ranks poor)y in the GE( and G"" and .ery
we)) in the GGG", despite the 7act that /oth measures re)y on .ery simi)ar data and methods,
is testament to their inadeIuacies9
&he current research pro.ides more appropriate ways o7 understanding womens
empowerment9 Gi.en the power o7 the -#3Ps year)y pu/)ication o7 the GE( and more
recent)y the G"", the recent emergence o7 the GGG" and the dominance o7 gender aspects in
the (i))ennium 3e.e)opment Goa)s, the research is time)y and important9 &he current
research is Lgenera)isa/)e to other #ations and other de.e)opment settings and a))ows
AusA"3 (and other stakeho)ders to de.e)op more appropriate and inc)usi.e gender and
de.e)opment po)icies and programs9
2
#ote that in 0121 the GE( was rep)aced /y the -#3P with the G"" or Gender "neIua)ity "ndex9 &his index is
discussed in the )iterature re.iew9
@
K%& 'i#$i#!()R%c"mm%#$a*i"#(
&he respondents )i.ing and working in the Export Processing Zones (EPZs are re)ati.e)y
young and we)) educatedM the )arge ma5ority ha.e migrated 7rom rura) areas to work
predominant)y in garment 7actories9 8@9>D o7 women were 0A years or younger, with the
a.erage respondent aged 0@910 years9 %n)y 219?D o7 women were aged 0=4?1 and 2@9BD
aged ?2 and o.er9 &his indicates a re)ati.e)y young work7orce typica) in EPZs in de.e)oping
nations9 (ost had worked )ess than three yearsM in 7act the a.erage )ength o7 emp)oyment was
?921 years9 &hey work )ong hours in most)y )ow status positions with BAD o7 women
working o.ertime with )imited opportunities 7or promotion9 %ur data showed that 211D o7
women worked @1< hours per week, >19=D o7 women worked A1< hours per week and
2A92D o7 women worked =1< hours per week9 &hese working hours were 7ar higher than
nationa) a.erages 7or women in other sectors9 'owe.er, despite the hardships o7 working and
)i.ing away 7rom home, the women appear resi)ient and 7ocussed on the /ene7its that
emp)oyment has /ought to them and their 7ami)ies9
&he data was not a)) negati.e9 Ana)ysis re.ea)ed that @89?8D o7 women who had worked =
years or more were promoted into manageria) or super.isor positions compared to 0A9A=D o7
women who had worked A years or )ess9 &he women across a)) EPZs were we)) educated with
B>9@D ha.ing an %4)e.e) or a/o.e education9 A 7urther ?>90D had comp)eted A4)e.e)
education, with 292D (n P 0A women engaged or ha.ing comp)eted tertiary studies9 6omen
with higher education )e.e)s are more )ike)y to /e emp)oyed in a management position than
women with )ess education9 &his is supported /y a chi4sIuare ana)ysis that 7ound higher
education was associated with higher 5o/ )e.e) QR (20, n P 0?12 P A09@2, p S 91129 6omens
sa)ary increased with /oth age and num/er o7 years worked with each .aria/)e accounting 7or
29=BD and 89A2D o7 the .ariance in sa)ary respecti.e)y9 Sa)ary was a)so compared across 5o/
tit)e and marita) status .ia one4way A#%;As9 $esu)ts indicated that higher 5o/ status )ed to
signi7icant)y higher sa)ary9 Ana)ysis o7 tota) month)y income with o.ertime was conducted
against age and years worked9 $esu)ts indicated a signi7icant positi.e corre)ation /etween
tota) month)y income with age (r P 91B, p S 9112 and a)so years worked (r P 90>, p S 91129
&his indicated that women were paid signi7icant)y more as they /ecame o)der and were a)so
paid more as they worked more years in the 7actory9
%n a.erage women across the samp)ed EPZs earned @@D o7 the tota) 7ami)y income9 Looking
7urther we 7ound that ?D (n P 81 women earned 211D o7 the tota) 7ami)y income and on)y
229=D (n P 0=8 women earned 01D or )ess o7 tota) 7ami)y income9 "t was a)so interesting to
note that 0@D o7 7athers ==D o7 mothers made no 7inancia) contri/ution to the 7ami)y9 &hese
are interesting resu)ts high)ighting the importance o7 womens wages to 7ami)y income9 Each
month 8A9=1D o7 women sent money home to their 7ami)y9 An a.erage o7 0=@=9>@LE$ was
sent home each month, with the maximum /eing 2A111LE$9 !rom this data we again point
to the importance o7 womens wages to 7ami)y we))/eing9 &he money sent home was used in
positi.e ways inc)uding home reno.ations, assistance with si/)ings education needs, 7ami)y
medica) 7ees and )i.ing expenses9 (oreo.er, these remittances pro.ed to /e the ma5or 7ocus
o7 the de/ate on work and empowerment9 Kua)itati.e data re.ea)ed that earning re)ati.e)y
A
good sa)aries, and /eing a/)e to remit to 7ami)y, )ed to many young women 7ee)ing a sense o7
empowerment that they had not pre.ious)y experienced9
&he ski))s and economic power the women gained 7rom 7orma) emp)oyment has )ed to higher
7ee)ings o7 se)7 worth 7or many, a sense o7 independence and pride in /eing a/)e to he)p their
7ami)ies possi/)y mo.e out o7 po.erty9 Economic empowerment has a)so )ed to higher )e.e)s
o7 decision making in the home /y women9 AA9>D reported that they participated more in
home decision making since working9 &his is more apparent among married women who
were more )ike)y to /e in.o).ed in co))ecti.e decision making than unmarried women9
Gender as we)) as si/)ing hierarchy were under)ying 7actors a77ecting whether women were
in.o).ed in decision making, as we)) as the )e.e) o7 patriarchy in 7ami)ies and .i))ages9 81D
o7 women reported that they 7e)t more socia))y inc)uded since working, /ut predominant)y at
the househo)d and .i))age )e.e), rather than the societa) )e.e)9 Positi.e opinion a/out 7actory
work and respect 7rom the .i))age and their 7ami)y was an important source o7 support and
empowerment 7or women9
'owe.er, there were se.era) issues which serious)y undermined womens empowerment and
status9 &he data showed that despite economic empowerment and signi7icant contri/ution
made to the economy in Sri Lanka, women do not ha.e the time 7or community and po)itica)
in.o).ement with 8>9?D o7 women reporting that they did not participate more in community
and po)itica) decision making as a resu)t o7 their work, and on)y ?89>D o7 women were more
in.o).ed in decision making outside the home9 6hi)e the ma5ority o7 women Iuoted L)ack o7
time 7or their non4in.o).ement in the community due to )ong work hours, it was c)ear that
negati.e attitudes, stigma and socia) exc)usion o7 7actory women a)so p)ay a )arge part in
womens )ow participation rate in society9
&he issue o7 physica), .er/a) and sexua) a/use o7 workers is high)ighted in this report9 "t
appears that .er/a) a/use is particu)ar)y widespread in the workp)ace whi)e there is an
undercurrent o7 physica) and sexua) a/use and harassment which is present /ut under4
reported9 &he cases reported show that women are particu)ar)y .u)nera/)e to a/use and
harassment in the workp)ace and community due to their )ow status in society, )a/our
conditions, adoption o7 city cu)ture and )i.ing arrangements outside the TnormU 7or Sri
Lankan women9 %n)y a minority o7 women 7e)t they were socia))y inc)uded at the
pu/)icNsocieta) )e.e) and our data shows e.idence o7 women /eing su/5ugated and
disempowered at the societa) )e.e)9 &his data shou)d /e used to supp)ement data pro.ided /y
the Gender Empowerment (easure (GE( or the G)o/a) Gender Gap "ndex (GGG" and the
Gender "neIua)ity "ndex (G""9
A)) the ma5or themes re.ea)ed in this study, inc)uding participation in community, decision
making, pu/)ic humi)iation, socia) inc)usion and exc)usion and empowerment are not separate
entities /ut a)) interact and a77ect womens experiences9 3i77erent )e.e)s o7 socia) inc)usion in
the data seem to /e the resu)t o7 womens o.era)) experiences9 At the )owest )e.e) are women
who 7ee) no inc)usion at a)) 7rom 7ami)y, .i))age or genera) society, tended to /e more
.u)nera/)e and more )ike)y to 7ee) iso)ated and depressed9 %nce a woman 7ee)s a sense o7
empowerment 7rom her work and gains respect and support 7rom 7ami)y, socia) inc)usion and
=
genera) we))/eing appears to /ecome more positi.e9 %nce there is support and respect 7rom
7ami)y as we)) as the .i))age there is a 7urther increase in socia) inc)usion9 'owe.er, the
o.era)) data shows .ery )itt)e inc)usion at the genera) societa) )e.e), where the o.era)) opinion
towards 7actory women in society is )ow9
$ich Iua)itati.e data o/tained 7rom womens narrati.es re.ea)ed the extent o7 the socia)
stigma and o7ten negati.e opinions o7 society towards women who work in 7actories as we))
as the experiences some women 7ace through pu/)ic humi)iation and sexua) harassment9 &his
contrasting picture o7 /oth empowerment and disempowerment occurring simu)taneous)y,
pro.ides a rich insight into the ways in which women ha.e turned their emp)oyment
experiences into economic and socia) empowerment9 At the same time it i))ustrates the
cha))enges and /arriers 7aced /y women mo.ing into 7orma) emp)oyment in de.e)oping
countries9
a $ecommendationN!inding
&o what extent are Sri Lankan 7actory women working in the #ations EPZs empowered (or
disempowered as a resu)t o7 their workH
The research team considers that Sri Lankan factory women working in the Nations !"s
are disempowered with respect to political activities while #eing empowered in their social
status #ut predominantly at the family level$ societal patriarchy remains strong and was also
evident in rural and isolated locations%
/ $ecommendationN!inding
&o what extent ha.e women 7actory workers in EPZs /een a/)e to con.ert economic capita)
to socia) capita) (in their homes and communityH
The research team found that Sri Lankan factory women working in the Nations !"s were
a#le to convert economic capital to social capital% This was achieved #y savings$
contri#utions to family income and well#eing and improving the socio-economic status of
their families%
c $ecommendationN!inding
"n what ways are the GE( (Gender Empowerment (easure, G"" (G)o/a) "neIua)ity "ndex,
and the GGG" (G)o/a) Gender Gap "ndex appropriate or app)ica/)e to the measured
economic and socia) status o7 the women samp)edH
The research team recommends a review of the &'$ &(( and &&&( as measures of gender
ine)uality with the aim of addressing social status% These indicators showed little or no
traction with the lived e*periences and constructions of gender and empowerment revealed
in this research%
d $ecommendationN!inding
8
"7 the GE(, G"" and GGG" are not appropriate how cou)d they /e amended and what po)icy
imp)ications wou)d this ha.e 7or agencies such as the -#3P, 6:, -#"!E(, "L% and
AusA"3H
The research team recommends that specific monitoring arrangements #e agreed to in order
to ensure the measures are reasona#le with due regard to the real world situations of women
#oth in developing and developed countries% (n reality this re)uires further social research
such as that conducted in this study$ social research that should #e considered as important
as the macro measures often used #y policy-makers$ development agencies$ (N&+s and
academics when developing gender-#ased development policy and programs$ especially with
regard to gender mainstreaming%
>
+. INTRODUCTION
"n the )ast three decades, there has /een an enormous shi7t towards export4oriented
industria)isation in o.er 2?1 countries, with Sri Lanka /eing one o7 the 7orerunners in this
de.e)opment ('ancock, 011=aM Engman, %nodera + Pina)i, 0118M $uwanpura, 011B9 Export
Processing Zones (EPZs are )arge dedicated manu7acturing areas specia)ising in
manu7acturing 7or export9 &hey promote trade and attract 7oreign in.estment through 7ree
trade conditions and specia) incenti.es 7rom host go.ernments such as tax exemptions,
cheaper uti)ity ser.ices and in many cases, )ax )a/our )aws (Engman et a), 01189 Sri Lanka
has 2? go.ernment4contro))ed EPZs9 &hey are a signi7icant source o7 emp)oyment 7or women
in Sri Lanka and are dominated /y garments and texti)e industries9 EPZs emp)oyed 8=,=20
women and @1,120 men in Sri Lanka in 0121 (:%", 01219 6omen are typica))y young (aged
/etween 2840A years o7 age and migrate 7rom poor rura) areas9 6omen dominate the EPZs
where garments and texti)es are produced9 (Gunadasa, 011B9
6hi)e EPZs are a .ia/)e source o7 emp)oyment and po.erty a))e.iation 7or women, they ha.e
a)so /een a source o7 contro.ersy due to )a/our and socia) issues (Engman et a), 01189 (uch
attention has 7ocused on the impact and outcomes o7 this rapid shi7t to 7orma) emp)oyment on
women in de.e)oping countries ('ancock, 011=a9 "n 011@4011A we conducted a study o7
?81 7actory women working in Sri Lankas EPZs to trace the impact o7 7orma) emp)oyment
on womens status and to pro.ide new understanding into the way in which womens
empowerment is conceptua)ised ('ancock, 011=/9 &he main 7indings were that 7actory
women 7aced signi7icant societa) and community disempowerment as a resu)t o7 their ro)es as
workers ('ancock, 011>9 'owe.er, despite the hardships o7 7actory work and societa)
su/5ugation, many Sri Lankan women showed resi)ience and were a/)e to o.ercome the
o/stac)es to empowerment as a resu)t o7 7actory work ('ancock 011=9
Pre.ious research /y 'ancock (011=/ showed that 7ocus groups and open4ended
Iuestionnaire items pro.ided critica) in7ormation on empowerment that wou)d not ha.e /een
a.ai)a/)e in Iuantitati.e measures such as the GE(, G"" and G3"9 "n genera), the women (n
P ?8A were su/5ugated at the 7actory and community )e.e) as a resu)t o7 working at the
Export Processing Zones (EPZs /ut not at the indi.idua) and 7ami)y )e.e)9 $egu)ar wages
and new )i7esty)es associated with 7actory work empowered many women and B0D stated
that their status in their 7ami)y had impro.ed as resu)t o7 working ('ancock, 011A9 &he
women considered generationa) changes in status and eIua) ro)es in decision making were
a)so important to the measure o7 empowerment9 &hose that 7e)t disempowered 7rom working
reported 7ee)ings o7 shame, )ong working hours, 7atigue and oppressi.e management systems
('ancock, 011A9
(acro measures such as the GE(, G"" and GGG" pro.ide pro/)ematic and one dimensiona)
measures o7 womens position in society and theoretica))y the extent to which they are
empowered or achie.e gender eIua)ity o.er time9 &hese measures g)oss o.er more important
issues such as .io)ence, su/5ugation and su/ordination o7 women in many nations where )ong
he)d patriarcha) systems and institutions are in.isi/)e in macro4/ased measures9 !urther,
many o7 the most impo.erished and iso)ated women in many de.e)oping nations, those who
are not captured in census and sur.ey data, are there7ore not counted in the GE(, G"" or
GGG"9 6hi)e this is not the case in Sri Lanka, the rea)ity is that economic and societa) data in
many nations is incomp)ete and 7ocuses on those segments o7 society that are easy to samp)e,
the midd)e c)ass ur/an /ased popu)ations9
B
%ne important hypothetica) Iuestion remains as to the in.isi/i)ity o7 7actory women in EPZs
to the GE(, the G"", the G3" or the GGG"9 !or examp)e, gi.en that EPZs in a)) nations are
Ltypica))y c)osed to pu/)ic access, and most 7actories operate 0@ hours a day, what happens
to women working on the speci7ic day and time that the census data is co))ectedH And indeed
are census workers a))owed to enter EPZs at a))H %ne must wonder i7 their experiences are
captured as they shou)d /e9 !ina))y it is strong)y recommended that 7uture discussions on
nationa) census data and Iuestions re)ated to empowerment vis-a-vis 7ocus on standard
Iuestions that capture the 7ami)y and househo)d rea)ms as 7oci o7 womens empowerment9 A
cohort o7 simp)e Iuestions shou)d /e agreed upon at an internationa) 7orum sooner rather than
)ater9
,. GLOBAL MEASURES O' EM-OWERMENT
,.+ ."/ i( G%#$%r Emp"/%rm%#* m%a(ur%$0
"nterest in impro.ing the )i.es o7 the wor)ds women has /een gaining momentum,
particu)ar)y since the 2BBA -# ,on7erence on 6omen in :ei5ing where a P)at7orm o7 Action
was agreed upon, to address 20 dimensions o7 gender ineIua)ity (6a)/y, 011A9 (easuring
progress in gender ineIua)ity reIuired the de.e)opment o7 indicators supported /y .a)id and
re)ia/)e data which cou)d /e compared across countries and o.er time and /e a/)e to e.a)uate
the e77ecti.eness o7 inno.ati.e po)icies (6a)/y, 011A9 $e)e.ant /enchmarks were a)so
needed to monitor change9 &he traditiona) use o7 the Gross 3omestic Product (G3P as a
measure o7 economic progress was cha))enged /y the -# and others as not /eing app)ica/)e
to the measurement o7 human progress (6a)/y, 011A9 &his )ed to the de.e)opment /y the
-nited #ations 3e.e)opment Pro5ect o7 a suite o7 indicators to measure progress in 'uman
3e.e)opment9 &he main one was the 'uman 3e.e)opment "ndicator ('3" which measures
se.era) aspects o7 human we))/eing inc)uding )i7e expectancy, education and income per
capita (6a)/y, 011AM -nited #ations 3e.e)opment Program, 01189 A cross4country
comparison report is pu/)ished each year inc)uding a series o7 ta/)es and rankings on each
country where data is a.ai)a/)e9 "n 0118 there was data 7or 288 countries and this num/er
7)uctuates on)y in minor ways 7rom year to year (-#3P, 01189
&wo 7urther indices were de.e)oped to create gendered indicators that are appropriate 7or
cross4country comparisons and o.er time9 &he 7irst was the Gender 3e.e)opment "ndex
(G3" and the second was the Gender Empowerment (easure (GE(9 &he GE( and G3"
were 7irst introduced in the -nited #ations 2BBA 'uman 3e.e)opment $eport ('ancock,
011A9 6hi)e the G3" 7ocuses on capa/i)ities, the GE( 7ocuses on opportunities (E)asen,
011=9 &he G3" is /ased on the '3" /ut is corrected 7or gender gaps in the three '3"
dimensions o7 Education, 'ea)th and "ncome (3i5kstra, 011=M E)asen, 011=9 &hus the G3" is
an ad5ustment o7 the '3" in terms o7 gender gaps on)y and is in essence a /asic measurement
in gender ineIua)ity in re)ation to morta)ity and mor/idity, know)edge and standard o7 )i.ing
a77ecting human de.e)opment (-#3P, 01189 &he GE( is a measure o7 womens re)ati.e
po)itica) and economic empowerment and ranks nations according to the extent to which
gender eIua)ity has changed or impro.ed o.er time (-#3P, 01189 &he GE( measures gaps
in gender eIua)ity /ased on income, po)itica) representation and management positions
(-#3P, 01189 "n the GE(, simp)istic and /inary comparisons are made /etween men and
women in terms o7 economic and po)itica) participationM howe.er comp)ex 7ormu)ae are used
to ca)cu)ate the GE(:
21
29 &he proportion o7 seats he)d /y women in par)iament (po)itica) and decision making
power
09 &he proportion o7 women administrators and managers (economic participation
?9 &he proportion o7 women pro7essiona)s and technica) workers and (economic
participation
@9 6omens rea) G3P per capita (earned income, womens economic independence
As wou)d /e expected rankings on these two measures .ary wide)y9 &he num/er one ranking
country (out o7 288 countries on the G3" in 0118N1> was "ce)and with 19B=0 (191 ineIua)ity
to 291 is eIua)ity with Austra)ia ranked second (19B=1 (-#3P, 0118N011>9 &he num/er one
ranking country on the GE( was #orway with 19B21 with "ce)and ranked 7i7th and Austra)ia
ranked eighth9 Sri Lanka had a re)ati.e)y high G3" ranking o7 198?A and ranked >B in 0118
(-#3P, 011>9 "n 011>, &he GE( in comparison ranks Sri Lanka >A (out o7 B? countries
with an index o7 19?=B which is re)ati.e)y )ow in eIua)ity9 &hus in terms o7 gender and
de.e)opment, Sri Lanka ranks at a reasona/)e )e.e) on the G3" /ut sti)) ha.e a )ong way to go
in terms o7 empowerment9 Sri Lankas GE( index has impro.ed s)ight)y since 0110 (1908@
/ut its GE( ranking has dropped 7rom a ranking o7 =B (19?80 in 011= to a ranking o7 >A in
0118N1> (-#3P, 01189 :y 0121 the GE( and G3" had /een rep)aced /y the G)o/a)
"neIua)ity "ndex (G"", testament to the issues discussed in this re.iew9 &he G"" is discussed
in detai) /e)ow, howe.er the GGG" has remained unchanged and our understandings o7
womens empowerment e)usi.e and cursory, despite the introduction o7 the G"" in the 0121
'uman 3e.e)opment $eport9
,onsider 7or a moment Sri Lankas re)ati.e)y poor ranking on the G3" and GE(9 "n 011=,
the 6or)d Economic !orum )aunched the G)o/a) Gender Gap "ndex (GGG" which aims to
pro.ide another 7ramework on which to measure 7our critica) areas o7 gender ineIua)ity
/etween men and women inc)uding:
(i Economic participation and opportunity
(ii Educationa) Attainment
(iii Po)itica) empowerment
(i. 'ea)th and sur.i.a)
(6or)d Economic !orum, 011>
&he index has extensi.e co.erage o7 2?1 countries and 7ocuses on gaps, not )e.e)s, o7
resources distri/uted /etween men and women in a particu)ar country9 A)so, the 6or)d
Economic !orum speci7ica))y points out that the index does not and is not intended to,
measure womens empowerment ('ausmann, &yson + Zahidi, 011>, despite this point iii
(a/o.e on its measurement is po)itica) empowerment, this is contradictory as it c)ear)y
attempts to measure empowerment9 &he ,--. &lo#al &ender &ap (nde* Report shows that
#ordic countries )ead the way with #orway no9 2 in c)osing the gender gap9 #ot on)y do they
ha.e narrow gaps /etween men and women in hea)th and educationa) attainment, /ut a)so in
economic and po)itica) participation (Zahidi, 011>9 Sri Lanka has a high ranking o7 20 on
this "ndex and has mo.ed up three p)aces since 0118 ahead o7 Austra)ia, the -nited Eingdom
and the -nited States ('ausmann, &yson + Zahidi, 011>9 'owe.er Sri Lankas ranking in
22
educationa) attainment is on)y =A (out o7 2?1 countries and BB in economic participation and
opportunity9 A high ranking o7 2 on the su/index Lhea)th and sur.i.a), as we)) as A in
Lpo)itica) participation (/ecause o7 the num/er o7 years with a 7ema)e head o7 State may
ha.e /iased the measure, gi.ing Sri Lanka an unusua) high ranking9
As pre.ious)y discussed, the issue o7 po)itica) participation is a)so pro/)ematic, the
assumption that the empowerment o7 women in par)iament Ltrick)es down to women in a))
)e.e)s o7 society is pro/)ematic ('ancock, 011=/9 -se7u) additiona) data on the GGG" is
inc)uded on a countrys /asic rights and socia) institutions, inc)uding )egis)ation 7or punishing
.io)ence against women where Sri Lanka has a score o7 19?? (2Pworst score, 1P/est score
(6or)d Economic !orum, 011>9 Again, a)though mu)tidimensiona), the "ndex is comp)ex to
ca)cu)ate and has a strong 7ocus on de.e)oped countries (*utting, (orrison, 3ayton4*ohnson
and 3reschs)er, 011>9 A)so, e.en with the presence o7 )egis)ation punishing .io)ence against
women, the actua) reporting o7 .io)ence /y women in a)) South Asian nations is )ow (GomeO
+ GomeO, 011@M Goonesekere, 011@9 &his pro/)em is not iso)ated to de.e)oping nations9 :y
0121 the GGG" rankings remained the same with #ordic nations dominating the top ten /ut
Sri Lanka had mo.ed to a s)ight)y )ower ranking o7 2= g)o/a))y in 0121 7rom 2A in 011B
(6or)d Economic !orum, 0121, a Iuestiona/)e mo.e up or down the so ca))ed )adder9
Gi.en a high ranking on the GGG" compared to a poor ranking on the GE( and G"" (see
/e)ow the pro/)ems o7 /oth macro4measures seems to pro.ide unworka/)e indicators9
&he )ogica) Iuestion that must /e asked at this point is this, why does Sri Lanka rank .ery
we)) on the GGG" and re)ati.e)y poor)y on the G3" and Iuite poor)y on the GE(H At the
same time whi)e Sri Lankas GE( ranking was worsening /etween 011A and 011>, it was
impro.ing on the GGG" (7rom 2A to 209 &hese three indicators were the pre4eminent
indicators o7 gender eIua)ity and empowerment, they re)y on simi)ar 7ormu)as and indices,
yet they contradict each other dramatica))y9 &he measures ha.e caused a great dea) o7
con7usion and as wi)) /e seen /e)ow, were serious)y in.estigated /y the -#3P in 011=N189
3espite these measures, research has shown that Sri Lankan women ha.e a /etter status than
women 7rom many other de.e)oping countries in terms o7 education, hea)th and in se)ected
7orma) areas o7 the economy (*ayawardena, 2BB>M *ayaweera, 0110a + 0110/ +
Samarasinghe, 01109 "n 7act, Son (011B recent)y made specia) mention o7 Sri Lanka as one
o7 the high achie.ers in Standard o7 Li.ing compared to other countries in South Asia9 Li7e
expectancy at /irth and primary enro)ment was e.en superior to Asia as who)e9 Son (011B
goes on to praise Sri Lankas achie.ement o7 /asic needs such as widespread schoo)ing
re)ati.e to its income )e.e)9 'owe.er, Son (011B does concede that socia) and psycho)ogica)
characteristics such as 5ustice, 7reedom o7 choice, security and satis7action is not inc)uded in
the measurement o7 Standard o7 Li.ing9
,., Cri*i1u% "2 *3% GEM a#$ GDI
:oth the G3" and GE( ha.e /een important and in7)uentia), particu)ar)y in raising awareness
a/out gender ineIua)ity, /ut ha.e /een su/5ect to criticism, 7irst emerging in the )iterature
7o))owing their introduction in 2BBA9 &his a)so inc)uded a genera) critica) discussion on
gender, power and womens empowerment ('ancock, 011=/9 (ost o7 this discussion has
emanated 7rom 6estern4educated academics and 7rom de.e)opment practitioners
(Attanapo)a, 011?M :ardham and E)asen, 0111M ,harmes and 6ieringa, 011?M 3i5kstra, 0110M
3i5kstra and 'anmer, 0111M 'ancock, 0112M *ayaweera, 0110/, 011?M Py)e and 6ard, 011?M
Sharma, 2BB8M ;is.anathan, 2BB89
20
"t is use7u) to examine the critiIue o7 the GE( /y each indicator9 &he 7irst indicator L&he
proportion o7 seats he)d /y women in par)iament does not necessari)y indicate empowerment
o7 a)) women in society9 !or examp)e, ,hina ranks high)y on the GE( /ecause women make
up 01D o7 the nationa) par)iament9 'owe.er, this doesnt mean a)) ,hinese women are
empowered as a resu)t ('ancock, 011=a + 'ancock, 011=/9 "n rea)ity, uneIua) access to
po)itica) power is pre.a)ent among women in de.e)oping and de.e)oped nations a)ike
('ancock, 011=a9 #orris (011? argues that attitudes towards gender eIua)ity is the
signi7icant issue and wou)d exp)ain why wea)thier post4industria) countries had a higher )e.e)
o7 po)itica) representation o7 women9 Paxton (2BB8 howe.er, 7ound that institutiona) 7actors
were more responsi/)e 7or /)ocking womens access to po)itica) power than other 7actors such
as )e.e) o7 education, attitudes towards gender eIua)ity and emp)oyment9
&ripp and Eang (011> concur with an important study carried out o7 2A? countries on the
e77ect o7 gender Iuotas on the po)itica) representation o7 women9 &he introduction o7 gender
Iuotas has increased since the mid 2BB1s which is why there is )itt)e research on Iuotas prior
to 01119 (any reasons ha.e /een documented a/out the pursuit o7 Iuotas such as po)itica)
)eaders wanting to appear TmodernU and not necessari)y to increase the ci.i) and po)itica)
rights o7 women (&ripp and Eang, 011>9 6hen Iuotas are introduced, such as in ,hina,
7actors such as democracy, re)igion and economic de.e)opment may/e )ess o7 a constraint to
some groups o7 women (&ripp and Eang, 011>, howe.er, it is sti)) important to consider that
women in par)iament tend to /e 7rom the midd)e to e)ite c)asses and do not represent the
ma5ority o7 women in de.e)oping countries ('ancock, 011=aM :eteta, 011= 9
&he second and third indicators on the GE(, Lthe proportion o7 women administrators and
managers, and Lthe proportion o7 pro7essiona) and technica) workers is genera))y
representati.e o7 a minority o7 women in most de.e)oping nations and o.er4represents
women 7rom the midd)e and e)ite c)asses
0
9 %ne cou)d argue that it does not represent the )arge
num/ers o7 women who work in export J oriented 7actories or in agricu)ture in Sri Lanka
('ancock, 011=a9 "n 7act, 'ancock (011=/ argues that this is one o7 the ma5or weaknesses
o7 the GE(, in that women 7rom )ow socio4economic groups, .i))ages and rura) areas in
de.e)oping countries are o.er)ooked on the GE( and are prone to omission in many nations
o77icia) census data and other economic sur.eys9 &his is a)so e.ident in the @
th
indicator
L6omens rea) G3P per capita or earned income9 &he GE( uses an estimation o7 non4
agricu)tura) wages to compute the earned income component and ignores the 7act that in
many de.e)oping countries, the rura) agricu)tura) sector (and indeed the export4oriented
sector is an important source o7 emp)oyment 7or women (Schu)er, 011=9
&he o.era)) nature o7 the GE( has a)so /een criticised due to the way uni.ersa) norms are
prescri/ed 7or a)) women ((cGi))i.ray + Pi))arisetti, 2BB>M ignorance o7 rura)Nur/an
di77erences, ethnicity and c)ass ('ancock, 011=aM and the re)iance on data that is o7ten high)y
inaccurate and prone to manipu)ation in some de.e)oping countries (:u)mer + 6arwick,
2BB?M Gu)ra5ani, 2BB@M 'ancock, 011AM *ones, 2B>8M 6arushamana, 011@9 &hese census
pro/)ems ha.e not /een reported in Sri Lanka howe.er9
(uch o7 the recent critiIue in the )iterature in the past 7i.e years arose 7rom a 7orma) re.iew
conducted in 011A41= /y the -nited #ations 'uman 3e.e)opment Program (-#3P who
commissioned se.era) Lexpert ad.isors to examine the impact o7 the measures and suggest
ways in which the GE( and G3" cou)d /e modi7ied (E)asen, 011=9 &he resu)ts o7 that
re.iew were pu/)ished in a specia) edition o7 the /ournal of 0uman Development in 011=9
0
Sri Lanka is an exception to this ru)e as it has a )ong history o7 high Iua)ity pu/)ic education and gender eIua)ity in a)) )e.e)s o7 education
and as a resu)t women ha.e mo.ed into technica) and pro7essiona) ro)es in 7ar greater num/ers than many other nations9 3espite this, it
ranks poor)y on the GE(9
2?
&he main conc)usion to this re.iew was that the measures were not as e77ecti.e as they cou)d
ha.e /een and a num/er o7 weaknesses were re.ea)ed (E)asen, 011=M E)asen + Schu)er,
01189 %ne o7 the /iggest issues 7ound /y se.era) authors (:eteta, 011=M 3i5kstra, 011=M
E)asen + Schu)er, 011= was that the measures are o7ten misinterpreted9 &he G3" was ne.er
meant to measure gender ineIua)ityM it is mere)y an ad5usted measure o7 'uman 3e.e)opment
due to gender gaps on the three components o7 the '3" (E)asen, 011=9
&he GE( was a)so su/5ect to misinterpretation /ecause o7 )imited data co.erage and the
earned income component was /iased towards countries with higher income )e.e)s (E)asen +
Schu)en, 01189 Another ma5or criticism o7 the GE( which was touched on ear)ier is that it
does not capture empowerment at the househo)d )e.e) (:eteta, 011=9 'ancock (011=a
agrees9 %ur pre.ious research on Sri Lankan women working in EPZs 7ound that it was in
the rea)m o7 the 7ami)y and househo)d that women were most )ike)y to experience positi.e
empowerment and these rea)ms are o.er)ooked on the GE( and G3"9 "t is important that new
ways o7 capturing these rea)ms are inc)uded in 7uture discussions /y /oth the -#3P and
internationa) agencies, and a)) nations who pro.ide their census data to internationa) agencies9
Adding new census Iuestions to a)) nationa) censuses that capture 7ami)y and househo)d
empowerment change is an achie.a/)e o/5ecti.e, one that is speci7ic and rea)istic9
"n 0118 the -#3P re)eased the 7o))owing critiIue o7 the GE( and the G3", /ased on
7eed/ack 7rom the pane) o7 Lexpert ad.isors re7erred to a/o.e and which high)ights the
points made a/o.e9 &he -#3P (0118, p =0 stated that the G3"M
2 "s con7used as a measure o7 ineIua)ity due to its comp)exity and presentation
0 Earned income statistics are /ased on crude assumptions o7 a re)ationship
/etween ma)eN7ema)e wages and assumptions that women ha.e no power o.er
househo)d income, regard)ess o7 who earns it
? "gnores unpaid )a/our and assumes this has no /earing on human
de.e)opment9
"n the same report the -#3P stated that the GE(M
2 3oes not adeIuate)y measure the gap in earned incomes /etween ma)es and
7ema)es
0 "gnores women at the grass roots )e.e) and does not capture the o.era)) )a/our
7orce, ignoring important sectors where women work
? "s /ased on a 7a)se assumption that women in par)iament a)ways work to
empower women
&hese critiIues ha.e 7ina))y /een accepted /y the -#3P, in 0121 the 'uman 3e.e)opment
$eport introduced the Gender "neIua)ity "ndex was introduced to rep)ace the G3" and GE(9
Like the GE(, the Gender "neIua)ity "ndex (G"" is a composite measure re7)ecting
ineIua)ity in statistica) achie.ements o7 women compared to men, /ut it 7ocuses on three
ma5or areasM reproducti.e hea)th, empowerment and the )a/our market9 "t has > new
measures, /ut is a new .ariant on the GE( and G3" /ut with new hea)th .aria/)es (materna)
morta)ity ratio, ado)escent pre.a)ence rate, contracepti.e pre.a)ence rate, and e.idence o7 2
ante nata) .isit and presence o7 a hea)th care pro7essiona) at /irth9 &he empowerment
components o7 the G"" ha.e changed and retain po)itica) participation rates and )a/our 7orce
participation rates, with pre.ious measures discarded9 'owe.er, these are c)aimed to measure
2@
empowerment /y the -#3P and sti)) contain the 7)aws out)ined in the GE( critiIue /ut are
now 7ar more narrow)y scoped with one measure 7or po)itica) participation and 2 7or )a/our
7orce participation added to a predominant)y reproducti.e hea)th4dominated measure9 "ndeed
o7 the > measures used, A are 7ocused on reproducti.e hea)th (/ut on)y o7 married women9
"n 0121 Sri Lanka ranked 8= out o7 202 nations on the G"" (-#3P, 01219 &he rationa)e
/ehind choosing the measures used to create the G"" are .ery simi)ar to the GE(9 'owe.er,
/y introducing hea)th and reproducti.e indicators the G"" is p)acing too much emphasis on
hea)th4speci7ic measures that are not direct)y pro.en to /e re)ated to gender empowerment or
ineIua)ity9 $eproducti.e issues and contracepti.e use are 7ar more )ike)y to /e cu)tura))y
em/edded with /ias toward de.e)oped western nations where contracepti.e use 7or examp)e
is wide)y accepted, whereas in de.e)oping nations it is not accepted among un4married
women 7or examp)e9 Again we argue that the G"" is a mis4)eading measure and when we
compare the poor ranking o7 the Sri Lanka in 0121 with a 7ar /etter rating on the GGG" in the
same year this is more compe))ing9 (oreo.er, the new measures added to the G"" re)ated to
reproducti.e hea)th seem Iuite /iased as the use o7 contraception is .iewed as a positi.e
gender indicator or a way in which to measure gender ineIua)ity9 &hese indicators ignore the
ma5ority o7 young women in the de.e)oping wor)d who are un4married, and particu)ar)y those
at the 7ore 7ront o7 economic de.e)opment, young women in EPZs9 (oreo.er the G"" re)ies
on ,ensus data that is inconsistent and which wou)d /e unre)ia/)e as many women wou)d not
answer Iuestions such as those re)ated to reproducti.e issues candid)y9
&he G"" c)aims to 7ocus on the )a/our market to measure gender ineIua)ity o.er time9
'owe.er, on)y one measure re)ated to )a/our is used in the G""M this is the )a/our 7orce
participation rate o7 men compared to women, and this was /ased on 011> ,ensus data which
indicated that ?>9AD o7 women participated in the )a/our market, compared to a .ery high
>19?D 7or men9 &hese 7igures, )ike most in the G"" ignore the rea)ity o7 )i7e 7or women in
de.e)oping nations, their )a/our may/e unpaid, or paid in kind, their )a/our may/e not
considered work (housework and chi)dcare and many women work in in7orma) markets and
do not 7igure on this measure9 #orway, 7or examp)e, which ranked A
th
on the ne G"" in 0121
had .ery high 7ema)e )a/our 7orce participation rates, with women measuring BB9?D, higher
than ma)es and there7ore raising their ranking (-#3P, 01219 'owe.er, de.e)oped nations
)ike #orway dont ha.e )arge in7orma) markets or )arge rura) popu)ations where women work
as unpaid )a/ourers in seasona) conditions and common)y work 7or in kind remuneration9 "t is
these sectors that are dominated /y women in de.e)oping nations and are in.isi/)e to the G""9
&he -#3P has a )ong way to go /e7ore it gets any measure that wi)) not attract constant
criticism9
4. MET.ODOLOGY 5 -ar* O#% a#$ -ar* T/"
A num/er o7 trained 7ema)e Sri Lankan $esearch Assistants 7aci)itated the data co))ection in
Sri Lanka9 &he $esearch Assistants were 7)uent in Eng)ish and Sinha)ese and recei.ed
intensi.e training and guidance 7rom the Principa) "n.estigator, ,E#6%$ $esearch 3irector
and Pro5ect (anager9 &he respondents were random)y se)ected /y the $esearch Assistants
and were sourced 7rom the count)ess /oarding houses that surround the EPZs, as we)) as 7rom
non4go.ernment organisations9 &o /e e)igi/)e 7or se)ection women had to ha.e worked in an
EPZ 7or at )east one year prior to data co))ection9
2A
$espondents were approached to comp)ete the two4page sur.ey (see Appendix 2 or
participate in a 7ocus group (see Appendix 0, in sa7e )ocations in community areas and care
was taken not to inter7ere with their work or 7ami)y duties9 &he women were in7ormed that
their resu)ts wou)d /e anonymous and con7identia) and wou)d not )ink them to any .i))age or
7actory9 #o names were used on the Iuestionnaire or in 7ocus groups9 &he Iuestionnaire and
7ocus group data was trans)ated to Sinha)ese and the $esearch Assistant trans)ated the resu)ts
/ack to Eng)ish using the process o7 :ack &rans)ation9 Ethics appro.a) was granted /y Edith
,owans Ethics ,ommittee in )ate 01189
&he Iuestionnaire and 7ocus group data was designed to pro.ide insights into the ways in
which young women may /e empowered or indeed disempowered as a resu)t o7 their work9
&he data co))ected was a)so designed to pro.ide a)ternate ways to measure and understand
empowerment as opposed to the macro4measures used in the GE(, G"" and GGG" 7or
examp)e9 &he 7irst part o7 the Iuestionnaire was Iuantitati.e and 7ocused on demographic
data such as age, marita) status, and education )e.e)9 %ther Iuestions 7ocused on work pro7i)e
such as type o7 7actory, 5o/ tit)e, hours worked and promotion, as we)) as in7ormation on
sa)aries and sa.ings9 &he women were a)so asked whether they had experienced .er/a),
physica) or sexua) harassment at work, and whether they had experienced pu/)ic humi)iation
7or /eing an EPZ worker9
&he second Iua)itati.e part o7 the Iuestionnaire asked the women 7i.e open4ended Iuestions
and 21=0 o7 these sur.eys (approximate)y @1D o7 each EPZ as we)) as in7ormation 7rom
eight 7ocus groups (#um/er o7 participants in tota)P8@, ha.e /een ana)ysed 7or this report:
29 "n what ways has your sa)ary a))owed you to accumu)ate capita) or /uy a house or simi)ar
or empower yourse)7 or your 7ami)yH
09 As a resu)t o7 working do you participate more in community andNor po)itica) acti.itiesH "7
yes, exp)ain
?9 As a resu)t o7 working do you participate more in decision making processes within the
homeH "7 yes, exp)ain
@9 As a resu)t o7 working do you participate more in decision making processes outside the
homeH "7 yes, exp)ain
A9 3o you 7ee) as a resu)t o7 working in 7actories that you ha.e experienced increased socia)
inc)usion in Sri Lanka "E9 :eing inc)uded in socia), cu)tura), re)igious and po)itica)
processesH "7 yes, exp)ain
&he 7ocus group Iuestions were simi)ar to the Iuestionnaire Iuestions with additiona) items
on measuring womens empowerment, the de.e)opment o7 ski))s and the use o7 /anks .ersus
in7orma) sa.ings9 &he 7ocus groups were 7aci)itated /y the Sri Lankan research assistants and
super.ised /y senior mem/ers o7 the research team9 &he 7ocus group data was designed to
a))ow the women more 7reedom to express their concerns and air sensiti.e pro/)ems that they
encountered as a resu)t o7 working in an EPZ9 &he eight 7ocus groups inc)uded 8@ women
a)together, most)y 7rom rura) .i))ages with ages ranging 7rom 014?>9 &he eight sessions
2=
pro.ided .a)ua/)e insights and the a/i)ity to triangu)ate issues and themes re.ea)ed in the
ana)ysis o7 the Iuantitati.e and Iua)itati.e aspects o7 the Iuestionnaire9
&he data was ana)ysed using SPSS Statistics 2891 (Statistica) Package 7or Socia) Sciences
and the Iua)itati.e open4ended Iuestions were 7irst transcri/ed into word documents and then
coded and 7urther ana)ysed using #.i.o Iua)itati.e so7tware9 6hi)e the 7u)) Iuantitati.e
dataset o7 0?1@ women was ana)ysed, on)y the Iua)itati.e data o7 21=0 women (in order o7
"3 num/er in each EPZ, or approx @1D o7 tota), were ana)ysed due to time constraints9
'owe.er, this Iua)itati.e ana)ysis is considered to /e a representati.e samp)e o7 the
remaining Iua)itati.e data9 &he 7i.e open4ended Iuestions were treated as o.erarching
themes in #.i.o and the womens comments were coded into these main themes and 7urther
coded into re)e.ant su/4categories or into other themes9 &hese resu)ts are presented /e)ow
and are used in a mixed4method approach to the study9
28
6. 'INDINGS 5 -ART ONE
6.+ I#*r"$uc*i"#
Part one o7 the 7indings presents the Iuantitati.e resu)ts o7 the data 7rom the sur.ey inc)uding
demographics o7 the participants and data re)ated to their emp)oyment pro7i)e, sa)ary and
sa.ings ha/its9 &he second part o7 the 7indings (!indings J Part &wo presents an ana)ysis o7
the Iua)itati.e data 7rom the sur.eys and 7ocus groups inc)uding the ma5or themes as we)) as
su/4themes that ha.e emerged 7rom the womens narrati.es9 &he third part o7 the 7indings
(!indings J Part &hree presents data 7rom 00 key stakeho)ders9
6., D%m"!rap3ic( "2 r%(p"#$%#*(
&here were 0?1@ Iuestionnaires comp)eted /y women working across = EPZs (Eatunayake,
:iyagama, Eogga)a, 6athupiwe)a, Pa))ake)e, and Seethawake and a)) Iuantitati.e data 7or
0?1@ women was ana)ysed using SPSS ;ersion 28919 &he detai)ed samp)ing 7rame is
presented in and the samp)e demographics are shown in &a/)e 09
Ana)ysis re.ea)ed that 8@9>D o7 women were 0A years or younger, with the a.erage
respondent aged 0@910 years9 %n)y 219?D o7 women were aged 0=4?1, )ea.ing on)y 2@9BD
aged ?2 and o.er9 &his indicates a re)ati.e)y young 7ema)e work7orce across the EPZs9
Ana)ysis 7ound that 8B9@D o7 women were unmarried and 2B9?D were married, the remaining
29?D o7 women were either in a de7acto re)ationship (n P ?, di.orced (n P 2A, widowed (n P
=, or separated (n P @9
Ta7l% +8 Num7%r "2 par*icipa#*( 7& E-9 c"mpar%$ *" all /"m%# i# E-9(.
E-9 Num7%r "2 W"m%# -%rc%#*a!% "2 T"*al
Sampl%
T"*al W"m%# i# E-9 )
: "2 T"*al
Ka*u#a&a% B12 ?B92D 08,2B> (?9?2D
Bi&a!ama A11 0298D B,=>A (A92=D
K"!!ala 2BB >9=D >,2=B (09@?D
Wa*3upi/%la 01@ >9BD @,=0> (@9@2D
-alla%l% 211 @9?D @,AA2 (0901D
S%%*3a/a% @11 289@D 22,?=8 (?9A0D
TOTAL 0?1@ 21191D =A,AB> (?9A2D
Source: 0118 J 011B Iuestionnaires + :%" (01219
&he women across a)) EPZs were we)) educated with B>9@D ha.ing an %4)e.e) or a/o.e
education9 A 7urther ?>90D had comp)eted A4)e.e) education, with 292D (n P 0A women
engaged or ha.ing comp)eted tertiary studies9 %7 the entire samp)e o7 0?1@, on)y 29=D (n P
?= o7 women had 7ai)ed to comp)ete %4)e.e) education9 &o make mother4daughter
comparisons, women were asked a/out their mothers )e.e) o7 education9 A tota) >B (?9BD o7
mothers were remo.ed 7rom ana)ysis as women indicated they did not know their education
2>
status9 %.era)) on)y =09AD o7 mothers had comp)eted %4)e.e) educationM with 892D ha.ing
comp)eted A4)e.e) education (on)y > mothers in tota) had comp)eted tertiary education9
%.era)) ?89AD o7 mothers had incomp)ete %4)e.e) education, with B90D o7 these mothers
ha.ing no 7orma) education at a)) (?9@D o7 o.era)) samp)e9 A chi4sIuare ana)ysis comparing
education )e.e)s indicated a signi7icant)y higher )e.e) o7 education o7 the women in
comparison to their mothers QR (0@, n P 001= P 220918, p S 91129
Ta7l% ,8 R%(p"#$%#*( 7& a!% !r"up, mari*al (*a*u( a#$ %$uca*i"# l%;%l.
D%m"!rap3ic
C3arac*%ri(*ic
-%rc%#*a!% "2 R%(p"#$%#*( <#=
A!%
Mari*al S*a*u(
R%(p"#$%#*>(
E$uca*i"#
M"*3%r(
E$uca*i"# <#
?@A r%m";%$
$u% *" BD"#>*
#"/C
S P 0A years
8@9> (2,80@

(arried
8B9@ (2,>0B
%4)e.e)s
=19? (2?>8
%4)e.e)s
AA9@ (200?
0= 4 ?1 years
219? (0?8
-nmarried
019= (@8A
A4)e.e)s
?892 (>A@
A4)e.e)s
=98 (2@>
?2< years
2@9B (?@?
&ertiary
292 (0A
&ertiary
19@ (>
"ncomp)ete %4
)e.e)s
29= (?=
"ncomp)ete %4
)e.e)s
?89= (>0B
Source: 0118 J 011B Iuestionnaires
6.4 Empl"&m%#* pr"2il% 5 Du%(*i"##air% r%(p"#$%#*(
6.4.+ T&p% "2 2ac*"r& a#$ E"7 *i*l%
&he women were asked se.era) Iuestions regarding their work9 6hen asked which type o7
7actory they worked in (see , >29AD o7 respondents indicated they worked in garment
7actories, 7o))owed /y ha/erdashery (?9>D, toys (09AD and texti)es (09@D9 &he a.erage
amount o7 years worked in any EPZ was ?921 years, with we)) o.er ha)7 o7 a)) women
(=B98D had on)y /een working in the EPZs 7or 24? years, with a 7urther 2>9>D ha.ing
worked @4A years9 %.era)) on)y 229AD o7 women had worked = or more years in the EPZs,
with on)y =A women (098D working 21 or more years and on)y A women (190D working 01
or more years9 An ana)ysis o7 5o/ type 7ound that 8B91D o7 women were emp)oyed in )ow4to4
medium )e.e) 5o/s inc)uding machine operator, packer and cutter9 A 7urther 2@9=D o7 women
were emp)oyed in trainee or starter )e.e) positions, with on)y A9?D (n P 228 in management
positions and 291D (n P 0? considered ski))ed workers9 %n)y 2 woman with incomp)ete %4
2B
)e.e) education was in a management position (she had /een working in the EPZ 7or 21
years, with B89=D o7 managers ha.ing %4)e.e) education or a/o.e9 !urthermore the highest
percentage o7 trainee )e.e) workers was seen in women with incomp)ete %4)e.e) education
(?19=D, with the highest )e.e) o7 managers coming 7rom women with A4)e.e) education
(898D or tertiary education (0191D9 &hus it is e.ident that women with higher education
)e.e)s are more )ike)y to /e emp)oyed in a management position than women who are )ess
education9 &his is supported /y a chi4sIuare ana)ysis that 7ound higher education was
associated with higher 5o/ )e.e) QR (20, n P 0?12 P A09@2, p S 91129
6hen asked a/out their mothers emp)oyment, =A91D o7 women indicated their mothers did
current)y work, )ea.ing >1= mothers 7rom the samp)e who did not work9 %7 these mothers
that worked 8198D were 7armers, =9=D were housemaids, @91D were se)7 emp)oyed and a
7urther 89?D worked as )a/ourers or on tea p)antations9 %n)y 29BD o7 mothers were
considered ski))s workers such as teachers and =A women (@90D reported their mothers were
deceased9
Ta7l% 48 T&p% "2 2ac*"r& /"r%$ i#.
T&p% "2 'ac*"r& 'r%1u%#c& :
Garm%#*
T%F*il%
S3"%(
Mac3i#%r&
C"mpu*%r El%c*r"#ic(
E%/%ll%r&
Ci!ar()Ci!ar%**%(
.a7%r$a(3%r&
'i(3i#!
T"&(
'""$
O*3%r
2>8>
AA
??
@=
28
@2
?@
>>
0@
A>
0@
=
>29A
09@
29@
091
198
29>
29A
?9>
291
09A
291
19?
6.4., Garm%#* a#$ T%F*il% W"r%r(
As Shown in , >?9BD o7 respondents worked in garment or texti)e 7actories9 &hese type o7
7actories ha.e attracted negati.e pu/)ic attention and ha.e /een reported in the media and
research as /eing a ma5or threat to the Tmora) 7i/reU o7 Sri Lankan women ('ewamanne,
011?M 'ancock, 011=a9 Part 0 o7 this report pro.ides rich narrati.es concerning the
su/5ugation o7 women working in EPZs, main)y garment 7actories, as we)) as 7rustration
7rom women at the misconceptions associated with their work9
01
6.4.4 ."ur( "2 /"r a#$ pr"m"*i"#
Long hours or work 7or 7actory women ha.e /een reported in the )iterature a/o.e9 'ours o7
work and promotion data are presented in &a/)e @9 %n a.erage, women worked @A98? hours
per week /e7ore o.ertime with the minimum hours /eing ?1 and the maximum /eing >>9
%.er three Iuarters o7 the samp)e (>19@D reported working o.ertime, with an a.erage o7
B9=0 hours or o.ertime worked per week9 %.era)) women worked AA9?A hours per weekM
earning an additiona) 020A988LE$ per month /y working o.ertime (the maximum additiona)
income earned .ia o.ertime was 2?,@>0L$E9
,omparing these hours to the Sri Lankan nationa) a.erage (;idyarathne, 011B, signi7icant
resu)ts are apparent9 #ationa))y in 011>, ?090D o7 the 7ema)e )a/our 7orce worked @14@B
hours per week and 2>9BD worked A1< hours per week9 &his is in comparison to the current
samp)e where women worked AA9?A hours per week on a.erage, 2B9@D o7 women worked
@14@B hours per week, =A9AD o7 women worked A14AB hours per week and 2A92D o7 women
worked =1< hours per week (see &a/)e @. &o put these statistics in a more cohesi.e
statement, our data showed that 211D o7 women worked @1< hours, >19=D o7 women
worked A1< hours per week and 2A92D o7 women working =1< hours per week9

A one samp)e t4test with hours per week set at a conser.ati.e @A (indicating the Sri Lankan
nationa) a.erage 7or women, indicated that women across the EPZs worked signi7icant)y
more hours than the nationa) a.erage t (0?10 P =?9=2, p S 91129 &his 7inding is signi7icant
and whi)e the nationa) La/our !orce Sur.ey 7ocused on the entire 7ema)e )a/our 7orce, its
resu)ts are re)e.ant to our study as they show the EPZ women in Sri Lanka worked .ast)y
)onger hours than nationa) a.erages, which is an area o7 concern9
6hen asked i7 they had e.er /een promoted at work, 2@90D o7 women reported /eing
promoted (see 9 %7 the 2@90D (n P ??0 on)y ?29?D o7 these reported /eing promoted to a
manageria), super.isory or )eadership position, with the remaining simp)y /eing promoted
into other )ow to medium )e.e) ro)es or getting a rise in pay9 &hese )ow promotion resu)ts are
not unexpected as on)y a sma)) portion o7 women ha.e worked in the EPZ 7or = or more
years, though it does show some e.idence o7 promotion9 &here was a)so a signi7icant
re)ationship /etween education )e.e) o7 women and reports o7 promotion, QR (80, n P ?08 P
2=19@1, p S 91129 &his ana)ysis indicated that B>9@8D o7 women who reported promotion had
comp)eted %4)e.e) education at a minimum9 %n)y A women with incomp)ete %4)e.e)
education reported promotion, with 7urther ana)ysis re.ea)ing these women had worked at
a.erage o7 B9= years in EPZs and had an a.erage o7 ?=9= years9 !urther ana)ysis o7 years
worked and promotion re.ea)ed that on)y 209A=D (n P 0A= o7 women who had worked A
years or )ess (n P 01?> reported promotion, compared to 0>9=8D (n P 8= o7 women who
had worked = years or more (n P 0=A reporting promotion9 !urther ana)ysis re.ea)ed that
@89?8D o7 women who had worked = years or more were promoted into manageria) or
super.isor positions compared to 0A9A=D o7 women who had worked A years or )ess9
Ta7l% 68 W%%l& 3"ur( "2 /"r a#$ pr"m"*i"# (*a*u(.
1ork 2haracteristic
-%rc%#* "2 R%(p"#$%#*( <#=
."ur( "2 /"r p%r /%%
i#clu$i#! ";%r*im%
L%(( *3a# 6G
G.G <G=
6GH6A
+A.6 <66I=
JGHJA
KJ.J <+JGA=
KGL
+J.+ <46@=
02
O;%r*im% W"r%$
-r"m"*i"#
Y%(
@G.6 <+@J4=
Y%(
+6., <4,I=
N"
+A.4 <666=
N"
@J.@ <+AKA=
6.4.6 Salar&
&he a.erage month)y sa)ary o7 women was 8>?89AALE$ (S3 P 20@89B2 exc)uding o.ertime
(eIui.a)ent to V829B0 A-3 in %cto/er 01219 &he a.erage sa)ary a7ter o.ertime was
21@AB92ALE$ (S3 P 2B2891A a month (/ased n P 2>A? women who worked o.ertime,
which was eIui.a)ent to VBA9B8 A-3 in %cto/er 01219 &hese sa)aries were constant and
re)ia/)eM howe.er sa)aries ranged signi7icant)y with the maximum earned /e7ore o.ertime
2>111911LE$ and the minimum @?11911LE$ and the maximum earned inc)uding o.ertime
0@2>0911LE$ and the minimum =0>1911LE$9 As can /e seen /y &a/)e A, a.erage month)y
sa)aries did .ary and Pearsons corre)ation re.ea)ed this .ariance was positi.e)y re)ated to age
(r P 92?, p S 912 and num/er o7 years worked (r P 908, p S 9129 &his indicated that womens
sa)ary increased with /oth age and num/er o7 years worked with each .aria/)e accounting 7or
29=BD and 89A2D o7 the .ariance in sa)ary respecti.e)y9 Sa)ary was a)so compared across 5o/
tit)e and marita) status .ia one4way A#%;As9 $esu)ts indicated that higher 5o/ status )ed to
signi7icant)y higher sa)ary, ! (?, 00BB P 889??, p S 9112 with trainees (( P 8@AB98?LE$
earning signi7icant)y )ess than /oth )ow4to4medium workers (( P 88BA9B0LE$ and
managers (( P B218918LE$9 A)so, as expected, managers earned signi7icant)y more than
)ow4to4medium )e.e) workers9
Ta7l% J8 A;%ra!% m"#*3l& (alar& /i*3"u* ";%r*im%.
Salar& Scal% LKR Num7%r "2 R%(p"#$%#*(
6GGG 5 KGGG 0=
KGGG 5 IGGG ?>B
IGGG 5 @GGG B11
@GGG 5 AGGG =>A
AGGG 5 +GGGG 2B?
+GGGG 5 ++GGG A2
++GGG 5 +,GGG 2?
+,GGGH+4GGG ?A
+4GGG 5 +@GGG 20
,omparisons were a)so made /etween the samp)ed womens income and the Sri Lanka
#ationa) "ncome $ecei.ers "ncome /ased on indi.idua)s who earned an income during the
011=N0118 ,ensus (;idyarathne, 011>9 &he mean popu)ation income in the $ecei.ers
"ncome was 2@@A8911LE$ per month in 0118, with the median income /eing >,=B?911LE$9
A one samp)e t4test indicated the samp)ed womens month)y income /e7ore o.ertime (( P
8>?@9A2LE$, (edian P 8801911LE$ was signi7icant)y )ower, t (0?1? P 40A?91B, p S 9112,
than the mean month)y Sri Lankan popu)ation income9 A 7urther one samp)e t4test indicated
00
that the samp)es womens month)y income, inc)uding o.ertime income (( P BBA890?LE$,
(edian P BB@1911LE$ was signi7icant)y )ower, t (0?1@ P 421298B, p S 9112, than the mean
popu)ation income, indicating women earned ?292?D )ess than the nationa) ,ensus a.erage9
&hus women across the samp)ed EPZs are working signi7icant)y more hours than the nationa)
popu)ation a.erage, whi)st earning signi7icant)y )ess income9 "t is a)so important to consider
that the incomes reported on the census com/ine /oth ma)e and 7ema)e workers9 ,onser.ati.e
estimates assume that Sri Lankan ma)es earned 0140>D more than their 7ema)e counterpartsM
there7ore the 7ema)e nationa) income a.erage wou)d )ike)y /e s)ight)y )ower than the data
reported a/o.e ('ausmann, &yson, + Zahidi, 011B9
&o make comparisons with sa)aries earned /y their parents, the women were asked a/out
their parents sa)aries as we)) as their contri/ution to the 7ami)y income9 %n a.erage women
across the samp)ed EPZs earned @@D o7 the tota) 7ami)y income9 Looking 7urther we 7ound
that ?D (n P 81 women earned 211D o7 the tota) 7ami)y income and on)y 229=D (n P 0=8
women earned 01D or )ess o7 the tota) 7ami)y income9 "t was a)so interesting to note that 0@D
o7 7athers ==D o7 mothers made no 7inancia) contri/ution to the 7ami)y9 &hese are interesting
resu)ts high)ighting the importance o7 womens wages to 7ami)y income9 'owe.er such ratios
are in.isi/)e outside research such as this and are certain)y in.isi/)e in the GE(, G"" and
GGG" and most gender4/ased discourse and ana)ysis9 !rom these data a)one, we can
conc)ude that the women samp)ed are important 7inancia))y to their 7ami)ies and community,
howe.er this economic power does not automatica))y trans)ate into socia) empowerment9
%n a.erage, the women samp)ed earned signi7icant)y higher sa)aries than their parents9 %7
mothers, ?@D did not earn any income and a 7urther ?0D on)y contri/uted to househo)d
income through seasona) or ad hoc sa)aries or produce, with on)y 2@9@D o7 mothers earning
A111LE$ or more each month9 A paired samp)es t4test indicated that the women in our
samp)e (( P BB>19>>LE$ earned signi7icant)y more money than their mothers (( P
281?9A0LE$, t (00?2 P BA9A>, p S 91129 "n terms o7 comparison with 7athers, =9BD (n P
208 o7 7athers earned no income9 &he a.erage 7athers income exc)uding those 7athers who
were deceased was 8@>B98ALE$, with ?19?D o7 7athers earning 21111LE$ or more per
month, with 209@D earning 2A111LE$ or more per month and 7ina))y on)y 2>9BD o7 7athers
earned ?111LE$ or )ess per month9 A paired samp)es t4test indicated that women earned
signi7icant)y more money than their 7athers, t (2>@? P 2898B, p S 91129
Ana)ysis o7 tota) month)y income with o.ertime was conducted against age and years
worked9 $esu)ts indicated a signi7icant positi.e corre)ation /etween tota) month)y income
with age (r P 91B, p S 9112 and a)so years worked (r P 90>, p S 91129 &his indicated that
women were paid signi7icant)y more as they got o)der accounting 7or 19>2D o7 the .ariance
in tota) month)y income and were a)so paid more as they worked more years in the 7actor,
accounting 7or 89>@D o7 the .ariance in tota) month)y income9 Separate one4way A#%;As
were then conducted to compare tota) (with o.ertime and norma) (without o.ertime sa)ary
against education )e.e)9 $esu)ts indicated a positi.e main e77ect 7or norma) sa)ary, ! (@, 0?12
P ?898=, p S 9112 and tota) sa)ary, ! (@, 0?12 P 0=9@B, p S 9112 against education9 Post hoc
tests 7or norma) month)y sa)ary indicated that women with A4)e.e) and &ertiary earned
signi7icant)y more norma) income than women with incomp)ete %4)e.e), %4)e.e) or
incomp)ete A4)e.e) education9 A)so women with &ertiary education earned signi7icant)y more
money than women with A4)e.e) education9 Post hoc tests 7or tota) sa)ary produced the same
resu)ts9 !igure 2 shows a /reakdown o7 norma) month)y income without o.ertime /y
0?
education )e.e)s whi)e shows tota) month)y income /y education )e.e)9 &hese resu)ts indicate
that education is a key indicator o7 increased income among our samp)e9
'i!ur% +8 M"#*3l& (alar& <LKR= /i*3"u* ";%r*im% 7& %$uca*i"# l%;%l.
'i!ur% ,. M"#*3l& i#c"m% <LKR= i#clu$i#! ";%r*im% 7& %$uca*i"# l%;%l.
0@
6.6 Sa;i#!( a#$ m"#%& (%#* 3"m% *" 2amil&
%7 women >09?D sa.ed money in either 7orma) or in7orma) sa.ings schemes, with on)y
2898D o7 women reporting no sa.ings at a))9 %7 women who sa.ed either in a /ank or
in7orma))y (n P 2>B8 the a.erage amount sa.ed was ?1A?9A0LE$ per month9 A tota) o7 0B8
women (209>BD sa.ed in /oth in7orma) (,heetu and /ank p)ans, sa.ing an a.erage o7
?8209=0LE$ per month9 A paired samp)es t4test indicated that o.era)) women sa.ed
signi7icant)y more money in in7orma) sa.ings schemes (2?0B9?2LE$ than /ank p)ans
(22>A900LE$, t (0?1? P 409?@, p S 91A9
Each month 8A9=1D o7 women sent money home to their 7ami)y9 An a.erage o7 0=@=9>@LE$
was sent home each month, with the maximum /eing 2A111LE$ and 0@9@1D o7 women
sending no money home each month9 !rom this data we again point to the importance o7
womens wages to 7ami)y we))/eing9 &he money sent home was used in positi.e ways
inc)uding home reno.ations, assistance with si/)ings education 7eeds, 7ami)y medica) 7ees
and )i.ing expenses9 (oreo.er, these remittances pro.ed to /e the ma5or 7ocus o7 the de/ate
on work and empowerment9 Kua)itati.e data re.ea)ed that, young Sri Lankan women earning
re)ati.e)y good sa)aries, especia))y when compared to tota) househo)d or 7ami)y income, as
we)) as remittances, )ed to many young women 7ee)ing a sense o7 empowerment that they had
not pre.ious)y experienced9 &his wi)) /e discussed in the next section and descri/ed in more
detai) in &a/)e =9 3ata on money sent home to 7ami)y is 5ust one part o7 the .a)ua/)e data we
ha.e o/tained /y the women in our sur.ey on .arious aspects o7 7actory )i7e in EPZs
inc)uding demographic in7ormation such as type o7 7actory and education )e.e)s, emp)oyment
and sa)ary .aria/)es, such as o.ertime, promotion and hours worked and money sa.ed9 &his
Iuantitati.e data has pro.ided an accurate Lpicture o7 women who work in Sri Lankan EPZs
at this point in time9
0A
J. 'INDINGS 5 -ART TWO
J.+ I#*r"$uc*i"#8
&his section presents an o.era)) ana)ysis o7 the Iua)itati.e data 7rom /oth the sur.eys and
7ocus groups 7or a)) Export Processing Zones (EPZs studied9 'owe.er, points o7 interest in
the data a/out a particu)ar EPZ is a)so inc)uded where possi/)e, to i))ustrate di.ersity in the
data in some cases9 &he Iua)itati.e data o7 21=0 women who participated in sur.eys were
ana)ysed9 &his eIuated to approximate)y @1D o7 the sur.eys 7rom each EPZ (See Iua)itati.e
Iuestions in Appendix 2 and 09 6e a)so ana)ysed data 7rom eight 7ocus groups o7 8@ women
in tota)9 A)) the data was coded and ana)ysed in the #.i.o Iua)itati.e so7tware program9 &he
Iua)itati.e data is a)so supported /y Iuantitati.e statistics o/tained 7rom the 7u)) dataset, nP
0?1@9
A)) written and .er/a) comments 7rom women who participated in the sur.ey and 7ocus
groups were e)ectronica))y coded to particu)ar themes and su/4themes9 &a/)e = )ists the ma5or
themes (/ased on actua) Iuestions in the sur.ey and su/4themes coded in #.i.o and the
num/er o7 comments coded to each theme9 3ue to the )arge num/er o7 comments to /e
ana)ysed and to make more sense o7 the data, su/4themes were de.e)oped /ased on the most
common comments that women made under each Iuestion or theme9 !or examp)e, under the
theme T"ncreased decision making in the homeU womens narrati.es tended to state whether
they made decisions as part o7 the 7ami)y or marriage (e9g% ( am always consulted, or were
on)y sometimes consulted or never consulted usua))y due to si/)ing position or age9 &he
common themes o7 Lco))ecti.e decision making, Lnot consu)ted or Lsometimes consu)ted
then /ecame su/4themes and a)) text re)ated to this Iuestion was coded to one o7 the
su/Pthemes9 !or instance, the text ( am always consulted wou)d /e coded to the su/4theme
Lco))ecti.e decision making9 6hi)e most o7 the su/4themes were app)ica/)e to a)) EPZs
studied, some new su/4themes were created 7or a recurring theme re)e.ant to a particu)ar
EPZ9
J., Summar& "2 2i#$i#!( 2r"m *3% 1uali*a*i;% $a*a
&he main 7indings 7rom the Iua)itati.e data themes and su/4themes (see &a/)e = can /e
summarised as 7o))ows:
29 &here was a positi.e shi7t towards an increase in decision making in the home as a
resu)t o7 working9 &his was )arge)y attri/uted to the 7inancia) contri/ution women
were a/)e to make to the 7ami)y economy9
09 "n terms o7 outside (the home decision making, there was no o.era)) increase as
resu)t o7 working9 &he most common 7orm o7 outside decision making was in the
workp)ace9 A minority o7 women made a)) their own decisions outside the home9
?9 "ncreased participation in community and po)itica) acti.ities did not occur as a resu)t
o7 working, main)y due to a )ack o7 time to /e in.o).ed 7or the ma5ority9 Some women
reported that 7actory management discouraged women 7rom /eing in.o).ed9 A
0=
minority were a/)e to /e in.o).ed in .i))age organisations or on 7actory committees,
whi)e some 7actories acti.e)y promoted community and socia) acti.ities9
@9 6omen gained persona) empowerment 7rom /eing a/)e to use their income to assist
their 7ami)ies, andNor impro.e their homes and )i.ing standards9 (ost women spent
their sa)aries on a di.erse num/er o7 items with 5ewe))ery, 7urniture and househo)d
goods, and assisting si/)ings in their education /eing the top three9 LPride in earning
an income and L"ndependence were a)so important su/4themes o7 empowerment9
A9 Pu/)ic humi)iation was expressed in two main 7orms inc)uding humi)iating remarks
and comments (the most common type and sexua) harassment9 ;er/a) a/use was a)so
a common occurrence in the workp)ace9 %.era)) pu/)ic humi)iation appears to /e
under4reported in sur.ey 7ormats9
=9 &here was an increase in percei.ed socia) inc)usion at the .i))age and 7ami)y )e.e) as a
resu)t o7 working, with Lrespect /eing the main term used /y women9 (any women
contri/uted a signi7icant amount o7 their sa)ary to their 7ami)y income which a)so
eIuated with an increase in inc)usion at the 7ami)y and .i))age )e.e)9 'owe.er, there
was no increase in inc)usion at the societa) )e.e) and many women 7e)t Lno di77erence
in socia) inc)usion9
&he resu)ts o7 the Iua)itati.e ana)ysis as descri/ed a/o.e 7orms the /asis o7 the discussion o7
the data to 7o))ow9 "t pro.ides a use7u) 7act 7i)e o7 womens insights, experiences and
processes o7 empowerment and disempowerment9
Ta7l% K8 Narra*i;%( 2r"m /"m%# $%(cri7i#! ("cial %Fclu(i"# a#$ i#clu(i"#
NVIVO THEME
Note: Red Numerals Point to High
Response Rates for a Specific Sub
Theme
S!"THEMES Number of
comments
coded to
this sub
theme
Increased decision ma#ing
in the home

Collective decision making increased 442
Not consulted 258
Sometimes consulted 45
Increased decision ma#ing
outside of the home

Within village organisation 10
Workplace decisions nion involvement 18
!ecisions made "ith #amil$ mem%ers &8
Workplace decisions not speci#ic 4'
(utside decision making not her role 50
)akes o"n decisions outside the home '0
*ive advice and support to #amil$ '5
08
!o not participate +&
Workplace decisions give ideas and opinions to
#actor$ management
1&+
No opportunit$ 2&0
Increased participation in
communit$ and%or political
acti&ities

Compan$,#actor$ discourages participation &2
Work related participation eg.nion- social organiser 84
.articipates "hen returning home 2&
No time &+'
Not interested 24
*ive mone$ to #amil$ so the$ can participate &0
.articipate in village organisation +8
Personal empo'erment
E(amples of Empo'erment
/ccumulate capital 8&
0u$- %uild- renovate house #or sel# 11&
Contri%uted to %uilding or renovating #amil$
mem%ers1 home
10&
!o"r$ &+
2urniture- household goods 258
2urther o"n education 4'
3elped pa$ #or si%ling or #amil$ education 14'
4e"eller$ 502
Se"ing machine 24
/gricultural inputs e.g..5ractor- #ertiliser- three
"heeler
+5
)o%ile phone 1+
(%tained utilities to home e.g. "ater suppl$- electricit$ 22
("n small %usiness 1&
Other themes related to )feelings* of
empo'erment
3app$ and proud to %e earning an income 86
7ndependence '5
.ride in %eing a%le to help #amil$ &+
.ride in %elonging to an 8.9 and helping the nation 21
7mproved status 1+
E(amples of +isempo'erment
:ack o# sleep and proper meals +
3igh cost o# living 14
Supporting #amil$ mem%ers 14
Workplace related eg. 5reated %adl$ 6
Public Humiliation 3umiliating comments or remarks 128
Se;ual harassment &2
When using pu%lic transport 24
None- %ecause transport is provided 41
No longer occurring 14
<ulnera%le to ro%%eries on "a$ to "ork 1'
Social Inclusion
+ecreased inclusion at famil$ and &illage le&el
:o"er status 40
Negative opinion #rom village a%out 8.9 "orkers +4
:ack o# time to return home and distance to home 26
.arents unhapp$ a%out their =o% or pre#er them to
stud$
28
nhapp$ a%out =o% 15
+ecreased inclusion at societal le&el
0>
:ack o# recognition 21
Negative pu%lic opinion a%out 8.9 "orkers 1'0
Increased inclusion in famil$ and &illage
2eel respected %$ #amil$ and village 2'+
2ound emplo$ment #or other "omen 2'
<illage has good opinion a%out 8.9 25
>espect more no" than earl$ da$s &+
>espect ne" attitudes- skills- kno"ledge gained #rom
"orking
5&
7ncreased inclusion in societ$
0ring in mone$ to Sri :anka good assets +
7mproved pu%lic opinion 15
5reated "ell in the cit$ +
No di##erence #elt in social inclusion 12&
nsure o# social inclusion 20
Source: 01184011B Kuestionnaire (/ased on #P21=0 Iuestionnaires and #P8@ women 7rom 7ocus groups
J.4 I#cr%a(%$ $%ci(i"# mai#! i# *3% 3"m%
6hen the women were asked i7 they participated more in home decision making since
working at an EPZ, AA9> percent reported Lyes, with co))ecti.e decision making (@@0
comments J see &a/)e = the most common)y cited theme9 &his 7igure may actua))y /e higher
/ecause it /ecame apparent in the womens comments that a TnoU answer may not ha.e
meant no decision making, /ut Tno changeU to decision making as they had a)ways /een
in.o).ed, e.en /e7ore working9 #e.erthe)ess an increase in co))ecti.e decision making, that
is, /eing consu)ted /y parents or other 7ami)y mem/ers was a signi7icant outcome o7 this
study9
(aking a 7inancia) contri/ution to the 7ami)y was a ma5or 7actor in exp)aining this outcome9
(any women attri/uted the increase in decision making to their contri/ution to the 7ami)y
economy with comments such as (3es 4 since ( contri#ute to the household economy$ ( am
consulted$5 and (3es 4 since ( am the ma6or #readwinner they definitely consult me #efore
taking whatever decision5% %ther women stated that contri/uting 7inancia))y to si/)ing
education in particu)ar, was a)so a ma5or 7actor ((m #eing consulted a#out my younger
#rothers education and ( help them with the tuition fees5% Se.era) women mentioned an
increase in decision making in the home due to the death o7 their 7ather (3es 4 after my
fathers death ( have taken over the responsi#ilities of the house59
&he Iua)itati.e data a)so showed that /irth order, marita) status and age are important 7actors
in decision making in the home9 "7 a woman has o)der si/)ings, she is )ess )ike)y to /e
consu)ted, e.en i7 she is an o)der woman (No 4 my elder sister is consulted on main
decisions59 'owe.er, /rothers are o7ten more )ike)y to /e consu)ted in decision making than
sisters despite age (No- all the decisions are taken #y my #rother% ven regarding my son$
(m not involved in that process5 "n terms o7 marita) status, married women appear to /e more
in.o).ed in decision making than sing)e women9 &his was particu)ar)y apparent in Pa))eke))e
0B
(Eandy EPZ9 A chi4sIuare test o7 the tota) EPZ data re.ea)ed a signi7icant re)ationship
/etween marita) status and in4home decision making QR (A, # P 0?10 P A@9@?, p S 91129
(arried women indicated they participated more in decision making in the home (=B98AD
compared to unmarried women (A0921D
"t is important to note that there was di.ersity among 7ami)ies o7 women working in the
di77erent EPZs9 Some 7ami)ies appeared more patriarcha) than other 7ami)ies9 %7 the @@901D
o7 women who stated that they did not participate in home decision making, >=9@1D reported
that they were ne.er consu)ted9 &here were o.er 0A1 comments in the Iua)itati.e data 7rom
women who said they were Lnot consu)ted or on)y sometimes consu)ted (@A comments9
(ost o7 the women who were Lnot consu)ted cited that their parents, particu)ar)y 7athers
made the decisions9 %ne woman 7rom Eatunayake commented: 'y father makes decisions in
our family% ( of course get permission #efore ( do anything% Another woman 7rom Eandy
remarked: No rights to take any decisions inside the home 4 every#ody controls me% 6hi)e
these resu)ts were more common in sma))er, more rura) EPZs such as Eandy and Eogga)a,
o.era)) there was a positi.e shi7t towards increased decision making in the home as a resu)t o7
7orma) emp)oyment9
J.6 I#cr%a(%$ $%ci(i"# mai#! "u*(i$% *3% 3"m%
%.era)), ?89> percent o7 women reported that they participated more in outside decision
making (outside o7 the home as a resu)t o7 working9 'owe.er, caution shou)d /e taken in
interpreting this 7igure as there were wide .ariations /etween EPZs in how this Iuestion was
answered, o7ten depending on how the Iuestion was interpreted /y the women9 !or examp)e,
in :iyagama EPZ, B@D o7 women cited Tno opportunityU as a sur.ey response9 Gi.en a )ack
o7 e)a/oration on the Lno opportunity response, it is di77icu)t to interpret whether this was
due to a )ack o7 time due to )ong work hours, )ack o7 opportunity, or unwi))ingness to /e
in.o).ed9 "n Eatunayake, resu)ts were a)so di77icu)t to interpret as =@D o7 women cited Lno
without gi.ing a reason9 'owe.er, whi)e the ma5ority o7 EPZs did show that women ha.e
.ery )itt)e outside4decision making ro)es, a)most e.ery woman participating (o.er 211 in
Seethawaka EPZ said Lyes to outside decision making due to 7actory management in that
EPZ encouraging women to Tgi.e their opinionsU a/out decisions in the workp)ace such as
setting target outputs (see &a/)e =9 6hi)e Lopinions are not necessari)y decisions, the
comments 7rom the women indicated that they 7e)t empowered /y /eing a/)e to ha.e a say in
the workp)ace9 %ther women (=1 comments reported that they made a)) their own decisions
outside the home indicating increased independence due to working9
3ecision making in the workp)ace was the most common 7orm o7 outside decision making9
%.era)) there were @= comments re)ated to the workp)ace or /oarding house representationM
2?8 comments re)ated to gi.ing ideas and opinions at the 7actory and 2> comments re)ated to
-nion in.o).ement9 &aking )eadership ro)es or /eing part o7 a 7actory -nion or representing a
/oarding house was empowering 7or women as e.idenced 7rom these comments /y women in
Eatunayake:
?1
71hen there is an issue regarding factory workers$ ( take a stand and ( represent our
factory workers 89atunayake garment factory$ aged ,:5
71e strike and get increments$ we get together and demand the factory to provide
meals for us and we managed to win those demands 89atunayake garment
factory$ aged ;-5
!or women who did e)a/orate on why they were not in.o).ed in outside decision making,
getting permission and informing parents were common citations9 "t may a)so /e specu)ated
that non4participation in decisions outside the home is a way 7or a womans reputation to /e
protected gi.en the sometimes negati.e associations with women working in EPZs, and
cu)tura) norms o7 women not going out in pu/)ic unaccompanied9 'a.ing to )ea.e the .i))age
to commence work in EPZs, gi.es women a )ot more independence9 'owe.er many are
wary o7 the negati.e pu/)ic opinion o7 EPZ workers and hence a re)uctance perhaps, to
/ecome in.o).ed in outside decision making9
J.J I#cr%a(%$ par*icipa*i"# i# c"mmu#i*& a#$ p"li*ical ac*i;i*i%(
%.era)), 8>9? percent reported that they did not participate more in the community as a resu)t
o7 their work9 &wo ma5or responses dominated the data9 &he 7irst was 7no time (?8=
comments J see &a/)e = and the second was 7( used to #e involved prior to coming to work
in an !"9 &he second was not inc)uded as a su/4theme as it tended to /e a secondary
comment to the 7irst comment gi.en /ut is use7u) to report on as the ma5ority o7 women
reported prior in.o).ement in community groups (particu)ar)y youth society and we)7are and
seemed to 7ee) the need 7or the inter.iewer to know this9 6hi)e on)y @1D o7 the Iua)itati.e
data was ana)ysed, /oth these responses wou)d /e representati.e o7 the tota) dataset gi.en
their .ery 7reIuent occurrence9
,ommunity participation is a way o7 )i7e and an expectation in Sri Lankan cu)ture9 Gi.en that
the ma5ority o7 women in our sur.ey and 7ocus groups had no time to participate in the
communityM our data shows that many women working in EPZs are /eing denied access to
community in.o).ement9 6hi)e most did not e)a/orate on Lack of time, the assumption
wou)d /e that working )ong hours wou)d a))ow )itt)e time 7or in.o).ement9 &his wou)d /e
particu)ar)y apparent 7or the women who reported that they pre.ious)y participated prior to
coming to work at an EPZ (No time now$ ( used to #e an active mem#er of the 3outh Society5%
%ther women (2@D o7 women in :iyagama EPZ reported that they did not participate due to
discouragement /y 7actory management and some were 7ear7u) o7 harassment i7 they /ecame
in.o).ed, particu)ar)y in trade unions9 &here were simi)ar comments 7rom women in Eandy
8if found guilty$ we will #e sacked5 whi)e in Seethawaka there was no mention o7 union
in.o).ement at a)) suggesting no opportunity 7or union in.o).ement at that EPZ9 %ne woman
commented:
7No 4 ( am scared to 6oin a trade union #ecause things could #ecome harsh for me
from the management 8<iyagama !"$ garment factory$ aged ,;5
?2
&hus not /eing a/)e to participate in the community or in po)itica) acti.ities due to working
cou)d /e considered a 7orm o7 signi7icant disempowerment and su/5ugation which is a
contradiction to the macro measures used in the GE(, G"" and GGG"9
!or the minority o7 women who did report /eing in.o).ed in community or po)itica)
acti.ities, /eing in.o).ed at work (>@ comments or in their home .i))age organisation (8>
comments were the ma5or means o7 in.o).ement9 &his suggests that the women were rare)y
)ike)y to /e in.o).ed in the outside community surrounding the EPZ o7 their work9 "t has /een
noted in the )iterature that 7actory workers o7ten 7e)t )ike outsiders in the )oca) community
where they work9 'owe.er, within the 7actories themse).es, there appears to /e a Lsense o7
community among the women with many wi))ing to donate money to 7actory charities, poo)
resources to /uy gi7ts or contri/ute to worthwhi)e 7unds that assist other women and 7ami)ies
)ess 7ortunate9 %thers did acti.e)y participate in -nions as we)) as 7actory committees or
sports groups organised /y the 7actory9
&wo EPZs stood out in the data concerning .i))age participation and work4re)ated acti.ities9
6omen working at Seethawaka EPZ reported that the 7actories ran essay writing, dancing
and sporting competitions which were not as common in other EPZs9 &he $esearch Assistant
noted that this EPZ is re)ati.e)y new, compared to other Oones in Sri Lanka and that the
management had undergone modern methods o7 training, inc)uding )inking worker mora)e
and we)7are with pro7it9 Some managers had organised 7ami)y days and annua) trips 7or
workers9 Another interesting anoma)y to the data was Eogga)a EPZ where reported union
acti.ity was )ow, /ut participation in other community acti.ity was high9 A signi7icant
portion o7 the su/4theme Tparticipate in .i))age organisationU came 7rom women working in
Eogga)a EPZ, particu)ar)y womens empowerment, human rights and other we)7are
organisations9 'owe.er it is not known whether the women were physica))y in.o).ed in the
acti.ities or contri/uted in a monetary way9 3espite e.idence o7 the more progressi.e
7actories promoting community in.o).ement, the ma5ority o7 women o.era)) had no time to
participate9
J.K -%r("#al Emp"/%rm%#*
6hi)e empowerment in genera) was at the core o7 our research, and was a common thread
across a)) Iuestions, we asked the women a/out speci7ic ways in which their sa)ary had
a))owed them to accumu)ate capita) or empower themse).es or their 7ami)ies9 A)) women in
the sur.eys were a/)e to report on ways in which their sa)ary had empowered them, most
o7ten in mu)tip)e ways9 &he top three comments (see &a/)e = in the sur.ey were *ewe))ery
(A10 comments, !urnitureNhouseho)d goods (0A> comments and contri/uting to si/)ing
education (2@= comments9 &his was representati.e across a)) EPZs9
A)most a)) women reported they had purchased 5ewe))ery9 *ewe))ery is signi7icant in Sri
Lankan cu)ture as an important dowry item with one $esearch Assistant reporting that in the
7irst year o7 their work, many women had in.ested in Tgetting the necessary 5ewe))eryU9
:uying 7urniture and app)iances 7or )i.ing away 7rom home as we)) as assisting 7ami)ies was
?0
.ery common, inc)uding reno.ating the 7ami)y home or /ui)ding a new one9 %7 interest in the
sma))er EPZs such as Eogga)a, Eandy and 6athupitewe)a, was the empowerment gained
7rom purchasing three4whee)ers to hire out 7or a sma)) sum as we)) as attending /eauty
cu)ture, sewing or computer c)asses he)d in the )oca) community9 Another 7eature o7 these
sma))er EPZs was the use o7 a womans sa)ary to o/tain /asic uti)ities such as e)ectricity,
water supp)y and te)ephones to the 7ami)y home9
As the ma5ority o7 women spent their sa)aries on more than one item, this indicates a )e.e) o7
persona) empowerment through 7inancia) independence, which is re7)ected in the comment
/e)ow9
7<ought a paddy field% , years spending on #rothers education% <ought 6ewellery%
<ought furniture for myself$ contri#uted in #uilding our home% =ollowed a course in
#eauty culture$ helped the family on every occasion
8<iyagama garment factory$ aged ;-5
"n support o7 this 7inding, the women in 7ocus groups common)y de7ined empowerment in
terms o7 7inancia) strength or economic independence9 %ne participant 7rom Seethawaka
stated: Lit is the financial strength that a person gains as a result of her 6o#% "nteresting)y the
women whi)e acknow)edging that know)edge was important did not de7ine empowerment in
terms o7 ones education9 "n 7act, 7or the ma5ority o7 women 7rom po.erty4stricken
/ackgrounds with )itt)e education, 7inancia) Lstrength was a de7inite 7orm o7 empowerment9
J.K.+ '%%li#!( "2 %mp"/%rm%#*
"n the 7ocus groups, women were more )ike)y to e)a/orate on T7ee)ings o7 empowermentU
such as increased status, pride or independence gained 7rom working9 (any spoke a/out how
they had o.ercome hardships such as )ong work hours, harassment and )i.ing away 7rom
home, to /ecoming more se)7 con7ident, independent and Lstrong9
7( have overcome all these fears and make my own decisions and am independent
8<iyagama focus group$ aged ,>5
An ana)ysis o7 narrati.es in #.i.o re.ea)ed a common su/4theme o7 L0appy and proud to #e
earning an income (>B comments and "ndependence (=A comments9
%ther text examp)es are:
7!ersonally ( feel good that (m (ndependent and in a position to live on my own
8<iyagama fishing #ait factory$ aged ,>5
7(7ve felt very proud a#out working here and earning an income and making a #etter
life for us 89atunayake garment factory$ aged ,;5
73es 4 as a result of working in a factory we realise our validity 4 a#ility to #uild up
oneself 89andy garment factory$ aged ,>5
%ther minor themes o7 empowerment were L"mpro.ed Status, and LPride in /e)onging to an
EPZ and Lhe)ping the nation9 %ne woman remarked 7+ur status of the family increased due
??
to my 6o# and another stated L( think we are the pulse of Sri Lanka% 1e make a lot of money
for the country% 1e make up most of the working class of the country% A)though there were
not a )ot o7 comments coded to these themes, they were ne.erthe)ess re7)ections o7
empowerment in /oth contri/uting to 7ami)y and society9
J.I R%p"r*%$ %Fp%ri%#c% "2 pu7lic 3umilia*i"#
"n the sur.ey and 7ocus groups, we asked women i7 they had e.er /een pu/)ic)y humi)iated
7or /eing an EPZ worker and the Iuestion a))owed 7or comments9 %.era)) 2B9?D answered
Lyes to this Iuestion /ut gi.en the sensiti.ity o7 the Iuestion and )ower )ike)ihood o7
reporting in a sur.ey, we /e)ie.e the issue was under4reported9 $esponses 7rom 7ocus groups
in particu)ar were a )ot more open and pointed to an undercurrent o7 pu/)ic humi)iation,
particu)ar)y in the 7orm o7 humi)iating words and comments and sexua) harassment9 Actua)
reports o7 sexua) a/use or assau)t was )ow /ut existed ne.erthe)ess in a sma)) num/er o7
cases9
Some women did not consider sexua) harassment as a 7orm o7 pu/)ic humi)iation, thus
interpretation o7 the Iuestion was an issue9 !or examp)e, se.era) women in :iyagama EPZ
reported that they were not pu/)ic)y humi)iated /ut that sexua) harassment was a dai)y
occurrence9 &he issue o7 physica) and sexua) harassment was open)y discussed in many o7 the
7ocus groups9 "n Eatunayake women reported /eing approached /y TOipper menU
(Exhi/itionists and in Seethawaka, ro//eries and /eing approached /y gangs o7 /oys on the
way to work was common (as a whole factory girls are unsafe on the road$ due to ro##eries5
and 8&angs of #oys have made it a ha#it to 6oke at garment girls on their way5%
&he most common theme in the data was Thumi)iating comments and remarksU (20>
comments J see &a/)e =9 (ost o7ten these remarks were made 7rom ma)es in their
community, inc)uding young men on the way to and 7rom work, 7rom /oy7riends, /rothers
and other 7ami)y mem/ers who considered their work and character o7 )ow status ('y
#oyfriend scolds me always 4 he asks me to give up my 6o# or he wont marry me5 9 &hus
pu/)ic humi)iation was re)ated to the status o7 the women in society and in particu)ar the
stereotype o7 a 7actory worker /eing easily availa#le and easily cheated%
7There are others that cast remarks saying ?there goes the /uki piece@% 1hilst some
girls are la#elled as ?fast num#ers@ Amost often these remarks are made in o#scene
language 8<iyagama garment factory$ focus group$ aged ,-5
6hi)e the actua) reporting o7 pu/)ic humi)iation was )ow, this di77ered /etween the indi.idua)
EPZs9 !or examp)e, in 6athupitewe)a and Eogga)a EPZ, .ery )itt)e pu/)ic humi)iation was
reported /ut in Eatunayake and Seethawaka, there was a reasona/)y high )e.e) o7 women
reporting pu/)ic humi)iation, main)y in the 7orm o7 harassment 7rom ma)e youth to and 7rom
the workp)ace9 An interesting aspect across a)) the EPZs howe.er, was the apparent resi)ience
shown /y women despite the o/.ious disempowerment 7e)t9 (any spoke o7 the strategies
they had used to o.ercome their 7ear and humi)iation, such as a)ways tra.e))ing in groups,
ignoring comments and remarks and /eing care7u) not to react or pro.oke negati.e /eha.iour9
?@
"n Seethawaka 7or examp)e, women in 7ocus groups reported that it was important to Lignore
and Lpre.ent reaction to groups o7 three4whee)er dri.ers who had made it a ha/it to gather
and watch the 7actory gir)s on their way /ack 7rom work9 "n Eandy, Iuite a 7ew women spoke
a/out /eing humi)iated /y ser.ice pro.iders such as hospita)s and go.ernment ser.ices9 %ne
woman stated:
73es 4 if we go to get the services from government offices we cant get served easily%
They scold us and say we are not educated people 89andy garment factory$ aged B;5
'umi)iation and harassment using pu/)ic transport was a)so a common theme9 Percei.ed )ack
o7 respect 7or 7actory women in pu/)ic appears to /e re)ated to the change in )i7esty)e and
dress attire o7 the women working in Oones9 %ne woman exp)ained L!eople do seem to think
you are cheap and try to take advantage% ( have also heard of such comments when walking
on the road and another woman stated that 7people outside the Cone consider the people
working in the Cone to #e vulgar and differentAwe are #randed as Cone girls% A 7ocus group
participant exp)ained harassment experienced whi)e taking pu/)ic transport:
L1hen we travel #y #us in <iyagama area the males living in this area$ try to harass
us se*ually% They are of the opinion that we working women must #e availa#le for
them% ( have e*perienced a lot of harassment #y my #oarding owners too% They cast
humiliating remarks when ( go out to do my Trade Dnion activities 8<iyagama focus
group$ aged ;.5
@2 women reported that they had not experienced pu/)ic humi)iation /ecause their 7actory
pro.ided transport to and 7rom the workp)ace and were thus not exposed to the outside wor)d9
&ransport 7ees were usua))y deducted 7rom their sa)aries (No 4 company provides transport 4
deducts Rs,;>Es per month59 Pro.ision o7 pri.ate transport may /e an important 7actor 7or
reducing sexua) harassment and humi)iating remarks at )east whi)e tra.e))ing to and 7rom
work9
J.I.+ V%r7al a7u(% i# *3% /"rplac%
&wenty six point two percent o7 women reported .er/a) a/use at work, most)y occurring
(BA9AD when they T7ai)ed to reach targets 8+n occasions ( was not a#le to finish the target (
was a#used ver#ally% +n such occasions ( felt helpless and emotionally affected, with others
reporting .er/a) a/use 7or asking to take maternity )ea.e9 BA91? percent o7 women who
reported experiencing .er/a) a/use were in trainee, )ow or medium )e.e) positions9 %7 these
women B29=@ percent worked in garment 7actories9
&he women in 7ocus groups a)so discussed the issue o7 L#eing scolded on a regu)ar /asis at
work and episodes o7 un7air treatment and 7a.ouritism among super.isors9 LTelling tales was
encouraged and cou)d mean /etter work conditions 7or some at the expense o7 others9 &he
women a)so spoke a/out the di77icu)ty in /eing a/)e to Lspeak up a/out un7air treatment as
they were more )ike)y to /e pena)ised or ha.e their 5o/s suspended9
7The management always use non-decent words to address girls% Thus the girls are
almost depressed within the workplace% +ne girl came for treatment after getting hit
on her ear #y her manager 8Seethawaka garment factory$ aged ,;5
?A
&he cases reported show that women working in EPZs are particu)ar)y .u)nera/)e to a/use
and harassment in the workp)ace and community due to their )ow status in society, )a/our
conditions, adoption o7 city cu)ture and )i.ing arrangements outside the TnormU 7or Sri
Lankan women9 &his is )ike)y to impro.e s)ow)y o.er time /ut not without a signi7icant shi7t
in pu/)ic opinion (particu)ar)y 7rom ma)es and societa) treatment o7 women working in
7actories9
J.@ S"cial i#clu(i"# a#$ %Fclu(i"#
%7 a)) the open4ended Iuestions, this one generated the most narrati.es, and supports the need
7or o/taining rich Iua)itati.e data 7or descri/ing the experiences o7 women9 Participants were
asked whether Las a resu)t o7 working in 7actories, they 7e)t increased socia) inc)usion in Sri
Lanka such as /eing inc)uded in socia), cu)tura), re)igious and po)itica) processes9 %.era)),
A=91 percent o7 women, n P 20>B, answered Lyes to increased socia) inc)usion since working
in the EPZ, with @@9@> percent reporting either TnoU or Tno di77erenceU in socia) inc)usion
(this 7igure does not eIuate to 211 percent as 20 women who reported socia) inc)usion a)so
reported Tno di77erenceU9 (any o7 the women who reported Tno di77erenceU in socia)
inc)usion (20? comments exp)ained that the reason 7or this was their )ack o7 time to interact
with their home community9
3ue to the cost, distance and time needed to return home, which was usua))y on)y once e.ery
two to three months, most pre7er to spend time with c)ose 7ami)y and re)ati.es when they
return home and there7ore their opportunities to interact with the wider community is )imited
(No difference 4 ( go home once in , months 4 no time to interact with the village community%
( spend time with immediate family mem#ers only5% A)so to note, se.era) women mentioned
that they dis)iked tra.e))ing home to their .i))age due to sexua) harassment on /uses:
7( go home once in a way and on these days ( have encountered a lot of se*ual
harassment from men #oth young and old% They lean on me thrusting on to me
especially in crowded #uses% These are very humiliating and powerless situations
8<iyagama focus group$ aged ,,5
A)) the ma5or themes in this study inc)uding participation in community, decision making,
pu/)ic humi)iation, socia) inc)usion and exc)usion and empowerment are not separate entities
/ut a)) interact and a77ect womens experiences9 3i77erent )e.e)s o7 socia) inc)usion in the
data seem to /e the resu)t o7 womens o.era)) experiences9 At the )owest )e.e) are women
who 7ee) no inc)usion at a)) 7rom 7ami)y, .i))age or genera) society and tended to /e more
.u)nera/)e and more )ike)y to 7ee) iso)ated and depressed9 %nce a woman 7ee)s a sense o7
empowerment 7rom her work and gains respect and support 7rom 7ami)y, socia) inc)usion and
genera) we))/eing appears to /ecome more positi.e9 %nce there is support and respect 7rom
7ami)y as we)) as the .i))age there is a 7urther increase in socia) inc)usion9 'owe.er, the
o.era)) data shows .ery )itt)e inc)usion at the genera) societa) )e.e), where the o.era)) opinion
towards 7actory women in society is )ow9 &he next section descri/es these )e.e)s o7 inc)usion
and exc)usion in more detai)9
?=
J.@.+ 'amil& a#$ ;illa!% i#clu(i"#
As can /e seen in &a/)e =, ?>90> percent, L7ee) respected /y 7ami)y and .i))age was a ma5or
theme on socia) inc)usion with 0=8 comments9 &he opinion o7 the )oca) .i))age and 7ami)y,
particu)ar)y regarding LRespect, was important to women and whether they 7e)t socia))y
inc)uded9 #ot /ringing shame to the 7ami)y and ha.ing a good reputation is important in Sri
Lankan cu)ture and is )inked to socia) inc)usion at the 7ami)y and .i))age )e.e) in our data9
%ne woman stated:
73es 4 the villagers respect me #ecause ( look after the family% Also ( have not
changed #ecause ( started working% ( still dress the way ( used to #efore going to the
Cones 8<iyagama garment factory$ aged ,,5
&his supports our 011= data where it was 7ound that women are more )ike)y to 7ee)
empowered at the 7ami)y and .i))age )e.e) as a resu)t o7 working and are more )ike)y to /e
su/5ugated at the societa) )e.e) ('ancock, 011=a9 "n a sma)) num/er o7 narrati.es, the type o7
EPZ was )inked to socia) inc)usion9 &he stigma o7 /eing a Lgarment gir) in comparison to
working in other types o7 7actories has /een noted in the )iterature9 A 7ew o7 the women in
our data who worked in security, trans7ormer, toy or 5ewe))ery 7actories considered
themse).es to /e more educated and ski))ed than those working in garment 7actories ('y 6o#
is a well respected one% ( #ehave in a very respectful manner unlike the garment girls% So our
family and village know that (m doing a responsi#le security 6o#$ so ( feel (m socially
included5 andM 8Since (m not in a garment factory$ my family dont mind5% %ur Iuantitati.e
data does not support this societa) Lmyth that garment workers are )ess educated than 7actory
workers9 %ur data shows that B09A?D o7 garment workers had comp)ete %4)e.e) education
compared to B092>D o7 7actory workers9 !urthermore ?=928D o7 garment workers had
comp)eted A4)e.e) education compared to @19B1D o7 7actory workers and 7ina))y 298D o7
garment workers had incomp)ete %4)e.e) education compared to 19B@D o7 7actory workers9
&hese 7igures indicate that the idea that 7actory workers are more educated than garment
workers is a TmythU amongst the Sri Lankan popu)ation9
Se.era) 7actors in the data were )inked to increased respect and socia) inc)usion at the 7ami)y
and .i))age )e.e)9 %ne o7 the ma5or 7actors was /eing an economic asset to the 7ami)y and
.i))age9 (ost o7 the women hai) 7rom poor 7ami)ies, and as the ma5ority o7 women send
money home to their 7ami)ies, they ha.e gained respect and status9 'owe.er, as mentioned /y
a $esearch Assistant in Seethawaka, the women themse).es o7ten ha.e .ery )itt)e money to
)i.e on a dai)y /asis and when most o7 their sa)ary is sent home, many owe de/ts to )oca)
shopkeepers in the EPZ and ha.e )itt)e )e7t o.er 7or 7ood and /oard9 "n a sma)) num/er o7
narrati.es, increased inc)usion and respect in the .i))age was re)ated to the women /eing a/)e
to 7ind emp)oyment 7or other women in the .i))age (3es 4 ( feel that ( am an important
person in the village as everyone talks to me and wants to know of 6o# vacancies in the Cone5
and 83es 4 after employment my social inclusion has increased% ( have helped other villagers
to find employment5% &his again points out the signi7icance o7 womens emp)oyment to the
7ami)y economy9
?8
Another ma5or 7actor )inked to increased socia) inc)usion was the gaining o7 ski))s and
know)edge and impro.ed attitudes (A? comments9 &his was particu)ar)y apparent in Eogga)a
and Eandy EPZ9 ,omments inc)uded /etter attitudes such as sa.ings ha/its, to)erance o7
other communities, time management, hard workM as we)) as particu)ar ski))s gained either
whi)e working or undertaking additiona) coursesM such as sewing, em/roidery, computer
assem/)y and /eauty cu)ture9
J.@., S"ci%*al i#clu(i"# <!%#%ral ("ci%*&=
!ocus group participants in Seethwawaka EPZ mentioned that whi)e they were accepted in
their )oca) communities, when they tried to mix with peop)e o7 a higher socia) rank, they 7e)t
re5ected9 &he $esearch Assistants conc)uded that socia) inc)usion at the 7ami)y and .i))age
)e.e) was on)y apparent among the )ower socia) c)asses /ut Tin reality$ they were mostly
marginalised #y other upper social classes@9 &his was a simi)ar sentiment across the other
EPZs as we))9 &hus socia) c)assNcaste in Sri Lankan society may /e an important 7actor in
the socia) inc)usion o7 7actory workers who are considered to /e o7 )ow status compared to
pu/)ic ser.ice workers9
&he num/er o7 women who mentioned that they 7e)t more socia) inc)usion at the societa)
)e.e) was Iuite sma))9 Some women mentioned Lother peop)e in genera) so it is a)so di77icu)t
to ascertain whether they are ta)king a/out peop)e in genera) or 7rom their home .i))age9
&hose women reporting increased inc)usion at the societa) )e.e) 7e)t that attitude a/out EPZs
were impro.ing o.er time or changing 7or the /etter9 %ne woman reported:
L3es ( feel included in the society$ #ecause unlike those days we dont hear
unwelcoming comments when we travel in pu#lic transport% So ( think a whole
new positive attitude has developed towards us (Eatunayake Garment 7actory, aged
?1
A)though sma)), it appears there is some positi.e sentiment among some women that o.er
time, attitudes towards EPZ workers has impro.ed9 &here were ?8 comments re)ated to
Trespect now more than the ear)y daysU which re7)ects this 7inding9
J.@.4 EFclu(i"# a* *3% 2amil& a#$ ;illa!% l%;%l
Exc)usion at the 7ami)y and .i))age )e.e) was minor compared to at the societa) )e.e), /ut was
ne.erthe)ess disempowering 7or women9 6hen the women did not 7ee) inc)uded it was
genera))y /ecause the .i))age opinion o7 women working in EPZs was negati.e (8@
comments9 (any women reported that they did not te)) .i))agers that they worked in an EPZ
/ecause o7 the Lwrong impression o7 EPZ workers (1e tell people that we work in the city
#ut we dont tell them that we work in the Cone% !eople will have a #ad impression a#out us if
we say we work here59 %thers mentioned that despite negati.e opinion o7 the .i))age, they sti))
had 7ami)y support or were proud o7 their independence and hoped that .i))age opinion wou)d
change with time9
%ther 7orms o7 exc)usion were re)ated to the percei.ed )ower status o7 EPZ 5o/s (No 4 my
parents never liked me to do this 6o# since ( have passed my A levels they wanted me to do a
#etter 6o#59 Pu/)ic ser.ice work was much more admired9 %ther women exp)ained that their
parents were unhappy a/out them working in an EPZ /ecause they wou)d pre7er them to
?>
study9 &here were a)so comments re)ated to .i))agers sceptica) a/out a womans character and
disappro.a) o7 the way they had em/raced city cu)ture and dress9 %ne woman stated:
7!eople in the village have this attitude that we wear trousers now and that we are
ur#anised and do not consider us to suit their 7culture anymore7
89atunayake garment factory$ aged ,:5
7(f ( wear a ?mod@ dress ( am made to feel uncomforta#le in the village% ( am not free
to wear what ( like in the village #ecause the villagers pass remarks saying ?thats
the one that went to 2olom#o@% This applies only to women #ut the men are not
criticiCed no matter what they wear and how much they change their attire
8<iyagama Sails factory$ focus group$ aged ,-5%
6orking in the Oone a77ected marriage proposa)s with some women /eing re5ected /y ma)es
and the parents o7 the ma)e 7or /eing a Tgarment workerU 8They are of the opinion that all
women working in the Cone have #ad character and have had >-- #oyfriends9 &he theme o7
T/ad characterU 7or a garment worker appears to /e widespread with many women 7ee)ing
7rustrated at /eing )a/e))ed 7or the Lmis/eha.iour o7 a 7ew women in the industry9
&hus the negati.e opinion o7 7ami)y and .i))ages towards EPZ workers undermines womens
empowerment and sense o7 /e)onging in their )oca) community9 "n contrast, women who 7e)t
respect and support 7rom their )oca) community were )ike)y to experience greater
empowerment9
J.@.6 EFclu(i"# a* *3% ("ci%*al l%;%l
!or those women who 7e)t inc)usion at the .i))age )e.e), many reported exc)usion at the
societa) )e.e) or 7rom the genera) pu/)ic (2=1 comments9 &his examp)e 7rom one woman is
representati.e o7 many other simi)ar comments:
L1ithin my family and village of course (m respected and honoured% <ut ( know
that the pu#lic doesnt have a favoura#le opinion a#out us% 1e are treated as
garment objects in society especially in pu#lic places such as on #uses
89atunayake garment factory$ aged ,;5
%ne o7 the ma5or 7rustrations 7or women across a)) EPZs was the o.era)) negati.e opinion o7
women 7actory workers in society, due to widespread stereotyping9 %ne participant exp)ained
it as )ike ?killing the #ug that #it you and the one that did not@% &he women in one 7ocus
group reported that incidents such as /irths out o7 wed)ock and i))ega) a/ortions are common
in EPZs /ut then the media genera)ises to a)) EPZ women, hence the negati.e societa)
reputation9 6hi)e these incidents a)so occurred in other pro7essions, they were )ess )ike)y to
/e reported in the media9 (any women in the sur.eys a)so expressed the disempowerment
7e)t /y the Lgenera)isation app)ied to them due to the mis/eha.iour o7 a 7ew9 &here was a)so
a genera) sentiment among women in the sur.eys that Tsocia) inc)usion depended on a gir)s
/eha.iourU and that i7 they /eha.ed we)) they wou)d /e inc)uded9 %thers were saddened /y
the )ack o7 recognition o7 their contri/ution to the economy (1hat hurts more is that #eing a
contri#utor to the economy of the country and not #eing recognised is a terri#le feeling9
&a/)e 8 descri/es some examp)e narrati.es 7rom the EPZs, depicting negati.e pu/)ic opinion
o7 women 7actory workers9
?B
Ta7l% I8 EFampl%( "2 #arra*i;%( 2r"m /"m%# $%(cri7i#! ("cial %Fclu(i"# a*
*3% ("ci%*al l%;%l
Narra*i;%(
A l"* "2 p%"pl% c"#(i$%r u( *" 7% whores a#$ *3%r%2"r% /% $"#>* 3a;% muc3 "2 a !""$ i#$ "2 i#clu(i"#
a#$ ar% ra*3%r 7ra#$%$ a( trash (Katunayake Machinery factory, aged 25)
I# "ur ;illa!%( /% ar% r%(p%c*%$ 7u* #"* 7& *3% !%#%ral pu7lic. W% ar% r%2%rr%$ *" a( MO7N%c*(> i# *3%
Ka*u#a&a% 'T9 a#$ 7& *3% pu7lic ("m%*im%( (Katunayake Machinery factory, aged 32)
-%"pl% "u*(i$% *3% O"#% c"#(i$%r *3% p%"pl% /"ri#! i# *3% O"#% *" 7% vulgar and different. S" I 2%%l *3a*
*3%& $" #"* *r%a* u( li% #"rmal /"ri#! cla(( p%"pl% 5 /% ar% 7ra#$%$ a( !one girls" (Katunayake
garment factory, aged 3#)
E;%# *3% 7"ar$i#! "/#%r( *3i# ill "2 u(. T3%& $"#>* r%ali(% *3a* *3%& ma% *3%ir li;i#! 2r"m "ur
7"ar$i#! 2%%(. E;%# *3% /a& /% $r%(( i( ri$icul%$ a#$ 3umilia*i#! r%mar( ar% pa((%$ ($iyagama
garment factory, aged 3#)
W% /"r%r( ar% #"* r%c"!#i(%$ i# Bi&a!ama ar%a 3"/%;%r muc3 /% *r& *" /i# *3%ir acc%p*a#c%. Ma&7%
*3i( i( 7%cau(% ("m% /"m%# /"r%r( mi(7%3a;% a#$ mi(u(% *3%ir 2r%%$"m (" all "2 u( ar% la7%ll%$ a(
B7a$ /"m%#C <$iyagama %orcelain and sails factory, aged 22=
I2 /% !" *" !%* (%r;ic%( 2r"m !";%r#m%#* "22ic%( /% ca#>* !%* *3%ir (%r;ic%( %a(il&. T3%& (c"l$ u( a#$ (a&
/% ar% #"* %$uca*%$ p%"pl% (Kandy garment factory, aged 53)
N"7"$& /"ul$ li% *" marr& m%. All 3a;% r%2u(%$ 7%cau(% I am a !arm%#* 2ac*"r& /"r%r (Kandy
garment factory , aged 2&)
I /%#* *" a 7l""$ $"#a*i"# camp 5 *3%& r%2u(%$ 7%cau(% *3%& (u(p%c* m% ("m%*im% /ill !%* .IV 5 I 3%ar$
a7"u* *3a* a#$ 2ru(*ra*%$ <Kandy garment factory, aged 2')
S"m% p%"pl% (a& !arm%#* !irl( ar% (p"il%$ a#$ *3u( #"* /"r*3 *" a(("cia*% /i*3 ((eethawaka garment
factory, aged )*)
S"m% "2 m& 2ri%#$( $"#>* i#;i*% m% *" *3%ir par*i%(. T3%& (a& I am #"* i#;"l;%$ i# a r%(p%c*a7l% N"7.
<Koggala garment factory, aged 23)
O#c% I /%#* *" m& ("#>( (c3""l *" a**%#$ a m%%*i#!. O#% par%#* #"mi#a*%$ m% a( a m%m7%r "2 (c3""l
$%;%l"pm%#* c"mmi**%% 7u* a#"*3%r par%#* (ai$ *3%& ca#>* all"/ 7%cau(% I am /"ri#! i# a !arm%#*
2ac*"r&. (Koggala garment factory, aged +2)
W3%# /% !" *" a c"mmu#i*& /%ll a#$ /a#* *" u*ili(% c"mmu#i*& (%r;ic%(, /% 3a;% *" /ai* *ill *3%
r%(i$%#*( i# *3% ar%a 2i#i(3 7a*3i#! a#$ /a(3i#! (,athu%itewela garment factory, aged 3#)
Ma#& rum"ur( a#$ !"((ip *%#$ *" (pr%a$ i2 /% ar% (%%# *ali#! *" a mal% "r (%%# /i*3 a ma#
(,athu%itewela garment factory, aged 2#)
Source: 01184011B Iuestionnaire and 7ocus groups
As shown in &a/)e 8, the women 7ee)ing socia) exc)usion 7rom a)) EPZs were Iuite 7orthright
in the )a/e)s they used to descri/e the percei.ed pu/)ic opinion o7 them9 &here is a genera)
7ee)ing that the women 7e)t these )a/e)s to /e an un7air portraya) o7 women working in the
EPZs9 'owe.er o.era)), despite exc)usion, support 7rom 7ami)y and the persona) and
economic /ene7its 7rom working appear to outweigh the genera) pu/)ic opinion and the
women ha.e expressed remarka/)e resi)ience9 E.en so, societa) )e.e) exc)usion or )ack o7
recognition remains one o7 the most important and serious 7orces 7aced /y young Sri Lankan
women working in 7actories, a ma5or threat to empowerment9
@1
K. 'INDINGS -ART T.REE H A**i*u$%( a#$ -%rc%p*i"#( "2 S*a% ."l$%r(
K.G M%*3"$"l"!&
At the /eginning o7 the study, it was decided to inter.iew 00 key in7ormants representing
po)icy makers, go.ernment o77icia)s, 7actory managers and o77icia)s o7 non4go.ernmenta)
organisations who are working with 7ema)e 7actory workers in EPZs9 Later on, trade union
representati.es were inc)uded in the )ist as they p)ay a ma5or ro)e in the area o7 workers
rights9 &here7ore 00 key in7ormants participated in the study9 &hirteen o7 them (ABD were
women9
&he Pro5ect (anager, ,E#6%$, conducted the key in7ormant inter.iews 7rom August to
#o.em/er 01219 A7ter identi7ying the key in7ormants, their consent to participate in the study
was o/tained9 &he inter.iews were conducted in the inter.iewees o77ice room at a
con.enient time 7or them, using guide )ines prepared 7or the study9 "t took near)y @A minutes,
on a.erage, to comp)ete an inter.iew9 Some o7 the inter.iews were conducted in Eng)ish, and
in the case o7 others, the inter.iews were conducted in Sinha)ese and responses were
trans)ated into Eng)ish9
K.G.+ Bac!r"u#$ "2 -ar*icipa#*(
&he 00 stake ho)ders participated in the study were grouped according to their 5o/: (i po)icy
makers, (ii go.ernment o77icia)s, (iii 7actory managers, (i. trade union representati.es and
(. o77icia)s o7 non4go.ernmenta) organiOations (See Appendix ?9
K.G., A**i*u$%( a#$ -%rc%p*i"#( "2 S*a% ."l$%r(
&he .iews expressed /y the stake ho)ders were categorised under 7our main themes a7ter data
ana)ysis:
(A Status and empowerment at the persona) )e.e) as a resu)t o7 7actory work
(: Status and empowerment at the 7ami)y )e.e) as a resu)t o7 7actory work
(, Status and empowerment at the work p)ace as a resu)t o7 7actory work
(3 Status and empowerment at the societa) )e.e) as a resu)t o7 7actory work
K.+ S*a*u( a#$ %mp"/%rm%#* a* *3% p%r("#al l%;%l a( a r%(ul* "2 2ac*"r& /"r
,hanges at the persona) )e.e) o7 7ema)e 7actory workers were ana)ysed under 7i.e main
themes: (i economic conditions, (ii decision making, (iii new know)edge, (i. new ski))s
and (. )i7e sty)e9
K.+.+ Ec"#"mic c"#$i*i"#
!ema)e 7actory workers ha.e access to and contro) o.er their 7inancia) resources9
&hey are no )onger dependents o7 their 7ami)ies9
&hey ha.e a sta/)e source o7 income un)ike in seasona) occupations9
Good opportunities 7or emp)oyment, especia))y 7or rura) women 7rom agricu)tura) and
7ishing communities with )ower )e.e)s o7 education9
Garment 7actories gi.e a /asic sa)ary that is higher than the Lminimum wageW9
@2
A))owances and /onuses are a.ai)a/)e9
Earnings may not /e adeIuate in the context o7 the high cost o7 )i.ing9
&heir economic conditions ha.e impro.ed compared with their situation in the past9
!actories pro.ide mea)s and 7ree accommodation, thus workers can use their earnings
to co.er other expenses9
&hey ha.e short term p)ans9
&hey work 7or A to 21 years, co))ect the gratuity, E&!, EP! and other monetary
/ene7its9
&hey use their sa.ings as their Ldowry9 Some women use the money to /uy )and or
reno.ate or /ui)d their houses9 &here are )oan schemes a.ai)a/)e 7or workers9
&hey ha.e the power to decide on the use o7 their earnings9
&hey automatica))y acIuire the ha/it o7 sa.ing in /ank accounts in their name9
(ost o7 the women a)so use in7orma) sa.ing mechanisms9
(ost o7 the women use such in.estments as their Ldowry9
Pregnant women ha.e minima) capacity to sa.e as they ha.e more expenses9
&hey a)so in.est in 5ewe))ery9
Some women ha.e reIuested )oans 7rom the Emp)oyees &rust !und (E&! to reno.ate
their houses or to /uy a piece o7 )and9
6orkers ha.e to 7ace many di77icu)ties a)though their economic situation has impro.ed9 "n
.iew o7 the present high costs o7 )i.ing workers try to earn as much as possi/)e9 &hey
undertake o.ertime, come to work e.ery day to get the attendance /onus e.en though they
are sick, take minimum time 7or )unch and tea to get production incenti.es J e9g9 norma))y ?1
minutes are gi.en 7or )unch /ut they 7inish it within 21 minutes9 ,onseIuent)y their hea)th
deteriorates9 A recent sur.ey has re.ea)ed that ==D o7 7actory women workers are su77ering
7rom anaemia9
2iting a survey conducted #y the 0ealth and Safety Division of the
governments La#our Department$ said :: percent of garment factory girls$
ages >.-,.$ have anaemia% FThey cook a scrap meal in the night and then
leave the remnants for the morning% They would not even know what a
#alanced diet is$F said 'arcus$ 6oint secretary of the =ree Trade "one and
&eneral Service mployees Dnion$ adding that these women are the ne*t
generation of mothers (Association for 1omens Rights in Development$
,--G5%
Some diseases sur7ace a7ter they go /ack to their .i))ages9 &he 7actory women ha.e sa.ings
/ut these sa.ings are not su77icient to address their hea)th pro/)ems9
K.+., D%ci(i"# mai#!
&he 7actory women make their own decisions as they )i.e 7ar away 7rom their homes9 &hey
ha.e gained that power main)y /ecause o7 their economic resources9 &hey make their own
decisions regarding their /oarding p)aces, mea)s, c)othes and e.en a/out their marriage
partners9
@0
K.+.4 N%/ #"/l%$!%
&he ma5ority o7 7actory women are educated at )east up to G9,9E9 %rdinary )e.e)9 &here are
women who ha.e /een success7u) at the G9,9E9 Ad.anced )e.e)9 &his situation is a resu)t o7
the 7ree education opportunities a.ai)a/)e in the country9 &he women ha.e /een empowered
as a conseIuence o7 their new access to know)edge9 &hey ha.e the opportunity to participate
in a .ariety o7 training programmes which discuss di77erent issues9 &he (inistry o7 ,hi)d
3e.e)opment and 6omens A77airs, the 3epartment o7 La/our, :%", Po)ice, and #G%s
working in the area carry out such programmes9 "nduction training programmes inc)ude
courses such as 7actory )i7e, )a/our rights, )a/our )aws, gender, threats, sa7ety, 7irst aid, hea)th
ha/its, re)ationships, sexua))y transmitted diseases, contracepti.e methods, and socia) issues9
&he (inistry has conducted awareness programmes on nutritious diets, the importance o7 a
/a)anced diet and how to get such mea)s9 &he 3epartment o7 La/our conduct awareness
programmes on )a/our rights9 &rade unions are conducting awareness programmes on )a/our
rights, payments N sa)aries, o.ertime, sa7ety, maternity )ea.e, nursing inter.a)s, other /ene7its,
and human tra77icking9
&he women pre.ious)y knew on)y a/out their .i))age and the .i))agers /ut /ecause o7 the
exposure to a new and wider society, now they know a/out city )i7e, and e.en a/out other
countries in the wor)d9 6omen working 7or a *apanese /ased company are sent to *apan 7or
training there7ore they get the opportunity to know the cu)ture o7 another country9 Simi)ar)y,
*apanese workers too, come to their 7actory and work with them9
&he )e.e) o7 know)edge or in7ormation o7 women has /een impro.ed, a)though not a))
workers had the same )e.e) o7 awareness9
?Recently$ four women came to see the 'inister of La#our and they have #een
referred to me% The pro#lem was that the services of those women had #een
terminated% Therefore they wanted to get their gratuity and other #enefits%
+ne woman e*plained that the management has forced them to sign a
resignation letter% That woman has asked other workers not to sign the letter%
She was aware of their #enefits such as gratuity$ !=$ T=$ and other worker
rights% She said that according to the act the management cannot do a thing
like that and it is illegal% ( was very happy to see that they were aware of their
worker rights@% 8A representative of the Department of La#our5

&hough there are many positi.e 7eatures, there are negati.e 7eatures too9 &he 7actory women
ha.e not /een exposed to some important topics when they were in the .i))age and that
know)edge is .ery important 7or them to )i.e in a comp)ex society in the city9 &he know)edge
o7 many o7 these women, speci7ica))y young women, on reproducti.e hea)th is .ery poor9
&here7ore it is necessary to conduct awareness programmes on topics re)ated to reproducti.e
hea)th9 Another gap is that most o7 the 7actories do not )ike to re)ease a)) the workers to
participate in awareness programmes9 &here7ore it is .ery di77icu)t to pro.ide know)edge to
a)) the women and a new strategy needs to /e identi7ied to co.er the entire popu)ation o7
workers9
K.+.6 N%/ (ill(
&he 3epartment o7 La/our conducts se)7 emp)oyment training programmes such as in dress
making at their hoste)s in Eatunayake with the hope that these women can start a se)7
emp)oyment enterprise when they go /ack to the .i))ages9 &he 3epartment o7 La/our, &rade
@?
-nions, some #G%s and some 7actories conduct .ocationa) training programmes such as in
sewing, cookery, /eauty cu)ture, housekeeping, making o7 accessories and Eng)ish )anguage
c)asses9 "n their .i))age they wou)d /e engaged in their parents traditiona) occupations such
as 7arming or 7ishing9 &he ski))s they get /ene7it them, such as a/i)ity to work as a team,
)eadership Iua)ities, organising ski))s, and pro/)em so).ing ski))s9 At one 7actory they 7o))ow
the AS concept and that he)ps the workers to organise their day to day )i.es producti.e)y9
"t is uncommon 7or women to in.est their own money 7or educationa) purposes as they ha.e
)itt)e 7ree time due to )ong working hours and )imited sa.ings9 'owe.er, a 7ew women
7actory workers are in.esting in their education such as on externa) degrees and hea)th care9
"n contrast, men tend not to in.est in their education9
K.+.J Li2% (*&l%
Li7esty)es o7 the 7ema)e 7actory workers ha.e changed with economic power and exposure to
a new society9 'igh)ighted are /oth positi.e changes in many women and some negati.e
changes in a 7ewer num/er o7 women9
&hey ha.e had exposure to a )arger society with a .ariety o7 peop)e 7rom di77erent parts o7 the
country9 &hey ha.e made new 7riends and are a part o7 new socia) networks9 &hey ha.e
acIuired socia) ski))s9 &he women had more choices in 7inding a suita/)e partner as they are
exposed to a )arger society9 "n that context, it is a re)ie7 7or their parents9 &hey had de.e)oped
se)7 con7idence with their new socia) experiences9
&he women ha.e the opportunity to )earn how to cope with risk 7actors pre.ai)ing in the
society and to /e sa7e9 &he awareness programmes conducted on sexua) harassment and other
gender /ased issues ha.e gi.en them use7u) in7ormation, sur.i.a) ski))s and con7idence9 (ost
o7 the time women mo.e around in groups9 &he reported incidents o7 sexua) harassment ha.e
dec)ined9
Another positi.e change in their )i.es is that they get the opportunity to 7ami)iarise
themse).es with the use o7 modern eIuipment and househo)d app)iances9 6ith experience,
they know the new products in the marketM they know how to se)ect good shops and good
products in the market, and e.en how to /argain9 &he hoste)s maintained /y the (inistry are
eIuipped with 7aci)ities such as modern /athrooms and toi)etsM howe.er, women do not )ike
to stay in these hoste)s due to strict ru)es9 &heir )eadership Iua)ities ha.e impro.ed9 &hey
know how to mo.e in the )arger society and when they go /ack to their .i))ages they can
per7orm /etter as a resu)t o7 their experience o7 city )i7e9
%ne o7 the negati.e 7eatures associated with women working in Oones is poor )i.ing
conditions especia))y in the pri.ate /oarding p)aces9 Pro/)ems associated with their /oarding
p)aces were )ow )e.e)s o7 7aci)ities, poor sanitary conditions specia))y toi)ets and /athing
7aci)ities, no pri.acy, no security, and con7)icts with roommates9 &here is no mechanism to
monitor the conditions o7 pri.ate /oarding and )odging9 !unga) in7ections can /e seen among
some 7ema)e 7actory workers9 !actory managers are concerned to 7ind out where their
emp)oyees reside and a)ways try to direct them to /oarding p)aces o77ering 7air)y good )i.ing
conditions9 &o address this issue, 7actories ha.e started to pro.ide accommodation 7aci)ities
and at present there are three hoste)s 7or their workers and ?11 workers are /ene7itting9 A
second negati.e 7eature is that there is no one to ta)k to or discuss or get ad.ice regarding
@@
their persona) pro/)ems9 (ost o7 the time 7ema)e workers hesitate to raise their .oices against
discrimination or un7air treatment9
&here is a risk in tra.e))ing a7ter night work as in some areas there are no street )ights9 "t is a
risk to their )i.es too9 &here are sa7ety pro/)ems and there are incidences o7 harassment whi)e
wa)king on streets9 &he )oca) go.ernment authority in that area has /een directed to insta))
street )ights9 &he ma5ority o7 7actories pro.ide transport 7aci)ities, /ut not a))9
(ost o7 the women ha.e good 7inancia) management ski))sM howe.er, these women are
.u)nera/)e to marketing propaganda9 (arkets in the Eatunayake area are 7i))ed with 7ancy
items and women are easi)y decei.ed /y .endors who se)) poor Iua)ity materia)s9 &he women
do spend a )ot on mo/i)e phones9 Some spend more on communication than on 7ood and
c)othes9 &here is a need 7or awareness programmes on Lhow to use money producti.e)y or
prioritising their needs e77ecti.e)y as most o7 women spend their )itt)e earnings
unnecessari)y9
%ther conseIuences ha.e /een the negati.e experiences at the hands o7 men re)ating to )o.e
a77airs or re)ationships, sexua) harassment or a/ortions9 &hey get in.o).ed in re)ationships
.ery easi)y due to peer pressure, stress at the work p)ace, no entertainment, no parents or
anyone to guide them9 (ost o7 the time these women ha.e /een cheated /y married men9
Sometimes they may ha.e to go to the .i))age with a chi)d /ut without a hus/and9 "n such
occasions their socia) status deteriorates and they may /e exc)uded 7rom the
societyNcommunity9 ,omp)aints o7 such incidences were )ess now and i7 the po)ice get a
comp)aint they do their /est to reso).e the issue9 (ost o7 the time, the perpetuators are not
permanent residents o7 the EPZ area9
?+ne young woman was referred to the counselling service of the Department
of La#our #y the factory% She was in a depressed situation% She had a
relationship with a man and they had #een living together for some time% Then
the woman #ecame pregnant and the man disappeared% 1hen she searched
for him she found that he was a married man% The factory also was very
sympathetic and has referred her to our service as she was one of the #est
workers in that factory@% 8A representative of the Department of La#our5%
Some 7actories ha.e pro7essiona) counse))ors to he)p women in such situations and they a)so
get in.o).ed with so).ing 7ami)y pro/)ems9 6omen with unaccepta/)e /eha.iour are not an
asset either to the 7actory or their 7ami)y or community9 Such negati.e incidences were
associated with on)y a sma)) num/er o7 women, /ut when outsiders ta)k a/out such
incidences they genara)ise it to co.er the entire 7ema)e work 7orce and that creates a /ad
image 7or women9 Such incidences were )ess compared to the past as most o7 these women
ha.e )earnt 7rom past experiences9
&he other negati.e /eha.iour is seen in a 7ew women who ha.e taken to prostitution and
commercia) sex work9 ,ommercia) sex workers 7ind accommodation in /oarding p)aces to
engage in their occupation9 %utsiders think that they are 7actory workers engaged in
commercia) sex work9 Sometimes these sex workers encourage 7actory women to 5oin them9
"n the case o7 most women when they go /ack to their .i))ages a7ter marriage, there are no
5o/s 7or them and as a resu)t, their economic status, socia) status, and menta) hea)th dec)ines9
6ithout a good hus/and the situation can get worse9
@A
K., S*a*u( a#$ %mp"/%rm%#* a* *3% 2amil& l%;%l a( a r%(ul* "2 2ac*"r& /"r
&here is recognition and acceptance o7 the women 7actory workers /y the immediate 7ami)y9
&hese women he)p their parents and 7ami)y mem/ers /y sending a part o7 their earnings9 &he
money sent to their 7ami)ies is used chie7)y to co.er the day to day expenses o7 the 7ami)y
mem/ers, 7or the education o7 younger si/)ings, medicine 7or sick parents, and to /uy a piece
o7 )and, /ui)d a house or reno.ate their house9 "n some situations, not on)y the immediate
7ami)y mem/ers, /ut the extended 7ami)y mem/ers such as grandparents, aunts a)so depend
on these 7actory women9 &here7ore there is a high degree o7 acceptance9 "n some 7ami)ies
these women get more acceptance than their 7athers as in some cases the woman working in
the 7actory is the /readwinner o7 the 7ami)y9 6here the woman or wi7e is the sta/)e income
earner in the 7ami)y and the hus/and is engaged in casua) work, she has more economic
power within the 7ami)y9 &his economic power and socia) exposure ena/)es these women to
participate more in decision making processes in their homes9 "n most 7actories they organise
7ami)y get4togethers in their 7actory once a year and this a)so he)ps to increase the )e.e) o7
acceptance /y 7ami)y mem/ers9
K.4 S*a*u( a#$ %mp"/%rm%#* a* *3% /"r plac% a( a r%(ul* "2 2ac*"r& /"r
&he women ha.e /een empowered at the workp)ace as team workers, and as trained and
producti.e workers9 (ore e77icient and producti.e women get the opportunity to work as
team )eaders and there/y acIuire )eadership Iua)ities and opportunity to participate in
decision making at the 7actory at )ower )e.e)s9 6omen workers more trustworthy than their
ma)e counterparts, 7or examp)e, men workers try to stea) 7actory goods /ut women do not do
so9 "n a good working en.ironment, workers are doing their 5o/ happi)y, the management
treats them we)), and workers can discuss their pro/)ems i7 any, with the management9 &he
women are exposed to new techno)ogies such as computers as they are working in high)y
mechanised, modern working en.ironments, and in some 7actories there are opportunities
a.ai)a/)e 7or 7oreign training9
&here are many societies operating in 7actories to enhance ta)ents such as sports societies and
women participate acti.e)y9 Some 7actories organise a sports day once a year, whi)e at some
7actories there are )i/raries to impro.e the reading ha/its o7 workers9 &here are a)so
opportunities such as pu/)ishing poems, rhymes, stories in a 5ourna) to impro.e their )iterary
ski))s and creati.ity, and some conduct a singing competition 7or workers and ha.e pro.ided
attracti.e cash priOes 7or winners9
?There was a musical #and 8eastern music5 with a team of ;- in one factory
and it has #een initiated #y the factory management% They practice during free
hours% 1e invited them to perform at an event organiCed #y the Department of
La#our to commemorate (nternational 1omens Day% They performed well%
There are sports clu#s or sports societies in some factories too% ( #elieve that
factories organiCe such activities to attract workers% 0owever$ they #enefit
#oth parties@% 8A representative of the Department of La#our5
&he women produce on)y a part o7 a garment in a 7actory, there7ore they do not acIuire the
ski))s reIuired to make a garment and they are not adeIuate)y eIuipped to access other
sewing re)ated 5o/s9 &hus, they can /e iso)ated or unemp)oyed when they go /ack to their
.i))ages9 As a so)ution to this issue, the (inistry conducted .ocationa) training programmes
@=
7or women as an a)ternati.e income generating acti.ity9 'owe.er the participation o7 women
was minima) as they did not get much 7ree time due to their )ong working hours9
&here are 7ew opportunities 7or upward career mo/i)ity 7or the ma5ority o7 these women9 As a
conseIuence some women are working as machine operators 7or many years9 'owe.er a
sma)) percentage o7 women ha.e the opportunity to mo.e upward as )ine )eaders, section
)eaders, and super.isors and they ha.e access to )imited decision making power9 Sometimes
a)) the super.isors in the 7actory are women9 Another negati.e 7eature attached with these
7actory women is that a7ter their marriage they ha.e to stop working and go /ack to the
.i))age i7 the hus/and is )i.ing in the .i))age9
&hough there are trade unions in some 7actories, the acti.e participation o7 women in such
acti.ities is at a .ery )ow )e.e)9 &his cou)d /e a negati.e characteristic as these women are not
participating in the a.ai)a/)e co))ecti.e /argaining mechanisms9 #ot on)y in EPZs /ut at the
macro )e.e) too, the participation o7 women in trade union acti.ities has dec)ined in the
country9
?( met a woman working in a factory in an !" who is a mem#er of a trade
union% She works hard% 0owever her hus#and is not aware of her trade union
activities as she has not told him% She said that her hus#and does not allow
her to participate in e*tra activities% Therefore she does all the trade union
activities during her office hours@% 8A representative of the Department of
La#our5
'owe.er there are a 7ew women who engage in trade union acti.ities and they work hard9
Some women are in decision making positions too9 &hough they are not acti.e in union
acti.ities, these women participate in the 6orkers ,ounci) and in one case >AD o7 mem/ers
o7 the ,ounci) were women9 'owe.er, when there are e)ections to e)ect )eaders, men get
more .otes9 &he trade unions ha.e organised many women workers, and once they were
organised they tended to /e more power7u)9 'owe.er, they ha.e not enro))ed the ma5ority o7
workers, a)though, i7 organised, they wou)d ha.e a power7u) .oice in the 7actory9 !or
examp)e, it is i))ega) to emp)oy a 7ema)e worker a7ter 21911pm without their consent, /ut
many 7actories do this9
&here is a trend o7 horiOonta) mo/i)ity, mo.ing 7rom 7actory to 7actory, )ooking 7or more
/ene7its9 'owe.er, there is a dec)ine in the migration o7 women to EPZs9 %ne o7 the reasons
7or this is that they were gi.en )ess o.er time work due to dec)ine in production, resu)ting in
)ess Ltake home sa)aries that were inadeIuate to cope with the increasing costs o7 )i.ing9
&here shou)d /e counse))ors in e.ery 7actory to he)p these women when they are in di77icu)t
situations9 At present, there are counse))ors in some 7actories9
K.6 S*a*u( a#$ %mp"/%rm%#* a* *3% ("ci%*al l%;%l a( a r%(ul* "2 2ac*"r& /"r
$egarding the status and empowerment o7 women at the societa) )e.e), the responses gi.en
/y the respondents were ana)ysed under three main themes: (i participation o7 women in
community and in po)itica) acti.ities, (ii acceptance 7rom the .i))age, and (iii perceptions o7
the genera) pu/)ic9
@8
K.6.+ -ar*icipa*i"# "2 /"m%# i# c"mmu#i*& a#$ i# p"li*ical ac*i;i*i%(
Participation o7 these women in community and po)itica) acti.ities is rare as there is no
interest in participating in such acti.ities among women or men9 (ost women do not .ote
e.en though they get )ea.e 7or this purpose9 'owe.er, the women participate in re)igious
acti.ities and they participate in community acti.ities i7 they get an opportunity9
"7 there are community acti.ities organised /y the 7actory, then women participate in such
acti.ities, 7or examp)e, in c)eaning in hospita)s, c)eaning the city, he)ping .ictims in disaster
situations and in pro5ects under the ,orporate Socia) $esponsi/i)ity (,S$ programme9
&ime and distance were identi7ied as /arriers to participation in .i))age acti.ities9 Some
women workers were mem/ers o7 .i))age societies such as the 3eath 3onation Society and
temp)e societies9 &he 7actory women are more capa/)e and ha.e more )eadership Iua)ities
than the women in their .i))ages and there7ore when they go /ack to their .i))ages, there is
more opportunity 7or them to participate in community or po)itica) acti.ities at the .i))age
)e.e)9 'owe.er, these women workers are not considered as a part o7 the community around
the Zone and there7ore there is )itt)e opportunity 7or them to participate in community
acti.ities whi)e they are working in 7actories9
K.6., Acc%p*a#c% 2r"m *3% ;illa!%
Acceptance 7rom the .i))agers depends most)y on the /eha.iour o7 the indi.idua) and the type
o7 5o/9 &hese women are accepted increasing)y with the impro.ement in their economic
condition and persona)ity9 E.en the temp)e and .i))agers respect them more as they )ook a7ter
their 7ami)ies9 Socia) recognition attached to di77erent occupations is di77erent9 !or instance,
teachers and nurses get more recognition than a machine operator9 &hat socia) stigma persists
a)though at the same time society respects the 7actory workers 7or their economic and socia)
empowerment9 'owe.er, it is di77icu)t 7or the workers to recei.e recognition due to )ack o7
communication with and distance 7rom their .i))ages9
&here is a certain )e.e) o7 acceptance 7rom the rura) community /ecause o7 their economic
empowerment, and exposure to and capacity to cope with city )i7e9 6hen recruiting new
workers, 7actory managers reIuest existing emp)oyees to recommend candidates and they
introduce their re)ati.es and 7riends 7rom their .i))age9 &his a)so ensures recognition 7or these
women as they are he)ping other .i))agers to 7ind emp)oyment, and at the same time, the
.i))agers 5oin them as there is trust and a positi.e image o7 these workers9
&he .i))agers get other /ene7its /ecause o7 the workers9 &here is a ,S$ pro5ect ca))ed Lwater
is our )i7e9 -nder that pro5ect, each year, the 7actory reIuests workers who ha.e pro/)ems in
their .i))ages re)ating to access to sa7e water to 7orward their pro/)em to the management9
Action is taken to so).e the pro/)em in one .i))age per year9
K.6.4 -%rc%p*i"#( "2 *3% !%#%ral pu7lic
!ema)e 7actory workers in EPZs, sti)) do not ha.e a good pu/)ic image9 'owe.er, the
situation has impro.ed9 &he present situation is much /etter than 21 to2A years ago9 At
present the pu/)ic percei.e EPZs as economic centres contri/uting to the economic
de.e)opment o7 the country9 &hese Zones increase the economic power o7 workers, especia))y
women workers, and /ene7its u)timate)y go to the .i))age9 Some 7actories ha.e their sister
7actories in rura) areas too9 &here7ore attitudes are changing 7rom negati.e to positi.e9 "n the
@>
ear)y days, peop)e thought that EPZs ha.e on)y garment 7actories, /ut they are now aware
that there are 7actories producing di77erent items in a Zone, there7ore, the concept o7 Lgarment
o/5ects has dec)ined9

"n the )ate 2B81s, the Greater ,o)om/o Economic ,ommission was esta/)ished in Sri Lanka
/y the go.ernment with the mission to /ring in.estors to go.ernment and to create
emp)oyment opportunities9 &he in.estors were expected to /ring in 7oreign exchange, put up
7actories and manu7acture products 7or export markets9 &his po)icy worked we))9 'owe.er,
o.er the years with the increase o7 the num/er o7 7actories in Oones, the siOe o7 the )a/our
7orce, especia))y in the garment industry, expanded tremendous)y9 A )arge num/er o7 rura)
women came to work in the Zones9 'owe.er, in7rastructure 7aci)ities outside the Oone such as
hoste)s and transport were not adeIuate to accommodate the in7)ux o7 migrant workers9 %n
the other hand, organised groups sometimes with po)itica) /acking and organised thugs and
crimina)s exp)oited the situation o7 women who came to the city 7rom rura) areas9 At the end
o7 the day, the /)ame came to the industry or in.estors9 &he pu/)ic .iew was that the
in.estors shou)d pro.ide accommodation or transport9 Some 7actories pro.ided these
7aci)ities9 &he responsi/i)ity o7 in.estors is to create sa7e 5o/s and to /ring 7oreign exchange9
At that time, the media a)so wrong)y interpreted this situation and incidents that were
pu/)ished created a /ad image o7 the 7actory women9 Looking a7ter the security and )i.ing
conditions o7 7actory women outside the 7actory is the responsi/i)ity o7 the socia) system and
)ega) authorities in the country9 &here are instances o7 exp)oitation o7 women 7inancia))y or
sexua))y9 ,ontro))ing such situations is /eyond the in.estors capacity e.en though they are
concerned a/out the situation9 &he State has the responsi/i)ity to maintain )aw and order and
7rom the in.estors point o7 .iew, there are so many )ega) and socia) o/)igations they ha.e to
7u)7i) whi)e making pro7its in a .ery competiti.e internationa) market9
&he pu/)ic sti)) had the perception that EPZs are p)aces where emp)oyment is pro.ided 7or
)ess educated, )ess pri.i)eged, rura) workers and some peop)e )a/e) these women as Lgarment
o/5ects or Lgarment gir)s9 EPZs are p)aces gi.ing accommodation to peop)e who cannot 7ind
any other 5o/, income, any other socia) status, or when there is no other a)ternati.e to )ook
a7ter their 7ami)ies9 Some peop)e sti)) think that they can ha.e sexua) re)ations with these
women easi)y9 "n the ear)y days, women were re)uctant to say that they are 7actory workers in
Oones as it was considered to /e degrading, especia))y when they are )ooking 7or a partner 7or
their marriage9 Pregnant working mothers o7 EPZs presenting at a medica) c)inic do not )ike
to mention their 5o/ tit)e as a Lgarment worker or as an LEPZ worker in their c)inic card9
&hey pre7er to write it as a machine operator9 'owe.er, the situation has impro.ed
considera/)y9
6ith their new 7reedom and .ery )itt)e know)edge o7 reproducti.e hea)th issues, these young
women got into re)ationships with men and as a resu)t they had to 7ace many pro/)ems9 &he
7ema)e )a/our 7orce was near)y >A percent in the Oones (:%", 01219 &here7ore men are
drawn to these p)aces to 7ind partners9 Some were genuine and some not9 &here7ore, these
young, inexperienced women were in.o).ed in re)ationships and some had to 7ace socia))y
unaccepta/)e resu)ts or outcomes9 &he media a)so high)ighted these incidents and magni7ied
them e.en though the num/ers o7 such incidents were )imited9
"t is credita/)e 7or women with )ow educationa) Iua)i7ications and )ow socio economic
/ackgrounds to earn independent)y and to )ook a7ter their 7ami)ies9 &he ma5ority o7 these
women are young and most o7 them are soon a7ter their schoo) education9
@B
?( have e*perienced that in the month of Decem#er the num#ers of women in
the <iyagama hostel which is managed #y the 'inistry are increasing as the
girls are coming to work in factories 6ust after appearing at the &%2%%
+rdinary Level e*am% They have come to work even #efore the release of their
results mainly due to poverty in their families% Therefore we should appreciate
their efforts@% 8Representative of the 'inistry5
'owe.er, at present, the state, po)iticians, and media ha.e pu/)iciOed the 7act that these
7actory women contri/uted to the economic de.e)opment o7 the country9 &he 3epartment o7
La/our, when commemorating the "nternationa) 6omens 3ay, gi.e priority to 7actory
women and gi.e awards to the /est per7ormers9 &hey ha.e de.e)oped .ideo c)ips a)so to show
the pu/)ic the importance o7 the contri/ution o7 these women to the de.e)opment o7 the
country9 (edia a)so gi.e pu/)icity to such e.ents9 "t was high)ighted that the media shou)d /e
more responsi/)e in their reporting as this is one o7 the main industries in the country9
'owe.er trade unions and some #G%s are not satis7ied with the actions taken /y the state,
po)iticians, and media to up)i7t the situation o7 7actory women and expect more action 7rom
them9
!or a country )ike Sri Lanka, it is /etter to de.e)op the garment industry rather than sending
our women to work o.erseas as unski))ed )a/our9 &he 7actories ha.e impro.ed and are
pro.iding /etter working conditions9 &he 7uture strategy shou)d /e to mo.e 7actories to more
rura) areas9 &hen women can go to work whi)e staying with their 7ami)y mem/ers in their
own residences9 &hey can get a 7air)y good sa)ary whi)e getting transport and 7ree mea)s and
acceptance wi)) /e greater9 A recommendation is 7or partnerships with emp)oyers with
common goa)s and mutua) /ene7it to a)) the parties in.o).ed9
K.J C"#clu(i"#
"n genera), /ased on the .iews expressed /y the stakeho)ders who participated in the study, it
is c)ear that there is socia) inc)usion o7 the 7actory women9 'owe.er, the extent to which
they ha.e /een empowered is identi7ied di77erent)y /y di77erent stake ho)ders9 &here is
economic empowerment with access to and contro) o7 7inancia) resources9 &heir decision
making power has increased at the persona) and 7ami)y )e.e) and with some women at the
7actory )e.e)9 &hey ha.e /een empowered /y gaining new know)edge and ski))s9 &heir socia)
empowerment has /een impro.ed with their mo/i)ity, exposure, )i7e sty)e, and acceptance
7rom the immediate 7ami)y and the .i))age9 'owe.er, the 7act that there are no a.enues o7
upward career mo/i)ity 7or the ma5ority o7 women workers, the monotony and the )ack o7
creati.ity in the work and the socia) stigma attached to them are the main negati.e 7eatures
attached to their occupations9 "7 a)) the parties in this sector work together such negati.e
7eatures can /e minimised9 &he 7indings in Part &hree o7 this report show c)ear )inks to the
7indings in Part %ne and Part &wo, and in this sense create empirica) data that can indeed /e
triangu)ated and 7rom which strong genera)isations can /e drawn9
A1
I.G EM-OWERMENT 5 -"lic& I((u%( 2"r C"#(i$%ra*i"#
&he data presented in Parts 2, 0 and ? o7 this report are a com/ination o7 Iuantitati.e and
Iua)itati.e data and pro.ide empirica) and Lgenera)isa/)e resu)ts that are .a)id and rigorous9
&he remarka/)e ways in which ma5or 7indings and themes identi7ied in the 2
st
stage o7 data
ana)ysis were rep)icated in each proceeding part o7 the data ana)ysis was remarka/)e9 &his in
turn pro.ided Ltriangu)ation which was noteworthy and testament to the methodo)ogy and
di)igence o7 the research team9 As a resu)t, we argue that internationa) aid agencies shou)d
consider deeper engagement with socia) research and the constant mo.ement in the
discourses vis-a-vis gender and empowerment9 Speci7ica))y gender4speci7ic sta77 within these
organisations shou)d attempt to integrate and engage with research such as this9 "n terms o7
constructing meaning around gender and empowerment, gender mainstreaming has /een used
/y most de.e)opment agencies in recent timesM howe.er this approach a)one is inadeIuate to
ensure that the comp)exities o7 womens )i.ed experiences are understood, acknow)edged and
addressed9 Simp)y mainstreaming gender into programs and po)ices is not enough9 !urther
research and co))a/oration is reIuired /etween internationa) aid agencies, academic
institutions, "#G%s and women in de.e)oping nations9 &he women samp)ed in this research
show c)ear)y the need 7or more intensi.e research to ensure more and .aried .oices are heard9
%ne common po)icy response to gender eIua)ity and the in7)uence o7 gender ineIua)ity
measures is gender mainstreaming9 &his has /ecome the o.erarching gender po)icy o7 many
de.e)opment agencies and has merit9 "t is howe.er pro/)ematic to simp)y use gender
mainstreaming as a po)icy initiati.e9 &his is /ecause the notion o7 mainstreaming
Linstitutiona)ises gender into a)) programs, regard)ess o7 rationa)e or reasonM it a)so creates a
.ision o7 women as a target 7or aid, rather than acti.e agents and in many de.e)oping nations
mainstreaming gender as po)icy wi)) exacer/ate notions that women are power)ess .ictims9
(oreo.er, /ased on the experience o7 this research team, mainstreaming gender into
de.e)oping nation institutions that are under4pinned /y patriarchy wi)) not /e e77ecti.e as
on)y tokenistic support wi)) /e adopted9 "n our research, patriarcha) structures and in7)uences
were e.ident at a)) )e.e)s o7 go.ernment and tended to /e more extreme in rura) )ocations, the
)ocations where gender mainstreaming is o7ten targeted9 "t is critica) that these issues are
considered in 7uture discussion o7 gender and empowerment and the 7uture de.e)opment and
imp)ementation o7 gender4/ased po)icy, discourse and programs9
A2
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*ayaweera ed9 1omen in post-independence Sri Lanka% #ew 3e)hi: Sage9 pp92A4@19
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industries in Sri Lanka9 "n $atna (9 SudarshanM Swapna (ukhopadhyay eds9
Tracking gender e)uity, %ttawa: "nternationa) 3e.e)opment $esearch ,entre9
A?
*ones, Ga.in, 2B>89 &he 2B>A "ntercensa) sur.ey o7 "ndonesia: &he )a/our 7orce9 Research
Note$ I.9 ,an/erra: 3epartment o7 3emography, &he Austra)ian #ationa) -ni.ersity9
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3ata :ase, /ournal of 0uman Development$ G(2, pp9=A4>=9
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proposals% Gottingen, Germany: -ni.ersity o7 Gottingen9
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@?09
Schu)er, 3ana, 011=9 &he uses and misuses o7 the Gender4re)ated 3e.e)opment "ndex and
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of Achievements and (ne)uities in conomic &rowth and Standards of Living9
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3epartment o7 ,ensus and Statistics, (inistry o7 !inance and P)anning, Sri Lanka9
;idyarathne, 39 :9, 011B9 Sri Lanka La#our =orce Survey ,--. =inal Report9 3epartment o7
,ensus and Statistics, (inistry o7 !inance and P)anning, Sri Lanka9
;is.anathan, #a)ini, 2BB89 "ntroduction9 "n #a)ini ;is.anathan et a)9 eds9 The 1omen$
&ender and Development Reader9 London: Zed :ooks9 pp9224@?9
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Science /ournal$ A8(2>@, pp9?824?>89
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6or)d Economic !orum, 011>9 Norway tops the 1orld conomic =orumMs &ender &ap
(nde* 8press release59 A.ai)a/)e at: http:NNwww9we7orum9orgNenNmediaN LatestD01
PressD01$e)easesNP$XGGG1> YAccessed 02 (ay 011BZ
6or)d Economic !orum (01219 &lo#al &ender &ap Report, 6or)d Economic !orum,
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Zahidi, Saadia, 011>, #o.em/er9 G)o/a) Gender Gap $eport 011> Yon)ine .ideoZ9 A.ai)a/)e
at: http:NNwww9youtu/e9comNwatchH.Pt6k8.A0XPu@ YAccessed (ay 02 011BZ

AA
App%#$iF +8 -r"N%c* Du%(*i"##air%
G%#$%r %mp"/%rm%#* m%a(ur%8 r%(%arc3 "# ("cial %mp"/%rm%#* am"#! Sri La#a#
E-9 /"r%r(
-otes to ./ 0 while many of these 1uestions relate to the %artici%ant"s current %osition, their %ast histories and
e2%eriences in %revious factories (if a%%licable) can be ca%tured 0 however the overarching aim of the research is to
ca%ture a %icture of women as labour and %athways to em%owerment to in turn inform %olicy3
3ear Participant
6e are conducting research that 7ocuses on the issue o7 gender empowerment and the ways in which 7actory women may or
may not /e socia))y empowered as a resu)t o7 7actory work in Sri Lanka9 &he research is /eing conducted as part o7 an
independent study designed /y the ,entre 7or Socia) $esearch at Edith ,owan -ni.ersity and 7unded /y the Austra)ian
go.ernment to pro.ide new and a)ternate ways to understand gender empowerment9 &he research is /eing coordinated in Sri
Lanka /y ,E#6%$ (,entre 7or 6omenWs $esearch with the appro.a) o7 the Sri Lankan :oard o7 "n.estment (:%"9 &he
Iuestionnaire wi)) take a/out ?1 minutes to comp)ete9 Gour answers wi)) /e anonymous and con7identia) and cannot /e
)inked to you, or your .i))age or 7actory, in any way9 Gou may withdraw 7rom the Iuestionnaire at any stage i7 you wish9 &he
resu)ts o7 the research wi)) a)so /e L/)ind and anonymous9
6ou)d you )ike to go ahead and comp)ete the IuestionnaireH XXXXXXX
2 6hat EPZ do you current)y work inH XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
0 6hat type o7 7actoryH (garments, texti)es etc XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
? 'ow )ong ha.e you worked in any 7actoryH (years on)y XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
@ 6hat is your ageH XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
A 6hat is your marita) statusH XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
= 6hat is your education )e.e)H XXXXXXXXXXX
8 6hat is your 5o/ tit)e or )e.e)H XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
> 'a.e you e.er /een promotedH XXXXXXXXXX
(i7 yes, 7rom what position or )e.e) toH XXXXXXXXXXXXX
B 6hat is you usua) month)y sa)aryH (not inc)uding o.ertime XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
21 'ow many hours do you work in a norma) weekH XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
22 3o you norma))y work o.ertimeH XXXXXXXXXX
(i7 yes, how many hours per week do you norma))y work on o.ertimeH XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
A=
'ow much extra pay do you get as a resu)t per monthH XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
20 'a.e you e.er experienced .er/a) a/use 7rom your managersH XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
2? 'a.e you e.er experienced physica) a/use 7rom managersH XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
2@ 'a.e you e.er experienced sexua) harassment at workH XXXXXXXX
2A 'a.e you e.er /een humi)iated in pu/)ic, in your community or society 7or /eing an EPZ
workerH (i7 yes, exp)ain XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
2= 6hat is your mothers education )e.e)H XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
28 3oes your mother workH XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
(i7 yes, what type o7 workH XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
'ow much does she earn per monthH XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
2> 6hat is your 7athers month)y incomeH XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
2B 6hat is the proportion o7 your month)y sa)ary to your 7ami)ys tota) incomeH (inc)uding
hus/and XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
01 3o you regu)ar)y send money to your 7ami)y each monthH XXXXXXXXXX
(i7 yes, how much per monthH XXXXXXXXXXXX
02 3o you sa.e your sa)ary in your own /ank account each monthH XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
(i7 yes, how much usua))y per month do you sa.eH XXXXXXXXXXXXX
00 "n what ways has your sa)ary a))owed you to accumu)ate capita) or /uy a house or simi)ar
or empower yourse)7 or your 7ami)yH (p)ease exp)ain /e)ow
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
0? As a resu)t o7 working do you participate more in community andNor po)itica) acti.itiesH
(i7 yes, exp)ain
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
A8
0@ As a resu)t o7 working do you participate more in decision making processes within the
homeH XXXXXXX
(i7 yes, exp)ain
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
0A As a resu)t o7 working do you participate more in decision making processes outside the
homeH XXXXXXX
(i7 yes, exp)ain
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
0= 3o you 7ee) as a resu)t o7 working in 7actories that you ha.e experienced increased socia)
inc)usion in Sri Lanka, "E, /eing inc)uded in socia), cu)tura), re)igious and po)itica)
processesH XXXXXXX
(i7 yes, exp)ain
&hank you 7or taking the time to comp)ete the Iuestionnaire9
A>
App%#$iF ,8 '"cu( Gr"up Du%(*i"#(
G%#$%r %mp"/%rm%#* m%a(ur%8 r%(%arc3 "# ("cial %mp"/%rm%#* am"#! Sri La#a#
E-9 /"r%r(

3ear Participant
6e are conducting research that 7ocuses on the issue o7 gender empowerment and the ways
in which 7actory women may or may not /e socia))y empowered as a resu)t o7 7actory work in
Sri Lanka9 &he research is /eing conducted as part o7 an independent study designed /y the
,entre 7or Socia) $esearch at Edith ,owan -ni.ersity and 7unded /y the Austra)ian
go.ernment to pro.ide new and a)ternate ways to understand gender empowerment9 &he
research is /eing coordinated in Sri Lanka /y ,E#6%$ (,entre 7or 6omenWs $esearch
with the appro.a) o7 the Sri Lankan :oard o7 "n.estment (:%"9&he 7ocus group wi)) take
a/out ?1 minutes to comp)ete9 Gour answers wi)) /e anonymous and con7identia) and cannot
/e )inked to you, or your .i))age or 7actory, in any way9 Gou may withdraw 7rom the 7ocus
group at any stage i7 you wish9 &he resu)ts o7 the research wi)) a)so /e L/)ind and
anonymous9 6ou)d you )ike to go ahead and comp)ete the 7ocus groupH [[
'"cu( !r"up Gui$%li#%( <RA ma& /ri*% m"r% i2 r%1uir%$, $" *3i( "# *3% 7ac "2 *3%
2"rm=
2 'ow do you think 7ema)e EPZ workers are thought o7 in Sri LankaH
0 "n what ways ha.e you /een empowered as a resu)t o7 7actory workH
? "n what ways ha.e you /een disempowered as a resu)t o7 7actory workH
@ 'ow wou)d you measure womens empowerment i7 you had the choiceH
A &e)) us some o7 the things that you ha.e /een a/)e to achie.e 7or yourse)7 with your sa)aryH
= &e)) us some o7 the things you ha.e /een a/)e to achie.e in your home or community as a
resu)t o7 experiencing 7u)) time work and a sa)aryH
8 'a.e you /een a/)e to con.ert your economic ro)es and status (wages, experience in work,
promotion, sa.ings etc into socia) capita)H (acceptance in society, community and 7ami)y and
in.o).ement in decision making processes at a)) )e.e)s (yes or no p)ease exp)ain
AB
> "n what ways has your sa)ary a))owed you to accumu)ate capita) or /uy a house or simi)ar
or empower your 7ami)yH (p)ease exp)ain /e)ow
B As a resu)t o7 working do you participate more in community and po)itica) acti.itiesH
XXXXXX
(i7 yes, exp)ain
21 As a resu)t o7 working do you participate more in decision making processes outside the
homeH XXXXXXX
(i7 yes, exp)ain
22 3o you 7ee) as a resu)t o7 working in 7actories that you ha.e experienced increased socia)
inc)usion in Sri Lanka, ie, /eing inc)uded in socia), cu)tura) and po)itica) processesH
XXXXXXXXX (i7 yes, exp)ain
20 As a resu)t o7 7actory emp)oyment what type o7 important ski))s ha.e you de.e)opedH
(i7 yes, exp)ain
&hank you 7or participating in this 7ocus group
=1
App%#$iF 4. Li(* "2 K%& I#2"rma#*( /3" -ar*icipa*%$ i# *3% S*u$&
S%r.
N".
K%& I#2"rma#*( S%F
Po)icy (akers
2 &he Secretary, (inistry o7 ,hi)d 3e.e)opment and 6omens A77airs !ema)e
0 Additiona) ,ommissioner Genera) o7 La/our, 3epartment o7 La/our !ema)e
? 3irector ("ndustria) $e)ations, :oard o7 "n.estment o7 Sri Lanka (a)e
@ &he Secretary Genera), *oint Appare) Association !orum (a)e
Go.ernment %77icia)s
A ,ommissioner o7 La/our, 6omen and ,hi)drens A77airs 3i.ision,
3epartment o7 La/our
!ema)e
= La/our %77icer, 6omen and ,hi)drens A77airs 3i.ision, 3epartment o7
La/our
!ema)e
8 6oman Su/ "nspector (6S", Po)ice Station, Eatunayake !ema)e
> (edica) 3octor, (%' %77ice, Eatunayake EPZ (a)e
!actory (anagers
B (anager '$, (ichea) Ange)o !ootwear P.t9 Ltd9, Phase """, Eatunayake
EPZ
!ema)e
21 (anager (Personne) and Systems Engineering, Genera) A77airs 3epartment,
!3E Lanka P.t9 Ltd9 Phase "", Eatunayake EPZ
(a)e
22 (anager ('uman $esources, G)o/a) Sports Lanka P.t9 Ltd, Phase "",
Eatunayake EPZ
!ema)e
20 Senior Production (anager, Smart Shirts (Lanka Ltd9, Phase ", Eatunayake
EPZ
(a)e
2? (anager ('uman $esources, :randix "ntimate Appare) Ltd9, Eatunayaka
EPZ
(a)e
2@ (anager ('uman $esources and Administration, (AS Acti.e Shadow)ine
P.t9 Ltd9, Phase "", Eatunayaka EPZ
(a)e
&rade -nion $epresentati.es
2A *oint Secretary, !ree &rade Zones and Genera) Ser.ices Emp)oyees -nion (a)e
2= 3eputy Secretary Genera), #ationa) 6orkers ,ongress (#6, (a)e
#G%s $epresentati.es N ,i.i) Society $epresentati.es
28 *oint ,oordinator, ,entre 7or 6omens
$esearch (,E#6%$
Po)icy oriented and action
oriented research
!ema)e
2> Secretary, 6omens ,entre
Acti.ists
!ema)e
2B Programme ,oordinator, Da <indu ,o))ecti.e !ema)e
01 3irector, Stand -p !ema)e
02 ,oordinator, Shrama#imani 9endraya !ema)e
00 ,oordinator, /ana Setha !ema)e
=2

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Gender, Status and Empowerment: A study among women who work

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