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China - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

China

Coordinates: 35N 103E

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the People's Republic of China. For the Republic of China, see Taiwan. For other uses, see China
(disambiguation) or PRC (disambiguation).
China ( i /tan/; simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin:
'Zhnggu'), officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a sovereign state
located in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population of over
1.35 billion. The PRC is a single-party state governed by the Communist Party, with its
seat of government in the capital city of Beijing.[15] It exercises jurisdiction over 22
provinces, five autonomous regions, four direct-controlled municipalities (Beijing, Tianjin,
Shanghai, and Chongqing), and two mostly self-governing special administrative regions
(Hong Kong and Macau). The PRC also claims Taiwan which is controlled by the
Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity as its 23rd province, a claim which
is controversial due to the complex political status of Taiwan.[16]

People's Republic of China

Zhnghu Rnmn Gnghgu

Flag

Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometers, China is the world's second-largest
country by land area,[17] and either the third or fourth-largest by total area, depending on
the method of measurement.[i] China's landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest
steppes and the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts in the arid north to subtropical forests in
the wetter south. The Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges
separate China from South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the thirdand sixth-longest in the world, run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated
eastern seaboard. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometres
(9,000 mi) long, and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East and South China Seas.
The history of China goes back to the ancient civilization one of the world's earliest
that flourished in the fertile basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For
millennia, China's political system was based on hereditary monarchies, known as
dynasties, beginning with the semi-mythological Xia of the Yellow River basin (c. 2000
BCE). Since 221 BCE, when the Qin Dynasty first conquered several states to form a
Chinese empire, the country has expanded, fractured and been reformed numerous times.
The Republic of China (ROC) overthrew the last dynasty in 1911, and ruled the Chinese
mainland until 1949. After the defeat of the Empire of Japan in World War II, the
Communist Party defeated the nationalist Kuomintang in mainland China and established
the People's Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, while the Kuomintang
relocated the ROC government to its present capital of Taipei.
Since the introduction of economic reforms in 1978, China has become one of the
world's fastest-growing major economies. As of 2013, it is the world's second-largest
economy by both nominal total GDP and purchasing power parity (PPP), and is also the
world's largest exporter and importer of goods.[18] China is a recognized nuclear
weapons state and has the world's largest standing army, with the second-largest defense
budget.[19] The PRC

has been a United Nations member since 1971, when it replaced


the ROC as a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council. China is also a member
of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC,
BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, the BCIM and the G-20. China is a
regional power within Asia and has been characterized as a potential superpower by a
number of commentators.[20][21]

National Emblem

Anthem:

Yyngjn Jnxngq (Pinyin)


"M arch of the Volunteers"
0:00

MENU

Area controlled by the People's Republic of China shown in


dark green; claimed but uncontrolled regions shown in light
green.

Capital

Beijing[a]

Largest city

3955N 11623E
Shanghai[1]

Official languages

Standard Chinese[2][b]

Recognised
regional languages

M ongolian Tibetan
Uyghur Zhuang various
others

Official written language


Official script
Ethnic groups

Vernacular Chinese
Simplified Chinese[2]
91.51% Han[3]
55 minorities[c]

Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China

Demonym

Chinese

Government

Single-party people's
republic [4]
Xi Jinping

- Paramount leader[d]

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2.2 Early dynastic rule

- Premier
- Congress Chairman
- Conference Chairman

Li Keqiang
Zhang Dejiang
Yu Zhengsheng

2.3 Imperial China

Legislature

National People's
Congress

2.1 Prehistory

2.4 End of dynastic rule


2.5 Republic of China (19121949)
2.6 People's Republic of China (1949present)
3 Geography
3.1 Political geography
3.2 Landscape and climate
3.3 Biodiversity

Formation
- Unification of China
under the Qin
Dynasty
- Republic established
- People's Republic
proclaimed
Area
- Total

221 BCE
1 January 1912
1 October 1949

4.1 Communist Party

- Water (%)

9,596,961 km2[e]
(3rd/4th)
3,705,407 sq mi
0.28%[f]

4.2 Government
4.3 Administrative divisions

Population
- 2012 estimate

1,350,695,000[9] (1st)

4.4 Foreign relations

- 2010 census

1,339,724,852[10] (1st)

- Density

2011 estimate:[11]
144/km2 (83rd)
373/sq mi

GDP (PPP)
- Total
- Per capita

2013 estimate
$13.395 trillion[12]
(2nd)
$9,844[12] (92nd)

GDP (nominal)
- Total

2013 estimate
$9.182 trillion[12] (2nd)

- Per capita

$6,747[12] (82th)

Gini (2012)

47.4[13]
high

HDI (2012)

0.699[14]
medium 101st

3.4 Environmental issues


4 Politics

4.4.1 Trade relations


4.4.2 Territorial disputes
4.4.3 Emerging superpower status
4.5 Sociopolitical issues and reform
5 Military
6 Economy
6.1 Economic history and growth
6.2 China in the global economy
6.3 Class and income equality
6.4 Internationalization of the renminbi
7 Science and technology
7.1 Historical
7.2 Modern era
8 Infrastructure
8.1 Communications
8.2 Transport
9 Demographics

Currency
Time zone

Renminbi (yuan)()[g]
(CNY)
China Standard Time
(UTC+8)

Date format

yyyy-mm-dd

9.1 Ethnic groups

or yyyymd

9.2 Languages

9.3 Urbanization

(CE; CE-1949)

9.4 Education

Drives on the

right[h]

9.5 Health

Calling code

+86

ISO 3166 code

CN

9.6 Religion
10 Culture
10.1 Cuisine
10.2 Sports

Internet TLD

.cn
.
.

11 See also
12 Footnotes
13 References
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14 Further reading
15 External links

Etymology
Main article: Names of China
The word "China" is derived from the Persian word Cin (), which is from the
Sanskrit word Cna ().[24] It is first recorded in 1516 in the journal of the
Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa.[25] The journal was translated and published
in England in 1555.[26] The traditional theory, proposed in the 17th century by
Martino Martini, is that Cna is derived from "Qin" (), the westernmost of the
Chinese kingdoms during the Zhou Dynasty.[27] However, the word was used in
early Hindu scripture, including the Mahbhrata (5th century BC) and the Laws
of Manu (2nd century BC).[28][29]
The official name of the present country is the People's Republic of China
(Chinese: ; pinyin: Zhnghu Rnmn Gnghgu). The
common Chinese names for the country are Zhnggu (Chinese: , from
zhng, "central" or "middle", and gu, "state" or "states," and in modern times,
"nation") and Zhnghu (Chinese: ), although the country's official name has
been changed numerous times by successive dynasties and modern governments.
The term Zhnggu appeared in various ancient texts, such as the Classic of
History of the 6th century BCE,[j] and in pre-imperial times it was often used as a
cultural concept to distinguish the Huaxia tribes from perceived "barbarians". The
term, which can be either singular or plural, referred to the group of states or
provinces in the central plain, but was not used as a name for the country as a
whole until the nineteenth century. The Chinese were not unique in regarding their
country as "central", with other civilizations having the same view of themselves.[30]

China
Chinese name
Simplified Chinese:

Traditional Chinese:

Literal meaning:

Middle Kingdom[22][23]

Transliterations
Gan
- Romanization:

Tung-koe
t
Kejia

- Romanization:

Dung 24 Gued 2
Mandarin

- Hanyu Pinyin:

Zhnggu

- Tongyong Pinyin:

Jhonggu

- Wade-Giles:

Chung 1 -kuo 2

- Gwoyeu Romatzyh:

Jong'gwo

- Bopomofo

- Xiao'erjing


Min

History
Main articles: History of China and Timeline of Chinese history

Prehistory

- Hokkien POJ:

Tiong-kok

- Min Dong BUC:

D
ng-guk
Wu

- Romanization:

Tson koh
Xiang

Main article: Chinese prehistory


Archaeological evidence suggests that early hominids inhabited China between
250,000 and 2.24 million years ago.[31] A cave in Zhoukoudian (near present-day
Beijing) exhibits hominid fossils dated at between 680,000 and 780,000 BCE.[32]
The fossils are of Peking Man, an example of Homo erectus who used fire.[33]
The Peking Man site has also yielded remains of Homo sapiens dating back to
18,00011,000 BCE.[34] Some scholars assert that a form of proto-writing
existed in China as early as 3000 BCE.[35]
According to Chinese tradition, the first imperial dynasty was the Xia, which
emerged around 2070 BCE.[36] However, the dynasty was considered mythical
by historians until scientific excavations found early Bronze Age sites at Erlitou,
Henan in 1959.[37] It remains unclear whether these sites are the remains of the
Xia Dynasty or of another culture from the same period.[38]

Early dynastic rule


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China

- Romanization:

/tan 33 kw24 /
Yue

- Jyutping:

Zung 1 gwok3

- Yale Romanization:

Jnggwok

People's Republic of China


Alternative Chinese name
Simplified Chinese:

Traditional Chinese:

Transliterations

Gan
- Romanization:

Chungfa Ninmin Khungfokoet


Hakka

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Further information: Dynasties in Chinese history


The first Chinese dynasty that left historical records, the loosely feudal Shang,[39]
settled along the Yellow River in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century
BCE.[40] The oracle bone script of the Shang Dynasty represents the oldest form
of Chinese writing yet found,[41] and is a direct ancestor of modern Chinese
characters.[42] The Shang were conquered by the Zhou, who ruled between the
12th and 5th centuries BCE, until its centralized authority was slowly eroded by
feudal warlords. Many independent states eventually emerged from the weakened
Zhou state and continually waged war with each other in the 300-year Spring and
Autumn Period, only occasionally deferring to the Zhou king. By the time of the
Warring States period of the 5th3rd centuries BCE, there were seven powerful
sovereign states in what is now China, each with its own king, ministry and army.

- Romanization:

kiung 55 fo 11 gued 2
Mandarin
- Hanyu Pinyin:

Zhnghu Rnmn Gnghgu

- Bopomofo

- Xiao'erjing

- Hokkien POJ:
- Min Dong BUC:

Wu

The subsequent Han Dynasty ruled China between 206 BCE and 220 CE, and
created a lasting Han cultural identity among its populace that has endured to the
present day.[43][44] The Han Dynasty expanded the empire's territory considerably
with military campaigns reaching Korea, Vietnam, Mongolia and Central Asia, and
also helped establish the Silk Road in Central Asia. Han China gradually became
the largest economy of the ancient world.[45] The Han Dynasty adopted
Confucianism, a philosophy developed in the Spring and Autumn period, as its
official state ideology. Despite the Han's official abandonment of Legalism, the
official ideology of the Qin, Legalist institutions and policies remained and formed
the basis of the Han government.[46]

- Jyutping:

In the 13th century, China was gradually conquered by the Mongol empire. In
1271, the Mongol leader Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty; the Yuan
conquered the last remnant of the Song Dynasty in 1279. Before the Mongol
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China

D
ng-hu ng-mng G
nghu-guk

- Romanization:

country and weakened the dynasty.[51] The Song Dynasty was the first
government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to
establish a permanent standing navy.[52] Between the 10th and 11th centuries, the
population of China doubled in size to around 100 million people, mostly due to
the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production
of abundant food surpluses. The Song Dynasty also saw a flourishing of
philosophy and the arts, as landscape art and portrait painting were brought to
new levels of maturity and complexity,[53] and social elites gathered to view art,
share their own and trade precious artworks. The Song Dynasty saw a revival of
Confucianism, in response to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang.[54]

Tiong-ha jn-bn king-hkok

The Warring States period ended in 221 BCE, after the state of Qin conquered
the other six kingdoms and established the first unified Chinese state. Qin Shi
Huang, the emperor of Qin, proclaimed himself the "First Emperor" () and
imposed reforms throughout China, notably the forced standardization of the
Chinese language, measurements, length of cart axles, and currency. The Qin
Dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after Qin Shi Huang's death, as its
harsh legalist and authoritarian policies led to widespread rebellion.[43][44]

Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese technology and culture
entered a golden age.[50] The An Shi Rebellion in the 8th century devastated the

Min

Imperial China

After the collapse of Han, a period of disunion known as the period of the Three
Kingdoms followed.[47] In 581 CE, China was reunited under the Sui. However,
the Sui Dynasty declined following its defeat in the GoguryeoSui War (598
614).[48][49]

Dung 24 fa11 ngin 11 min 11

Tson gho zin min gon


ghu koh

Xiang
- Romanization:

/tan 33 go 13 in 13 min 13 gan 45


gu 13 kw24 /
Yue
Zung 1 waa4 jan 4 man 4 gung 6
wo 4 gwok3

- Yale Romanization:

Jngwh Yhnmhn
Guhngwhgwok

Mongolian name
Mongolian:

Transliterations
- SASM/GNC

Bgde nayiramdaqu
dumdadu arad ulus

Tibetan name
Tibetan:

Transliterations
- Wylie:

krung hwa mi dmangs spyi


mthun rgyal khab

- Zangwen Pinyin:

Zhunghua Mimang Jitun


Gyalkab

Uyghur name
Uyghur:

Transliterations
- Latin Yziqi:

Jungxua Xelq Jumhuriyiti

- Yengi Yezik
:

Junghua Hlk
Jumh
u riyiti

- SASM/GNC:

Junghua Hlk
Jumuriyiti

- Siril Yziqi:

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invasion, the population of Song China was 120 million citizens; this was reduced
to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300.[55] A peasant named Zhu
Zhuang:
Yuanzhang overthrew the Yuan Dynasty in 1368 and founded the Ming Dynasty.
Under the Ming Dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of
the strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and
culture. It was during this period that Zheng He led explorations throughout the world, reaching as far
as Africa.[56] In the early years of the Ming Dynasty, China's capital was moved from Nanjing to
Beijing. During the Ming Dynasty, philosophers such as Wang Yangming further critiqued and
expanded Neo-Confucianism with concepts of individualism and innate morality.[57]
In 1644, Beijing was captured by a coalition of rebel forces led by Li Zicheng, a minor Ming official
who led the peasant revolt. The last Ming Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the city fell.
The Manchu Qing Dynasty then allied with Ming Dynasty general Wu Sangui and overthrew Li's
short-lived Shun Dynasty, and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital
of the Qing Dynasty.

End of dynastic rule

The Great Wall of China was built by


several dynasties over two thousand
years to protect the sedentary
agricultural regions of the Chinese
interior from incursions by nomadic
pastoralists of the northern steppes

The Qing Dynasty, which lasted from 1644 until 1912, was
the last imperial dynasty of China. In the 19th century, the
Qing Dynasty experienced Western imperialism following
the First Opium War (183942) and the Second Opium
War (185660) with Britain. China was forced to sign
unequal treaties, pay compensation, allow extraterritoriality
for foreign nationals, and cede Hong Kong to the British[58]
under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking. The First SinoJapanese War (189495) resulted in Qing China's loss of
influence in the Korean Peninsula, as well as the cession of
Taiwan to Japan.[59]

Zhuang name
Cunghvaz Yinzminz
Gunghozgoz

Jade deer ornament dating from the


Shang Dynasty (17th11th centuries
BCE)

Some of the thousands of life-size


Terracotta Warriors of the Qin
Dynasty, ca. 210 BCE

The Qing dynasty also began experiencing internal unrest in


which millions of people died. In the 1850s and 1860s, the
failed Taiping Rebellion ravaged southern China. Other
major rebellions included the PuntiHakka Clan Wars
(185567), the Nien Rebellion (185168), the Miao
Rebellion (185473), the Panthay Rebellion (185673)
and the Dungan revolt (186277).

A 19th-century painting depicting the


Taiping Rebellion of 18501864

In the 19th century, the great Chinese Diaspora began.


Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and
catastrophes such as the Northern Chinese Famine of
18761879, in which between 9 and 13 million people died.[60] In 1898, the Guangxu Emperor
drafted a reform plan to establish a modern constitutional monarchy, but he was overthrown by the
Empress Dowager Cixi in a coup d'tat. The ill-fated anti-Western Boxer Rebellion of 18991901
further weakened the Qing Dynasty. The Xinhai Revolution of 191112 brought an end to the Qing
Dynasty and established the Republic of China.

Detail from Along the River During


the Qingming Festival, a 12thcentury painting showing everyday
life in the Song Dynasty's capital city,
Bianjing (today's Kaifeng)

Republic of China (19121949)


Main articles: Republic of China (19121949) and History of the Republic of China
On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, and Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (the KMT or Nationalist Party) was
proclaimed provisional president.[61] However, the presidency was later given to Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed
himself Emperor of China. In the face of popular condemnation and opposition from his own Beiyang Army, he was forced to abdicate and
reestablish the republic.[62]

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After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but virtually
powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its territory.[63][64] In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, was able to
reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political maneuverings, known collectively as the Northern
Expedition.[65][66] The Kuomintang moved the nation's capital to Nanjing and implemented "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political
development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's San-min program for transforming China into a modern democratic state.[67][68] The political division in
China made it difficult for Chiang to battle the Communists, against whom the Kuomintang had been warring since 1927 in the Chinese Civil
War. This war continued successfully for the Kuomintang, especially after the Communists retreated in the
Long March, until Japanese aggression and the 1936 Xi'an Incident forced Chiang to confront Imperial
Japan.[69]
The Second Sino-Japanese War (19371945), a theater of World War II, forced an uneasy alliance
between the Kuomintang and the Communists. Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against
the civilian population; in all, as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died.[70] An estimated 200,000
Chinese were massacred in the city of Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation.[71] Japan
surrendered unconditionally to China in 1945. Taiwan, including the Pescadores, was put under the
administrative control of the Republic of China, which immediately claimed sovereignty. China emerged
victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust between the Kuomintang and the
Communists led to the resumption of civil war. In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of
the ongoing unrest, many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland
China.[72]

People's Republic of China (1949present)

Sun Yat-sen, the father of


modern China (seated on right),
and Chiang Kai-shek, later
President of the Republic of
China

Main article: History of the People's Republic of China


Major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the Communist Party in control of most
of mainland China, and the Kuomintang retreating offshore, reducing the ROC's territory to only
Taiwan, Hainan, and their surrounding islands. On 1 October 1949, Communist Party Chairman Mao
Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China.[73] In 1950, the People's
Liberation Army succeeded in capturing Hainan from the ROC[74] and occupying Tibet.[75]
However, remaining Nationalist forces continued to wage an insurgency in western China throughout
the 1950s.[76]
Mao encouraged population growth, and under his leadership the Chinese population almost doubled
from around 550 million to over 900 million.[77] However, Mao's Great Leap Forward, a large-scale
economic and social reform project, resulted in an estimated 45 million deaths between 1958 and

Mao Zedong proclaiming the


establishment of the PRC in 1949

1961, mostly from starvation.[78] Between 1 and 2 million landlords were executed as
"counterrevolutionaries."[79] In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, sparking a period of political recrimination and social
upheaval which lasted until Mao's death in 1976. In October 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China in the United Nations, and took its
seat as a permanent member of the Security Council.[80]
After Mao's death in 1976 and the arrest of the faction known as the Gang of Four, who were blamed for the excesses of the Cultural
Revolution, Deng Xiaoping took power and led the country to significant economic reforms. The Communist Party subsequently loosened
governmental control over citizens' personal lives and the communes were disbanded in favor of private land leases. This turn of events marked
China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment.[81] China adopted its current
constitution on 4 December 1982. In 1989, the violent suppression of student protests in Tiananmen Square brought condemnation and
sanctions against the Chinese government from various countries.[82]
Jiang Zemin, Li Peng and Zhu Rongji led the nation in the 1990s. Under their administration, China's economic performance pulled an estimated
150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%.[83][84] The country formally
joined the World Trade Organization in 2001, and maintained its high rate of economic growth under Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao's leadership in
the 2000s. However, rapid growth also severely impacted the country's resources and environment,[85][86] and caused major social
displacement.[87][88] Living standards continued to improve rapidly despite the late-2000s recession, but centralized political control remained
tight.[89]
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Preparations for a decadal Communist Party leadership change in 2012 were marked by factional disputes and political scandals.[90] During
China's 18th National Communist Party Congress in November 2012, Hu Jintao was replaced as General Secretary of the Communist Party by
Xi Jinping.[91][92] Under Xi, the Chinese government began large-scale efforts to reform its economy,[93][94] which has suffered from structural
instabilities and slowing growth.[95][96][97][98] Xi-Li Administration also announced major reforms to the one-child policy and prison system.[99]

Shanghai skyline

Geography
Main article: Geography of China

Political geography
The People's Republic of China is the second-largest country in the world by land area[100] after Russia,
and is either the third- or fourth-largest by total area, after Russia, Canada and, depending on the definition
of total area, the United States.[k] China's total area is generally stated as being approximately
9,600,000 km2 (3,700,000 sq mi).[101] Specific area figures range from 9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi)
according to the Encyclopdia Britannica,[102] 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the UN
Demographic Yearbook,[6] to 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the CIA World
Factbook.[8]

A composite satellite image


showing the topography of
China

China has the longest combined land border in the world, measuring 22,117 km (13,743 mi) from the
mouth of the Yalu River to the Gulf of Tonkin.[8] China borders 14 nations, more than any other country
except Russia, which also borders 14.[103] China extends across much of East Asia, bordering Vietnam,
Laos, and Burma in Southeast Asia; India, Bhutan, Nepal and Pakistan[l] in South Asia; Afghanistan,
Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in Central Asia; and Russia, Mongolia, and North Korea in Inner
Asia and Northeast Asia. Additionally, China shares maritime boundaries with South Korea, Japan,
Vietnam, the Philippines and Taiwan.

Longsheng Rice Terrace in


Guangxi

Landscape and climate


The territory of China lies between latitudes 18 and 54 N, and longitudes 73 and 135 E. China's
landscapes vary significantly across its vast width. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the
East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains, while on the edges of the Inner
Mongolian plateau in the north, broad grasslands predominate. Southern China is dominated by hills and
The Li River in Guangxi
low mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts the deltas of China's two major rivers, the Yellow River
and the Yangtze River. Other major rivers include the Xi, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur. To the west sit
major mountain ranges, most notably the Himalayas. High plateaus feature among the more arid landscapes of the north, such as the
Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert. The world's highest point, Mount Everest (8,848m), lies on the Sino-Nepalese border.[104] The country's
lowest point, and the world's third-lowest, is the dried lake bed of Ayding Lake (154m) in the Turpan Depression.[105]

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China's climate is mainly dominated by dry seasons and wet monsoons, which lead to pronounced
temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from highlatitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm
and moist.[106] The climate in China differs from region to region because of the country's highly complex
topography.
A major environmental issue in China is the continued expansion of its deserts, particularly the Gobi
The South China Sea coast at
Hainan

Desert.[107][108] Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of
sandstorms, prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in dust storms plaguing
northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including Korea and Japan.
According to China's environmental watchdog, Sepa, China is losing a million acres (4,000 km) per year to
desertification.[109] Water quality, erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in China's
relations with other countries. Melting glaciers in the Himalayas could potentially lead to water shortages for
hundreds of millions of people.[110]

Biodiversity
Main article: Wildlife of China

Jiuzhaigou Valley in Sichuan

China is one of 17 megadiverse countries,[111] lying in two of the


world's major ecozones: the Palearctic and the Indomalaya. By
one measure, China has over 34,687 species of animals and
vascular plants, making it the third-most biodiverse country in the

world, after Brazil and Colombia.[112] The country signed the Rio
de Janeiro Convention on Biological Diversity on 11 June 1992,
and became a party to the convention on 5 January 1993.[113] It later produced a National
Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, with one revision that was received by the convention on 21
September 2010.[114]
China is home to at least 551 species of mammals (the third-highest such number in the world),[115]
1,221 species of birds (eighth),[116] 424 species of reptiles (seventh)[117] and 333 species of

A giant panda, China's most famous


endangered and endemic species, at
the Wolong National Nature Reserve
in Sichuan

amphibians (seventh).[118] China is the most biodiverse country in each category outside of the tropics. Wildlife in China share habitat with and
bear acute pressure from the world's largest population of homo sapiens. At least 840 animal species are threatened, vulnerable or in danger of
local extinction in China, due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction, pollution and poaching for food, fur and ingredients for
traditional Chinese medicine.[119] Endangered wildlife is protected by law, and as of 2005, the country has over 2,349 nature reserves, covering
a total area of 149.95 million hectares, 15 percent of China's total land area.[120]
China has over 32,000 species of vascular plants,[121] and is home to a variety of forest types. Cold coniferous forests predominate in the north
of the country, supporting animal species such as moose and Asian black bear, along with over 120 bird species.[122] The understorey of moist
conifer forests may contain thickets of bamboo. In higher montane stands of juniper and yew, the bamboo is replaced by rhododendrons.
Subtropical forests, which are predominate in central and southern China, support as many as 146,000 species of flora.[122] Tropical and
seasonal rainforests, though confined to Yunnan and Hainan Island, contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China.[122]
China has over 10,000 recorded species of fungi,[123] and of them, nearly 6,000 are higher fungi.[124]

Environmental issues
Main article: Environmental issues in China
See also: Water resources of the People's Republic of China
In recent decades, China has suffered from severe environmental deterioration and pollution.[125][126] While regulations such as the 1979
Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, they are poorly enforced, as they are frequently disregarded by local communities and
government officials in favor of rapid economic development.[127] Urban air pollution is a severe health issue in the country; the World Bank
estimated in 2013 that 16 of the world's 20 most-polluted cities are located in China.[128] China is the world's largest carbon dioxide
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emitter.[129] The country also has water problems. Roughly 298 million Chinese in rural areas do not have access to safe drinking water,[130]
and 40% of China's rivers had been polluted by industrial and agricultural waste by late 2011.[131] This crisis is compounded by increasingly
severe water shortages, particularly in the north-east of the country.[132][133]
However, China is the world's leading investor in renewable energy commercialization, with $52 billion invested in 2011 alone;[134][135][136] it is
a major manufacturer of renewable energy technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable
energy projects.[137][138] By 2009, over 17% of China's energy was derived from renewable sources
most notably hydroelectric power plants, of which China has a total installed capacity of 197
GW.[139] In 2011, the Chinese government announced plans to invest four trillion yuan (US$618.55
billion) in water infrastructure and desalination projects over a ten-year period, and to complete
construction of a flood prevention and anti-drought system by 2020.[132][140] In 2013, China began a
five-year, US$277-billion effort to reduce air pollution, particularly in the north of the country.[141]

Politics
Main article: Politics of the People's Republic of China

Wind turbines in Xinjiang. The


Dabancheng project is Asia's largest
wind farm

The People's Republic of China is one of the world's few remaining socialist states openly endorsing communism (see Ideology of the
Communist Party of China). The Chinese government has been variously described as communist and socialist, but also as authoritarian and
corporatist,[142] with heavy restrictions in many areas, most notably against free access to the Internet, freedom of the press, freedom of
assembly, the right to have children, free formation of social organizations and freedom of religion.[143] Its current political and economic system
has been termed by its leaders as "socialism with Chinese characteristics" (which is Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances) and as the
"socialist market economy" respectively.[144]

Communist Party
The country is ruled by the Communist Party of China (CPC), whose power is enshrined in China's constitution.[145] The Chinese electoral
system is hierarchical, whereby local People's Congresses are directly elected, and all higher levels of People's Congresses up to the National
People's Congress (NPC) are indirectly elected by the People's Congress of the level immediately below.[146] The political system is
decentralized, and provincial and sub-provincial leaders have a significant amount of autonomy.[147] There are other political parties in China,
referred to in China as democratic parties, which participate in the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative
Conference (CPPCC).[148]
Compared to its closed-door policies until the mid-1970s, the liberalization of China has resulted
in the administrative climate being less restrictive than before. China supports the Leninist
principle of "democratic centralism",[149] but the elected National People's Congress has been
described as a "rubber stamp" body.[150] As a single-party state, the General Secretary of the
Communist Party of China holds ultimate power and authority over state and government.[m]
The Great Hall of the People in Beijing,
where the National People's Congress
convenes

Government

The President of China is the titular head of state, serving as the ceremonial figurehead under
of government, presiding over the State Council composed of four vice
premiers and the heads of ministries and commissions. The incumbent President is Xi Jinping, who is also the General Secretary of the
Communist Party of China and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China's paramount leader.[91] The incumbent
Premier is Li Keqiang, who is also a senior member of the CPC Politburo Standing Committee, China's de facto top decision-making
body.[153]
National People's Congress.[n] The Premier of China is the head

There have been some moves toward political liberalization, in that open contested elections are now held at the village and town
levels.[154][155] However, the Party retains effective control over government appointments: in the absence of meaningful opposition, the CPC
wins by default most of the time. Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government
corruption.[156][157] Nonetheless, the level of public support for the government and its management of the nation is high, with 8095% of
Chinese citizens expressing satisfaction with the central government, according to a 2011 survey.[158]
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Administrative divisions
Main articles: Administrative divisions of China, Districts of Hong Kong and Municipalities of Macau
The People's Republic of China has administrative control over 22 provinces and considers Taiwan to be its 23rd province, although Taiwan is
currently and independently governed by the Republic of China, which disputes the PRC's claim.[159] China also has five subdivisions officially
termed autonomous regions, each with a designated minority group; four municipalities; and two Special Administrative Regions (SARs), which
enjoy a degree of political autonomy. These 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, and four municipalities can be collectively referred to as
"mainland China", a term which usually excludes the SARs of Hong Kong and Macau. None of these divisions are recognized by the ROC
government, which claims the entirety of the PRC's territory.

Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of China
The PRC has diplomatic relations with 171 countries and maintains embassies in 162.[160] Its legitimacy is disputed by the Republic of China
and a few other countries; it is thus the largest and most populous state with limited recognition. In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of
China as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security

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Council.[161] China was also a former member and leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, and still considers itself an advocate for developing
countries.[162] Along with Brazil, Russia, India and South Africa, China is a member of the BRICS group of emerging major economies and
hosted the group's third official summit at Sanya, Hainan in April 2011.[163]
Under its interpretation of the One-China policy, Beijing has made it a precondition to establishing
diplomatic relations that the other country acknowledges its claim to Taiwan and severs official ties
with the government of the Republic of China. Chinese officials have protested on numerous
occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan,[164] especially in the
matter of armament sales.[165] Political meetings between foreign government officials and the 14th
Dalai Lama are also opposed by China, as the latter considers Tibet to be formally part of China.[166]
Much of current Chinese foreign policy is reportedly based on Premier Zhou Enlai's Five Principles of
Peaceful Coexistence, and is also driven by the concept of "harmony without uniformity", which
encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences.[167] This policy may
have led China to support states that are regarded as dangerous or repressive by Western nations,
such as Zimbabwe, North Korea and Iran.[168] China has a close economic and military relationship

Xi Jinping at a meeting with United


States Secretary of Defense Leon
Panetta in September 2012.

with Russia,[169] and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council.[170][171][172]
Trade relations
In recent decades, China has played an increasing role in calling for free trade areas and security
pacts amongst its Asia-Pacific neighbors. In 2004, it proposed an entirely new East Asia Summit
(EAS) framework as a forum for regional security issues.[173] The EAS, which includes ASEAN Plus
Three, India, Australia and New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005. China is also a founding
member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), along with Russia and the Central Asian
republics. China became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) on 11 December 2001.
In 2000, the United States Congress approved "permanent normal trade relations" (PNTR) with
China, allowing Chinese exports in at the same low tariffs as goods from most other countries.[174]

A meeting of G5 leaders in 2007, with


China's Hu Jintao second from right

China has a significant trade surplus with the United States, its most important export market.[175] In the early 2010s, US politicians argued that
the Chinese yuan was significantly undervalued, giving China an unfair trade advantage.[176][177][178] In recent decades, China has followed a
policy of engaging with African nations for trade and bilateral co-operation;[179][180][181] in 2012, Sino-African trade totalled over US$160
billion.[182] China has furthermore strengthened its ties with major South American economies, becoming the largest trading partner of Brazil
and building strategic links with Argentina.[183][184]
Territorial disputes
Main article: Foreign relations of China International territorial disputes
See also: List of wars involving the People's Republic of China
In addition to claiming all of Taiwan, China has been involved in a number of other international
territorial disputes. Since the 1990s, China has been involved in negotiations to resolve its disputed
land borders, including a disputed border with India and an undefined border with Bhutan. China is
additionally involved in multilateral disputes over the ownership of several small islands in the East and
South China Seas, such as the Senkaku Islands and the Scarborough Shoal.[185][186]
Emerging superpower status
China is regularly hailed as a potential new superpower, with certain commentators citing its rapid
economic progress, growing military might, very large population, and increasing international
influence as signs that it will play a prominent global role in the 21st century.[21][187] Others, however,

Map depicting territorial disputes


between the PRC and neighboring
states. For a larger map, see here.

warn that economic bubbles and demographic imbalances could slow or even halt China's growth as the century progresses.[188][189] Some
authors also question the definition of "superpower", arguing that China's large economy alone would not qualify it as a superpower, and noting
that it lacks the military and cultural influence of the United States.[190]
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Sociopolitical issues and reform


See also: Human rights in China, Hukou system, Social welfare in China, Elections in the People's Republic of China, Censorship
in China and Feminism in China
The Chinese democracy movement, social activists, and some members of the Communist Party of
China have all identified the need for social and political reform. While economic and social controls
have been significantly relaxed in China since the 1970s, political freedom is still tightly restricted. The
Constitution of the People's Republic of China states that the "fundamental rights" of citizens include
freedom of speech, freedom of the press, the right to a fair trial, freedom of religion, universal
suffrage, and property rights. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant
protection against criminal prosecution by the state.[191][192] Censorship of political speech and
information, most notably on the Internet,[193][194] is openly and routinely used in China to silence
criticism of the government and the ruling Communist Party.[195][196] In 2005, Reporters Without
Borders ranked China 159th out of 167 states in its Annual World Press Freedom Index, indicating a
very low level of perceived press freedom.[197]

Protests in support of Cantonese


media localization in Guangzhou,
2010

Rural migrants to China's cities often find themselves treated as second-class citizens by the hukou household registration system, which
controls access to state benefits.[198][199] Property rights are often poorly protected,[198] and taxation disproportionately affects poorer
citizens.[199] However, a number of rural taxes have been reduced or abolished since the early 2000s, and additional social services provided to
rural dwellers.[200][201]
A number of foreign governments, foreign press agencies and NGOs also routinely criticize China's human rights record, alleging widespread
civil rights violations such as detention without trial, forced abortions,[202] forced confessions, torture, restrictions of fundamental
rights,[143][203][204] and excessive use of the death penalty.[205][206] The government has suppressed demonstrations by organizations that it
considers a potential threat to "social stability", as was the case with the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. The Chinese state is regularly
accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses in Tibet and Xinjiang, including violent police crackdowns and religious
suppression.[207][208]
The Chinese government has responded to foreign criticism by arguing that the notion of human rights should take into account a country's
present level of economic development and the "people's rights to subsistence and development".[209] It emphasizes the rise in the Chinese
standard of living, literacy rate and average life expectancy since the 1970s, as well as improvements in workplace safety and efforts to combat
natural disasters such as the perennial Yangtze River floods.[209][210][211] Furthermore, some Chinese politicians have spoken out in support of
democratisation, although others remain more conservative.[212] Some major reform efforts have been conducted; for an instance in November
2013, the government announced its plans to the abolish the much-criticized re-education through labor program.[99] Although during the 2000s
and early 2010s, the Chinese government was increasingly tolerant of NGOs that offer practical, efficient solutions to social problems, such
"third sector" activity remained heavily regulated.[213]

Military
Main article: People's Liberation Army
With 2.3 million active troops, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the largest
standing military force in the world, commanded by the Central Military Commission
(CMC).[214] The PLA consists of the People's Liberation Army Ground Force
(PLAGF), the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN), the People's Liberation Army
Air Force (PLAAF), and a strategic nuclear force, the Second Artillery Corps.
According to the Chinese government, China's military expenditure in 2012 totalled
US$100 billion, constituting the world's second-largest military budget.[215] However,
other nations, such as the United States, have argued that China does not report its real
level of military spending, which is allegedly much higher than the official budget.[216]

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As a recognized nuclear weapons state, China is considered both a major regional military power and a potential military superpower.[217]
According to a 2013 report by the US Department of Defense, China fields between 50 and 75 nuclear ICBMs, along with a number of
SRBMs.[19] However, compared with the other four UN Security Council Permanent Members, China has a relatively limited power projection
capabilities.[218] To offset this, it has developed numerous power projection assets its first aircraft carrier entered service in
2012,[219][220][221][222] and it maintains a substantial fleet of submarines, including several nuclear-powered attack and ballistic missile
submarines.[223] China has furthermore established a network of foreign military relationships along critical sea lanes.[224]
China has made significant progress in modernizing its air force since the early 2000s,
purchasing Russian fighter jets such as the Sukhoi Su-30, and also manufacturing its
own modern fighters, most notably the Chengdu J-10 and the Shenyang J-11, J-15 and

Members of a Chinese military honor guard

J-16.[219][225] China is furthermore engaged in developing an indigenous stealth aircraft


and numerous combat drones.[226][227][228] China has also updated its ground forces,
replacing its ageing Soviet-derived tank inventory with numerous variants of the modern
Type 99 tank, and upgrading its battlefield C3I and C4I systems to enhance its
network-centric warfare capabilities.[229] In addition, China has developed or acquired
numerous advanced missile systems,[230][231] including anti-satellite missiles,[232] cruise

missiles[233] and submarine-launched nuclear ICBMs.[234]

Economy
Main articles: Economy of China, Agriculture in China and List of Chinese administrative divisions by GDP
As of 2013, China has the world's second-largest economy in terms of nominal GDP, totalling
approximately US$9.3253 trillion according to the National Bureau of Statistics of the People's
Republic of China.[12] If purchasing power parity (PPP) is taken into account (US$12.405 trillion in
2012, US$14.9614 trillion in 2013), China's economy is again second only to the United States. In
2013, its PPP GDP per capita was US$10,253,[12] while nominal GDP per capita was US$6,853.
Both cases put China behind around ninety countries (out of 183 countries on the IMF list) in global
GDP per capita rankings.[12]

Economic history and growth


Main article: Economic history of China (1949present)

The Shanghai Stock Exchange


building in Shanghai's Lujiazui
financial district. Shanghai has the
25th-largest city GDP in the world,

From its founding in 1949 until late 1978, the People's Republic of China was a Soviet-style centrally
totalling US$304 billion in 2011[235]
planned economy. Following Mao's death in 1976 and the consequent end of the Cultural Revolution,
Deng Xiaoping and the new Chinese leadership began to reform the economy and move towards a
more market-oriented mixed economy under one-party rule. Agricultural collectivization was dismantled and farmlands privatized, while foreign
trade became a major new focus, leading to the creation of Special Economic Zones (SEZs). Inefficient state-owned enterprises (SOEs) were
restructured and unprofitable ones were closed outright, resulting in massive job losses. Modern-day China is mainly characterized as having a
market economy based on private property ownership,[236] and is one of the leading examples of state capitalism.[237][238] The state still
dominates in strategic "pillar" sectors such as energy production and heavy industries, but private enterprise has expanded enormously, with
around 30 million private businesses recorded in 2008.[239][240][241][242]
Since economic liberalization began in 1978, China has been among the world's fastest-growing economies,[243] relying largely on investmentand export-led growth.[244] According to the IMF, China's annual average GDP growth between 2001 and 2010 was 10.5%. Between 2007
and 2011, China's economic growth rate was equivalent to all of the G7 countries' growth combined.[245] According to the Global Growth
Generators index announced by Citigroup in February 2011, China has a very high 3G growth rating.[246] Its high productivity, low labor costs
and relatively good infrastructure have made it a global leader in manufacturing. However, the Chinese economy is highly energy-intensive and
inefficient;[247] China became the world's largest energy consumer in 2010,[248] relies on coal to supply over 70% of its energy needs, and
surpassed the US to become the world's largest oil importer in September 2013.[249][250] However, China's economic growth and
industrialization has damaged its environment, and in the early 2010s, China's economic growth rate began to slow amid domestic credit
troublesinternational demand for Chinese exports has weakened and this has led to turmoil in the global economy.[251][252][253]
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In the online realm, China's e-commerce industry has grown more slowly than the EU and the US,
with a significant period of development occurring from around 2009 onwards. According to Credit
Suisse, the total value of online transactions in China grew from an insignificant size in 2008 to around
RMB 4 trillion (US$660 billion) in 2012. Alipay has the biggest market share in China with 300
million users and control of just under half of China's online payment market in February 2014, while
Tenpay's share is around 20 percent, and China UnionPay's share is slightly greater than 10
percent.[254]

China in the global economy


Nanjing Road, a major shopping street
in Shanghai

China is a member of the WTO and is the world's largest trading power, with a total international
trade value of US$3.87 trillion in 2012.[18] Its foreign exchange reserves reached US$2.85 trillion by
the end of 2010, an increase of 18.7% over the previous year, making its reserves by far the world's largest.[255][256] As of 2009, China owns
an estimated $1.6 trillion of US securities.[257] China, holding over US$1.16 trillion in US Treasury bonds,[258] is the largest foreign holder of
US public debt.[259][260] In 2012, China was the world's largest recipient of inward foreign direct investment (FDI), attracting $253 billion.[261]
China also invests abroad, with a total outward FDI of $62.4 billion in 2012,[261] and a number of major takeovers of foreign firms by Chinese
companies.[262] China's undervalued exchange rate has caused friction with other major economies,[177][263][264] and it has also been widely
criticized for manufacturing large quantities of counterfeit goods.[265][266]
China ranked 29th in the Global Competitiveness Index in 2009,[268] although
it is only ranked 136th among the 179 countries measured in the 2011 Index
of Economic Freedom.[269] In 2011, 61 Chinese companies were listed in the
Fortune Global 500.[270] Measured by total revenues, three of the world's top
ten most valuable companies in 2011 were Chinese, including fifth-ranked
Sinopec Group, sixth-ranked China National Petroleum and seventh-ranked
State Grid (the world's largest electric utilities company).[270]

Class and income equality


See also: Income inequality in China

A graph comparing the 2012 nominal GDPs of major economies


in US$ billions, according to IMF data[267]

China's middle-class population (if defined as those with annual income of between US$10,000 and US$60,000) had reached more than
300 million by 2012.[271] According to the Hurun Report, the number of US dollar billionaires in China increased from 130 in 2009 to 251 in
2012, giving China the world's second-highest number of billionaires.[272][273] China's domestic retail market was worth over 20 trillion yuan
(US$3.2 trillion) in 2012[274] and is growing at over 12% annually as of 2013,[275] while the country's luxury goods market has expanded
immensely, with 27.5% of the global share.[276] However, in recent years, China's rapid economic growth has contributed to severe consumer
inflation,[277][278] leading to increased government regulation.[279] China has a high level of economic inequality,[280] which has increased in the
past few decades.[281] In 2012, China's Gini coefficient was 0.474.[13]

Internationalization of the renminbi


Main article: Internationalization of the renminbi
In November 2010, Russia began using the Chinese renminbi in its bilateral trade with China.[282] This was soon followed by Japan,[283]
Australia,[284] Singapore,[285] and the United Kingdom.[286] As a result of the rapid internationalization of the renminbi, it became the eighthmost-traded currency in the world in 2013.[287]

Science and technology


Main articles: Science and technology in China and Chinese space program

Historical
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China was a world leader in science and technology until the Ming Dynasty. Ancient Chinese discoveries and inventions, such as papermaking,
printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions), later became widespread in Asia and Europe. Chinese mathematicians were
the first to use negative numbers.[288][289] However, by the 17th century, the Western world had surpassed China in scientific and technological
development.[290] The causes of this Great Divergence continue to be debated.[291]
After repeated military defeats by Western nations in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as
part of the Self-Strengthening Movement. After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology
based on the model of the Soviet Union, in which scientific research was part of central planning.[292] After Mao's death in 1976, science and
technology was established as one of the Four Modernizations,[293] and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed.[294]

Modern era
Since the end of the Cultural Revolution, China has made significant investments in scientific research,[295] spending over US$100 billion on
scientific research and development in 2011 alone.[296] Science and technology are seen as vital for achieving economic and political goals, and
are held as a source of national pride to a degree sometimes described as "techno-nationalism".[297] While Chinese-born scientists have won the
Nobel Prize in Physics four times and the Nobel Prize in Chemistry once, these scientists had all earned their doctorates and conducted their
award-winning research in the West.[o]
China is rapidly developing its education system with an emphasis on science, mathematics and engineering; in
2009, it produced over 10,000 Ph.D. engineering graduates, and as many as 500,000 BSc graduates, more
than any other country.[302] China is also the world's second-largest publisher of scientific papers, producing
121,500 in 2010 alone, including 5,200 in leading international scientific journals.[303] Chinese technology
companies such as Huawei and Lenovo have become world leaders in telecommunications and personal
computing,[304][305][306] and Chinese supercomputers are consistently ranked among the world's most
powerful.[307][308] Currently China is experiencing a significant growth in the use of industrial robots; from
2008 to 2011, the installation of multi-role robots has risen by 136 percent.[309]
The Chinese space program is one of the world's most active, and is a major source of national
pride.[310][311] In 1970, China launched its first satellite, Dong Fang Hong I. In 2003, China became the third
country to independently send humans into space, with Yang Liwei's spaceflight aboard Shenzhou 5; as of
June 2013, ten Chinese nationals have journeyed into space. In 2011, China's first space station module,
Tiangong-1, was launched, marking the first step in a project to assemble a large manned station by the early

The launch of a Chinese


Long March 3B rocket

2020s.[312]

Infrastructure
Communications
Main article: Telecommunications in China
China currently has the largest number of active cellphones of any country in the world, with over 1 billion users by February 2012.[313] It also
has the world's largest number of internet and broadband users,[314] with over 591 million internet users as of 2013, equivalent to around 44%
of its population.[315] A 2013 report found that the national average internet connection speed is 3.14 MB/s.[316] As of July 2013, China
accounts for 24% of the world's internet-connected devices.[317]
China Telecom and China Unicom, the world's two largest broadband providers, accounted for 20% of global broadband subscribers. China
Telecom alone serves more than 50 million broadband subscribers, while China Unicom serves more than 40 million.[318] Several Chinese
telecommunications companies, most notably Huawei and ZTE, have been accused of spying for the Chinese military.[319]

Transport
Main article: Transport in China

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Since the late 1990s, China's national road network has been significantly expanded through the creation of a network of highways, known as
the National Trunk Highway System (NTHS). In 2011 China's highways had reached a total length
of 85,000 km (53,000 mi), making it the longest highway system in the world.[320] Private car
ownership is growing rapidly in China, which surpassed the United States as the world's largest

Jingshen Expressway

automobile market in 2009, with total car sales of over 13.6 million.[321] Analysts predict that annual
car sales in China may rise as high as 40 million by 2020.[322] A side-effect of the rapid growth of
China's road network has been a significant rise in traffic accidents,[323] with poorly enforced traffic
laws cited as a possible causein 2011 alone, around 62,000 Chinese died in road accidents.[324] In
urban areas, bicycles remain a common mode of transport, despite the increasing prevalence of
automobiles as of 2012, there are approximately 470 million bicycles in China.[325]
China's railways, owned by the state,[326] are the busiest in the world, handling a quarter of the

world's cargo and passenger travel.[327] Due to huge demand, the system is regularly subject to overcrowding, particularly during holiday
seasons, such as Chunyun during the Chinese New Year.[327] The Chinese rail network carried an estimated 1.68 billion total passengers in
2010 alone.[328]
More than 10,000 km of China's railway mileageover 100,000 km in totalare high-speed
lines.[329] In December 2012, China opened the world's longest high-speed rail line, running from
Beijing to Guangzhou.[330] China intends to operate approximately 16,000 km (9,900 mi) of highspeed rail lines by 2020.[328] Rapid transit systems are also rapidly developing in China's major cities,
in the form of networks of underground or light rail systems.[331] China is additionally developing its
own satellite navigation system, dubbed Beidou, which began offering commercial navigation services
across Asia in 2012,[332] and is planned to offer global coverage by 2020.[333]

A high-speed maglev train leaving


Pudong International Airport,
Shanghai, in 2006

As of 2013, more than two-thirds of airports under construction worldwide are in China,[334] and
Boeing expects that China's fleet of active commercial aircraft in China will grow from 1,910 to 2011
to 5,980 in 2031.[334] However, 80% of China's airspace remains restricted for military use, and Chinese airlines made up eight of the 10
worst-performing Asian airlines in terms of delays.[335]

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of China
The national census of 2010 recorded the population of the People's Republic of China as
approximately 1,370,536,875. About 16.60% of the population were 14 years old or younger,
70.14% were between 15 and 59 years old, and 13.26% were over 60 years old.[336] The
population growth rate for 2013 is estimated to be 0.46%.[337]
Although a middle-income country by Western standards, China's rapid growth has pulled hundreds
of millions of its people out of poverty since 1978. Today, about 10% of the Chinese population lives
below the poverty line of US$1 per day, down from 64% in 1978. Urban unemployment in China
reportedly declined to 4% by the end of 2007.[338] At present, urban unemployment rate of China is
about 4.1%.[339][340]

A 2009 population density map of the


People's Republic of China. The
eastern coastal provinces are much
more densely populated than the
western interior

With a population of over 1.3 billion and dwindling natural resources, the government of China is very
concerned about its population growth rate and has attempted since 1979, with mixed results,[341] to
implement a strict family planning policy, known as the "one-child policy." Before 2013, this policy
sought to restrict families to one child each, with exceptions for ethnic minorities and a degree of
flexibility in rural areas. A major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013, allowing families to have two children if one parent is
an only child.[342] China's family planning minister indicated in 2008 that the one-child policy would be maintained until at least 2020.[343] The
one-child policy is resisted, particularly in rural areas, primarily because of the need for agricultural labour and a traditional preference for boys.
Families who breach the policy often lie during the census.[344] Data from the 2010 census implies that the total fertility rate may now be around
1.4.[345]
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The policy, along with traditional preference for boys, may be contributing to an imbalance in the sex
ratio at birth.[346][347] According to the 2010 census, the sex ration at birth was 118.06 boys for
every 100 girls,[348] which is beyond the normal range of around 105 boys for every 100 girls.[349]
The 2010 census found that males accounted for 51.27 percent of the total population.[348]
However, China's sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953, when males accounted for 51.82
percent of the total population.[348]

Ethnic groups
Main articles: List of ethnic groups in China, Ethnic minorities in China and Ethnic groups
in Chinese history

Population of China from 1949 to


2008

China officially recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, the largest of which are the Han Chinese, who constitute about 91.51% of the total
population.[10] The Han Chinese the world's largest single ethnic group[350] outnumber other ethnic groups in every provincial-level division
except Tibet and Xinjiang.[351] Ethnic minorities account for about 8.49% of the population of China, according to the 2010 census.[10]
Compared with the 2000 population census, the Han population increased by 66,537,177 persons, or 5.74%, while the population of the 55
national minorities combined increased by 7,362,627 persons, or 6.92%.[10] The 2010 census recorded a total of 593,832 foreign citizens
living in China. The largest such groups were from South Korea (120,750), the United States (71,493) and Japan (66,159).[352]

Languages
Main articles: Languages of China and List of endangered languages in China
The languages most spoken in China belong to the Sino-Tibetan language family. There are also
several major linguistic groups within the Chinese language itself. The most spoken varieties are
Mandarin (spoken by 70% of the population),[353] Wu (including Shanghainese), Yue (including
Cantonese and Taishanese), Min (including Hokkien and Teochew), Xiang, Gan, and Hakka. NonSinitic languages spoken widely by ethnic minorities include Zhuang, Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur,
Hmong and Korean.[354] Standard Mandarin, a variety of Mandarin based on the Beijing dialect, is
the official national language of China and is used as a lingua franca in the country between people of
different linguistic backgrounds.[355]
Classical Chinese was the written standard in China for thousands of years and allowed for written
communication between speakers of various unintelligible languages and dialects in China. Written
vernacular Chinese, or baihua, is the written standard, based on the Mandarin dialect and first
popularized in Ming Dynasty novels. It was adopted, with significant modifications, during the early
1990 map of Chinese ethnolinguistic
20th century as the national standard. Classical Chinese is still part of the high school curriculum, and
groups
is thus intelligible to some degree to many Chinese. Since their promulgation by the government in
1956, Simplified Chinese characters have become the official standardized written script used to
write the Chinese language within mainland China, supplanting the use of the earlier Traditional Chinese characters.

Urbanization
See also: List of cities in China, List of cities in China by population and Metropolitan regions of China
China has urbanized significantly in the past few decades. The percent of the country's population living in urban areas increased from 20% in
1990 to 46% in 2007.[356] It is estimated that China's urban population will reach one billion by 2030.[356] As of 2012, there are more than
262 million migrant workers in China.[357] Most of them are from rural areas and seek work in the cities.
China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million,[358] including the seven megacities (cities with a population of over 10 million) of
Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou, Tianjin, Shenzhen, and Wuhan.[359][360][361] By 2025, it is estimated that the country will be home to
221 cities with over a million inhabitants.[356] The figures in the table below are from the 2010 census,[3] and are only estimates of the urban
populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists when considering the total municipal populations (which includes suburban
and rural populations). The large "floating populations" of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult;[362] the figures
below include only long-term residents. --203.12.139.164 (talk) 03:47, 5 May 2014 (UTC)
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Education
Main articles: Education in the People's Republic of China and List of universities in China
Since 1986, compulsory education in China comprises primary and junior secondary school, which
together last for nine years.[364] In 2010, about 82.5 percent of students continued their education at
a three-year senior secondary school.[365] The Gaokao, China's national university entrance exam, is
a prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions. In 2010, 27 percent of secondary
school graduates are enrolled in higher education.[366] Vocational education is available to students at
the secondary and tertiary level.[367]
In February 2006, the government pledged to provide completely free nine-year education, including
textbooks and fees.[368] Annual education investment went from less than US$50 billion in 2003 to

Beijing's Tsinghua University, one of


the top-ranked universities in

more than US$250 billion in 2011.[369] However, there remains an inequality in education spending.
In 2010, the annual education expenditure per secondary school student in Beijing totaled 20,023,

China[363]

while in Guizhou, one of the poorest provinces in China, only totaled 3,204.[370] Free compulsory
education in China consists of primary school and junior secondary school between the ages of 6 and 15. In 2011, around 81.4% of Chinese
have received secondary education.[371] By 2007, there were 396,567 primary schools, 94,116 secondary schools, and 2,236 higher
education institutions in China.[372]
As of 2010, 94% of the population over age 15 are literate,[373] compared to only 20% in 1950.[374] In 2009, Chinese students from Shanghai
achieved the world's best results in mathematics, science and literacy, as tested by the Programme for International Student Assessment
(PISA), a worldwide evaluation of 15-year-old school pupils' scholastic performance.[375]

Health
Main article: Health in China
See also: Pharmaceutical industry in China
The Ministry of Health, together with its counterparts in the provincial health bureaux, oversees the
health needs of the Chinese population.[376] An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine
has characterized Chinese health policy since the early 1950s. At that time, the Communist Party
started the Patriotic Health Campaign, which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene, as well
as treating and preventing several diseases. Diseases such as cholera, typhoid and scarlet fever, which
were previously rife in China, were nearly eradicated by the campaign. After Deng Xiaoping began
instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly due to better
nutrition, although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside disappeared
along with the People's Communes. Healthcare in China became mostly privatized, and experienced
a significant rise in quality. In 2009, the government began a 3-year large-scale healthcare provision
initiative worth US$124 billion.[377] By 2011, the campaign resulted in 95% of China's population

Chart showing the rise of China's


Human Development Index from
1970 to 2010

having basic health insurance coverage.[378] In 2011, China was estimated to be the world's thirdlargest supplier of pharmaceuticals, but its population has suffered from the development and distribution of counterfeit medications.[379]
Life expectancy at birth in China is 75 years,[380] and the infant mortality rate is 12 per thousand.[381] Both have improved significantly since the
1950s.[p] Rates of stunting, a condition caused by malnutrition, have declined from 33.1% in 1990 to 9.9% in 2010.[384] Despite significant
improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities, China has several emerging public health problems, such as
respiratory illnesses caused by widespread air pollution,[385] hundreds of millions of cigarette smokers,[386] and an increase in obesity among
urban youths.[387][388] China's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks in recent years, such as the
2003 outbreak of SARS, although this has since been largely contained.[389] In 2010, air pollution caused 1.2 million premature deaths in
China.[390]

Religion
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Main article: Religion in China


Freedom of religion is guaranteed by China's constitution, although religious organizations that lack official
approval can be subject to state persecution.[203][391] Estimates of religious demographics in China vary. A
2007 survey found that 31.4 percent of Chinese above the age of 16 were religious,[392] while a 2006 study
found that 46% of the Chinese population were religious.[393]
Over the millennia, the Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious movements. China's San
Jiao ("three doctrines" or "three religions") include Confucianism,[q] Buddhism, and Taoism, and historically
have had a significant impact in shaping Chinese culture.[395][396] Elements of these three belief systems are
often incorporated into popular or folk religious traditions.[397]A 2008 survey of rural villagers in six provinces
found that

The Guoqing Temple on


Mount Tiantai, built in 598
CE, was the founding site of
the Tiantai branch of Chinese
Buddhism.

more than two-thirds of self-proclaimed religious believers (or 31.09% of all sample villagers) do
not or cannot clearly identify their faith ... These people believe that there are supernatural powers
that dominate or strongly influence the fate of human beings, and they think their fates can be
changed through offering sacrifices to gods or ancestors. These beliefs and practices are often
deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultures and customs of local communities.[393]

A 2007 survey by the Horizon Research Consultancy Group found that individuals who self-identify as Buddhists made up 1116% of China's
adult population, while Christians comprised around 34%, and Muslims comprised approximately 1%.[398] Some of the ethnic minorities of
China practice unique ethnic religions Dongbaism is the traditional religion of the Nakhi people, Moism that of the Zhuang people, and Ruism
that of the Qiang people. The traditional indigenous religion of Tibet is Bn, while most Tibetans follow Tibetan Buddhism, a form of
Vajrayana.[399]

Culture
Main articles: Chinese culture and Culture of the People's Republic of China
Since ancient times, Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism and conservative
philosophies. For much of the country's dynastic era, opportunities for social advancement could be
provided by high performance in the prestigious imperial examinations, which have their origins in the
Han Dynasty.[400] The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural
refinement in China, such as the belief that calligraphy, poetry and painting were higher forms of art
than dancing or drama. Chinese culture has long emphasized a sense of deep history and a largely
inward-looking national perspective.[21] Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in
China today.[401]
The first leaders of the People's Republic of China were born into the traditional imperial order, but
were influenced by the May Fourth Movement and reformist ideals. They sought to change some
traditional aspects of Chinese culture, such as rural land tenure, sexism, and the Confucian system of
education, while preserving others, such as the family structure and culture of obedience to the state.
Some observers see the period following the establishment of the PRC in 1949 as a continuation of
traditional Chinese dynastic history, while others claim that the Communist Party's rule has damaged
the foundations of Chinese culture, especially through political movements such as the Cultural
Revolution of the 1960s, where many aspects of traditional culture were destroyed, having been
denounced as "regressive and harmful" or "vestiges of feudalism". Many important aspects of traditional
Chinese morals and culture, such as Confucianism, art, literature, and performing arts like Peking
opera,[402] were altered

to conform to government policies and propaganda at the time. Access to


foreign media remains heavily restricted; only 34 foreign films a year are allowed to be shown in

A traditional Peking opera being


performed

Beijing's Forbidden City, showing


its classical Chinese architectural
style

Chinese cinemas.[403]

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Today, the Chinese government has accepted numerous elements of traditional Chinese culture as being integral to Chinese society. With the
rise of Chinese nationalism and the end of the Cultural Revolution, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film, fashion and
architecture have seen a vigorous revival,[404][405] and folk and variety art in particular have sparked interest nationally and even
worldwide.[406] China is now the third-most-visited country in the world,[407] with 55.7 million inbound international visitors in 2010.[408] It also
experiences an enormous volume of domestic tourism; an estimated 740 million Chinese holidaymakers travelled within the country in October
2012 alone.[409]

Cuisine
Main article: Chinese cuisine
Chinese cuisine is highly diverse, drawing on several millennia of culinary history. The dynastic
emperors of ancient China were known to have many dining chambers in their palaces, with each
chamber divided into several departments, each responsible for a specific type of dish.[410] China's
staple food is rice. Pork is the most popular meat in China, accounting for about three-fourths of the
country's total meat consumption.[411] Spices are central to Chinese cuisine. Numerous foreign
offshoots of Chinese food, such as Hong Kong cuisine and American Chinese food, have emerged in
the various nations that play host to the Chinese diaspora.

Traditional Chinese food in Tianjin,


including dumpling, baozi and
guobacai

Sports
Main articles: Sport in the People's Republic of China and China at the Olympics
China has one of the oldest sporting cultures in the world. There is evidence that a form of association
football called cuju was played in China during the Han Dynasty.[412] Today, some of the most
popular sports in the country include martial arts, basketball, football, table tennis, badminton,
swimming and snooker. Board games such as go (known as weiqi in China), xiangqi, and more
recently chess, are also played at a professional level.[413]
Physical fitness is widely emphasized in Chinese culture, with morning exercises such as qigong and
t'ai chi ch'uan widely practiced,[414] and commercial gyms and fitness clubs gaining popularity in the
Dragon boat racing, a popular
traditional Chinese sport

country.[415] Young people in China are also enjoy soccer and basketball, especially in urban centers
with limited space and grass areas. The American National Basketball Association has a huge
following among the Chinese youth, with ethnic or native Chinese players such as Yao Ming and
Jeremy Lin held in high esteem.[416] In addition, China is home to a huge number of cyclists, with an

estimated 470 million bicycles as of 2012.[325] Many more traditional sports, such as dragon boat racing, Mongolian-style wrestling and horse
racing are also popular.[417]
China has participated in the Olympic Games since 1932, although it has only participated as the PRC since 1952. China hosted the 2008
Summer Olympics in Beijing, where its athletes received 51 gold medals the highest number of gold medals of any participating nation that
year.[418] China also won the most medals of any nation at the 2012 Summer Paralympics, with 231 overall, including 95 gold medals.[419][420]
In 2011, Shenzhen in Guandgong, China hosted the 2011 Summer Universiade. China hosted the 2013 East Asian Games in Tianjin and will
host the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics in Nanjing.

See also
Index of China-related articles
International rankings of China
Outline of China

Footnotes
a. ^ Or (previously) "Peking".
b. ^ Portuguese (Macau only), English (Hong Kong only).
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c. ^ Ethnic minorities that are recognized officially.


d. ^ Xi Jinping holds four concurrent positions: General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, President of the People's Republic of China,
and Chairman of the Central Military Commission for both state and party. [5]
e. ^ The area given is the official United Nations figure for the mainland and excludes Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan. [6] It also excludes the
Trans-Karakoram Tract 5,800 km2 (2,200 sq mi), Aksai Chin 37,244 km2 (14,380 sq mi) and other territories in dispute with India. The total
area of China is listed as 9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi) by the Encyclopdia Britannica. [7] For further information, see Territorial changes
of the People's Republic of China.
f. ^ This figure was calculated using data from the CIA World Factbook. [8]
g. ^ The Hong Kong Dollar is used in Hong Kong and the Macanese pataca is used in Macau.
h. ^ Except Hong Kong and Macau.
i. ^ The total area ranking relative to the United States depends on the measurement of the total areas of China and the United States. See List of
countries and outlying territories by area for more information.
j. ^ :
k. ^ According to the Encyclopdia Britannica, the total area of the United States, at 9,522,055 km2 (3,676,486 sq mi), is slightly smaller than that
of China. Meanwhile, the CIA World Factbook states that China's total area was greater than that of the United States until the coastal waters of
the Great Lakes was added to the United States' total area in 1996. From 1989 through 1996, the total area of US was listed as 9,372,610 km2
(3,618,780 sq mi) (land area plus inland water only). The listed total area changed to 9,629,091 km2 (3,717,813 sq mi) in 1997 (with the Great
Lakes areas and the coastal waters added), to 9,631,418 km2 (3,718,711 sq mi) in 2004, to 9,631,420 km2 (3,718,710 sq mi) in 2006, and to
9,826,630 km2 (3,794,080 sq mi) in 2007 (territorial waters added).
l. ^ China's border with Pakistan and part of its border with India falls in the disputed region of Kashmir. The area under Pakistani administration is
claimed by India, while the area under Indian administration is claimed by Pakistan.
m. ^ Xi Jinping, 59, was named general secretary of the 82- million member Communist Party and is set to take over the presidency, a mostly
ceremonial post, from Hu Jintao in March. [151]
n. ^ The office of the President is a prestigious one. The President is the Head of the State. The Constitution of 1982 restores powers and
functions of the President of the People's Republic of China and recognizes him as the Head of the State. But he is not the real executive like the
American President but only a ceremonial Head. He can be compared with the Indian President or King/Queen of England. [152]
o. ^ Tsung-Dao Lee, [298] Chen Ning Yang, [298] Daniel C. Tsui, [299] Charles K. Kao, [300] Yuan T. Lee, [301]
p. ^ The national life expectancy at birth rose from about 31 years in 1949 to 75 years in 2008, [382] and infant mortality decreased from 300 per
thousand in the 1950s to around 33 per thousand in 2001. [383]
q. ^ Whether or not Confucianism can be classified as a religion is disputed. [394]

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Further reading
Meng, Fanhua (2011). Phenomenon of Chinese Culture at the Turn of the 21st century. Singapore: Silkroad Press. ISBN 978-981-4332-35-4.
Farah, Paolo (2006). "Five Years of China's WTO Membership: EU and US Perspectives on China's Compliance with Transparency
Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism". Legal Issues of Economic Integration. Kluwer Law International. Volume 33, Number
3. pp. 263304. Abstract (http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=916768).
Heilig, Gerhard K. (2006/2007). China Bibliography Online (http://www.china-profile.com/bib/bib_start.htm). China-Profile.com.
Jacques, Martin (2009).When China Rules the World: The End of the Western World and the Birth of a New Global Order. Penguin Books.
Revised edition (28 August 2012). ISBN 978-1-59420-185-1.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China

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Revised edition (28 August 2012). ISBN 978-1-59420-185-1.

Sang Ye (2006). China Candid: The People on the People's Republic. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24514-8.
Selden, Mark (1979). The People's Republic of China: Documentary History of Revolutionary Change. New York: Monthly Review Press.
ISBN 0-85345-532-5.

External links
Overviews
China at a Glance (http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/china/home.html) from People's Daily
BBC News China Profile (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-13017877)
China (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html) entry at The World Factbook
China, People's Republic of (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/china.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs
China (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/China) at DMOZ
China (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/111803/China)'s Encyclopdia Britannica entry
"Rethinking 'Capitalist Restoration' in China" (http://www.monthlyreview.org/1105wu.htm) by Yiching Wu
Key Development Forecasts for China (http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=CN) from International Futures
"China on the Rise" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110121002102/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/asia/china/). PBS Online
NewsHour. October 2005.
ChinaToday.com (http://www.chinatoday.com/)
Government
The Central People's Government of People's Republic of China (http://english.gov.cn/) (English)
China Internet Information Center (http://www.china.org.cn/) (English)Authorized government portal site to China
Studies
"Assertive Pragmatism: China's Economic Rise and Its Impact on Chinese Foreign Policy"
(http://ifri.org/files/Securite_defense/Prolif_Paper_Minxin_Pei.pdf). Minxin Pei (2006). IFRI Proliferation Papers. No. 15.
Travel
China National Tourist Office (http://www.cnto.org/) (CNTO)
Maps
Google MapsChina (http://maps.google.com/maps?q=China&ll=30.600094,103.710938&spn=64.10009,177.1875&om=1)
Wikimedia Atlas of the People's Republic of China
Geographic data related to China (http://www.openstreetmap.org/browse/relation/270056) at OpenStreetMap
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=China&oldid=606568040"
Categories: Central Asian countries China Chinese-speaking countries and territories Communist states East Asian countries
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