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Computer memory
Computer memory types
Volatile
RAM
DRAM (e.g., DDR SDRAM)SRAM
In development
T-RAMZ-RAM
Historical
WilliamsKilburn tube (194647)Delay line memory (1947)Selectron tube(1953)Dekatron
Non-volatile
ROM
Mask ROMPROMEPROMEEPROM
NVRAM
Flash memory
Early stage NVRAM
nvSRAMFeRAMMRAMPRAM
Mechanical
Magnetic tapeHard driveOptical drive
In development
CBRAMSONOSRRAMRacetrack memoryNRAMMillipede memoryFJG
Historical
Magnetic-core memory (1949)Plated wire memory (1957)Thin-film memory(1962)Twistor memory (~1968)Bubble memory (~1970)
VTE
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In computing, memory refers to the physical devices used to store programs (sequences of instructions)
or data (e.g. program state information) on a temporary or permanent basis for use in acomputer or
other digital electronicdevice. The term primary memory is used for the information in physical systems
which function at high-speed (i.e. RAM), as a distinction from secondary memory, which are physical
devices for program and data storage which are slow to access but offer higher memory capacity.
Primary memory stored on secondary memory is called "virtual memory". An archaic synonym for
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memory is store.
[1]
The term "memory", meaning primary memory is often associated with addressablesemiconductor
memory, i.e. integrated circuits consisting of silicon-basedtransistors, used for example as primary
memory but also other purposes in computers and other digital electronic devices. There are two main
types of semiconductor memory: volatile and non-volatile. Examples of non-volatile memoryare flash
memory (sometimes used as secondary, sometimes primary computer memory)
and ROM/PROM/EPROM/EEPROM memory (used for firmware such as boot programs). Examples
of volatile memory are primary memory (typically dynamic RAM, DRAM), and fast CPU cache memory
(typically static RAM, SRAM, which is fast but energy-consuming and offer lower memory capacity per
area unit than DRAM).
Most semiconductor memory is organized into memory cells or bistable flip-flops, each storing one bit (0
or 1). Flash memory organization includes both one bit per memory cell and multiple bits per cell (called
MLC, Multiple Level Cell). The memory cells are grouped into words of fixed word length, for example 1,
2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 or 128 bit. Each word can be accessed by a binary address of N bit, making it
possible to store 2 raised by N words in the memory. This implies thatprocessor registers normally are
not considered as memory, since they only store one word and do not include an addressing
mechanism.
The term storage is often used to describe secondary memory such as tape,magnetic disks and optical
discs (CD-ROM and DVD-ROM).
Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Volatile memory
3 Non-volatile memory
4 Management of memory
4.1 Memory management bugs
4.2 Early computer systems
4.3 Virtual memory
4.4 Protected memory
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
8 Footnotes
History [edit]
In the early 1940s, memory technology mostly permitted a capacity of a few bytes. The first electronic
programmable digital computer, theENIAC, using thousands of octal-base radiovacuum tubes, could
perform simple calculations involving 20 numbers of ten decimal digits which were held in the vacuum
tube accumulators.
The next significant advance in computer memory came with acoustic delay line memory, developed
by J. Presper Eckert in the early 1940s. Through the construction of a glass tube filled with mercury and
plugged at each end with a quartz crystal, delay lines could store bits of information within the quartz and
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Detail of the back of a section of
ENIAC, showing vacuum tubes
transfer it through sound waves propagating through
mercury. Delay line memory would be limited to a capacity of up to a
few hundred thousand bits to remain efficient.
Two alternatives to the delay line, the Williams tube and Selectron
tube, originated in 1946, both using electron beams in glass tubes
as means of storage. Usingcathode ray tubes, Fred Williams would
invent the Williams tube, which would be the first random access
computer memory. The Williams tube would prove more capacious
than the Selectron tube (the Selectron was limited to 256 bits, while
the Williams tube could store thousands) and less expensive. The
Williams tube would nevertheless prove to be frustratingly sensitive
to environmental disturbances.
Efforts began in the late 1940s to find non-volatile memory. Jay Forrester, Jan A. Rajchman and An
Wang developed magnetic core memory, which allowed for recall of memory after power loss. Magnetic
core memory would become the dominant form of memory until the development of transistor-based
memory in the late 1960s.
Developments in technology and economies of scale have made possible so-called Very Large Memory
(VLM) computers.
[2]
The term "memory" when used with reference to computers generally refers toRandom Access
Memory or RAM.
Volatile memory [edit]
Main article: Volatile memory
Volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information. Most
modern semiconductor volatile memory is either Static RAM (seeSRAM) or dynamic RAM (see DRAM).
SRAM retains its contents as long as the power is connected and is easy to interface to but uses six
transistors per bit. Dynamic RAM is more complicated to interface to and control and needs regular
refresh cycles to prevent its contents being lost. However, DRAM uses only one transistor and a
capacitor per bit, allowing it to reach much higher densities and, with more bits on a memory chip, be
much cheaper per bit. SRAM is not worthwhile for desktop system memory, where DRAM dominates, but
is used for their cache memories. SRAM is commonplace in small embedded systems, which might only
need tens of kilobytes or less. Forthcoming volatile memory technologies that hope to replace or
compete with SRAM and DRAM include Z-RAM, TTRAM, A-RAM andETA RAM.
Non-volatile memory [edit]
Main article: Non-volatile memory
Non-volatile memory is computer memory that can retain the stored information even when not powered.
Examples of non-volatile memory include read-only memory (see ROM), flash memory, most types of
magnetic computer storage devices (e.g. hard disks, floppy discs and magnetic tape), optical discs, and
early computer storage methods such as paper tape and punched cards. Forthcoming non-volatile
memory technologies include FeRAM, CBRAM, PRAM, SONOS,RRAM, Racetrack
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memory, NRAM and Millipede.
Management of memory [edit]
Main article: Memory management
Proper management of memory is vital for a computer system to operate properly. Modern operating
systems have complex systems to properly manage memory. Failure to do so can lead to bugs, slow
performance, and at worst case, takeover by viruses and malicious software.
Nearly everything a computer programmer does requires him or her to consider how to manage memory.
Even storing a number in memory requires the programmer to specify how the memory should store it.
Memory management bugs [edit]
Improper management of memory is a common cause of bugs.
In arithmetic overflow, a calculation results in a number larger than the allocated memory permits.
For example, a signed 8-bit integer allows the numbers 128 to +127. If its value is 127 and it is
instructed to add one, the computer can not store the number 128 in that space. Such a case will
result in undesired operation, such as changing the number's value to 128 instead of +128.
A memory leak occurs when a program requests memory from the operating system and never
returns the memory when it's done with it. A program with this bug will gradually require more and
more memory until the program fails as it runs out.
A segmentation fault results when a program tries to access memory that it has no permission to
access. Generally a program doing so will be terminated by the operating system.
Buffer overflow means that a program writes data to the end of its allocated space and then
continues to write data to memory that belongs to other programs. This may result in erratic program
behavior, including memory access errors, incorrect results, a crash, or a breach of system security.
They are thus the basis of many software vulnerabilities and can be maliciously exploited.
Early computer systems [edit]
In early computer systems, programs typically specified the location to write memory and what data to
put there. This location was a physical location on the actual memory hardware. The slow processing of
such computers did not allow for the complex memory management systems used today. Also, as most
such systems were single-task, sophisticated systems were not required as much.
This approach has its pitfalls. If the location specified is incorrect, this will cause the computer to write
the data to some other part of the program. The results of an error like this are unpredictable. In some
cases, the incorrect data might overwrite memory used by the operating system. Computer crackers can
take advantage of this to create viruses and malware.
Virtual memory [edit]
Main article: virtual memory
Virtual memory is a system where all physical memory is controlled by the operating system. When a
program needs memory, it requests it from the operating system. The operating system then decides
what physical location to place the memory in.
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Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Computer
memory.
This offers several advantages. Computer programmers no longer need to worry about where the
memory is physically stored or whether the user's computer will have enough memory. It also allows
multiple types of memory to be used. For example, some memory can be stored in physical RAM chips
while other memory is stored on a hard drive. This drastically increases the amount of memory available
to programs. The operating system will place actively used memory in physical RAM, which is much
faster than hard disks. When the amount of RAM is not sufficient to run all the current programs, it can
result in a situation where the computer spends more time moving memory from RAM to disk and back
than it does accomplishing tasks; this is known as thrashing.
Virtual memory systems usually include protected memory, but this is not always the case.
Protected memory [edit]
Main article: memory protection
Protected memory is a system where each program is given an area of memory to use and is not
permitted to go outside that range. Use of protected memory greatly enhances both the reliability and
security of a computer system.
Without protected memory, it is possible that a bug in one program will alter the memory used by
another program. This will cause that other program to run off of corrupted memory with unpredictable
results. If the operating system's memory is corrupted, the entire computer system may crash and need
to be rebooted. At times programs intentionally alter the memory used by other programs. This is done
by viruses and malware to take over computers.
Protected memory assigns programs their own areas of memory. If the operating system detects that a
program has tried to alter memory that does not belong to it, the program is terminated. This way, only
the offending program crashes, and other programs are not affected by the error.
Protected memory systems almost always include virtual memory as well.
See also [edit]
Virtual memory
Semiconductor memory
Memory Geometry
Memory hierarchy
References [edit]
Miller, Stephen W. (1977), Memory and Storage Technology, Montvale.: AFIPS Press
Memory and Storage Technology, Alexandria, Virginia.: Time Life Books, 1988
External links [edit]
http://computer.howstuffworks.com/computer-memory.htm
Footnotes [edit]
1. ^ A.M. Turing and R.A. Brooker (1952). Programmer's Handbook for Manchester Electronic Computer
Mark II . University of Manchester.
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2. ^ For example: Stanek, William R. (2009). Windows Server 2008 Inside Out . O'Reilly Media, Inc.
p. 1520. ISBN 9780735638068. Retrieved 2012-08-20. "[...] Windows Server Enterprise supports clustering
with up to eight-node clusters and very large memory (VLM) configurations of up to 32 GB on 32-bit
systems and 2 TB on 64-bit systems."
Categories: Computer memory Computer storage