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CHAPTER 1 HISTORY AND APPROACHES
1. Introspection
1. Trephination
1. Stone Age humans carving holes through the skull to release evil spirits
2. Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
1. 1879- set up the first psychological laboratory
1. near university at Leipzig, Germany
2. Trained subjects in introspection
1. asked them to accurately record their cognitive reactions to sample stimuli
3. Developed the theory of structuralism
1. the mind operates by combining subjective emotions and objective
sensations
3. William James (1842-1910)
1. 1890- published the first psychology textbook The Principles of Psychology
2. Examined how the structures Wundt identified function in our lives
(functionalism)
2. Gestalt Psychology
1. Max Wertheimer (1880-1943)
2. Principles
1. The whole is more than the sum of its parts
2. Argued against dividing human thought and behavior into discrete structures
3. Tried to examine a persons total experience
1. the way we experience the world is more than an accumulation of
perceptual experiences

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3. Psychoanalysis
1. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
1. Revolutionizes psychology with his psychoanalytic theory
2. Believed he discovered the unconscious mind
1. builds up through repression
3. To understand human thought and behavior, we must examine the
unconscious mind through:
1. dream analysis
2. word association
3. psychoanalytic theory
2. Definitions of Terms
1. Unconscious mind
1. a part of our mind over which we do not have conscious control
2. determines, in part, how we think and behave
2. Repression
1. the pushing down into the unconscious the events and feelings that our
conscious mind cant handle
4. Behaviorism
1. 1920s-1960s
1. Dominant school of thought
2. John Watson (1878-1958)
1. Studied Pavlov
2. For psychology to be a science, it must limit itself to observable phenomena
3. Behaviorist

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3. Principles
1. Psychologists should look only at behavior and the causes of it
1. stimuli (environmental events)
2. responses (physical reactions)
3. NOT consciousness
4. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
1. Expanded behaviorism to include reinforcement
2. Reinforcement
1. environmental stimuli that either encourage or discourage certain
responses
5. Humanist Perspective
1. Principles
1. Stressed individual choice and free will
2. We choose most of our behaviors
1. these choices are guided by psychological, emotional, and spiritual needs
3. The theories are not easily tested by the scientific method
2. Figures
1. Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
2. Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
3. Deterministic Behaviorists
1. Contrast with humanists
2. All behaviors are caused by past conditioning
6. Psychoanalytic Perspective
1. Characteristics

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1. Holds all of Freuds beliefs
2. Very controversial
7. Biopsychology (Neuroscience) Perspective
1. Principles
1. Explain human thought and behavior strictly in terms of biological processes
2. Human cognition and reactions
1. caused by genes, hormones, neurotransmitters
8. Evolutionary (Darwanian) Perspective
1. Principles
1. Examine human thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection
1. traits that benefit survival get passed on
2. Socialbiology
9. Behavioral Perspective
1. Principles
1. Explain human thought and behavior in terms of conditioning
2. Look strictly at observable behaviors and what reactions organisms get
in response to them
10. Cognitive Perspective
1. Principles
1. Examine human thought and behavior in terms of how we interpret, process,
and remember environmental events
2. The rules that we use to view the world are important to understanding why we
think and behave the way we do
11. Social-Cultural (Sociocultural) Perspective
1. Principles

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1. Look at how our thought and behaviors vary from people living in other cultures
2. Emphasize the influence culture has on the way we think and act
12. Eclectic Perspective
1. Principles
1. Claims that no one perspective has all the answers to the variety of human
thought and behavior
2. Each perspective has valid explanations


CHAPTER 2 METHODS
1. Overview
1. Hindsight Bias
1. Upon hearing research findings, the tendency to believe that you knew it all
along
2. Applied Research
1. Has clear, practical applications
3. Basic Research
1. Explores questions that are of interest to psychologists
2. Not intended to have immediate real world applications
2. Terminology
1. Hypothesis
1. Expresses a relationship between two variables
2. Variables
1. The dependent variable depends on the independent variable
2. Things that can vary among the participants in the research

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3. Theory
1. Aims to explain some phenomenon
2. Allows researchers to generate testable hypotheses with the hope of collecting
data that support the theory
4. Operational Definitions
1. Explanations of how variables will be measured
5. Validity and Reliability
1. Research is valid when:
1. it measures what the researcher set out to measure
2. it is accurate
2. Research is reliable when:
1. it can be replicated
2. it is consistent
6. Participants (Subjects)
1. The individuals on which the research will be conducted
7. Sampling
1. The process by which participants are selected
8. Sample
1. The group of participants
9. Population
1. Includes anyone or anything that could possibly be selected in the sample
10. Random Selection
1. Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
2. Increases the likelihood of a representative sample

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3. Allows researchers to generalize about their results
11. Stratified Sampling
1. Allows a researcher to ensure that the sample represents the population on
some criteria (ex. race)
2. Sample size uses proportions equal to that of the population
3. Experimental Method
1. Laboratory Experiments
1. Conducted in a lab
2. Advantage- highly controlled
2. Field Experiments
1. Conducted out in the world
2. Advantage- more realistic
3. Experiment
1. Only way to show a cause-effect relationship
2. Preferred research method
4. Confounding Variables
1. Any difference between the experimental and control conditions that could
affect the dependent variable
1. (other than the independent variable)
5. Assignment
1. The process by which participants are put into the experimental or control group
6. Random Assignment
1. Each participant has an equal chance of being placed into any group
2. Limits the effect of participant-relevant confounding principles

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7. Group Matching
1. Divide the sample into groups based on some criterion and assign half of each
group to each condition
2. ex: gender
8. Situation-Relevant Confounding Variable
1. Ex: time of day, weather, presence of others
2. Each condition has to be equivalent with the exception of the independent
variable
9. Experimenter Bias
1. A situation-relevant confounding variable
2. The unconscious tendency for research members to treat members of
the experimental and control groups differently to increase the chance of
confirming the hypothesis
10. Double-Blind Procedure
1. Neither the participants nor the researcher are able to affect the outcome of the
research
2. Eliminates experimenter and subject bias
11. Single Blind
1. Only the subjects dont know to which group theyve been assigned
2. Minimizes demand characteristics and participant bias
3. Demand characteristics
1. cues about the purpose of a study that affect the participants responses
4. Response/participant bias
1. the tendency for subjects to behave in certain ways
2. social desirability

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1. the tendency to try to give politically correct answers
12. Experimental Group
1. Gets the treatment operationalized in the independent variable
13. Control Group
1. Gets none of the independent variable
2. Without it, knowing the effects of the experimental treatment is impossible
14. Hawthorne Effect
1. Selecting a group of people on whom to experiment affects the performance of
that group, regardless of what is done to them
15. Placebo Effect
1. Controlled by the placebo method
1. giving the control group an inert drug
16. Counterbalancing
1. Using participants as their own control group
2. To eliminate order effects, have half do one order, the other half the other,
then switch
4. Correlational Method
1. Correlations
1. Express a relationship between two variables
2. Positive
1. the presence of one predicts the presence of the other
3. Negative
1. the presence of one predicts the absence of the other
4. Do not imply causation

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2. Ex-Post Facto Study
1. Cause and effect cannot be determined
2. The assignment of the independent variable is predetermined
3. Controls all other aspects of the research process
3. Survey Method
1. Asking people to fill out surveys
2. Investigates relationships, but not causation
3. No independent or dependent variables
4. Participant-relevant confounding variables cant be controlled for
5. Controlling for situation-relevant confounding variables
1. bring all participants to one place at one time to complete the survey
6. Response rate
1. people who send the survey back
5. Naturalistic Observation
1. Naturalistic Observation
1. Observe participants in their natural habitats without interacting with them
2. Control is sacrificed
3. Goal
1. to get a realistic and rich picture of the participants behavior
2. Disparity with Field Experiments
1. In field experiments:
1. manipulate independent variable
2. attempt to eliminate all confounding variables
6. Case Studies

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1. Case Study
1. Used to get a full, detailed picture of one participant or a small group of
participants
2. Findings cant be generalized to a larger population
3. Often used to research clinical disorders
7. Descriptive Statistics
1. Frequency Distributions
1. Can easily be turned into:
1. frequency polygons
2. histograms
2. Y-axis represents frequency
3. X-axis represents what youre graphing
2. Central Tendency
1. Mean, median, mode
2. Mean most common, but most affected by outliers/extreme scores
3. Outliers Skew Distributions
1. Positively skewed
1. has high outliers
2. contains more low scores
3. the mean is higher than the median
2. Negatively skewed
1. low outliers
2. the mean is less than the median
4. Measures of Variability

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1. Depict the diversity of a distribution
2. Range
1. highest score minus lowest score
3. Variance and standard deviation
1. relate the average distance of any score in the distribution from the mean
2. the higher they are, the more spread out the distribution
3. the square root of the variance is the standard deviation
4. Z-scores
1. measure the distance of a score from the mean in units of standard
deviation
2. scores above the mean have a positive z-score
3. 600 on SAT: z-score of +1
5. Normal curve
1. one standard deviation from the mean- 68% of scores
2. two standard deviations- 95%
3. three standard deviations- 99.7%
6. Percentiles
1. indicate the distance of a score from zero
2. 50
th
percentile = z-score of 0
8. Correlations
1. Correlation Coefficient
1. Range from -1 to +1
2. -1 = perfect negative correlation
3. +1 = perfect positive correlation

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4. 0 = weakest possible correlation
2. Scatter Plot
1. Correlations can be graphed using a scatter plot
2. Line of best fit (regression line)
1. drawn through it
9. Inferential Statistics
1. Purpose
1. To determine whether findings can be applied to the larger population from
which the sample was selected
2. Sampling Error
1. The extent to which the sample differs from the population
3. Tests
1. ANOVAs, MANOVAs, t-tests
2. Consider the magnitude of difference and size of sample
3. Yield a p-value
1. the smaller, the more significant the results
2. p = .05 is the cut off for statistically significant results
1. 5% chance that results occurred by chance
10. APA Ethical Guidelines
1. Institutional Review Board (IRB)
1. Any type of academic research must first propose the study to this ethics board
2. Animal Research: Requirements for Psychological Studies
1. They must have a clear scientific purpose
1. research must answer a specific and important scientific question

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1. animals chosen must be best suited to answer it
2. Must care for and house animals in a humane way
3. Must acquire animal subjects legally
1. purchased from accredited companies
2. trapped in a humane way
4. Must design experimental procedures that employ the least amount of suffering
feasible
3. Human Research
1. Coercion
1. participation must be voluntary
2. Informed consent
1. participants must know that they are involved in research and give
consent
2. no extreme deception about the nature of the study
3. Anonymity/confidentiality
1. identity and actions of participants cant be revealed
2. cant identify participants as the source of any of the data
4. Risk
1. participants cant be placed at significant mental/physical risk
5. Debriefing procedures
1. participants must be told the purpose of the study and provided with ways
to contact the researchers about study results

CHAPTER 3 BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR
1. Neuroanatomy

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1. Neuroanatomy
1. The study of the parts and functions of nerves
2. Neurons
1. individual nerve cells
2. Parts of the Neuron
1. Dendrites
1. root like parts of the cell
2. stretch out from the cell body
3. grow to make synaptic connections with other neurons
2. Cell body (soma)
1. contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell necessary for its life
3. Axon
1. wire like structure ending in the terminal buttons
2. extend from the cell body
4. Myelin sheath
1. a fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that speeds neural
impulses
5. Terminal buttons
1. end buttons, terminal branches of axon, synaptic knobs
2. branched end of the axon
3. contains neurotransmitters
6. Neurotransmitters
1. chemicals contained in terminal buttons that enable neurons to
communicate

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7. Synapse
1. the space between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of
the next neuron
2. How a Neuron Fires
1. Resting State
1. Neuron has negative charge with positive ions surrounding the cell
2. Steps
1. Neuron is stimulated
1. it releases neurotransmitters
2. Neurotransmitters bind to receptor sites on the dendrites of the receiving
neuron
3. If the threshold is reached, the cell membrane of the receiving neuron becomes
permeable
1. positive ions rush in
2. action potential
4. Axons release neurotransmitters to another neuron
3. All-or-None Principle
1. The neuron will fire completely or not at all
4. Neurotransmitters
1. Acetylcholine
1. motor movement
2. lack Alzheimers
2. Dopamine
1. motor movement and alertness
2. lack Parkinsons disease

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3. too much schizophrenia
3. Endorphins
1. pain control
2. involved in addiction
4. Serotonin
1. mood control
2. lack clinical depression
3. Nervous System
1. Afferent Neurons (Sensory Neurons)
1. Take information from the senses to the brain
2. Interneurons
1. Send information to elsewhere in the brain or to efferent neurons
3. Efferent (Motor) Neurons
1. Take information from the brain to the rest of the body
4. Central Nervous System (CNS)
1. Consists of the brain and the spinal cord
1. spinal cord- a bundle of nerves
5. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
1. All nerves not encased in bone
2. Somatic
1. controls voluntary muscle movements
3. Autonomic
1. controls responses to stress
2. sympathetic arouses

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3. parasympathetic calms
4. Our pain reflexes help prevent us from harming ourselves
4. Brain
1. Ways to Study it
1. Accidents
1. studying the effects
2. Lesions
1. the removal or destruction of part of the brain
2. studying the effects
3. Electroencephalogram (EEG)
1. detects brain waves
2. examines brain waves in different stages of consciousness,
especially sleep
4. Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) Scan
1. sophisticated x-ray
2. shows brain structure
3. uses x-ray cameras to get a 3-D picture
5. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
1. shows brain structure
2. uses magnetic fields to measure the density and location of
brain material
3. no radiation
4. more detailed than a CAT scan
6. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan

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1. shows how much of a certain chemical parts of the brain are using
2. measures which parts of the brain are most active during certain tasks
7. Functional MRI
1. ties brain structure to brain activity during cognitive tasks
2. combines elements of MRI and PET
2. Brain Structure and Function
1. Hindbrain
1. controls basic biological functions that keep us alive
2. medulla
1. controls blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing
3. pons
1. controls facial expressions
2. connects the hindbrain with the rest of the brain
4. cerebellum
1. little brain
2. coordinates muscle movement
3. on the bottom of the brain
2. Midbrain
1. coordinates simple movements with sensory information
2. integrates sensory information and muscle movements
3. reticular formation
1. controls general body arousal and the ability to focus our attention
3. Forebrain
1. controls thought and reason

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2. thalamus
1. receives sensory signals coming up the spinal cord and sends them
to other forebrain areas
3. hypothalamus
1. controls hunger, sexual arousal, thirst, and the endocrine system
4. amygdala
1. vital for emotion
5. hippocampus
1. vital for memory and retaining new information
3. Cerebral Cortex
1. Gray wrinkled surface of the brain
1. the wrinkles are called fissures
1. increase available surface area
2. Hemispheres
1. contralateral control
1. left hemisphere- right half of body
2. right hemisphere- left half
2. brain lateralization (hemispheric specialization)
1. the specialization of function in each hemisphere
3. split brain patients
1. the corpus collosum has been cut to treat severe epilepsy
2. cant orally report information presented to only the right hemisphere
of the brain
3. Association area

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1. any area of the cerebral cortex not associated with receiving sensory
information or controlling muscle movements
4. Frontal lobes
1. prefrontal cortex
1. at front of frontal lobe
2. brains central executive
3. foreseeing consequences, pursuing goals, and emotional control
2. Brocas area
1. left hemisphere of frontal lobe
2. controls the muscles involved in producing speech
3. motor cortex
1. at the back of the frontal lobe
2. controls our voluntary movements
3. top controls toes, bottom controls top of body
5. Parietal lobes
1. sensory (somato-sensory) cortex
1. right behind the motor cortex
2. receives incoming touch sensations
3. top receives information from the bottom of the body
6. Occipital lobes
1. interprets messages from the eyes in the visual cortex
2. messages in the left half of the retina go the to right visual cortex
7. Temporal lobes
1. process sound

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2. sound waves are processed by the ears and turned into neural
impulses that temporal lobes interpret
4. Brain Plasticity
1. Parts of the brain can adapt to perform other functions
2. Because dendrites grow throughout our lives
3. Younger brains are more plastic
5. Endocrine System
1. Adrenal Glands
1. Produce adrenaline fight or flight prep
2. Ovaries and Testes
1. Produce sex hormones
2. May explain gender differences
3. Controlled by the hypothalamus
6. Basic Genetic Concepts
1. Twins
1. Identical (monozygotic) twins
1. effective psychological environment
1. physical similarity in twins causes them to be treated the same way
2. Chromosomal Abnormalities
1. Turners Syndrome
1. only single X chromosome
2. causes shortness, webbed necks, and different sexual development
2. Klinefelters Syndrome
1. XXY chromosome pattern

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2. causes minimal sexual development and extreme introversion
3. Downs Syndrome
1. extra chromosome on 21
st
pair
2. mental retardation


CHAPTER 4 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

1. Overview
1. Transduction
1. Sensory messages are transformed into neural impulses
1. then sent to the thalamus, which sends them to other parts of the brain
2. exception: smell
2. Sensory Adaptation
1. Decreasing responsiveness to stimuli due to constant stimulation
3. Sensory Habituation
1. Our perception of sensations is partially due to how focused we are on them
4. Cocktail-Party Phenomenon
1. Someone across the room says your name
2. Your attention involuntarily switches to them
5. Sensation and Perception
1. Sensation
1. the activation of our senses
2. Perception
1. the process of understanding these sensations

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2. Energy Senses
1. Vision
1. Step one: gathering light
1. light is reflected off of objects and gathered by the eye
2. the color we perceive depends on:
1. intensity- how much energy the light contains. determines brightness
2. wavelength- determines hue
2. Step two: within the eye
1. cornea
1. light first enters the eye through it
2. helps to focus the light
3. a protective covering
2. pupil
1. light goes through it after the cornea
3. iris
1. determines how much light gets in the eye by controlling the size of
the pupil
4. lens
1. through accommodation, light that enters the pupil is focused by it
2. curved and flexible
3. as light passes through it, the image is flipped upside down and
inverted
5. retina
1. the focused inverted image projects on it

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3. Step three: transduction
1. occurs when light activates neurons in the retina
2. cones and rods
1. the first layer of cells in the retina
2. directly activated by light
3. cones- activated by color, clustered around the fovea
4. rods- peripheral vision, respond to black and white, outnumber cones
3. bipolar and ganglion cells
1. when enough cones and rods fire, they activate the next layer of
bipolar cells
2. if enough bipolar cells fire, the next layer of ganglion cells is activated
4. ganglion cells
1. the axons of it form the optic nerve that sends impulses to the LGN
5. lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)
1. in the thalamus
2. sends messages to the visual cortex
6. blind spot
1. where the optic nerve leaves the retina
2. has no cones or rods
7. optic nerve
1. impulses from the left side of each retina go to the left hemisphere of
the brain, right right
2. optic chiasm- spot where the nerves cross each other
4. Step four: in the brain

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1. feature detectors
1. impulses travel from the retina to the visual cortex to them
2. Hubel and Weisel
3. vertical lines, curves, motion, etc.
4. visual perception is a combination of all features
2. Theories of Color Vision
1. Trichromatic theory
1. we have three types of cones:
1. detect blue, red, or green
2. these are activated in combinations to produce other colors
2. cant explain afterimages or color blindness
2. Opponent-process theory
1. the sensory receptors arranged in the retina come in pairs
1. red/green, blue/yellow, black/white
2. when one sensor is stimulated, the other is inhibited from firing
3. Hearing
1. Sound waves
1. created by vibrations which travel through the air
2. collected by our ears
3. transduction neural impulses
4. amplitude
1. height. determines loudness in decibels
5. frequency
1. length

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2. determines pitch (megahertz)
2. Process
1. sound waves are collected in the pinna (outer ear)
2. waves travel down ear/auditory canal
3. they reach the eardrum (tympanic membrane)
1. a thin membrane that vibrates as sound waves hit it
2. connects with the hammer (malleus) which is connected to the anvil
(incus) which connects to the stirrup (stapes) these 3 small bones
= ossicles
4. the ossicles transmit the vibrations to the oval window
1. attached to cochlea, which is shaped like a snails shell and filled with
fluid
5. as the oval window vibrates, the fluid moves
6. hair cells on the basilar membrane (floor of cochlea) move
1. the hair cells are connected to the organ of corti (neurons activated
by movement of hair cells)
7. transduction occurs
1. organ of corti fires
2. auditory nerve sends these impulses to the brain
4. Pitch Theories
1. Place theory
1. hair cells in the cochlea respond to different frequencies of sound based
on where they are located
2. some bend to high pitches, others to low
3. better explains how we sense higher pitches

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2. Frequency theory
1. the hair cells fire at different rates
2. explains lower tones
5. Deafness
1. Conduction deafness
1. problem with the system of conducting the sound to the cochlea
2. in ear canal, eardrum, ossicles, or oval window
2. Sensorineural (nerve) deafness
1. hair cells in the cochlea are damaged
2. often results from loud noise
3. hair cells cant regenerate
6. Touch
1. Some nerve endings respond to temperature, others to pressure
2. Our brain interprets the amount of indentation (temperature change) as
intensity of touch
3. Nerve endings are very concentrated in the fingertips
4. Pain receptors will fire when other receptors are stimulated sharply
5. Pain warns us of danger
6. Gate-control theory
1. some pain messages have a higher priority
1. gate is open to it, and shut to lower priority messages
2. endorphins
1. swing the gate shut
2. natural endorphins control pain

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3. Chemical Senses
1. Taste (Gustation)
1. Chemicals from food are absorbed by taste buds
1. located on papillae
2. tastes: sweet, salty, sour, bitter
1. some taste buds respond more intensely to one
3. the more densely packed the taste buds, the more chemical absorbed
intense taste
2. Smell (Olfaction)
1. Process
1. molecules of substances rise into the air
2. molecules are drawn into the nose
3. they settle into a mucous membrane
4. absorbed by receptor cells
2. Olfactory bulb
1. receptor cells linked to it
2. gathers messages from the olfactory receptor cells
1. sends this information to the brain
3. nerve fibers from it connect to the brain at the amygdale and hippocampus
1. may explain why smell triggers memories
4. Body Position Senses
1. Vestibular Sense
1. Tells us about how our body is oriented in space
2. Process:

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1. three semicircular canals
1. tubes are partially filled with fluid
2. give brain feedback about body orientation
2. body position changes
3. fluids in canals move
4. sensors in canals move
5. movement of hair cells
6. neurons activated
1. impulses go to brain
2. Kinesthetic Sense
1. Gives us feedback about the position and orientation of specific body parts
5. Perception
1. Psychophysics
1. The study of the interaction between the sensations we receive and our
experience of them
2. Thresholds
1. Absolute threshold
1. the minimum amount of stimulus we can detect 50% of the time
2. subliminal- below the absolute threshold
2. Difference threshold (just noticeable difference)
1. smallest amount of change needed in a stimulus before we detect a
change
2. computed by Webers Law
1. psychophysicist Ernest Weber

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2. the change needed is proportional to the intensity of the original
stimulus
3. hearing- 5%
4. vision- 8%
6. Perceptual Theories
1. Signal Detection Theory
1. Investigates the effects of the distractions and interference we experience while
perceiving the world
2. Tries to predict what well perceive among competing stimuli
3. Takes into account response criteria:
1. motivations and expectations
2. also called receiver operating characteristics
4. False positive
1. we think we perceive a stimulus that isnt there
5. False negative
1. not perceiving a stimulus that is present
2. Top-Down Processing
1. We perceive by filling in gaps in what we sense with background knowledge
2. Schemata
1. created by experience
2. mental representations of how we expect the world to be
3. influence how we perceive the world
4. can create a perceptual set
1. a predisposition to perceive something in a certain way

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3. Backmasking
1. supposed hidden messages musicians played backwards in their music
3. Bottom-Up Processing (Feature Analysis)
1. Perception starts at the bottom with the individual characteristics of the image
2. Puts characteristics together into our final perception
3. More accurate than top-down processing
7. Principles of Visual Perception
1. Figure-Ground Relationship
1. Figure- objects
2. Ground- surrounding background
2. Gestalt Rules
1. We normally perceive objects as groups, not isolated elements
2. Factors that influence how we group objects:
1. proximity
1. objects close together perceived as belonging to the same group
2. similarity
1. objects are similar in appearance perceived as part of the same
group
3. continuity
1. objects that form a continuous form are grouped together
4. closure
1. objects that make up a recognizable image are grouped, even if the
mind needs to fill in gaps
2. similar to top-down processing

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3. Constancy
1. Constancy
1. our ability to maintain a constant perception of an object even as
sensation from it changes
2. Size constancy
1. we keep a constant size in mind for an object if were familiar with it
1. we know it doesnt grow or shrink as distance changes
3. Shape constancy
1. we know the shape of an object remains constant, even as retinal images
change
4. Brightness constancy
1. we perceive objects as being a constant color even as the light reflected
from them changes
4. Perceived Motion
1. Our brains can perceive objects at rest to be moving
1. stroboscopic effect
1. images in a series of still pictures presented at a certain speed seem
to move (flip books)
2. phi phenomenon
1. a series of light bulbs turned on and off at a particular rate appear to
be one moving light
3. autokinetic effect
1. spot of light is projected on a wall in a dark room
2. it appears to move if you stare at it
5. Depth Cues

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1. Visual cliff experiment
1. Eleanor Gibson
2. an infant that can crawl wont cross the cliff
3. infants have depth perception
2. Monocular cues
1. depth cues that need only one eye
2. linear perspective
1. parallel lines converge with distance
3. relative size cue
1. larger objects appear closer
4. interposition cue
1. objects that block the view to other objects must be closer
5. texture gradient
1. we can see more details in the texture of objects that are closer
6. shadowing
1. implies where the light source is
3. Binocular cues
1. depth cues that need both eyes
2. binocular (retinal) disparity
1. the closer the object, the more disparity there will be between the
images from each eye
3. convergence
1. the more the eyes converge, the closer the object must be
8. The Effects of Culture on Perception

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1. Principle
1. Some basic perceptual sets are learned from culture
2. Muller-Lyer Illusion
1. an optical illusion consisting of a stylized arrow. When viewers are asked to
place a mark on the figure at the midpoint, they invariably place it more towards
the "tail" end.


CHAPTER 5 STATES OF CONCIOUSNESS

1. Overview
1. Dualism vs. Monism
1. Dualism
1. humans consist of thought and matter
1. matter- everything that has substance
2. thought - nonmaterial. Arises from, but is independent of the brain.
Gives humans free will.
2. Monism
1. thought and matter are aspects of the same substance
2. thought stops existing when the body dies
2. Consciousness
1. Our level of awareness about ourselves and our environment
2. Levels of Consciousness
1. Mere-Exposure Effect
1. We prefer stimuli that we have seen before over novel stimuli, even if we dont
consciously remember seeing it

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2. Priming
1. Research participants respond more quickly/accurately to questions theyve
seen before, even if they dont remember it
3. Blind Sight
1. One level of consciousness isnt getting visual information
2. Their behavior demonstrates that another level can see
3. They report being blind
4. Types of Levels
1. Conscious level
1. information about yourself and your environment that you are aware of
2. Nonconscious level
1. body processes controlled by the mind that were not aware of
3. Preconscious level
1. information about yourself or your environment that you arent thinking
about, but could be
4. Subconscious level
1. information of which we arent consciously aware
2. must exist due to behavior
3. proof: priming and mere exposure effect
5. Unconscious level
1. some events/feelings that are unacceptable to the conscious mind are
repressed into it
3. Sleep
1. Sleep Cycle
1. Circadean rhythm

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1. metabolic and thought processes follow a pattern
2. Sleep onset
1. the period when we are falling asleep
2. possible mild hallucinations
3. alpha waves
1. produced when we are drowsy but awake
3. Theta waves
1. high frequency, low amplitude
2. as we go from awake to stage 1 to stage 2, they get slower and higher
in amplitude
3. stage 1, stage 2, awake
4. Sleep spindles
1. stage 2
2. short bursts of rapid brain waves
5. Delta sleep
1. stages 3 and 4
2. slow-wave sleep
3. delta waves
4. the slower the waves, the deeper the sleep
6. REM sleep
1. dreams occur
2. improves memory
3. rapid eye movement
4. intense brain activity

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5. paralysis, though a few muscle twitches
6. paradoxical sleep
7. REM rebound
1. if deprived of REM sleep the previous night, we will spend more time in
REM
2. Sleep Disorders
1. Insomnia
1. recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
2. affects 10% of the population
3. sleeping pills disturb sleep patterns
2. Narcolepsy
1. periods of intense sleepiness
2. may fall asleep at unpredictable times
3. may fall right into REM
4. affects less than .001% of the population
3. Sleep apnea
1. as common as insomnia
2. causes you to stop breathing for short periods of time at night
1. wake up slightly and gasp for air
2. wont remember waking up
3. affects attention, memory, energy
4. prevents deep sleep
5. high risk group: overweight men
4. Night terrors and somnambulism (sleep walking)

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1. more common in children
2. early in the night; stage 4
3. not remembered in the morning
3. Dreams
1. Freudian psychoanalysis
1. emphasizes dream interpretation as a way to uncover information in the
unconscious mind
2. dreams are wish fulfilling
1. in dreams we act out our unconscious desires
3. manifest content
1. the literal storyline of dreams
2. latent content- the unconscious meaning of it
3. the ego protects us from information in the unconscious mind
protected sleep
2. Activation-synthesis theory
1. dreams are the brains interpretation of what is happening physiologically
during REM sleep
3. Information-processing theory
1. the function of REM is to integrate information processed during the day
into our memory
2. support:
1. stress increases the number and the intensity of our dreams
2. dream content often relates to daily concerns
3. babies REM more
4. Hypnosis

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1. Posthypnotic Amnesia
1. Forgetting events that occurred while you were under hypnosis
2. Posthypnotic Suggestion
1. A suggestion that a hypnotized person behave in a certain way after hypnosis
ends
3. Role Theory
1. During hypnosis, people act out the role of a hypnotized person because they
are expected to
2. Hypnosis is a social phenomenon
3. Hypnotic suggestability
1. ability to be hypnotized
2. higher in people who:
1. have rich fantasy lives
2. can focus intensely on a single task for a long time
3. follow directions well
4. State Theory
1. Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness
5. Dissociation Theory
1. Ernest Hilgard
2. Hypnosis causes a voluntary split in consciousness
1. one level responds to the suggestions of the hypnotist
2. the other level retains awareness of reality
3. Ice water bath experiment
1. subjects felt pain but reported none

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2. demonstrates the presence of a hidden observer
1. a level of our consciousness that monitors what is happening while
another level obeys the hypnotist
5. Drugs
1. Psychoactive Drugs
1. Chemicals that change the chemistry of the brain
2. Induce an altered state of consciousness
3. The effects are due both to expectations and physiological processes
4. Blood-brain barrier
1. thick walls surrounding the brains blood vessels
2. molecules of psychoactive drugs are small enough to pass through it
5. Agonists
1. mimic neurotransmitters
6. Antagonists
1. prevent neurotransmitters from entering receptor sites, but dont mimic
their functions
7. Tolerance
1. caused by a physiological change
2. more of the same drug is needed for the same effect
3. cause withdrawal symptoms
2. Stimulants
1. Speed up body processes
1. autonomic nervous system
2. Produce a sense of euphoria

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3. Caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines, nicotine
4. Disturb sleep, reduce appetite, increase anxiety, cause heart problems
3. Depressants
1. Slow down body systems
2. Alcohol, barbiturates, anxiolytics (tranquilizers, antianxiety drugs)
3. Cause euphoria
4. Alcohol
1. slows reactions/judgment
2. affects motor coordination
4. Hallucinations (Psychedelics)
1. Cause changes in perception of reality
1. sensory hallucinations
2. loss of identity
3. vivid fantasies
2. Unpredictable effects
3. LSD, peyote, psilocybin mushrooms, marijuana
4. Reverse tolerance
1. second dose may be less than first but cause greater effects
2. the drug lingers in the body for weeks
5. Opiates
1. Morphine, heroin, methadone, codeine
2. Similar in chemical structure to opium
1. a drug derived from the poppy plant
3. Act as agonists for endorphins

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1. pain killers
2. mood elevators
4. Cause drowsiness and euphoria
5. Very physically addictive
1. rapidly change brain chemistry and create tolerance/withdrawal


CHAPTER 6 LEARNING

1. Overview
1. Learning
1. A long lasting change in behavior resulting from experience
2. Classical Conditioning
1. Ivan Pavlov
1. Russian Physiologist
2. Found that dogs learn to salivate to simply the sounds that they regularly hear
before being fed
3. Developed classical conditioning:
1. neutral stimuli associated with stimuli such as food will produce similar
responses as the old stimuli
2. Classical Conditioning Process
1. Unconditioned stimulus (US or UCS)
1. the original stimulus that elicits a response
2. elicits a natural, reflexive response
3. produces the unconditioned response (UR or UCR)
4. if continually paired with a neutral stimulus, they will be associated

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2. Conditioned stimulus (CS)
1. a neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus
2. elicit a conditioned response (CR)
3. Acquisition
1. learning has occurred once the animals respond to the CS without the US
2. repeated pairings of CS and US yield a stronger CR
3. most effective conditioning:
1. present US first
2. introduce US while CS is still evident
4. Ineffective learning methods
1. trace conditioning
1. presentation of CS
2. short break
3. presentation of US
2. simultaneous conditioning
1. CS and US presented at same time
3. backward conditioning
1. presentation of US
2. presentation of CS
3. Extinction
1. The CS no longer elicits the CR
2. Achieved by presenting the CS without the US repeatedly
4. Spontaneous Recovery

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1. After extinction, the CR briefly reappears upon presentation of the CS
sometimes
5. Generalization
1. The tendency to respond to stimuli that is similar in some way to the CS
1. subjects can be trained to discriminate
6. John Watson and Rosalie Rayner
1. Conditioned Albert (a little boy) to fear a white rat
1. paired it with a loud noise he cries
2. Albert generalized to other fluffy white things
2. Illustrates aversive conditioning
7. Higher-Order Conditioning
1. Second order conditioning
2. The CS acts as a US in order to condition a response to a new stimulus
8. Biology
1. We are biologically prepared to make certain connections more easily than
others
1. learned taste aversions
1. pairing nausea with a new food
2. helpful for the survival of the species
2. Salient stimuli create a more powerful CR
3. Garcia and Koellings Experiment
1. illustrated that rats more easily make some connections than others
1. noise with shock
2. nausea with sweet water

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3. adaptive
3. Operant Conditioning
1. Definition
1. Learning based on the association of consequences with ones behavior
2. Edward Thorndike
1. Experiment
1. locked a cat in a puzzle cage
2. cat had to get out to get food
3. time required decreased over trials
4. concluded that the cat learned new behavior without mental activity
2. Law of effect
1. if the consequences of a behavior are pleasant:
1. the stimulus-response (S-R) connection will be strengthened
2. the likelihood of the behavior will increase
2. vice-versa
3. Instrumental learning
1. the consequence was instrumental in shaping future behaviors
3. B.F. Skinner
1. Coined the term operant conditioning
2. Skinner box
1. has a way to deliver food to an animal and a lever to press or disk to peck
in order to get the food
2. reinforcer- the food
3. reinforcement- the process of giving the food

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1. anything that makes a behavior more likely to occur is a reinforcer
4. positive reinforcement
1. the addition of something pleasant
5. negative reinforcement
1. the removal of something unpleasant
6. escape learning
1. allows one to terminate an aversive stimulus
7. avoidance learning
1. enables one to avoid the aversive stimulus all together
4. Punishment
1. Affecting behavior by using unpleasant consequences
2. Positive punishment
1. the addition of something unpleasant
3. Negative punishment
1. omission training
2. the removal of something pleasant
5. Punishment vs. Reinforcement
1. Punishment is most effective if:
1. delivered immediately after unwanted behavior
2. harsh
2. Harsh punishment may result in anger or fear
3. Shaping
1. rewarding approximations of the desired behavior

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2. increases the likelihood and speed of the subject stumbling upon
the desired behavior for the first time
4. Chaining
1. teaching subjects to perform a number of responses successively in order
to get a reward
2. example
1. a rat named Barnabus who learned to run through a veritable
obstacle course to get food
5. Discriminative stimulus
1. in discrimination, the special conditions under which the subject learns to
perform the desired behavior
6. Primary reinforcers
1. are rewarding in and of themselves
2. food, water, rest
7. Secondary reinforcers
1. things we have learned to value
2. praise, the chance to play a video game
8. Money
1. a generalized reinforcer because it can be traded for almost anything
9. Token economy
1. a practical application of generalized reinforcers
2. used in prisons, mental institutions, schools
3. every time people perform a desired behavior, they are given a token
1. can be traded for any one of a variety of reinforcers
10. Premack principle

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1. the reinforcing properties of something depend on the situation
2. whichever of two activities is preferred can be used to reinforce
the other activity
6. Reinforcement Schedules
1. Continuous reinforcement
1. rewarding the behavior each time
2. best when first teaching a new behavior
1. once behavior is learned, partial reinforcement schedules yield
higher response rates
2. Partial-reinforcement effect
1. behaviors will be more resistant to extinction if the animal has not been
reinforced continuously
3. Ways they differ
1. what determines when reinforcement is delivered
1. number of responses made- ratio schedule
2. the passage of time- interval schedule
2. the pattern of reinforcement
1. constant- fixed schedule
2. changing- variable schedule
4. Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule
1. provides reinforcement after a set number of responses
2. FR-5 schedule
1. subject will be rewarded after the fifth response
5. Variable-ratio (VR) schedule
1. provides reinforcement based on a varying number of responses

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2. VR-5 schedule
1. average number of responses required to get a reward is five
6. Fixed-interval (FI) schedule
1. requires that a set amount of time elapse before a response results in a
reward
2. FI-3 minute schedule
1. rewards the first response that occurs after three minutes
7. Variable-interval (VI) schedule
1. varies the amount of time required to elapse before a response will result
in reinforcement
2. VI-3 minute schedule
1. subject will be rewarded for the first response made after an average
of three minutes
8. Variable schedules are more resistant to extinction than fixed schedules
7. Biology
1. Instinctive drift
1. the tendency for animals to forgo rewards to pursue their typical patterns
of behavior
2. Animals wont perform certain behaviors that go against their natural
inclinations
4. Cognitive Learning
1. The Contigency Model of Classical Conditioning
1. The contiguity model
1. the Pavlovian model of classical conditioning
2. the more times two things are paired, the greater the learning that
will occur

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3. contiguity (togetherness)
1. determines the strength of the response
2. Contigency model
1. Robert Rescorla
2. a revised version of the Pavlovian model
1. takes into account more complex circumstances
3. rests upon a cognitive view of classical conditioning
2. Observational Learning (Modeling)
1. Albert Bandura
1. studying modeling helped him formulate social-learning theory
2. Species-specific
1. it only occurs between members of the same species
3. Basic components:
1. observation
2. imitation
3. a mental representation of the observed behavior must exist to
enable imitation
4. Bobo doll experiment
1. children exposed to adults who modeled aggressive behavior against
Bobo doll
2. children left alone with a bobo doll
3. they exhibited almost identical aggressive behavior
4. Bandura and Ross 1963
5. showed that children learn violent behavior through observation

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3. Latent Learning
1. Becomes obvious only once a reinforcement is given for demonstrating it
2. Edward Tolmans experiment
1. three groups of rats:
1. always got a reward for completing the maze
2. never got a reward
3. not rewarded during the first half of trials, rewarded in
second half
2. group 3
1. during the first half their performance was very similar to the group
that never got a reward
2. performance improved dramatically and suddenly once they began to
be rewarded for finishing the maze
3. conclusion
1. the rats must have learned their way around the maze in the first half
2. performance did not improve because it had no reason to
3. dramatic improvement in second half resulted from latent learning
4. Abstract Learning
1. Understanding concepts in order to secure a reward
2. Studies show that pigeons can
5. Insight Learning
1. When one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem
2. Wolfgang Kohlers Experiment
1. suspended a banana from the ceiling out of reach of a group of
chimpanzees

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1. room had many boxes
2. chimps spent most time running around in frustration
3. suddenly, they piled up the boxes, climbed up, and grabbed the banana


CHAPTER 7 COGNITION

1. Overview
1. Memory
1. Any indication that learning has persisted over time
2. Three Box/ Information Processing Model of Memory
1. Sensory Memory
1. The first stop for external events
2. Contains all of the information processed by senses for less than a second
3. George Sperlings Experiment
1. flashed a 3x3 grid for one twentieth of a second to participants
2. had to recall one of the rows immediately after
3. indicated which to remember with a tone
4. participants could recall any perfectly
5. demonstrated that the entire grid must be held in sensory memory for
a split second
4. Iconic memory
1. a split second perfect photograph of a scene
5. Echoic memory
1. a brief (3-4 second) perfect memory for sounds

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6. Not all information in sensory memory is encoded into short term memory
7. Selective attention determines which sensory messages get encoded
2. Short-Term/ Working Memory
1. Holds everything you are currently thinking
2. If we do nothing with short term memories, they usually fade in 10-30 seconds
3. Memories we are currently working with and aware of in our consciousness
4. Capacity limited to seven items
1. chunking
1. can be used to expand this limit
2. group items
3. includes most mnemonic devices
5. To retain information:
1. rehearse (repeat) it
3. Long-Term Memory
1. Our permanent storage
2. Unlimited
3. Once information is there, its usually there forever
4. Episodic memory
1. memories of specific events
2. stored in a sequential series
5. Semantic memory
1. general knowledge of the world
2. stored as facts, meanings, or categories
6. Procedural memory

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1. memory of skills and how to perform them
2. stored sequentially but difficult to describe with words
7. Explicit memories
1. conscious memories of facts or events we tried to remember
8. Implicit memories
1. unintentional memories that we might not even realize we have
9. Eidetic (photographic) memory
1. very rare
2. seems to use very powerful and enduring visual images
3. Levels of Processing Model of Memory
1. Principles
1. Examines how deeply the memory was processed
1. deeply (elaboratively) processed
1. more likely to remember
2. shallowly (maintenance) processed
1. you will forget quickly
2. Memories are neither short nor long term
4. Retrieval
1. Definition
1. Getting information out of memory so we can use it
2. Types
1. Recognition
1. the process of matching a current event or fact with one already in
memory

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2. Recall
1. retrieving a memory with an external cue
3. Factors that Influence Retrieval
1. The order in which the information is presented
1. primacy effect
1. predicts that we are more likely to recall items presented at the
beginning of a list
2. recency effect
1. demonstrated by our ability to recall the items at the end of a list
3. serial position effect
1. recall of a list is affected by the order of items
2. Context
1. tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
1. temporary inability to remember information
2. semantic network theory
1. our brain forms new memories by connecting their meaning and
context with meanings already in memory
3. flashbulb memories
1. powerful because the importance of the events caused us to encode
the context surrounding the event
3. Emotional or situational context
1. mood-congruent memory
1. the greater likelihood of recalling an item when our mood matches
the mood we were in when the event happened
2. state-dependent memory

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1. recalling events encoded while in particular states of consciousness
5. Constructive Memory
1. Recovered Memory Phenomenon
1. Individuals claim to suddenly remember events they have repressed for years
2. Elizabeth Loftus
1. often they are constructed or false memories of events
2. Constructed (or Reconstructed) Memory
1. Can report false details of a real event
2. Can be a recollection of an event that never occurred
3. Leading questions can influence us to recall false details
4. Constructed memories feel accurate to the person recalling them
5. Need physical evidence for confirmation
6. Forgetting
1. Causes
1. Decay
1. we do not use a memory or connections to it for a long time
2. relearning effect
1. relearning information takes less time and effort than learning it
2. Interference
1. other information in your memory competes with what youre trying to
recall
2. retroactive interference
1. learning new information interferes with the recall of older information
3. proactive interference

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1. older information interferes with the recall of information learned
more recently
7. How Memories are Physically Stored in the Brain
1. Anterograde Amnesia
1. Cant encode new memories
2. Can recall events already in memory
3. Caused by damage to the hippocampus
4. Can learn new skills, but wont remember learning them
1. suggests that procedural memory is located elsewhere in the brain
2. Long-Term Potentation
1. Neurons can strengthen connections between each other
1. repeated firings strengthen connections, and the receiving neuron is more
sensitive to messages from the sending neuron
2. may be related to connections we make in long term memory
8. Language
1. Elements of Language
1. Phonemes
1. the smallest units of sound used in a language
2. English has about 44
2. Morphemes
1. the smallest unit of meaningful sound
2. can be words or parts of words
3. Language consists of phonemes that make up morphemes that make up words
4. Syntax

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1. the order in which words are spoken or written
2. Language Acquisition
1. Independent of which language, all babies progress through the same basic
stages
2. Stages
1. babbling
1. occurs around six months of age
2. represents experimentation with phonemes
3. babies in this stage can produce any phoneme in any language
2. holophrastic stage
1. babies speak in single words (holophrases)
3. telegraphic speech
1. toddlers will combine the words they can say into simple commands
2. meaning is clear, but syntax is absent
3. children begin to learn grammar and syntax rules, often misapplying
them (ex: overgeneralization)
3. Controversy: how we acquire language
1. behaviorists
1. language, like all behaviors, is learned through operant conditioning
and shaping
2. when kids use language correctly, they are rewarded with a
smile/encouragement
2. Noam Chomsky
1. theorized that humans are born with language acquisition devices
(ability to learn language rapidly as children)

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2. critical period for learning language may exist
3. nativist theory of language acquistion
3. modern psychologists agree with both
3. Language and Cognition
1. Linguistic relativity hypothesis
1. psychologist Benjamin Whorf
2. the language we use might control, and in some ways limit, our thinking
9. Thinking and Creativity
1. Describing Thought
1. Concepts
1. the cognitive rules we apply to stimuli from our environment
2. allow us to categorize and think about the objects, people, and ideas
we encounter
3. may be based on prototypes
2. Prototype
1. what we think is the most typical example of a particular concept
3. Images
1. the mental pictures we create in our minds of the outside world
2. can involve any sense
2. Problem Solving
1. Algorithms
1. a rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula or other
fool proof method
2. ex: try every possible solution

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2. Heuristics
1. rules of thumb
2. a rule that is generally true that we can use to make a judgment in
a situation
3. availability heuristic
1. judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that come
to mind initially
2. may lead to incorrect conclusions due to variability in
personal experience
4. representativeness heuristic
1. judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are prototypes
the person holds in his mind
3. Problems in judgments
1. overconfidence
1. the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our judgments
2. belief bias
1. we make illogical conclusions in order to confirm our preexisting
beliefs
3. belief perseverance
1. our tendency to maintain a belief even after the evidence we used to
form it has been contradicted
4. Impediments to problem solving
1. rigidity (mental set)
1. the tendency to fall into established thought patterns
2. functional fixedness- the inability to see a new use for an object
2. not breaking the problem into parts

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3. confirmation bias
1. the tendency to look for evidence that confirms our beliefs and ignore
evidence that contradicts them
4. framing
1. the way the problem is presented
2. can drastically change the way we view a problem
3. Creativity
1. Criteria generally involves originality and appropriateness
2. Convergent thinking
1. thinking pointed toward one solution
3. Divergent thinking
1. thinking that searches for multiple possible answers to a question
2. associated with creativity
4. Usually involves:
1. thinking of new ways to use what we are all familiar with
2. new ways to express emotions or ideas we share


CHAPTER 8 MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

1. Overview
1. Motivation
1. Feelings or ideas that cause us to act toward a goal
2. Theories of Motivation
1. Drive Reduction Theory

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1. Our behavior is motivated by biological needs
2. Needs
1. requirements for survival
2. food, water, shelter
3. Drives
1. our impulses to act in ways that satisfy our needs
2. ex: hunger
4. Homeostasis
1. a balanced internal state
2. our body seeks it
3. when we are out of it, we have a need that creates a drive
5. Primary drives
1. biological needs (ex: thirst)
6. Secondary drives
1. learned drives
2. ex: we learn that money can get us food and water to satisfy our
primary drives
2. Arousal Theory
1. We seek an optimum level of excitement or arousal
1. we are motivated by activities that help us achieve our needed level
2. Yerkes- Dodson Law
1. we might perform well at an easy task with a very high arousal level
2. the same high level would worsen our performance on a difficult task
3. Opponent-Process Theory

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1. People are usually at a baseline (normal) state
1. we might perform an act that moves us away from this state
2. may be pleasurable at first, but eventually we feel an opponent process
1. (we want to return to baseline state)
3. with physically addictive substances, we get withdrawal
1. we are required to have more to return to baseline state
2. Generally used to explain addictive behaviors
4. Incentive Theory
1. Incentives
1. stimuli that we are drawn to due to learning
2. We learn to associate some stimuli with rewards and others with punishment
1. we are motivated to seek the rewards
5. Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
1. Physiological needs
1. to satisfy drives for hunger, thirst, and sex
2. Safety needs
1. to feel safe, secure, and out of danger
3. Belonging and love needs
1. to be accepted and belong
4. Esteem needs
1. to achieve and to gain approval and recognition
5. Self-actualization needs
1. to achieve your unique potential
3. Hunger Motivation

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1. Biological Basis of Hunger
1. Lateral hypothalamus
1. causes us to eat
2. Ventromedial hypothalamus
1. satiety center
2. causes us to stop eating
3. Set-point theory
1. the hypothalamus wants to maintain a certain optimum body weight
1. if we drop below the weight, it lowers our metabolic rate (how quickly
our body uses energy)
2. when the set point is reached:
1. hypothalamus tells us to stop eating and raises metabolism to burn
excess food
2. Psychological Factors in Hunger Motivation
1. Externals
1. more motivated to eat by external food cues
1. attractiveness or availability of food
2. Internals
1. respond more often to internal hunger cues
3. The extent of the effect of each type of cue on us might be learned
4. Garcia effect
1. taste aversion to a food results after feeling nauseous after eating it
5. We prefer foods we were raised with
3. Eating Disorders

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1. Bulimia
1. binging and purging
2. Anorexia nervosa
1. refuse to eat due to obsession with weight
2. starve themselves to below 85% of normal body weight
3. Obesity
1. severely overweight
1. often by over 100 pounds
2. excess weight threatens health
2. have unhealthy eating habits
4. Sexual Motivation
1. Sexual Response Cycle
1. Documented by William Masters and Virginia Johnson
2. Stages
1. initial excitement
2. plateau phase
3. orgasm
4. resolution phase
2. Psychological Factors
1. Sexual desire can be present even when the capability to have sex is lost
2. Erotic material can spark physiological responses
5. Social Motivation
1. Achievement Motivation
1. Examines our desires to master complex tasks/knowledge and reach goals

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2. Some people have higher than others
3. Varies from activity to activity
2. Extrinsic/Intrinsic Motivation
1. Extrinsic motivators
1. rewards that we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves
2. ex: grades, salary
2. Intrinsic motivators
1. rewards we get internally
2. ex: enjoyment, satisfaction
3. most effective to sustain a behavior for a long period of time
3. Management Theory
1. Theory X
1. managers believe that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits
or threatened with punishments
2. Theory Y
1. managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work
and policies should encourage this inner motive
2. studies show its more beneficial
4. When Motives Conflict
1. Approach-approach conflict
1. you must choose between two desirable outcomes
2. Avoidance-avoidance conflict
1. you must choose between two unattractive outcomes
3. Approach-avoidance conflict

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1. one event or goal has both attractive and unattractive features
4. Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts
1. you must choose between two or more things, each of which has both
desirable and undesirable features
6. Theories and Emotion
1. James-Lange vs. Cannon-Bard
1. James-Lange Theory
1. we feel emotion because of biological changes caused by stress
2. William James and Carl Lange
2. Cannon-Bard Theory
1. the biological change and the cognitive awareness of the emotional state
occur simultaneously
1. the hypothalamus sends signals to our cortex and autonomous
nervous system about environment
2. Walter Cannon and Philip Bard
2. Two-Factor Theory
1. Stanley Schachter
2. Both our physical responses and cognitive labels (mental
interpretations) combine to cause emotional responses
3. People who are physiologically aroused experience more intense emotions
7. Stress
1. Overview
1. Stressors
1. life events that cause stress
2. Stress reactions

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1. how we react to these changes in the environment
2. Measuring Stress
1. SRRS
1. social readjustment rating scale
2. measures stress using LCUs
1. life changing units
3. any major life change increases the score
4. people who score high are more likely to have stress related diseases
5. Thomas Holmes and Richard Rae
3. Seyles General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
1. Describes the general response animals and humans have to a stressful event
2. Stages
1. alarm reaction
1. the organism readies itself to meet the challenge by activating the
sympathetic nervous system
2. resistance
1. body remains physiologically ready
2. hormones released to maintain readiness
3. if in this state for too long, the body will be depleted of resources
3. exhaustion
1. parasympathetic nervous system returns our body to normal
2. more vulnerable to disease
3. Explains problems associated with extended periods of stress
4. Perceived Control

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1. Control over events lessens stress
2. A perceived lack of control makes events more stressful







































CHAPTER 9 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY


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1. Research Methods
1. Cross-Sectional Research
1. Uses participants of different ages to compare how certain variables may
change over the life span
2. Produces quick results
3. May be affected by historical events or cultural trends
2. Longitudinal Research
1. Examines one group of participants over time
2. Time consuming
3. Precisely measures the effects of development on a specific group
2. Prenatal Influences on Development
1. Genetics
1. Determine which abilities we are born with
1. ex: process of developing motor skills
2. Teratogens
1. Can cause harm if ingested by the mother
1. they can pass through the placenta barrier
2. Alcohol
1. FAS (fetal alcohol syndrome)
1. mental retardation
2. malformed skull
3. caused by heavy drinking during pregnancy
2. fetal alcohol effect
1. caused by moderate drinking

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2. learning disabilities
3. behavioral problems
4. not all symptoms of FAS
3. Psychoactive drugs
1. newborns can share their mothers drug addiction
1. withdrawal symptoms can lead to death
4. Polluting chemicals in the environment
3. Motor/Sensory Development
1. Reflexes
1. Reflexes
1. inborn, automatic responses to specific stimuli
2. Reflexes humans are born with
1. rooting reflex
1. when touched on cheek, baby turns head and seeks to put the object
in his mouth
2. sucking reflex
1. when object is placed in babys mouth, he will suck it
3. grasping reflex
1. a baby will try to grasp an object that is placed on his hand or foot
4. moro reflex
1. when startled, baby will fling out and then retract his limbs
2. makes self as small as possible
5. babinski reflex
1. when a babys foot is stroked, he will spread out the toes

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6. we lose these reflexes later in life
2. The Newborns Senses
1. Hearing
1. babies can hear before birth
2. minutes after birth, baby will try to turn head toward mothers voice
2. Taste and smell
1. same basic preferences as we do
2. love sugar
3. Vision
1. not the dominant sense
1. hearing is
2. can see well 8-12 inches in front of them
1. everything else is a blur
2. normal vision by 12 months old
3. prefer face like objects
3. Motor Development
1. Roll over
1. five and a half months old
2. Stand
1. eight- nine months
3. Walk alone
1. fifteen months
4. The effect of environment is slight
4. Parenting

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1. Attachment Theory
1. Attachment
1. the reciprocal relationship between caregiver and child
2. Harry Harlow
1. raised baby monkeys with two artificial wire frame figure monkeys
1. one figure was fitted with a bottle the infant could feed from
2. the other wrapped in soft material
2. when frightened, infants preferred soft mom
1. demonstrated the importance of physical comfort in formation of
attachment
3. monkeys raised by real mothers were less frightened in new situations
3. Mary Ainsworth
1. observed infants reactions when placed into strange situations
1. parents left for a short time and returned
2. three reaction categories
1. secure, avoidant, anxious/ambivalent attachments
3. secure attachment
1. 66% of babies in experiment
2. explored novel environment while parents were present
3. distressed when parents were absent
4. came to parents when they returned
4. avoidant attachment
1. 21% of participants
2. resist being held by parents

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3. explore novel environment
4. dont go to parents for comfort when they return
5. anxious/ambivalent attachment
1. 12% of participants
2. may show extreme stress when parents leave but resist their comfort
when they return
2. Parenting Styles
1. Authoritorian
1. set strict standards for their childrens behavior
1. no discussion about the rationale behind them
2. punishment is used more than reinforcement
2. Permissive
1. dont set clear guidelines for their children
2. rules are constantly changed
3. rules are usually not enforced
4. easy to get away with almost anything
3. Authoritative
1. set consistent standards for their children
1. reasonable and explained
2. encourage their childrens independence
3. praise as often as they punish
4. Children produced
1. authoritative parents
1. more socially capable

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2. perform better academically
2. permissive parents
1. emotional control problems
2. more dependent
3. authoritorian parents
1. less trusting
2. more withdrawn from peers
5. Stage Theories
1. Continuity vs. Discontinuity
1. Continuity
1. develop at a steady rate from birth to death
2. Discontinuity
1. development happens in fits and the rate is variable
2. stage theories
1. discontinuous theories of development
2. Sigmund Freud
1. We develop through four psychosexual stages
1. sexual (to Freud)
1. how we get sensual pleasure from the world
2. if we fail to resolve a significant problem in our lives in one of these stages,
we become fixated in the stage
1. remain preoccupied with behaviors associated with that stage
2. Oral stage
1. infants seek pleasure through their mouths

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1. put many objects into mouth
2. fixation
1. overeating, smoking, childlike dependence on things and people
3. Anal stage
1. develops during toilet training
2. fixation
1. retentive- overly controlling
2. expulsive- out of control
4. Phallic stage
1. babies realize their gender
2. Oedipus complex and Electra complex
3. fixation
1. problems in relationships
5. Latency stage
1. period of calm
2. low psychosexual energy
3. most psychologists dont regard it as a separate stage
4. age 6- puberty
6. Genital stage
1. focus of sexual pleasure is genitals
2. remain for rest of life
3. fixation
1. normal
3. Erik Erikson

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1. A neo-Freudian
1. a theorist who believed in the basics of Freuds theory but adapted it to fit
his own observations
2. Psychosexual stage theory
1. eight stages
2. he thought our personality was profoundly influenced by experiences with
others
3. Trust vs. Mistrust
1. babies need to learn that they can trust their caregivers to fulfill their needs
and that their requests are effective
2. sense of trust or mistrust carries for life
4. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
1. toddlers begin to exert their will over their bodies (autonomy)
1. potty training is an early effort at this
2. learn to control temper tantrums
3. if we learn how to control ourselves and our environment in
reasonable ways:
1. we develop a healthy will
2. we can control our body and emotional reactions through following
social challenges
5. Initiative vs. guilt
1. if trust and autonomy achieved:
1. natural curiosity about our surroundings
2. ask many questions
2. if our curiosity is encouraged, we will feel comfortable expressing it always

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1. if not, we feel guilty and will not express it
6. Industry vs. inferiority
1. in first grade, we are asked to produce work that is evaluated
2. if we perform as well as our peers, we feel competent
1. if not, inferiority complex!
2. anxiety about our performance in that area
7. Identity vs. role confusion
1. in adolescence, our main social task is to discover what social identity we
are most comfortable with
1. maybe try out different roles
2. identity crisis
1. if an adolescent doesnt figure out a sense of self, they might have
one later in life
8. Intimacy vs. isolation
1. a. young adults figure out how to balance time and effort between work,
relationships, and self
1. the patterns we choose become relatively permanent
9. Generativity vs stagnation
1. we look critically at our life path
2. we try to ensure that our lives are going the way we want
1. if not, we try to change it by controlling others or changing our identity
10. Integrity vs. despair
1. toward the end of life
2. we look back at our accomplishments and decide if were satisfied
1. if so, we can step outside society and offer wisdom

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2. if not, we may fall into despair over lost opportunities
6. Cognitive Development
1. Jean Piaget
1. Worked for Albert Binet, creator of the first intelligence test
1. noticed that children of the same age gave similar answers
1. hypothesis: they think in similar ways which differ from the ways of
adults
2. led to theory of cognitive development
2. Theory of cognitive development
1. children view the world through schemata
1. cognitive rules we use to interpret the world
2. assimilation
1. we incorporate our experiences into this existing schemata
3. when info violates our schemata, we accommodate and change our
schemata
3. Four stages of thinking
1. sensorimotor stage
1. birth- 2 years
2. we explore the world through our senses
3. behavior is governed by reflexes until we develop our first cognitive
schemata
4. major challenge- develop object permanence (objects continue to
exist even when out of our sensory range)
2. preoperational stage
1. 2 years- 7 years

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2. object permanence prepares us to use symbols to represent real
world objects
3. the beginning of language
4. we speak our first words
5. we are limited in the ways we can think about the relationships
between and characteristics of objects
6. egocentric in thinking- can only see world from their perspective
3. concrete operations
1. 8 years- 12 years
2. we learn to think more logically about complex relationships between
different characteristics of objects
3. concepts of conservation
4. the realization that properties of objects remain the same even
when their shapes change
5. ex. volume, area, number
4. formal operations
1. 12 years- adulthood
2. we gain metacognition (the ability to think about the way we think)
3. abstract reasoning
4. hypothesis testing. someone in this stage can reason from a
hypothesis
5. we can manipulate objects in our minds without physically seeing
them
6. we can contrast ideas in our minds without real world correlates
2. Criticisms of Piaget: Information Processing Model
1. He underestimated children

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1. many go through the stages faster and enter them earlier than he thought
2. his tests relied too heavily on language use
1. results biased in favor of older kids
2. Information- processing model
1. a more continuous alternative to Piagets stage theory
2. our abilities to memorize, interpret, and perceive gradually develop as we
age, not in stages
1. ex: attention span
2. could explain some apparent cognitive differences Piaget
attributed to different cognitive stages
7. Moral Development
1. Lawrence Kohlberg
1. Described how our ability to reason about ethical situations changes over our
lives
2. Asked children to think about specific moral situations
3. Heinz dilemma
1. Heinz must make a moral choice about whether to steal a drug he cant
afford to save his wifes life
4. Responses to Heinz dilemma
1. preconventional
1. youngest children
2. focus on making the decision most likely to avoid punishment
3. moral reasoning limited to how the choice affects themselves
2. conventional
1. look at the moral choice through the eyes of others

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2. make the choice based on how others will view them
3. try to follow conventional standards of right and wrong
3. postconventional
1. moral reasoning
2. examines the rights and values involved in the choice
3. self-defined ethical principles involved
4. the morality of societal rules are examined, not blindly accepted
2. Criticisms of Kohlberg
1. Carol Gilligan
1. Kohlberg developed the model based on responses of boys
1. gender differences in development of morals and ethics?
2. according to her research:
1. boys have a more absolute view of what is moral
2. girls pay more attention to the situational factors
3. recent research doesnt support her theory of gender differences in moral
development
8. Gender and Development
1. Biopsychological (Neuropsychological) Theory
1. Concentrates on the nature element in the nature/nurture combo that produces
our gender role
1. behaviors that a culture associates with a gender
2. Look for more subtle gender differences
3. Women have larger corpus callosums
1. may affect how the brain hemispheres communicate

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2. Psychodynamic Theory (Freud)
1. Oedipus and Electra complex
2. Proper gender development:
1. child realizes that they cant beat their same sex parents for the attention
of the other parent
2. child identifies with the same sex parent instead
3. Social-Cognitive Theory
1. Concentrate on the effects of society and our own thoughts about gender on
role development
2. Social psychologists
1. look at how we react to boys and girls differently
3. Cognitive psychologists
1. focus on the internal interpretations we make about the gender messages
we get from the environment
4. Gender-schema theory
1. we internalize messages about gender into cognitive rules about how
each gender should behave


CHAPTER 10 PERSONALITIES

1. Overview
1. Personalities
1. The unique attitudes, behaviors, and emotions that characterize a person
2. Type A vs. Type B
1. Type A

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1. tend to feel a sense of time and pressure
2. easily angered
3. higher risk for heart disease
2. Type B
1. tend to be relaxed and easygoing
3. some people are neither
2. Psychoanalytic (Freudian) Theory
1. Psychosexual Stage Theory of Personality
1. Phallic Stage
1. boys and girls notice their physical differences
1. girls develop penis envy (desire for a penis)
2. boys get castration anxiety (fear of castration by fathers or for
misbehavior)
2. identification
1. when people emulate and attach themselves to an individual they
believe threatens them
2. prevents boys from fearing their fathers
3. encourages boys to break away from attachment to mom and act like
men
2. latency
1. sexual feelings are repressed out of conscious awareness
2. turn attention to other issues
3. fixation
1. results from being undergratified or overgratified
2. oral fixation

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1. overeat, chew gum, smoke
3. anal fixation due to traumatic toilet training
1. anal expulsive personality
2. messy and disorganized
3. anal retentive
4. meticulously neat and organized
4. phallic fixation
1. excessive sexual assurance and aggression or
2. consumed by their perceived sexual inadequacies
5. result from the libido (psychic energy) getting stuck in one of the
psychosexual stages
2. Unconscious vs. Conscious
1. Unconscious mind
1. we dont have access to the thoughts in it
2. we use lots of psychic energy to keep threatening thoughts in it
2. Conscious mind
1. contains everything we are thinking about at any one moment
3. Preconscious mind
1. contains everything that we could potentially summon to conscious
awareness with ease
3. The Personality
1. Consists of the id, ego, and superego
2. The id
1. contains instincts and psychic energy

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2. instincts
1. Eros- the life instincts.
2. often evidences as a desire for sex
3. directed by libido
4. Thanatos- the death instincts
5. seen in aggression
3. propelled by the pleasure principle
1. it wants immediate gratification
4. in the unconscious mind
3. The ego
1. located partly in the conscious, partly in the unconscious
2. follows the reality principle
1. negotiates between the desires of the id and the limitations of the
environment
3. acts as a mediator between superego and id
4. uses defense mechanisms to protect the unconscious mind from
the threatening thoughts in the unconscious
4. The superego
1. operates on both the conscious and unconscious level
2. sense of conscience about right and wrong
4. Defense Mechanisms
1. Repression
1. blocking thoughts out from conscious awareness
2. Denial

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1. not accepting the ego-threatening truth
3. Displacement
1. redirecting ones feelings toward another person or object
4. Projection
1. believing that the feelings one has toward someone else are actually held
by the other person and directed at oneself
5. Reaction formation
1. expressing the opposite of how one truly feels
6. Regression
1. returning to an earlier, comforting form of behavior
7. Rationalization
1. coming up with a beneficial result of an undesirable occurrence
8. Intellectualization
1. undertaking an academic, unemotional study of a topic
9. Sublimination
1. channeling ones frustration toward a different goal
2. viewed as particularly healthy
5. Criticisms of Freud
1. Freudian theory
1. little empirical evidence supports it
2. proving it is impossible
3. overestimates the importance of early childhood and of sex
4. has little predictive power

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5. able to interpret both positive and negative reactions to the theory
as support
2. Feminists
1. Freudian theory is objectionable
2. penis envy
1. grew from the assumption that men are superior to women
2. if women were jealous of men, it was probably due to the advantages
men had in society
3. ex. Karen Horney and Nancy Chodorow
3. womb envy
1. mens jealousy of womens reproductive abilities
2. Karen Horney
4. men dont have stronger superegos
6. Impact of Freudian Theory
1. Impact on culture greater than impact on contemporary psychology
2. Terms used in our language
1. ego, penis envy, denial, unconscious
3. Arts
1. Salvador Dali
1. paintings depict the unconscious
2. Woody Allen
1. films often feature a character undergoing psychoanalysis and
playing out a Freudian drama
3. Psychodynamic Theories
1. Neo-Freudian (Psychodynamic) Approaches

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1. offshoots of Freuds psychoanalytic theory
2. Carl Jung
3. Alfred Adler
2. Carl Jung
1. The unconscious has two parts:
1. collective
2. personal
2. Personal unconscious
1. contains complexes
1. the painful/threatening thoughts and memories that you dont want to
confront
3. Collective unconscious
1. passed down through the species
2. explains certain similarities between cultures
3. contains archetypes
1. universal concepts we all share as part of the human species
2. ex. shadow represents the evil side of personality
3. persona is peoples creation of a public image
4. evidence: fear of dark, importance of circle
3. Alfred Adler
1. Ego psychologist
1. downplayed the importance of the unconscious
2. focused on the ego
2. People are motivated by:

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1. inferiority
1. the fear of failure
2. superiority
1. the desire to achieve
3. Known for work on the importance of birth order in shaping personality
4. Trait Theories
1. Trait Theorists
1. Believe we can describe peoples personalities by specifying their main traits
1. these traits are stable and motivate behavior
2. Nomothetic Approach
1. Belief that the same basic set of traits can be used to describe all peoples
personalities
1. Hans Eyesenck
1. introversion-extroversion and stable-unstable scale can fully describe
personality
2. The big five personality traits
1. extraversion
2. agreeableness
1. how easy to get along with
3. conscientiousness
1. high = hardworking, responsible, organized
4. openness to experience
5. emotional stability (neuroticism)
1. how consistent your mood is

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3. Factor Analysis
1. Allows researchers to use correlations between traits to see which traits cluster
together as factors
2. Example:
1. factor- conscientiousness
2. traits- punctuality, diligence, neatness
1. strongly correlate
4. Idiographic Theorists
1. Using the same set of terms to classify all people is impossible
2. People need to be seen in the few terms that best characterize them
5. Gordon Allport
1. Common traits are useful
1. but a full understanding of someone is impossible without looking at their
personal traits
2. Types of personal traits
1. cardinal dispositions
1. play a pivotal role in everything you do
2. central dispositions
3. secondary dispositions
1. less apparent
2. describe less significant traits
6. Criticism of Trait Theories
1. Underestimate the importance of the situation
5. Biological Theories

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1. Heritability
1. A measure of the percentage of a trait that is inherited
2. Little evidence exists for specific personality traits
2. Temperament
1. Emotional style and characteristic way of dealing with the world
2. Infants seem to differ immediately at birth
1. thought to be born with different temperaments
1. these influence personality development
3. Hippocrates
1. Believed personality was determined by the relative levels of four humors in the
body
2. The four humors (fluids)
1. blood
2. yellow bile
3. black bile
4. phlegm
3. One of the first people to recognize that biology impacts personality
4. Somatotype Personality
1. William Sheldon
2. Three body types:
1. endomorphs (fat)
2. mesomorphs (muscular)
3. ectomorphs (thin)
3. Certain personality traits are associated with each of the body types

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4. Showed correlation, but not causation
6. Behaviorist Theories
1. Principles
1. Personality is determined by the environment
1. reinforcement contingencies create personality
2. We can alter personalities by changing the environment
2. Criticism
1. Fail to recognize the importance of cognition
7. Social- Cognitive Theories
1. Albert Bandura
1. Personality is created by an interaction between:
1. the person (traits)
2. the environment
3. the persons behavior
2. This is based on triadic reciprocality (reciprocal determinism)
1. each of these three factors influence both of the other two in a constant
loop like fashion
3. Also believed that personality is determined by self-efficacy
1. high = optimistic about their ability to get things done
2. low = feel a sense of powerlessness
3. affects actions
2. George Kelly
1. Personal-Construct theory

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1. in attempts to understand the world, people develop systems of personal
constructs
1. consist of pairs of opposites
2. ex. smart vs. dumb
3. used to evaluate the world
2. behavior is determined by interpretation of the world
3. based on a fundamental postulate
1. which states that behavior is influenced by cognitions, and we can
predict future behavior with past behavior
3. Locus of control
1. Julian Rotter
2. Internal locus of control
1. feel as if you are responsible for what happens to you
2. correlated with higher health, political activity, and grades
3. External locus of control
1. believe that luck and other forces outside of your own control determine
your destiny
8. Humanistic Theories
1. Determinism
1. The belief that what happens is dictated by what happened in the past
2. Psychoanalysts and behaviorists
3. Doesnt support the existence of free will
1. an individuals ability to choose his own destiny
2. third force
1. arose in opposition to determinism

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3. central to humanistic psychology
2. Principles
1. People are innately good
2. People are able to determine their destinies with free will
3. Focus on importance of self concept and self esteem
1. these have a positive correlation
4. Self concept
1. a persons global feeling about himself
3. Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
1. People are motivated to self-actualize
1. reach their full potential
2. Maslow
1. hierarchy of needs
3. Rogers self theory
1. people need unconditional positive regard to self actualize
2. unconditional positive regard
1. blanket acceptance
4. Criticism of Humanistic Theories
1. Theory of human nature too optimistic
9. Assessment Techniques
1. Projective Tests
1. Used by psychoanalysts
2. Involve asking people to interpret ambiguous stimuli
1. Rorschach inkblot test

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1. involves showing people a series of inkblots and having them
describe what they see
2. thematic apperception test (TAT)
1. consists of cards with a picture of people in an ambiguous situation
2. people are asked to describe what is happening in the cards
3. Peoples interpretations should reflect their unconscious thoughts
4. Scoring is complicated and unreliable
1. it relies on the therapists interpretations
2. Self-Report Inventories
1. Questionnaires that ask people to provide information about themselves
2. Used by many types of psychologists, ex:
1. humanistic
2. cognitive-behavioral
3. trait theorists
3. MMPI-Z
1. Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory
2. widely used
3. some have lie scales built in
3. Radical Behaviorists
1. Observing behavior is the only way to measure personality
4. Reliability vs. Validity
1. Reliability
1. consistency
2. Validity

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1. accuracy
5. Barnum Effect
1. People have the tendency to see themselves in vague, stock descriptions of
personality
2. Named after P.T. Barnum
1. circus owner
2. Theres a sucker born every minute.


CHAPTER 11 TESTING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

1. Standardization and Norms
1. Terms
1. Standardized test
1. the test items have been piloted on a similar population of people as those
who are meant to take the test
2. achievement norms have been established
2. Standardization sample
1. those people taking a standardized test on a certain day
2. they are fairly representative of the entire population who will take that test
3. Psychometricians
1. people who make tests
2. Principles
1. the purpose of tests is to distinguish between people
2. the goal of standardization is to yield equivalent exams
2. Reliability and Validity

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1. Reliability
1. Split-half reliability
1. randomly divide a test into two sections
2. correlate peoples performance on the two halves
3. correlation coefficient: the closer to +1, the more reliable
2. Equivalent-form reliability
1. test is available in several equivalent forms
2. the correlation between performance on the different forms of the test
3. Test-retest reliability
1. the correlation between a persons score on one administration of the test
with the same persons score on another administration
2. Validity
1. A test can be reliable and not valid, but not vice versa
2. Content validity
1. how well a measure reflects the entire range of material its supposed to
be testing
1. face validity
1. a superficial measure of accuracy
3. Criterion-related validity
1. concurrent validity
1. measures how much of a characteristic a person has now
2. predictive validity
1. a measure of future performance
4. Construct validity

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1. if a measure of perfect validity exists, we can correlate performance on it
with a new measure
2. the higher the correlation, the more construct validity the new measure
has
3. Types of Tests
1. Aptitude vs. Achievement
1. Aptitude tests
1. measure ability and potential
2. Achievement tests
1. measure what one has learned or accomplished
3. A test that exclusively measures one is impossible
2. Speed vs. Power
1. Speed tests
1. consist of a large number of questions asked in a short amount of time
2. goal
1. to see how quickly you can solve problems
2. Power tests
1. consist of items of increasing difficulty
2. sufficient time given
3. goal
1. to determine ceiling difficulty level
3. Group vs. Individual
1. Group tests
1. administered to a large number of people at once

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2. interaction between examiner and test takers minimal
3. less expensive, more objective
2. Individual tests
1. involve greater interaction between examiner and examinee
4. Theories of Intelligence
1. Fluid vs. Crystallized
1. Fluid intelligence
1. our ability to solve abstract problems and pick up new information and
skills
2. decreases with age
2. Crystallized intelligence
1. involves using knowledge accumulated over time
2. may increase with age
2. Charles Spearman
1. Intelligence can be expressed as a single factor
2. Used factor analysis
1. conclusion
1. s- specific abilities that people regard as different types of
intelligence
2. g- general. underlies every s
3. L.L. Thurstone and J.P. Guilford
1. Thurstone
1. primary mental abilities theory
1. intelligence is comprised of seven main abilities

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2. Guilford
1. over 100 mental abilities exist
4. Howard Gardner
1. Multiple intelligences
1. linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic,
intrapersonal, interpersonal, naturalist
5. Daniel Goleman
1. Emotional intelligence (EQ)
1. similar to interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence
6. Robert Sternberg
1. Sternbergs triarchic theory
1. three types of intelligence
2. componential/analytic intelligence
1. ability to compare and contrast, explain, and analyze
3. experimental/creative intelligence
1. ability to use knowledge and experiences in new, innovative ways
4. contextual/practical intelligence
1. street smarts
2. ability to apply what you know to real world situations
5. Intelligence Tests
1. Stanford-Binet IQ Test
1. Alfred Binet
1. Frenchman

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2. created a standardized test to identify which children needed special
attention
3. mental age
1. an idea that supposes that intelligence increases with age
2. average 10 year old has mental age of 10
2. Louis Terman
1. a Stanford professor
2. used Binets system to create the concept of IQ and the test
3. how to measure IQ
1. (mental age chronological age) x 100
4. all adults = age 20
2. The Weschler
1. Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
1. used for adults
2. Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
1. used for ages 6-16
3. Weschler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI)
1. used for children as young as four
4. Yields scores:
1. based on deviation IQ
1. mean = 100
2. standard deviation = 15
5. Eleven subscales
1. verbal- 6 combined

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2. performance IQ- 5
3. total IQ- 11
6. Nature vs. Nurture
1. Heritability
1. How much of a traits variation results from genetic factors
2. Ranges from 0 to 1
1. 0 = environment totally responsible
2. 1 = totally genetic
2. Miscellaneous
1. Within- group differences are typically larger than between group differences


CHAPTER 12 ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY

1. Overview
1. Abnormal Psychology
1. The study of people who suffer from psychological disorders
2. Defining Abnormality
1. Common Characteristics
1. Harmful/disturbing to the individual
2. Disturbing to others
3. Not shared by many members of the population
4. Does not make sense to the average person
2. Insanity
1. A legal term

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1. purpose
1. to differentiate between people who can be held responsible for their
crimes (the sane) and those with psychological disorders (the
insane)
3. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
1. Provides a way for psychologists to diagnose patients
2. Contains symptoms of all psychological disorders
3. Doesnt contain causes because different perspectives disagree
1. most psychologists are eclectic
1. accept/use ideas from many perspectives
3. Categories of Disorders
1. Interns Syndrome
1. The tendency to see in oneself the characteristics of disorders about which one
is learning
2. Not a psychological disorder
2. Anxiety Disorders
1. Phobias
1. contact with feared object/situation results in anxiety
2. specific phobia
1. an intense fear of an unwanted situation
2. ex. agoraphobia- open spaces
3. arachnophobia- spiders
4. social phobia- public embarrassment
2. Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
1. constant, low level anxiety

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3. Panic disorder
1. acute episodes of intense anxiety without any apparent provocation
2. increase in frequency
3. additional anxiety due to anticipating the anxiety attacks
4. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
1. persistent, unwanted thoughts cause you to feel the need to engage in a
particular action
5. Post-traumatic stress disorder
1. flashbacks/nightmares following your involvement in or observation of an
extremely troubling event
6. Theoretical causes
1. psychoanalytic
1. unresolved, unconscious conflicts between the id, ego, and superego
2. behaviorist
1. conditioning
2. cognitive learning
3. cognitive
1. dysfunctional ways of thinking
3. Somatoform Disorders
1. A person manifests a psychological problem through a physiological problem
2. Hypochondriasis
1. frequent physical complaints for which doctors cant locate the cause
2. may believe that minor problems are indicative of severe
physical illness
3. Conversion

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1. severe physical issue with no biological reason
1. paralysis
2. blindness
4. Dissociative Disorders
1. Involve a disruption in conscious processes
2. Psychogenic amnesia
1. cant remember things
2. no biological basis can be identified
3. fugue
1. find themselves in an unfamiliar environment
3. Organic amnesia
1. biologically induced
4. Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
1. formerly called multiple personality disorder
2. several distinct personalities
3. results from childhood trauma
5. Theoretical causes
1. psychoanalytic
1. traumatic events have been so repressed that a split in
consciousness results
5. Mood or Affective Disorders
1. Extreme/inappropriate emotions
2. Major depression
1. most common

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2. symptoms
1. sad more than 2 weeks without clear reason
2. change in sleep and appetite
3. worthlessness
4. lack of interest in enjoyed activities
3. Seasonal Affective Disorder
1. depression only at certain times of year
3. Bipolar disorder
1. manic episodes
1. high energy
2. feel confident and powerful
3. sense of well-being
2. depressed episodes
4. Theoretical causes
1. Aaron Beck
1. cognitive theorist
2. unreasonably negative ideas people have about the cognitive triad
(yourself, your world, your future)
2. pessimistic attributional styles
1. attribution- an explanation of a cause
2. internal, global, and stable attributions for bad events
3. learned helplessness
1. Martin Seligman- dog shock experiment

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2. when your prior experiences have caused you to view yourself as
unable to control controllable aspects of the future
4. biology
1. the disorders run in families
2. depression- low serotonin or norepinephrine
3. bipolar- more acetylcholine receptors
6. Schizophrenic Disorders
1. Schizophrenia
1. disordered, distorted thinking
2. delusions and hallucinations
1. delusion- belief that has no basis in reality
3. common delusions
1. persecution- paranoia
2. grandeur- power and influence
4. hallucinations
1. perceptions in the absence of sensory stimulation
2. Disorganized schizophrenia
1. make up neologisms
1. their own words
2. string together a series of nonsense words that rhyme (clang associations)
3. inappropriate affect
1. inappropriate emotions for the situation
4. flat affect
1. no emotional response

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3. Paranoid schizophrenia
1. delusions of persecution
4. Catatonic schizophrenia
1. motionless in strange postures
1. waxy flexibility- they will allow their body to be moved into any new
pose and will hold it
2. move jerkily and quickly for no apparent reason
3. can alternate between them
5. Undifferentiated schizophrenia
1. distorted thinking, but no other symptoms
6. Symptoms
1. positive symptoms
1. excesses in behavior, thought, or mood
2. ex: neologisms, hallucinations
2. negative symptoms
1. deficits
2. ex. flat effect, catatonia
7. Schizophrenic Disorders: Theoretical Causes
1. Dopamine hypothesis
1. high levels of dopamine are associated with schizophrenia
2. if the drugs lower the level too much, tardive dyskinesia results
1. muscle tremors and stiffness
2. Abnormality on 5
th
chromosome
3. Enlarged brain ventricles

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4. Brain asymmetry
5. Negative symptoms- genetic factors
6. Positive symptoms- too much dopamine
7. Double blinds
1. when a person is given contradictory messages
8. Diathesis-stress model
1. environmental stressors can provide the circumstances under which a
biological predisposition for illness can express itself
8. Personality Disorders
1. Less serious
2. Types
1. antisocial
1. dont have regard for others feelings
2. view the world as a hostile place
2. dependent
3. paranoid
4. narcissistic
5. histrionic
6. obsessive-compulsive
9. Other Disorders
1. Paraphilias (psychosexual disorders)
1. sexual attraction to that which is not usually seen as sexual
2. pedophilia, zoophilia, fetishism, masochism, sadism
3. voyeur

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1. aroused by watching others engage in sexual behavior
2. Eating disorders
3. Addiction disorders
1. use of alcohol/drugs
2. substance use disorder
1. use of such substances regularly affecting your life negatively
3. substance dependence
1. addiction
4. Developmental disorders
1. autism
1. seek less social and emotional contact
2. slow to develop language skills
3. seek less parental support when distressed
5. ADHD
1. attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
2. difficulty paying attention or sitting still
3. overdiagnosed because of typical boy behavior
4. The Rosehan Study: The Influence of Labels
1. David Rosehan
1. 1978- he and associates sought admission to mental hospitals
1. claimed to hear voices
2. reported no other symptoms
3. once admitted, behaved as they usually did
4. their every behavior was interpreted as a sign of their schizophrenia

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2. Issues Raised
1. Should patients carry their diagnosis for life?
2. Are disorders the product of a particular environment?
3. What level of care could undetected imposters receive?


CHAPTER 13 TREATMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDER

1. History
1. Evil Spirits
1. The mentally ill were seen as possessed
2. Trephining
1. an early form of treatment that was supposed to let the spirits escape
2. making holes in the skull
2. Middle Ages
1. Hippocrates (Greece 500 B.C.) and Galen (Rome 200 A.D.) thought that mental
illness had biological roots
1. Europeans still returned to belief in demon possession
2. mentally ill persecuted
3. Enlightenment
1. Philippe Pinel (France) and Dorothea Dix (U.S.)
1. fought for humane treatment of the mentally ill
2. helped the development of kinder institutions
4. Deinstitutionalization
1. 1950s

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1. development of drugs for the mentally ill
2. many people were released from mental institutions
2. intended to save money and benefit patients
3. many were unable to care for themselves
5. Preventative Efforts
1. Primary prevention
1. attempt to reduce the incidence of societal problems that give rise to
mental health issues
2. Secondary prevention
1. working with people at risk for developing specific problems
3. Tertiary prevention
1. aim to keep peoples mental health issues from becoming more severe
2. Types of Therapy
1. Overview
1. Psychotherapy
1. psychoanalytic, humanistic, behavioral, and cognitive psychologists
2. Somatic treatments
1. biomedical
2. ex. drugs
3. Patients vs. clients
1. patients go to
1. biomedical psychologists, psychoanalysts
2. clients go to
1. other therapists

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2. Psychoanalytic Theories
1. Psychoanalysis
1. a therapeutic technique developed by Freud
2. focuses on identifying the underlying causes of a problem
2. Other therapies lead to symptom substitution
1. after treated for one disorder, a new psychological problem arises
3. Hypnosis
1. patients are less likely to repress thoughts
4. Free association
1. say whatever comes to mind without thinking
2. supposed to elude the egos defenses
5. Dream analysis
1. patients asked to describe their dreams
2. manifest content
1. what the patient reports
3. latent content
1. the interpreted underlying meaning
6. Resistance
1. protecting yourself from the painful process of psychoanalysis
2. ex. disagreeing with your therapists interpretations
7. Transference
1. patients redirect strong emotions felt towards others with whom theyve
had a troubling relationship onto the therapist
8. Insight therapies

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1. highlight the importance of the patient gaining an understanding of his
problems
3. Humanistic Therapies
1. Strive to self-actualize
2. Beliefs
1. people are innately good
2. people have free will
1. determinism- opposite
3. Client/Person-centered therapy
1. therapist must provide unconditional positive regard
2. non-directive
1. therapists dont tell clients what to do
2. help clients choose course of action
3. active listening
4. Gestalt therapy
1. clients encouraged to get in touch with whole selves
2. stress importance of present
3. integrate actions, feelings, thoughts into a whole
5. Existential therapies
1. focus on helping clients achieve a subjectively meaningful perception of
their lives
4. Behavioral Therapies
1. Counterconditioning
1. Mary Cover Jones

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2. an unpleasant conditioned response is replaced with a pleasant one
2. Systematic desensitization
1. Joseph Wolpe
2. teach the client to eliminate anxiety through relaxation
3. construct anxiety hierarchy
1. a rank-ordered list of what the clients fears, from least to most
4. in vivo desensitization
1. the client confronts feared objects or situations
5. covert desensitization
1. client imagines the feared stimuli
6. climb the hierarchy, using counterconditioning to replace fear with
relaxation
3. Flooding
1. the client addresses the most frightening scenario first
4. Modeling
1. client watches someone else interact with feared object
2. client reenacts what he saw
5. Aversive conditioning
1. pairs a habit the client wants to break with an unpleasant stimulus
6. Operant conditioning
1. uses rewards and punishments to modify behavior
2. ex. token economy
5. Cognitive Therapies
1. Concentrate on changing unhealthy thought patterns

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2. Cognitive therapy
1. most often used to treat depression
2. aims to engage clients in pursuits that will bring them success
3. make beliefs about cognitive triad more positive
4. Aaron Beck
6. Cognitive Behavioral Therapies (CBTs)
1. Rational emotive behavior therapy
1. REBT/RET
2. Albert Ellis
3. goals
1. show client that his failure is unlikely
2. show that even if client does fail, it wouldnt be a big deal
3. expose and confront the clients dysfunctional thoughts
7. Group Therapy
1. Family therapy
2. Meeting with a number of people experiencing similar difficulties
3. Self-help groups
1. dont involve a therapist
8. Somatic Therapies
1. Therapies that produce bodily changes
2. Psychopharmacology/ Chemotherapy
1. drug therapy
2. more likely to be used for severe disorders
1. especially schizophrenia

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3. Antipsychotic drugs
1. block receptor sites for dopamine
2. used for schizophrenia
3. ex. Thorazine, Haldol
4. side effect
1. tardive dyskinesia (muscle tremors)
4. Chemotherapy
1. used for mood disorders
2. increase serotonin activity
3. lithium- for manic phase of BPD
4. for unipolar depression:
1. tricyclic antidepressants
2. monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors
3. serotonin-reuptake-inhibitor drugs
5. Barbiturates
1. antianxiety drugs
2. types
1. Miltown
2. benzodiazepines
3. ex. xanax, valium
6. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
1. bilateral
1. electric current passed through both brain hemispheres
2. unilateral

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1. electrical current through one hemisphere
3. more effective
4. worse side effects
1. memory loss
2. brief seizure
3. brief loss of consciousness
5. used for depression when other methods fail
6. less common than chemotherapy
7. Psychosurgery
1. rarest treatment
2. last resort
3. purposeful destruction of part of the brain to alter a persons behavior
4. prefrontal lobotomy
1. cutting the main neurons leading to the frontal lobe
2. calms behavior
3. makes you a vegetable
3. Kinds of Therapists
1. Psychiatrists
1. Can prescribe meds
2. Less trained in psychotherapy
2. Clinical Psychologists
1. earn Ph.D.s that require at least 4 years of study
3. Counseling Psychologists
1. Graduate degree in psychology

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2. Deal with less severe problems
4. Psychoanalysts
1. Trained in Freudian methods
2. Dont need medical degre


CHAPTER 14 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

1. Overview
1. Social Cognition
1. We constantly gather data and make predictions about what will happen next
so we can act accordingly
2. Attitude Formation and Change
1. Attitude
1. a set of beliefs and feelings
2. Mere Exposure Effect
1. the more you are exposed to something, the more you will like it
3. Persuasive Messages
1. Can be passed through the central route or the peripheral route
1. central route
1. involves deeply processing the content of the message
2. peripheral route
1. involves other aspects of the message
2. ex: the communicator
3. The Relationship Between Attitudes and Behavior

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1. Lapiere 1934
1. visited hotels and restaurants with an Asian couple
2. observed how they were treated
3. treated poorly only once
4. asked the establishments about their attitudes towards Asians
1. 90% said they wouldnt serve Asians
5. showed that attitudes dont perfectly predict behaviors
2. Cognitive Dissonance Theory
1. People are motivated to have consistent attitudes and behaviors
1. when they dont, they experience dissonance
1. unpleasant mental tension
2. Experiment- Festinger and Carlsmith
1. participants performed a boring task
1. asked to tell next subject that they enjoyed it
2. subjects paid $1 to lie had more positive attitudes toward the experiment
than those paid $20
1. they lacked sufficient external motivation to lie
2. reduced dissonance by changing attitudes
4. Compliance Strategies
1. Compliance Strategies
1. Strategies to get others to comply with your wishes
2. Foot-in-the-door Phenomenon
1. If you can get people to agree to a small request, they will become more likely
to agree to a larger follow-up request

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3. Door-in-the-face Strategy
1. After people refuse a large request, they will look more favorably upon a
smaller follow-up request
4. Norms of Reciprocity
1. The tendency to think that when someone does something nice for you, you
should do something nice in return
5. Attribution Theory
1. Goal
1. To explain how people determine the causes of what they observe
2. Types
1. Dispositional/Person attribution
1. the cause is due to the persons innate qualities
2. Situation attribution
1. a situational factor is the cause
3. Stable attribution
1. the cause is something that has always been that way
4. Unstable attribution
3. Harold Kelleys Theory
1. Explains the kind of attributions we make on:
1. consistency
1. how similarly the individual acts in the same situation over time
2. distinctiveness
1. how similar this situation is to others weve seen the person in
3. consensus

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1. asks us to consider how others would have responded in the same
situation
2. important for determining whether to make person or situation
attribution
4. Self-fulfilling Prophecy
1. The expectations we have about others can influence their behavior
2. Pygmalion in the Classroom experiment
1. Rosenthal and Jacobson 1968
2. administered an IQ test to elementary school students
1. said it would measure who was on the verge of academic growth
3. randomly picked a group of students
1. claimed they were ripe for intellectual progress
4. measured IQs again at the end of the year
1. the scores of the randomly picked students improved more than
those of their classmates
6. Attributional Biases
1. Fundamental Attribution Error
1. People overestimate the importance of dispositional factors
2. People underestimate the role of situational factors
3. More common in individualistic cultures
4. Less common in explaining your own behaviors
2. False-Consensus Effect
1. The tendency to overestimate the number of people who agree with you
3. Self-Serving Bias
1. The tendency to take more credit for good outcomes than bad

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4. Just-World Bias
1. Thinking that bad things happen to bad people
7. Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination
1. Stereotypes
1. Ideas about what members of different groups are like
2. May influence the way we interact with members of these groups
2. Prejudice
1. An undeserved attitude toward a group of people
2. Ethnocentrism
1. the belief that your culture is superior to others
3. Discrimination
1. acting on your prejudices
3. Out-Group Homogeneity
1. The tendency to see members of the in-group as more diverse than members
of the out-group
2. In-group
1. your own group
3. Out-group
1. all other groups
4. In-Group Bias
1. A preference for members of your own group
5. Origin of Stereotypes and Prejudice
1. Social Learning Theorists
1. learned through modeling

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1. many prejudiced people have prejudiced parents
2. Cognitive process of categorization
1. people cant avoid magnifying differences between groups
6. Combating Prejudice
1. Contact Theory
1. contact between hostile groups will reduce animosity
1. if the groups are made to work toward a superordinate goal
2. superordinate goal
1. benefits all
2. needs participation of all
2. Robbers Cave Study
1. Sherif 1966
2. divided campers into 2 groups
1. had them compete in a series of activities to create animosity
3. staged camp emergencies as superordinate goals
1. improved relations between the groups
8. Aggression and Antisocial Behavior
1. Types
1. Instrumental aggression
1. the aggressive act is intended to secure a particular end
2. Hostile aggression
1. has no clear purpose
2. Theoretical Causes
1. Exposure to aggressive models

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2. Freud
1. linked aggression to Thanatos
1. the death instinct
3. Sociobiologists
1. the expression of aggression is adaptive under certain circumstances
4. Frustration-Aggression hypothesis
1. the feeling of frustration makes aggression more likely
9. Prosocial Behavior
1. Prosocial Behavior
1. People helping one another
2. Bystander Intervention
1. The conditions under which people are more or less likely to help someone in
trouble
3. Diffusion of Responsibility
1. The larger the group of people who witness a problem, the less responsible any
one individual feels to help
4. Pluralistic Ignorance
1. People decide what constitutes appropriate behavior in a situation by looking to
others
10. Attraction
1. Fundamental Principle
1. We like others who:
1. are similar to us
1. similarity
2. with whom we come into frequent contact

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1. proximity
3. who return our positive feelings
1. reciprocal liking
2. Self-Disclosure
1. Sharing a piece of personal information with another person
11. The Influence of Others on an Individuals Behavior
1. Social Facilitation
1. The presence of others improves task performance
2. Social Impairment
1. The presence of others hurts task performance if the task is difficult
3. Conformity
1. The tendency to go along with the views or actions of others
2. Solomon Asch 1951 Experiment
1. brought participants into a room of confederates
2. asked them to make simple perceptual judgments
1. showed 3 vertical lines and asked which was the same length as a
target line
3. had to answer out loud
4. confederates gave a unanimous, obviously wrong answer
5. 70% of participants conformed on at least 1 trial
4. Obedience Studies
1. Focus on the willingness of participants to do what another asks
2. The Milgram Experiment 1974
1. told participants it was a study about teaching and learning

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2. participants were told to administer electric shocks
3. over 60% delivered all possible shocks
12. Group Dynamics
1. Norms
1. Rules about how group members should act
2. Specific Roles
3. Social Loafing
1. When individuals do not put in as much effort when acting as part of a group as
they do when acting alone
4. Group Polarization
1. The tendency of a group to make more extreme decisions than the group
members would make individually
5. Groupthink
1. The tendency for some groups to make bad decisions
2. Group members suppress their reservations about the ideas the group supports
6. Deindividuation
1. Groups members feel anonymous and aroused
2. Loss of self restraint
3. People do things they never would have done on their own
7. Stanford Prison Experiment
1. Philip Zimbardo (the devil)
2. Simulated prison
3. Students took to assigned roles too well
4. Ended early

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