Ch 6 Displacement Sensors

1
Ch. 6
Displacement, Velocity and
Acceleration Sensors
2
All types of Displacement Sensors
Resistive Displacement Sensors
Inductive Displacement Sensors
Capacitive SensorsDisplacement
Piezoelectric Transducers and Sensors
Time-of-Flight Ultrasonic Displacement Sensors
Magnetic Displacement Sensors
Laser Interferometer Displacement Sensors
Optical Encoder Displacement Sensors
3
Commonly termed potentiometers or pots.
4
An electrically conductive wiper that slides
against a fixed resistive element.
To measure displacement, a
potentiometer is typically wired in a
voltage dividerconfiguration.
The circuits output, a function of the
wipers position, is an analog voltage
available for direct use or digitization.
5
(a) A potentiometer is used as a variable voltage divider. R
P
is the
total resistance of the potentiometer, R
L
is the load resistance, V
r
is
the reference or supply voltage, and V
0
is the output voltage. (b) An
ideal linear output function. x
P
is the maximum position of the wiper.
6
Passive
Wear Proven technology
Inertial loading High-amplitude output
signal
Frictional loading Low cost
Limited bandwidth Easy to use
Disadvantages Advantages
Fundamental Potentiometer Characteristics
7
Precision Potentiometers are available in
rotary, linear-motion, and string
potentiometer forms.
Resistive element can be classified as
either wirewound, or nonwirewound.
8
cycles cycles cycles Life
Low Low, but degrades with
time
Very low Noise
Very good Excellent Poor Temperature
stability
Low High Low Power rating
Infinitesimal Quantized Infinitesimal Resolution
Hybrid Wirewound Conductive plastic
8 6
10 ~ 10
6 5
10 ~ 10
7 6
10 ~ 10
Characteristics of Conductive Plastic, Wirewound, and Hybrid
Resistive Elements
9
Electrical Characteristics
Before selecting a potentiometer and
integrating it into a measurement system,
some electrical characteristics should be
considered.
Terminals and taps
Taper
Electrical Travel
Linearity
Electrical Loading
10
Electrical Characteristics
Independent linearity is the maximum amount by which the actual
output function deviates from a line of best fit.
11
Mechanical Characteristics
Mechanical characteristics may also influence
measurement quality and system reliability.
Mechanical Loading
Mechanical Travel
Operating Temperature
Vibration, Shock, and Acceleration
Speed
Contamination and Seals
Misalignment
Lifetime of potentiometer
12
Mechanical Mounting Methods
2 common rotary potentiometer mounts: (a) bushing mount
(b) servo mount
13
Mechanical Techniques
(a) belts and pulleys, (b)
rack-and-pinions, (c)
lead-screws, (d) cabled
drums, (e) cams, (f)
bevel gears, (g) spur
gears
14
Implementation
A good design will:
Give the potentiometer mount the ability to
accommodate minor misalignment
Protect the shat from thrust, side, and bending loads
(i.e., not use the potentiometer as a bearing)
Provide hard limit stops within the potentiometers
travel range (i.e., not use the potentiometers limit
stops)
Protect the potentiometer from contaminants
Strain-relieve the potentiometers electrical
connections
15
Implementation
Compliant couplings
J oining 2 misaligned shafts of the same or different diameter.
Sleeve couplings
Less expensive than compliant couplings. Requirement is that
the shafts should be perfectly aligned.
Press fits
Convenient. The bore of a small plastic part is nominally the
same as the shaft diameter. But repeated reassambly will
compromise the fit.
Shrink fits
Components with a bore slightly under the shaft diameter can be
heated to expand sufficiently to slip over the shaft.
16
Implementation
Pinning
Small hubbed components can be pinned to a shaft.
Set-screws
Small components are available with hubs that secure
with set-screws.
Clamping
Results in a secure fit without marring the shaft.
Spring-loaded contact
Maintain positive contact against a surface that
moves at reasonable speeds and without sudden
acceleration.
Adhesives
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Based on the principles of magnetic
circuits.
Classified as self-generating or passive.
Self-generating type
When there is a relative motion between a
conductor and a magnetic field, a voltage is
induced in the conductor.
Passive type
Requires an external source of power.
18
A basic inductive sensor consists of a magnetic circuit made from a
ferromagnetic core with a coil wound on it. The coil acts as a source of
magnetomotive force (mmf) that drives the flux through the magnetic circuit
and the air gap. The presence of the air gap causes a large increase in
circuit reluctance and a corresponding decrease in the flux. Hence, a small
variation in the air gap results in a measurable change in inductance.
19
The core is made from a ferromagnetic
material.
The coil acts as a source of magnetomotive
force (mmf) which drives the flux through
the magnetic circuit.
mmf = Flux * Reluctance = * R
where reluctance R limits the flux in a
magnetic circuit.
20
= ni/R
Total flux linking by the entire n number of the
turns of the coil:
= n = n
2
i/R
The magnetic flux is:
Self-inductance L of the coil is:
L = /i = n
2
/R
21
Where l = total length of the flux path
= relative permeability of the magnetic
circuit material
0
= permeability of free space
A = cross-sectional area of the flux path
R = l/
0
A
22
Inductive Displacement SensorsLinear
and Rotary Variable-Reluctance Transducer
Based on change in the reluctance of a
magnetic flux path.
Applicationacceleration, displacement
and velocity measurements.
23
Inductive Displacement SensorsSingle-
Coil Linear Variable-Reluctance Sensor
A typical single-coil, variable-reluctance displacement sensor. The
reluctance of the coil is dependent on the single variable. The
reluctance increases nonlinearly with increasing gap.
24
Inductive Displacement SensorsVariable-
Differential Reluctance Sensor
A variable-differential reluctance sensor consists of an armature moving between 2
identical cores separated by a fixed distance. The armature moves in the air gap in
response to a mechanical input. This movement alters the reluctance of coils 1 and 2,
thus altering their inductive properties. This arrangement overcomes the problem of
nonlinearity inherent in single coil sensors.
25
Differential Reluctance Sensor
A typical commercial variable differential sensor. The full-scale
motion may be extremely small, on the order of few thousandths
of a centimeter.
26
Inductive Displacement SensorsMicrosyn
27
Coupling Transducers
The core and both coils have the same length
28
Inductive Displacement SensorsInduction
Potentiometer
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Variable-Differential Transformer (LVDT)
It is a passive inductive transducer. The 2 secondaries are having
equal sizes, shapes, and no. of turns.
30
31
(b) The output voltages of
individual secondaries v1 and v2
are at null position.
32
(c) Output waveform v
0
becomes a function of core
position x and phase angle .
33
34
35
Inductive Displacement SensorsRotary
Variable-Differential Transformer
36
Inductive Displacement SensorsEddy
Current Transducers
37
Inductive Displacement SensorsShielding
One or more shells of high-permeability
magnetic materials surround the part to be
shielded.
Interposing highly conductive metal sheets, e.g.
Cu or Al, on the path of the magnetic flux.
The eddy currents induced in the shield give a
counter mmf that tends to cancel the interfering
magnetic field.
To avoid stray capacitancesuse of center-
tapped supply and appropriate grounding.
38
Capacitive SensorsDisplacement
Applicationdisplacement measurements
for rotational or translational motions,
humidity and moisture sensing.
The capacitance is a function of the
distance d (cm) between the electrodes,
the surface area A (cm
2
) of the electrodes,
and the permittivity (8.85x10
-12
Fm
-1
for
air) of the dielectric between the
electrodes.
39
Capacitive SensorsVariable
Distance Displacement Sensors
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C(x) = A/x =
r
0
A/x
where = dielectric const. or permittivity
r
= relative dielectric const.
0
= dielectric const. of vacuum
x = distance of the plates in m
A = effective area of the plates in m
2
41
The sensitivity of capacitance to changes
in plate separation is:
dC/dx = -
r
0
A/x
2
The percent change in C is proportional to
that in x:
dC/C = -dx/x
42
Capacitive SensorsVariable Area
Displacement Sensors
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Capacitive SensorsVariable Area
C =
r
0
(A-wx)/d
where w = width
wx = reduction in the area due to
movement of the plate
44
Dielectric Displacement Sensors
45
Dielectric Displacement Sensors
C =
0
w[
0
l-(
2
-
1
)x]
where
1
= relative permittivity of the dielectric material
2
= permittivity of the displacing material (e.g.,
liquid)
46
Capacitive SensorsDifferential
Capacitive Sensors
47
Capacitive SensorsIntegrated Circuit
Smart Capacitive Position Sensors
48
Piezoelectric Transducers and
Sensors
Piezoelectricityto describe the ability of certain
materials to develop an electric charge that is
proportional to a direct applied mechanical
stress.
The effect is reversible.
Piezoelectric materials will deform (strain)
proportionally to an applied electric field.
The effect is of the order of nanometers.
Applications - for example fine focusing of
optical assemblies, etc.
49
Sensors
Ferroelectricsan important class of
piezoelectric materials.
Closely related to the ferroelectric
polarization that can be reversed by the
application of sufficiently high E-field.
To induce piezoelectric properties, poling
procedure is often required.
Poling is analogous to the magnetizing of
a permanent magnet.
50
Sensors
Direct and converse piezoelectric effect: (a) an electric field applied
to the material changes its shape (b) a stress on the material yields
a surface charge.
51
Piezoelectric MaterialsSingle
Crystals
Quartz (SiO
2
), Lithium Niobate (LiNbO
3
)
and Lithium Tantalate (LiTaO
3
).
Applicationfrequency-stabilized
oscillators in watches and radars, and
surface acoustic wave devices in TV filters
and analog signal correlators.
52
Piezoelectric Materials
Piezoelectric Ceramics
Polling process in piezoelectric ceramics: (a) in the absence of
an electric field (b) in the electric field.
53
Piezoelectric Ceramics
Applying a strong dc E-field at a
temperature just below the Curie
temperature, poling procedure is induced.
Made up of mixed oxides containing
corner-sharing octahedra of O
2-
ions,
which is the Perovskite family.
54
Perovskites
General formula is ABO
3
.
E.g. BaTiO
3
.
It is stable, has a wide temperature range
of operation, and is easily manufacturable.
55
Perovskites
The crystal structure of GaTiO
3
: (a) above the Curie pt., the cell is
cubic (b) below the Curie pt., the cell is tetragonal with Ba
2+
and Ti
4+
ions displaced relative to O
2-
ions.
56
Piezoelectric Polymers
When the polymer is drawn, or stretched,
the regions become polar, and can be
poled by applying a high E-field.
The electromechanical properties of
piezoelectric polymers are significantly
lower than those of piezoelectric ceramics.
57
Applications of Piezoelectric effect
(a) Displacement sensor based on piezoelectric ceramic (b)
Pressure sensor based on piezoelectric polymer film. Arrows
indicate the directions of ferroelectric polarization in the
piezoelectric material.
58
Applications of Piezoelectric effect
Convert electrical energy to mechanical energy,
vice versa.
Passive mode
The transducer only receives signals.
Obtain voltage from an external stress.
Applications: microphones, vibrational sensor.
Active mode
The transducer changes its dimensions and sends an
acoustic signal into a medium.
Applications: ink jet printers, micropumps, medical
ultrasonic imaging.
59
Time-of-Flight Ultrasonic
Principle of a pulse-echo ultrasound system for distance measurements.
60
Time-of-Flight Ultrasonic
With sound travels in velocity c and time t, the distance
d is:
d = ct/2
A plane wave propagates in x direction:
x = Asin(t-x/c)
The velocity of sound depends on the medium in which
it propagates. In a homogeneous and isotropic solid, the
velocity depends on the density and the modulus of
elasticity E:
E
c =
61
Ultrasound Transducers
Convert electric energy to mechanical
energy, vice versa.
Common types of in-air transducers are:
Mechanical
Electromagnetic
Piezoelectric
Electrostatic
Magnetostrictive
62
Principles of Time-of-Flight
Systems
Pulse echo method
Phase angle method
Frequency modulation method
Correlation method
63
Principles of Time-of-Flight
Systems
Make relatively high demands
on hardware and/or
computations
Very robust against
disturbances
Correlation method
Measurements on long and
short distances can give the
same result (compare with
phase angle method)
Robust against disturbances;
multireflections detectable
Frequency
modulation method
Cannot be used directly at
distances longer than the
wavelength of the ultrasound
Rather insensitive to
disturbances
Phase angle method
Low signal-to-noise ratio Simple Pulse echo method
Disadvantage Advantage Method
64
Rely on electromagnetic fields, and the
magnetic properties of materials.
Noncontact sensing technique
No mechanical connection between the
stationary members and the movable
members of the sensor.
Lifetime is longer.
65
Magnetic field intensity (H), or magnetizing
force
The force that drives the generation of
magnetic flux in a material.
Unit: Am
-1
Magnetic flux density (B)
The amount of magnetic flux resulting from
the applied magnetizing force.
Unit: Teslas (T) or N/(A*m)
66
Magnetic permeability ()
The ability of a material to support magnetic
lines of flux.
B =
0
H
where =
0
0
free space permeability
r
relative permeability
67
Magnetostrictive Sensors
68
69
Using a ferromagnetic element to detect
the location of a position magnet that is
displaced along its length.
70
Hall Effect (negative charge
carriers)
(http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/hall.html)
71
Hall Effect
If a current flows through a conductor in a
magnetic field, the magnetic field will exert a
lateral force on the moving charge carriers.
A buildup of charge at the sides of the conductor
will balance this magnetic influence, producing a
measurable voltage between the two sides of
the conductor. This measurable lateral voltage is
called the Hall effect.
72
Hall Effect
The Hall effect can be used to measure
magnetic fields with a Hall probe.
n = density of mobile charges
e = electron charge
ned
IB
V
H
=
73
Hall Effect (positive charge carriers)
(http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/hall.html)
74
Hall Effect
F
m
= ev
d
B, where v
d
is the drift velocity of the
charge.
I = neAv
d
neA
eIB
F
m
=
In equilibrium,
neA
eIB
F F
e m
= =
ned
IB
V
H
=
75
Hall Effect Sensors
Two magnet hall sensor
76
Laser Interferometer Displacement
Sensors
Helium-neon laser
77
Michelson Interferometer
78
Optical Encoder Displacement
Sensors
(a) Absolute encoders using a natural binary code of 4 digits. 4 tracks
are required. (b) The output of the read head aperture. (c) The binary
digit obtained after squaring digit obtained after squaring the raw
output signal.
79
Proximity detectors
They can sense the presence of nearby targets,
usually without requiring any contact or wiring to
the target or any particular target material
properties.
Various sensors are available for the proximity
detection and measurement:
Inductive
Magnetic
Optical
Ultrasonic
80
(http://www.clickautomation.com/products/index.php?func=list&cid=34)
Inductive Sensor
Capacitive Sensor
Laser Sensor
Ultrasonic Sensor
81
Applications
Motion detection
Detection of rotating
motion
Motion control
Movement indication
Process control
Automatic filling
Sequence control
Verification and
counting
Liquid level detection
Tube high-low liquid
level
Material level control
Low level limit
82
Velocity measurement -
Applications
Measuring the approach speed of a
robotic tool onto its target.
Monitoring the speed of a generator in an
electric power station.
Measuring an automobiles wheel speed in
order to provide feedback to an antilock
brake system.
83
Measurement of Linear Velocity
84
Measurement of Linear Velocity
Average speed is:
As the time interval becomes small, the average speed becomes
the instantaneous speed V
y
,
where a
y
(t) is the acceleration in the y direction
t
y
t t
y y
V
avg
=
1 2
1 2
dt
dy
t
y
V
t
y
=
=
0
lim
dt t a V t V
t
t
y i y
i
) ( ) (
=
85
Reference-Based Measurement
Velocity = displacement / time taken.
To measure the displacement, there are 2
pickups by displacement sensors.
Measuring the time interval with an
electronic counter or displaying the output
of the pickups from displacement sensors
on an oscilloscope.
86
Doppler Shift
When the source and observer are in
motion relative to each other, there is
Doppler Shift.
It is applicable to waves, e.g. sound, light,
microwaves, etc.
Application: radar.
87
VISAR System
Velocity Interference System for Any
Reflector
Can be used with either specularly or
diffusely reflecting surfaces, and is quite
insensitive to tilting of the target.
It was developed for shock wave research
work
Useful for measurement of very high
speeds.
88
VISAR System
Illustrate how fiber optic
components, available from
Valyn, can guide laser light to
and from a shock experiment,
minimizing any laser light
beam hazards.
89
Angular Velocity Measurement
Often applied to rotating machinery such
as pumps, engines, and generators.
Most familiar unit: revolutions per minute
(rpm)
90
Electrical (dc and ac) Tachometer
Generator
A rotating generator produces a voltage signal
proportional to the rotational velocity of the input shaft.
Permanent-magnet dc tach-generator
91
Counter Types
Rotating Magnet Sensorspassive speed sensors
convert mechanical motion to ac voltage without an
external power source. These self-contained magnetic
sensors produce a magnetic field that, when in the
proximity of ferrous objects in motion, generates a
voltage.
Applications for these types of sensors:
Transmission speed
Engine rpm
Pump shaft speed
Computer peripheral speeds
92
Counter Types
Magnetic speed sensor output voltage against speed
93
Optical Sensors
A slotted disk provides one pulse output for each rotation
94
Stroboscope
An oscillator produces a pulse wave of a
known frequency. This is then used to
drive a bright LED, which can cope with
the fast rate of flashing.
Note: a bulb cannot be used since when it
is driven at a high frequency, the filament
remains hot when the power goes off, and
the light that is not flashing at all, but is
permanently on.
(http://homepages.which.net/~paul.hills/Circuits/Stroboscope/Stroboscope.html)
95
Stroboscope
A mark is made on the object.
If the rotational velocity of the object is not
matched with the frequency f of the oscillator,
random appearance of the mark is seen.
96
Stroboscope
If = nf (where n=1, 2) , the mark becomes
stationary.
97
Stroboscope
If is slightly lower thannf (where n=1, 2) , the
mark creeps forward .
98
Stroboscope
If is slightly higher thannf (where n=1, 2) ,
the mark creeps backward .
99
Wiegand Effect
It employs unique magnetic properties of
specially processed, small-diameter
ferromagnetic wire.
By causing the magnetic field of this wire
to suddenly reverse, a sharp, uniform
voltage pulse is generated.
Wiegand pulse.
100
Wiegand Effect
It is useful for proximity sensing,
tachometry, rotary shaft encoding, and
speed sensing.
Application:
Electronic indexing for water, gas, and electric
meters.
Measuring shaft speed in engines.
Tachometers, speedometers, and other
rotational counting devices.
101
Angular Rate Sensors
Gyroscopes
Many absolute angular rate-measuring devices
fall under the designation of gyroscope.
It consists of a spinning mass mounted on a
base so that its axis can turn freely in one or
more directions.
Angular velocity gyros are used to measure
motion and as signal inputs to stabilization
systems.
Rate-integrating gyros are used as the basis
for highly accurate inertial navigation systems.
102
Angular Rate Sensors
Gyroscopes
A vibrating quartz tuning fork uses the Coriolis effect to sense
angular velocity
103
Gyroscopes

Ch 6 Displacement Sensors

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