*** N.B.

The material presented in these lectures is from the principal textbooks, other books on similar subject, the
research and lectures of my colleagues from various universities around the world, my own research, and finally,
numerous web sites. I am grateful for some figures I used in this lecture to E. Garnero and L. Breger. I am thankful
to many others who make their research and teaching material available online; sometimes even a single figure or
an idea about how to present a subject is a valuable resource. Please note that this PowerPoint presentation is not
a complete lecture; it is most likely accompanied by an in-class presentation of main mathematical concepts (on
transparencies or blackboard).***
LECTURE 1 - Introduction
Hrvoje Tkal!i"
Units and scales
Time
Time is a fundamental variable in geophysics.
Geophysical images of Earths surface and interior
are snapshots of Earths dynamic processes.
How are relative ages of rocks classified?
How are absolute ages of rocks determined?
Radioactive isotope dating
Fossils (remnants of prehistoric life
succeed each other in systemic fashion)
Time
This evolution is a clock of relative time, called
the Principle of faunal succession.
Time -> Fossils
allows
geologists
to identify rocks
of same age
in different
places.
one-celled organisms
multi-celled organisms
organisms with shells
fishes
plants
insects
amphibians
reptiles
mammals
OLDEST
YOUNGEST
Geologic Time
Chart
The appearance of planet Earth
-around 4:15pm the first hominids appear in
East Africa
-between 8pm and 9pm, the first humans
appear in Africa
-at 8:04pm, humans make their first tools
-around 8:30pm, they make their first shelters
-between 9pm and 10pm, humans arrive
to Europe
If the entire Earths history were scaled to 1 year
Geologic time
rock rock
collection of
one or more
minerals
mineral
A collection
of one or more
types of atoms
minerals
Atoms, minerals and rocks
Example: mineral quartz
made up of silicon (Si) &
oxygen (O) atoms
Atoms, minerals and rocks
! Atomic structure
Si
4+
O
2-
O
2-
O
2-
O
2-
Example:
Granite & constituent minerals
Atoms, minerals and rocks
Rocks
! Sedimentary
! Igneous
! Metamorphic
Average composition of the continental crust Average composition of the continental crust
Percent of elements by WEIGHT
Average composition of the continental crust Average composition of the continental crust
Percent of elements by VOLUME
Sedimentary rocks
Grand Canyon
Alps, Himalayas, etc. - consist of sedimentary rocks, laid down over many millions of years
But, in what sea were the Himalayan rocks deposited and how did they get sandwiched
between India and the Asian landmass?
In the geology textbooks of the mid twentieth century - there were no satisfactory answers.
Dynamic Earth: how did plate tectonics concept developed?
Alfred Wegener 1912 -
observed mismatch of climate
features
Proposed continental drift
Pangea = Laurasia + Gondwana
16
th
century observation of coastal fits
Same fossils found on different continents
R

E

J

E

C

T

E

D

!
Mid-Ocean ridges
Earthquake distribution and focal mechanisms
The Earths Interior
CORE Outer (liquid) 2900-5160 km
Inner (solid) 5160-6370 km
MANTLE Upper 34-670 km
Lower 670-2900 km
CRUST Oceanic 0-6 km
(young, < 180 m.y.)
Continental 0-34 km
(older, up to 3.8 b.y.)
Brittle lithosphere
Plastic flow astenosphere
Sea floor spreading from the
age of rocks and the magnetic stripes due
to the magnetic field reversals
Conveyor belt concept by H. Hess (1960)
Continents with no plow experience
!
The force on a charge is
r
F = q" (
r
E +
r
B #
r
v )
The law of electromagnetic induction:
r
E " d
r
s
$
= %
d
dt
r
B "
r
n
a
$
da
Applying the Stokes theorem,
r
& #
r
E "
r
n da
a
$
= %
'
't
r
B
(
)
*
+
,
- "
r
n
a
$
da
.
r
& #
r
E = %
'
't
r
B How do these terms remain in balance?
Maxwells equation
and its implication
for the geodynamo:
Plate tectonics and boundaries
Active Earth - movie
Continental and oceanic crust
Collision may cause:
Faulting
Earthquakes
Mountain building
Volcanoes
Plate tectonics and boundaries
Active Earth - movie
Structural contrasts
!Tonga-Fiji islands arc with
earthquakes occurring within
the descending slab.
Asthenosphere on both sides
of the descending slab with
convection, drag and
secondary spreading.
!Andean volcanic arc with
earthquakes at the slab-
lithosphere boundary - thick
lithosphere prevents
secondary spreading.
Plates
slower than average
faster than average
+Geodesy
+Mathematical geophysics
+Geomagnetism
+Geochemistry
+Geology
+Computer science
Study of the deep Earths
interior requires
a multidisciplinary approach