You are on page 1of 29

2

Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.


This document may have been altered from the original.
Introduction
No one yet has been able to look inside atoms to see what they are really like.
The typical picture of an atom we have in our minds is neither the truth nor
the right answer it is a good working model which helps to explain many
phenomena.
Much evidence has been gathered to support the current model of an atom.
The model may change as more evidence comes to light, and it is very likely to
become more detailed.
We can sometimes explain things using only a simplied model of the atom.
Thinking of atoms as tiny spheres is sufcient to explain the states of matter (the
properties of solids, liquids and gases) but this model is not detailed enough
to explain why metals tend to react with non-metals. Models can be simple or
elaborate, depending on the job they need to do. Keep this in mind as your
ideas and understanding of chemistry develop.
What you do
How has the current model of the atom developed? Many scientists contributed
to the sequence of gathering knowledge about the atom, but some made
particularly important discoveries they were:
Joseph J. Thomson (key discovery 18971899)
Hans Geiger, Ernest Marsden and Ernest Rutherford (key discovery 1909)
Henry Moseley (key discovery 1913)
James Chadwick (key discovery 1932).
You will need to work in a group of three for this activity.
1 Each group is going to take the part of one of these scientists choose who
is going to cover who. (Note that Geiger, Marsden and Rutherford represent
one choice.)
2 Prepare a series of PowerPoint

slides on the scientist you have chosen. Your


presentation should cover the following points:
who you are
when you did the work you will describe
what you already knew about the atom
what you did
what you found out
what conclusions you drew from your results.
Use suitable textbooks, magazine articles or the Internet to help you to nd
the information you need. You could start by searching the Salters Advanced
Chemistry website. You will need to discuss what information and images to
include and what to leave out as a group.
3 The members of your group should now deliver their presentations to the
rest of the class make sure the reports are presented in chronological
order.
4 At the end of the activity everyone in the class will need notes on your
presentations prepare handouts of your groups set of presentations.
In this activity you will learn how some of our
ideas about atomic structure have developed.
HOW DO WE KNOW
ABOUT ATOMS?
EL1.1
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 2 16/4/08 15:52:34
3
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Introduction
You are going to carry out a quantitative investigation trying to answer, as
accurately as possible, a question which begins How much ? A titration is a
method of quantitative analysis that can be used when two solutions react
together. One solution of a known concentration is placed in a burette the
second solution is placed in a conical ask. The solution in the burette is run
into the ask until just enough has been added for the reaction to be complete.
An indicator is often added to show when the reaction has nished, but this is
not necessary if the reaction is accompanied by a very obvious colour change. An
analysis involving a titration is sometimes called a volumetric analysis.
How it works
In this investigation, you are going to nd out how much iron there is in a
solution of an iron(II) salt by titrating the solution with potassium
manganate(VII) solution.
The salt is called hydrated iron(II) ammonium sulfate, which contains Fe
2+

ions, as its name suggests. These react with the MnO
4

ions in the potassium


manganate(VII), as shown in the equation below:
5Fe
2+
(aq) + MnO
4

(aq) + 8H
+
(aq) 5Fe
3+
(aq) + Mn
2+
(aq) + 4H
2
O(l)
pale deep light colourless
green purple brown
This looks rather complicated, but it tells you that the colour of the potassium
manganate(VII) disappears as it reacts with the Fe
2+
(aq) ions. This provides a
way of deciding when the titration is complete because when all the Fe
2+
(aq)
ions are gone just one drop more of potassium manganate(VII) solution will
make the titration mixture turn pale purple.
access to a balance
weighing bottle
spatula
glass rod
250 cm
3
conical ask
250 cm
3
volumetric ask
burette
100 cm
3
beakers (2)
25 cm
3
pipette
pipette fller
small flter funnel
plastic dropper pipette
wash bottle and distilled/deionised water
a sample of hydrated iron(II) ammonium sulfate (5 g)
sulfuric acid, 1 mol dm
3
(250 cm
3
)
potassium manganate(VII) solution, 0.010 mol dm
3
(100 cm
3
)
CARE Take care when pouring potassium manganate(VII) solution as it stains the hands.
Wear protective gloves if necessary.
Requirements
IRRITANT
dilute sulfuric acid
HARMFUL
iron(II) ammonium sulfate solid
WEAR EYE
PROTECTION
CARE Eye protection
must be worn.
This activity introduces you to the technique of
titration one method of quantitative analysis.
You will learn how to perform a titration and
make use of accurately calibrated apparatus.
Titration will be used in later modules.
HOW MUCH IRON IS
IN A SAMPLE OF AN
IRON COMPOUND?
EL1.2
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 3 16/4/08 15:52:36
4
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
What you do
1 Weigh a clean, dry weighing bottle accurately. Add about 5 g of iron(II)
ammonium sulfate to the bottle and record the mass of the bottle plus
crystals accurately. Tip the crystals into a clean 100 cm
3
beaker. Carefully
rinse out the bottle two or three times with 1 mol dm
3
sulfuric acid,
transferring the washings to the beaker each time. It is important that all the
solid goes into the beaker.
2 Pour about a further 25 cm
3
of sulfuric acid into the beaker but do not ll
the beaker more than half full. Stir the acid and the solid together with a
glass rod until you are sure that all the solid has dissolved.
3 Transfer the contents of the beaker through a small funnel into a 250 cm
3

volumetric fask. Rinse the beaker and glass rod twice with small quantities of
the dilute sulfuric acid and transfer the washings to the volumetric ask.
Then rinse the funnel with a small amount of the acid. This technique
ensures that all the iron compound from the beaker is transferred to the
volumetric ask.
4 Finally, add dilute sulfuric acid to the volumetric fask until it is about 1 cm
below the graduation mark. Now add more acid slowly from a clean
dropping pipette until the bottom of the meniscus is just touching the
graduation mark. Stopper the ask and invert it several times to mix the
solution.
5 Use a pipette and pipette fller to withdraw 25.0 cm
3
of the solution from the
volumetric ask and transfer it to a conical ask.
6 Use a clean, dry 100 cm
3
beaker to ll a burette with the potassium
manganate(VII) solution. Run a little of the solution out of the burette into
the beaker to make sure the jet is full of solution ask your teacher for help
if an air bubble stays in the jet. Be careful how you turn the burette tap
some burettes have tapered keys which leak if they are used wrongly. If you
are not sure, ask your teacher for advice on how to use a burette correctly.
7 Record the volume reading on the burette before starting the titration read
the burette to the nearest 0.05 cm
3
.
8 Add small volumes of potassium manganate(VII) solution from the burette to
the solution in the conical ask, swirling the ask after each addition. The
purple colour of the MnO
4

(aq) ions will disappear as they react with the


Fe
2+
(aq) ions. The end point of the titration is when you rst get a
permanent faint purple colour from excess manganate(VII) ions.
9 Record the fnal burette reading and calculate the volume of solution you
have run out into the ask. This rst attempt will be a rough titration but it
will give you a general idea of where the end point comes.
10 Do several further accurate titrations, in which you approach the end point
adding the manganate(VII) solution drop by drop, until you have three
volumes which agree to within 0.1 cm
3
.
Recording your results
Record your results as follows:
mass of weighing bottle and solid = _______ g
mass of weighing bottle = _______ g
mass of solid = _______ g
Titration Rough 1 2 3 4 5
nal burette reading/cm
3
initial burette reading/cm
3
titre/cm
3
Average titre = _______ cm
3
EL1.2 How much iron is in a sample of an iron compound?
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 4 16/4/08 15:52:36
5
Using your results
11 Work out the average of your three closest gures for the volume of
potassium manganate(VII) used in a titration. Correct this to an appropriate
number of decimal places.
12 You will learn how to do calculations following titrations in the Elements
from the Sea module. For the moment, simply multiply the volume of
potassium manganate(VII) you used in the titration by 2.8. This will give you
the mass (mg) of iron(II) ions pipetted into the conical ask each time.
13 Calculate how much iron was in the 250 cm
3
of solution in the volumetric
ask.
14 Calculate how much iron must have been in the mass of hydrated iron(II)
ammonium sulfate that you used.
15 Calculate the percentage of iron in the hydrated iron(II) ammonium sulfate
crystals.
16 The percentage of iron in a pure sample of hydrated iron(II) ammonium
sulfate crystals, Fe(NH
4
)
2
(SO
4
)
2
6H
2
O, is 14.3%. Compare this value with your
result for the percentage of iron in the compound.
Evaluating your results and procedures
In any analysis involving a titration, there are errors or uncertainties related to
the precision of the equipment used. The glassware has been designed so that, if
it is used appropriately, the precision errors are:
Volumetric or standard ask (class B) when a 250 cm
3
volumetric ask is
lled correctly (i.e. the bottom of the meniscus rests on the calibration line)
the error is 0.2 cm
3
or 0.08%
Burette (class B) one drop from a burette has a volume of approximately
0.05 cm
3
. All burette readings should include 2 decimal places in which the
second fgure is either 0 or 5. An error of one drop in a volume of 25.00 cm
3

gives a percentage error of 0.2% for each reading.
Pipette (class B) when a 25 cm
3
pipette is used correctly (i.e. it is allowed to
drain and retain the last drop) the error is 0.06 cm
3
or 0.24%.
Procedural errors can arise if your practical technique is not good a good
technique would include the following:
the solution in the volumetric fask needs thorough mixing
the burette and pipette should be washed out with the solutions being used
the conical fask should be thoroughly washed out with purifed water
between titrations
the end point of a titration can only be determined accurately if the solution
from the burette is added drop by drop, with swirling, as the end point is
reached
when an indicator is used in a titration (not necessary when using potassium
manganate(VII)) only the minimum number of drops is added each time.
How much iron is in a sample of an iron compound? EL1.2
Questions
1 Fill in the following table for your experiment.
Quantity measured % error
Mass of iron compound weighed on balance
250 cm
3
solution made up in volumetric ask
25 cm
3
solution delivered by pipette
Your average titre delivered by burette
2 Which of the stages in your procedure do you think could
have led to errors? In each case, say whether it would make
the result higher or lower.
3 Which of all the sources of error that you have identied is
likely to have most impact on your overall result?

percentage error =
error

_______

reading
100
It is important to repeat a titration
several times to check that your results
are reliable. After calculating the
average titre, you should correct the
value to an appropriate number of
decimal places.
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 5 16/4/08 15:52:36
6
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Introduction
When metal compounds are placed in a Bunsen ame, the electrons in the metal
atoms absorb energy and are promoted to higher (excited) energy levels. The
electrons then emit energy as they fall back to lower energy levels this energy
is emitted in the form of radiation, some of which is in the visible part of the
spectrum. The radiation is emitted at specic frequencies and if the emission
spectrum of a metal is examined closely, it is found to be made up of a series of
lines. Using only our eyes, we see the predominant colour resulting from the
main frequencies at which each type of metal atom emits the radiation.
What you do
You are going to look at the light emitted when metal compounds are put into a
Bunsen burner ame. You will capture an image of the colours with a mobile
phone camera or digital camera. You will use these images to create a
PowerPoint presentation in which you describe and explain the visible emission
spectra of some metals.
1 Light your Bunsen burner and adjust the ame until no yellow colour
appears in it.
2 Select one of the splints that has been soaked in a metal compound solution
overnight.
3 Hold the splint in the Bunsen ame long enough to observe the colour that
it imparts to the ame, but do not allow the splint to burn.
4 Repeat with another splint, if necessary, to ensure that you can see the
colour accurately.
5 Repeat the procedure with the help of another student, so that one of you
holds the splint in the ame while the other takes a photograph of the
colour.
6 Repeat with splints that have been soaked in other metal compounds.
Preparing your PowerPoint presentation
7 Download the images from your camera onto a computer.
8 Use these images, and the ideas you have met during your study of this
topic, to produce a PowerPoint presentation which will:
illustrate the different colours emitted by different metal compounds
when they are heated in a Bunsen burner ame
explain the background theory which accounts for the emitted light and
the formation of atomic emission spectra.
In this activity you will have an opportunity to
view the visible light emitted when some metal
compounds are heated. This visible radiation is
part of the emission spectra of the metals.
INVESTIGATING
VISIBLE EMISSION
SPECTRA
EL1.3
Bunsen burner and heat-resistant mat
mobile phone with camera, or a digital camera
access to an ICT presentation package (e.g. PowerPoint

)
wooden splints that have been pre-soaked overnight in the following
solutions:
lithium chloride 0.1 mol dm
3
sodium chloride 0.1 mol dm
3
potassium chloride 0.1 mol dm
3
barium chloride 0.1 mol dm
3
calcium chloride 0.1 mol dm
3
Requirements
HARMFUL
barium chloride
WEAR EYE
PROTECTION
CARE Eye protection
must be worn.
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 6 16/4/08 15:52:37
7
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Introduction
Radioactive decay is a random process each nucleus in a sample of a
radioactive isotope decays in a random manner regardless of what other nuclei
are doing. We cant predict when a particular nucleus will decay but we can
predict that half the radioactive nuclei in the sample will decay in a xed time
the radioactive half-life.
In this simulation of radioactive decay, you will drop a cardboard tray
containing pieces of pasta onto a table. This causes some of the pasta to change
from lying on their sides to standing on one of their at ends this is a random
process, in a similar way that radioactive decay is a random process. We are
going to take the pieces of pasta lying on their sides to represent radioactive
nuclei, and the pieces which stand on a at end to represent a radioactive
nucleus which has decayed.
What you do
1 Weigh out about 86 g of ditalini pasta (or 162 g of ditali lisci pasta) into a
cardboard tray.
2 Swirl the tray to get the pasta into a single layer make sure that all the
pieces of pasta are lying on their sides and count them. Record the starting
number of pieces of pasta in a table like the one opposite this is most
conveniently done using computer spreadsheet software such as Excel

.
3 Drop the tray onto a table from a height of 5 to 10 cm.
4 Count and remove the pieces of pasta which are now standing on fat ends,
and enter this number in the table.
5 Repeat this process a further nine times.
6 Plot a graph, using the computer package if possible, of unchanged pasta
(represents the number of undecayed radioactive nuclei) in the sample
against the drop number (represents time).
7 Share your results with other groups of students so that you can nd a class
average for the number of undecayed nuclei at each stage draw another
graph using the average gures.
In this activity you will use pasta to simulate
radioactive decay this will enable you to
practise working out radioactive half-lives.
SIMULATING
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
EL1.4
ditalini pasta (approximately 86 g) or ditali lisci pasta (162 g)
tweezers
cardboard tray such as the top of a box containing packets of paper
Requirements
Drop
number
Unchanged
pasta
Pasta
removed
0 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Questions
1 Work out three values of radioactive half-life based on the
graph drawn using your own data.
2 What do you notice when you compare the half-life
values?
3 Use the graph drawn using the class average values to work
out three values of the half-life. How do these values
compare with each other and with the values found from
your own graph?
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 7 16/4/08 15:52:37
8
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
What you do
The statements in the table below refer to the formation of ions, using sodium and chlorine as examples.
1 Read through each statement carefully and put a tick in one of the boxes to show whether you think the statement is true or
false. You may fnd the information in Table 1 useful.
Statement True False
a A sodium atom spontaneously loses an electron to get a full shell of electrons
b An Na
7
ion is more stable than a sodium atom because it has a full shell of electrons
c A Cl
7+
ion is just as stable as a Cl

ion because they both have a full shell of electrons


d Each proton in the nucleus of an atom attracts one specic electron
e Energy is required to remove an electron from an atom
f When an atom is ionised, it requires even more energy to remove a second electron
g If you remove an electron from a sodium atom you can never put it back
h
Once you have removed one electron from a sodium atom you cant remove another because
that would mean it no longer had a full electron shell
i
Solid sodium chloride contains pairs of sodium and chloride ions which are kept together by
their opposite charges
j When sodium chloride dissolves, the solution contains molecules of sodium chloride
Table 1

Particle Electron arrangement
Na 2.8.1
Na
+
2.8
Na
7
2.8.8
Cl 2.8.7
Cl

2.8.8
Cl
7+
2.8
2 Join with two other students and compare your answers to the 10 statements. Where you have different answers, explain to
each other why you have chosen your particular answer and agree between you what your group thinks is the best answer
for each statement.
3 Your teacher will help you to compare your groups answers with the answers chosen by other groups. Be prepared to
explain why your group has chosen answers, and also be ready to challenge other groups if you think that your answer is
more appropriate than theirs.
4 Write down how you have modied your original ideas about why atoms form ions after talking and listening to other
students.
In this activity you can check and clarify your
ideas about why some atoms form ions.
WHY DO ATOMS
FORM IONS?
EL2.1
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 8 16/4/08 15:52:37
9
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
What you do
1 Blow up the balloons and tie the necks do not blow them up too hard or
you will not be able to twist them.
2 Twist one of the balloons in the middle. It now represents two electron pairs
around a central atom (Figure 1). The space taken up by a lobe of the
balloon resembles the space occupied by a pair of electrons, and the balloon
lobes push each other out of the way just as electron pairs repel one
another. You can see that the balloon molecule takes the linear shape you
would expect (like BeCl
2
).
3 Twist a second balloon in the middle, and then twist the middle of this
balloon several times around the middle of the rst balloon to represent
four electron pairs (Figure 2). It may help to put a few drops of glycerol on
the twist to lubricate the join.
a What shape does the molecule made in step 3 adopt? Give an example
of a molecule with such a shape.
4 Now, get a third balloon twist it in the middle and twist it around the
middle of the molecule you made in step 3. Again, make sure the balloons
are twisted round each other several times. Now you have a representation
of a molecule with six electron pairs round a central atom.
b What shape does the molecule made in step 4 adopt? Give an example
of a molecule with such a shape.
5 Now comes the exciting bit get a pin and pop one of the balloon lobes. If
you did your twisting well, the air wont escape from the other half of the
popped balloon, and you will have ve electron pairs.
c What shape does the molecule made in step 5 adopt? Give an example
of a molecule with such a shape.
6 Pop two more lobes to get three electron pairs.
d What shape does the molecule made in step 6 adopt? Give an example
of a molecule with such a shape.
7 Summarise your ndings in a table like the one below. When you draw the
diagrams, represent the electron pairs with lines or wedges, as shown in
Chemical Ideas 3.2.
sausage-shaped balloons (3)
a pin
glycerol
Requirements
The shapes adopted by twisted balloons can
closely resemble the shapes of molecules. You
have to be careful if this modelling process is to
work well.
SHAPES OF
MOLECULES:
BALLOON
MOLECULES
EL2.2
(1)
Figure 1 Two electron pairs round a central
atom.
Figure 2 Four electron pairs around a central
atom.
Number of electron
pairs round central
atom
Shape Bond
angles
Diagram Example
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 9 16/4/08 15:52:38
10
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
What you do
1 Working in pairs, draw the dotcross diagram for each of the following
molecules/ions on separate pieces of blank card:
BCl
3
BeCl
2
CH
4
H
2
O NH
3
NH
4
+
PCl
5
SCl
2
SCl
6
SiH
4
2 Write the following headings across the top of a piece of A4 paper (landscape
format):
Formula of molecule/ion Dotcross diagram Shape Bond angle
3 Place your dotcross cards under that heading on the piece of paper. Now
match the other cards with your dotcross diagrams to show the formula,
shape and bond angle(s) for each molecule/ion.
4 Discuss the placing of the cards with your partner, then compare your card
arrangements with those of other pairs of students. Are there any ideas you
are not sure about?
5 Finally, construct a table to summarise the information shown by your cards.
10 blank pieces of card, each measuring 5 cm by 4 cm
set of cards showing molecule or ion names, molecular shapes and bond angles
Requirements
In this part of the activity you will draw
dotcross diagrams for simple molecules and
ions and use them to predict molecular shapes
and bond angles.
SHAPES OF
MOLECULES: SHAPES
AND BOND ANGLES
EL2.2
(2)
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 10 16/4/08 15:52:38
11
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Shapes of molecules: shapes and bond angles EL2.2
Linear Triangular planar Tetrahedral
Tetrahedral Tetrahedral Triangular pyramid
V-shaped V-shaped Triangular bipyramid
Octahedral 90 90 and 120
109 109 109
109 109 109
120 180 BCI
3
BeCI
2
CH
4
H
2
O
NH
3
PCl
5
SCI
2
SCI
6
SiH
4
NH
4
+
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 11 16/4/08 15:52:39
12
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
What you do
1 For each of the substances named in the table, describe its structure and
properties by choosing one of the responses from each of Sections AD and
putting ticks, 3, in the appropriate boxes.
2 Compare your grid with one produced by another student. Discuss any
differences between them and decide on any changes you think you should
make to your original grid.
3 Compare your agreed grid with those of other pairs of students. Again, make
any changes that are necessary and make a note of any features that you
were less certain about. This will serve as a reminder for you to focus on
these points when you revise this topic in the future.
Methane Iron Diamond Sodium chloride
A: Structure
Giant lattice (metallic)
Giant structure (ionic)
Giant structure (covalent network)
Simple molecular
B: Melting temperature
High
Low
C: Solubility in water
Soluble
Insoluble
D: Conduction of electricity
Conducts as a solid and when molten
Conducts in solution and when molten
Does not conduct electricity
In this activity you will summarise the physical
properties of different types of structures.
WHAT TYPE OF
PROPERTIES
DO DIFFERENT
STRUCTURES HAVE?
EL2.3
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 12 16/4/08 15:52:39
13
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Introduction
The checklist below covers the key points in Chemical Storylines EL1 and
EL2.
The statements listed correspond to learning outcomes in the specication
for the AS examinations. They are listed in the order in which they occur in this
module. Remember that you will be coming back to many of the ideas in later
modules.
You will probably have made summary notes of the main ideas that you have
met. Now is a good time to make sure that your notes cover all the points you
need. If you feel that you are not yet able to meet the requirements of all of the
statements in the list, you should look again at the areas concerned, seek help
from your teacher if necessary and develop your notes accordingly.
Most of the points are covered in Chemical Ideas, with supporting
information in Chemical Storylines or the activitites. However, if the main
source of information is in a storyline or an activity this is indicated.
What you do
Read and think about each of the statements in the checklist. Put a tick in the
column that best represents your current ability to do what is described:
A I am condent that I can do this
B I need help to clarify my ideas on this
C I am not yet able to do this.
You will be sharing this information with your teacher so that you can work
together to improve your understanding.
At the end of Chemical Storylines EL1 and EL2 you should be able to: A B C
describe protons, neutrons and electrons in terms of their mass and relative charge
describe the structure of atoms in terms of electrons and a central nucleus containing protons and neutrons
explain the occurrence of absorption and emission atomic spectra in terms of changes in electronic energy
levels; compare and contrast the features of these spectra:
similarities both line spectra, lines in same position for a given element, lines become closer at higher
frequencies, sets of lines representing transitions to or from a particular level
differences bright/coloured lines on a black background or black lines on coloured/bright background
understand the relationship between the energy emitted or absorbed and the frequency of the line produced
in the spectra, E = h
describe the electron structure of atoms in terms of main energy levels (electron shells) up to Z = 36
recall that the nuclei of some atoms are unstable and that these atoms are radioactive
recall and explain the different properties of , and radiations
recall that the term half-life refers to the time taken for half the radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay, and
that the half-life is xed for any given isotope
carry out half-life calculations Activity EL1.4
use nuclear symbols to write equations for nuclear processes, including fusion and radioactive decay
recall that in fusion reactions lighter atoms join to give heavier atoms (under conditions of high temperature
and pressure) and understand that this is how certain elements are formed
understand how radioactive isotopes can be used as tracers in the body and (given information) for other
uses
explain that the half-life of tracers must be of an appropriate length to allow detection but not cause undue
damage
understand the use of radioisotopes in the dating of archaeological and geological material
continued
This activity helps you check your knowledge
and understanding of the topics that you have
covered in Chemical Storylines EL1 and EL2.
CHECK YOUR
KNOWLEDGE AND
UNDERSTANDING
(PART 1)
EL2.4
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 13 16/4/08 15:52:39
14
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
EL2.4 Check your knowledge and understanding (part 1)
understand that knowledge of the structure of the atom developed in terms of a succession of gradually more
sophisticated models
given information, interpret these and other examples of such developing models Activity EL1.1
explain and use the terms atomic number, mass number, isotope, Avogadro constant, relative isotopic mass,
relative atomic mass, relative formula mass and relative molecular mass
draw and interpret simple electron dotcross diagrams to show how atoms bond through ionic, covalent and
dative covalent bonds, and be able to describe a simple model of metallic bonding
describe some limitations of these models
recall the typical physical properties (melting temperature, solubility in water, ability to conduct electricity)
characteristic of giant lattice (metallic, ionic, covalent network) and simple molecular structure types
Activity EL2.3
use the electron pair repulsion principle to predict and explain the shapes of simple molecules (such as
CH
4
, NH
3
, H
2
O and SF
6
) and ions (such as NH
4
+
) with up to six outer pairs of electrons (any combination of
bonding pairs and lone pairs) Activity EL2.2
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 14 16/4/08 15:52:39
15
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Introduction
Epsom salts occur naturally and are a hydrated form of magnesium sulfate.
Magnesium sulfate can be made in the laboratory in the reaction between
magnesium carbonate and dilute sulfuric acid:
MgCO
3
(s) + H
2
SO
4
(aq) MgSO
4
(aq) + CO
2
(g) + H
2
O(l)
What you do
Making hydrated magnesium sulfate crystals (Epsom salts)
1 Using a measuring cylinder, pour 40 cm
3
of 1 mol dm
3
sulfuric acid into a
250 cm
3
beaker.
2 Weigh approximately 6 g of magnesium carbonate this is more than is
needed to react with all of the acid so you dont need to weigh it accurately.
3 Add spatula measures of the solid magnesium carbonate to the acid and stir
until all visible signs of reaction have stopped.
4 Support a lter funnel in a clamp and place an evaporating basin underneath
it.
5 Prepare a lter paper, put it into the lter funnel and lter the mixture from
the beaker.
6 Heat the ltrate in the evaporating basin to reduce it to about one-third of its
original volume do NOT heat to dryness. (CARE There may be
considerable spitting.) Wear goggles and heat gently.
7 Put the evaporating basin in a safe place, covered by a dry lter paper, to
allow the solution to crystallise this may take a day or two.
8 Remove the crystals from the remaining fltrate, blot them dry with
absorbent tissues and then allow the crystals to air dry.
Analysing magnesium sulfate crystals
The magnesium sulfate crystals you have made have the formula MgSO
4
xH
2
O.
When they are heated, water of crystallisation is driven off leaving anhydrous
magnesium sulfate, MgSO
4
.
MgSO
4
xH
2
O(s) MgSO
4
(s) + xH
2
O(g)
By weighing the hydrated and anhydrous magnesium sulfate before and after
IRRITANT
sulfuric acid
250 cm
3
beaker
100 cm
3
measuring cylinder
weighing bottle or weighing boat
spatula
evaporating basin
flter funnel
flter paper
tripod, gauze and pipeclay triangle
Bunsen burner
crucible, lid and crucible tongs
access to balance (2 or 3 d.p.)
magnesium carbonate powder (6 g)
sulfuric acid, 1 mol dm
3
(40 cm
3
)
CARE When heating the hydrated magnesium sulfate, there can be considerable spitting. Goggles should be worn and
the Bunsen burner ame should be turned down as low as possible.
Requirements
WEAR EYE
PROTECTION
CARE Eye protection
must be worn.
Epsom salts are widely sold as a mild laxative
they are hydrated magnesium sulfate. In this
activity you will make magnesium sulfate
crystals and then analyse them to nd out their
exact formula.
MAKING AND
ANALYSING EPSOM
SALTS
EL3
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 15 16/4/08 15:52:39
16
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
heating you can calculate the number of moles of water associated with 1 mole
of the magnesium sulfate. This will allow you to determine the exact formula for
the crystals. As you carry out steps 912, record your results like this:
mass of crucible = _______ g
mass of crucible + hydrated magnesium sulfate = _______ g
mass of crucible + anhydrous magnesium sulfate = _______ g
mass of magnesium sulfate in the magnesium sulfate crystals = _______ g
mass of water in the magnesium sulfate crystals = _______ g
9 Weigh a clean, dry crucible and record its mass.
10 Put some of the dry crystals of hydrated magnesium sulfate you have made
into the crucible. Reweigh the crucible and record the mass.
11 Heat the crucible gently for about a minute, and then more strongly for a
further 5 minutes (although you should try and keep the heat as low as
possible). You may see the crystals appear to melt. The liquid is likely to
spit as the water of crystallisation is driven off (CARE Wear goggles). You
will need to use the crucible lid to prevent loss of solid. Allow the crucible to
cool and then reweigh it, recording your mass.
12 Heat the crucible again for about 2 minutes and reweigh it again. If the last
two masses differ by more than 0.05 g, repeat the heating and weighing again
heating a substance until its mass remains the same is called heating to
constant mass.
Questions
1 What is meant by the terms:
a hydrated
b anhydrous
c water of crystallisation?
2 Why is it necessary to heat the hydrated magnesium sulfate
to constant mass?
3 Calculate the relative formula masses of:
a magnesium sulfate (MgSO
4
)
b water.
4 a Calculate the number of moles of magnesium sulfate in
the crystals you weighed out.
b Calculate the number of moles of water in the crystals.
5 a Calculate the number of moles of water which are
combined with 1 mole of magnesium sulfate in the
crystals.
b What is the exact formula for the magnesium sulfate
crystals?
EL3 Making and analysing Epsom salts
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 16 16/4/08 15:52:40
17
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
What you do
Reaction of the elements with water
1 Half fll a 100 cm
3
beaker with water. Use a pair of tweezers to select a small
piece of calcium metal (CARE Avoid skin contact) and add it to the water.
2 Observe what happens to the contents of the beaker. When the reaction
seems to be over, test the pH of the mixture using universal indicator
solution. Make a note of your observations.
3 Repeat the experiment with a piece of magnesium; and then with barium.
(CARE Barium and its compounds are harmful. Do not swallow any. Barium
is kept under oil or liquid parafn. You will need to dry your piece of metal
on lter paper before using it.)
a Use a reference book to nd out what the products are in these reactions.
Then summarise your results in a table like the one below.
b Make a note of any common properties of these
metals and the compounds produced from them.
c Make a note of any patterns you can spot in your
results.
Solubilities of the hydroxides and carbonates
In this part of the experiment you will be looking to see whether precipitates
form when you add drops of solutions of sodium carbonate and sodium
hydroxide to drops of Group 2 metal ion solutions. This will enable you to make
judgements about the relative solubilities of Group 2 carbonates and hydroxides.
4 You will be given a worksheet with boxes on which to place drops of
solution. Cover this worksheet with a clear plastic sheet (or plastic pocket) if
it is not already laminated.
5 Put 2 drops of the metal ion solutions in each box of the appropriate row.
6 Now add 2 drops of sodium carbonate or sodium hydroxide solution to the
appropriate column.
d Record your results. Can you identify any patterns in the solubilities of
Group 2 carbonates and hydroxides?
test tubes
100 cm
3
beakers (3)
tweezers
flter paper
small pieces of:
magnesium ribbon
calcium
barium
magnesium nitrate solution, 0.1 mol dm
3
(1 cm
3
)
calcium nitrate solution, 0.1 mol dm
3
(1 cm
3
)
strontium nitrate solution, 0.1 mol dm
3
(1 cm
3
)
barium nitrate solution, 0.1 mol dm
3
(1 cm
3
)
sodium hydroxide solution, 1 mol dm
3
(2 cm
3
)
sodium carbonate solution, 1 mol dm
3
(2 cm
3
)
universal indicator solution
worksheet results table
Requirements
HIGHLY
FLAMMABLE
calcium
WEAR EYE
PROTECTION
CARE Eye protection
must be worn.
This activity introduces you to some of the
chemistry of these elements and gives you
practice at spotting patterns and looking for
generalisations in your results.
INVESTIGATING
THE CHEMISTRY OF
GROUP 2 ELEMENTS
EL4.1
CORROSIVE
sodium hydroxide solution
universal indicator solution
HIGHLY
FLAMMABLE
barium
HIGHLY
FLAMMABLE
HARMFUL
Metal Observation
when metal
added to water
Chemical
equation
pH of mixture
produced
magnesium
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 17 16/4/08 15:52:41
18
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Table 1 Reactions of Group 2 metal ions in solution
S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

o
f
h
y
d
r
o
x
i
d
e

i
o
n
s
S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

o
f
c
a
r
b
o
n
a
t
e

i
o
n
s
S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

o
f
m
a
g
n
e
s
i
u
m

i
o
n
s
S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

o
f
c
a
l
c
i
u
m

i
o
n
s
S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

o
f
s
t
r
o
n
t
i
u
m

i
o
n
s
S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

o
f
b
a
r
i
u
m

i
o
n
s
EL4.1 Investigating the chemistry of Group 2 elements
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 18 16/4/08 15:52:41
19
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Introduction
The naturally occurring form of most elements is made up of a mixture of
isotopes of the element. For example, natural chlorine is made up of the
isotopes
35
Cl and
37
Cl in the ratio of 75% to 25%. This means that in every 100
atoms of chlorine
75 have mass number 35 and
25 have mass number 37.
So the relative atomic mass of chlorine =
(75 35) + (25 37)

___________________

100
= 35.5
The relative atomic mass (A
r
) of a naturally occurring element (the form of
the element that normally takes part in chemical reactions) is the weighted
mean of the mass numbers of the stable isotopes of the element. The mass
numbers and relative abundances of the stable isotopes can be found from the
mass spectrum of the element.
What you do
The mass spectrum of natural krypton, see Figure 1, shows that it has fve stable
isotopes at mass numbers 80, 82, 83, 84 and 86.
This activity shows how a mass spectrometer
can be used to give information about isotopes.
You will use mass spectra data to determine the
relative abundances of the isotopes of an
element and then calculate its relative atomic
mass.
ISOTOPIC
ABUNDANCE AND
RELATIVE ATOMIC
MASS
EL4.2
The peak heights of a mass spectrum are often adjusted so that the most
abundant ion is given a relative intensity of 100% in order to achieve maximum
differentiation between the peak intensities.
1 Measure the peak height for each isotope of krypton and calculate its relative
abundance in natural krypton. Use these data and the mass numbers of the
isotopes to calculate the relative atomic mass (A
r
) of krypton.
2 Draw the mass spectrum you would expect to obtain for naturally occurring
chlorine.
Figure 1 The mass spectrum of krypton.
100
80
60
40
20
0
40 80 90 50 60 70
m/z
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

/

%
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 19 16/4/08 15:52:42
20
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
What you do
You need to download and print, or draw, graphs of the melting temperatures
and boiling temperatures of the elements from hydrogen to argon.
To download a graph, nd an Internet site that provides information about
the Periodic Table. A good example is www.webelements.org a site designed
and developed at the University of Shefeld. Navigate through the site until you
reach a graph showing the information you are looking for. It may contain
information about more elements than those you need but that is ne. Print
copies of the graphs.
Another good data and graph-drawing resource can be found at the Royal
Society of Chemistrys website (www.chemsoc.org/networks/learnnet/ptdata/
welcome.htm). This interactive Periodic Table allows you to select the data you
need and plot your own graph, which you can then print.
If you cannot download and print off a graph from the Internet, you will need
to nd the required information from a chemistry data book. In this case, use
spreadsheet software to allow you to show the data graphically and to print a
hard copy.
This activity helps you to identify how the
melting and boiling temperatures of elements
change across a row in the Periodic Table.
PATTERNS IN
THE PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES OF
ELEMENTS
EL4.3
Questions
1 On your graphs, indicate which elements are from Period
1, which are from Period 2 and which are from Period 3.
2 For each graph, describe the patterns that you observe
across each period.
3 How do the patterns across Period 2
compare to those across Period 3?
4 Explain how your graphs show periodicity.
5 For each graph, note which group of
elements appear at:
a the peaks
b the troughs.
6 Part of the boiling temperature graph is shown below.
Label the point you think represents the element sodium.
Explain how you arrived at your answer.
Successive elements in the Periodic Table
B
o
i
l
i
n
g

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 20 16/4/08 15:52:42
21
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Introduction
The checklist below covers the key points in Chemical Storylines EL3 to EL5.
The statements listed correspond to learning outcomes in the specication
for the AS examinations. They are listed in the order in which they occur in this
module. Remember that you will be coming back to many of the ideas in later
modules.
You will probably have made summary notes of the main ideas that you have
met. Now is a good time to make sure that your notes cover all the points you
need. If you feel that you are not yet able to meet the requirements of all of the
statements in the list, you should look again at the areas concerned, seek help
from your teacher if necessary and develop your notes accordingly.
Most of the points are covered in Chemical Ideas, with supporting
information in Chemical Storylines or the activities. However, if the main
source of information is in a storyline or an activity this is indicated.
What you do
Read and think about each of the statements in the checklist. Put a tick in the
column that best represents your current ability to do what is described:
A I am condent that I can do this
B I need help to clarify my ideas on this
C I am not yet able to do this.
You will be sharing this information with your teacher so that you can work
together to improve your understanding.
At the end of Chemical Storylines EL3 to EL5 you should be able to: A B C
explain and use the terms atomic number, mass number, isotope, Avogadro constant, relative isotopic mass,
relative atomic mass, relative formula mass and relative molecular mass
use the concept of amount of substance to perform calculations involving masses of substances, empirical and
molecular formulae and percentage composition
write and interpret balanced chemical equations, including state symbols
describe and explain the main stages in the operation of a time-of-fight mass spectrometer
use data from a mass spectrometer to:
calculate relative atomic mass and the relative abundance of isotopes
work out the relative molecular mass of molecules
understand that other peaks are caused by fragments of molecules
recall that the Periodic Table lists elements in order of atomic (proton) number and groups elements together
according to their common properties
use given information to describe trends in a group of the Periodic Table and to make predictions concerning
the properties of an element in this group
describe periodic trends in the properties of elements, in terms of melting temperature and boiling
temperature Activity 4.3
recall that the position of an element in the Periodic Table is related to its electron structure (main energy
levels or electron shells) and vice versa
describe and compare the following properties of the elements and compounds of Mg, Ca, Sr and Ba in
Group 2:
reactions of the elements with water
acidbase character of the oxides and hydroxides
thermal stability of the carbonates
solubilities of hydroxides and carbonates Activity 4.1
understand how Mendeleev developed the Periodic Table by leaving gaps and rearranging some elements
from their atomic mass order and how subsequent research validated this knowledge
given relevant information, discuss other examples of how scientifc research can be used to assess the
validity of a discovery Chemical Storylines EL4
This activity helps you check your knowledge
and understanding of the topics that you have
covered in Chemical Storylines EL3 to EL5.
CHECK YOUR
KNOWLEDGE AND
UNDERSTANDING
(PART 2)
EL5
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 21 16/4/08 15:52:43
22
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Elements of Life end of module test 60 marks (1 hour)
A copy of the Periodic Table is required for this test.
1 The element helium was discovered in the Suns atmosphere by Lockyer and Frankland around 1870. They saw lines in the
emission spectrum of the Sun which corresponded to no element known at the time.
a Copy and complete the table to show the relative mass and charge of protons, neutrons and electrons.
proton neutron electron
mass (on relative atomic mass scale) 1 v. small
charge +1 0
[2]
b Helium is made in the Sun by fusion reactions such as

2
1
H +
3
1
H
4
2
He + . Equation 1.1
i What is meant by the term fusion reaction? [2]
ii Explain why
2
1
H and
3
1
H are called isotopes of hydrogen. [2]
iii Complete Equation 1.1 for the fusion reaction. [2]
c Helium was identied by its absorption spectrum.
Describe the appearance of an absorption spectrum. [2]
d Draw some of the electronic energy levels of an atom such as helium and use your diagram to explain:
The way in which absorption and emission occur.
Why only certain frequencies are involved in the emission spectrum of a particular element.
Why there is more than one frequency in an emission spectrum. [4]
e Helium nuclei occur as -particles in radioactive decay. For example, polonium-216 decays by loss of an -particle.
i What feature of the
216
Po nucleus causes it to decay? [1]
ii Write a nuclear equation for the decay of
216
Po. [2]
iii The half-life of the decay of
216
Po is 0.145 s. Explain what this means. [1]
iv Imagine you have a sample of 1 million atoms of
216
Po. How many atoms would be left after 0.435 s? [1]
f Suggest why -particle emitters are more useful than -particle emitters as radioactive tracers. [2]
g Geiger and Marsden red -particles at a thin sheet of gold foil. Most passed through undeected while just a very few
bounced back.
What feature of atomic structure did this experiment reveal? Explain your answer. [2]
[TOTAL: 23 MARKS]
(OCR Chemistry B (Salters) question, adapted for the 2008 specication)
2 Mendeleev is usually regarded as the founder of the modern Periodic Table.
a Mendeleev listed the elements in order of ascending atomic mass, but he reversed the positions of tellurium
and iodine. (A
r
: Te, 127.6; I, 126.9)
i Explain why he thought it necessary to do this. [1]
ii Which feature of atoms is used today to determine their position in the Periodic Table? [1]
b Mendeleev grouped zinc with calcium because they have some similar properties.
i Suggest an equation for the thermal decomposition of zinc carbonate. [2]
ii Draw a dotcross diagram for the ionic substance calcium oxide, showing outer electron shells only. [2]
iii Zinc oxide is an ionic solid that is insoluble in water.
Suggest two physical properties of zinc oxide that can be deduced from its ionic structure. [2]
c Give the symbol for an element from Period 3 (Na to Cl) which:
i has an outer shell of ve electrons; [1]
ii forms a basic oxide XO; [1]
iii has the highest melting point; [1]
iv forms a compound with uorine which has an octahedral shape. [1]
EL End of module test
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 22 16/4/08 15:52:43
23
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
End of module test EL
d Sulfur is in Group 6 and forms a hydride (hydrogen sulde). The electron arrangement and shape of this molecule
are similar to those of water.
i Draw a dotcross diagram for hydrogen sulde, showing the outer electron shells only. [2]
ii Draw a diagram to predict the shape of the hydrogen sulde molecule, indicating the bond angle. [2]
iii Explain your answer to ii. [3]
e An oxide of sulfur contains 40% sulfur by mass, the rest being oxygen. Calculate the empirical formula of the oxide. [3]
[TOTAL: 22 MARKS]
(OCR Chemistry B (Salters) question, adapted for the 2008 specication)
3 In 1848, a party led by Sir John Franklin set out on an ill-fated expedition to nd the Northwest Passage between the
Atlantic and Pacic Oceans. Scientists have now been able to show how the members of the party died. Their method
involved analysing the lead in human remains from the site of their last camp, and comparing it with lead from the solder
used to seal their food containers. This showed that members of the party had absorbed large (and presumably fatal)
quantities of lead from their contaminated food.
The analysis was carried out using mass spectrometry, and showed that the ratio of
208
Pb to
206
Pb was very similar in
the human remains and in the solder seals.
a i Draw a diagram of a time of ight mass spectrometer. On your diagram, write the following labels:
sample inlet; ionisation area; acceleration area; ion detector. [4]
ii Which of
208
Pb
+
ions or
206
Pb
+
ions will pass through the spectrometer faster? Explain why this happens. [2]
b The mass spectrum of a sample of lead is shown below. Calculate the relative atomic mass (A
r
) for this sample of
lead by reading values off the mass spectrum. Give your answer to four signicant gures.


I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
/
%
m/z
100
80
60
40
20
0
200 201 202 203 204 205 206 0 207 208 209 210
25
22
53
[3]
c Solder is an alloy of tin and lead. A sample is found to contain one mole of lead for every two moles of tin.
Use the following steps to calculate the percentage by mass of lead in the solder sample.
i What is the mass of two moles of tin atoms? [1]
ii What is the mass of one mole of lead atoms? [1]
iii Calculate the percentage of lead in the solder. [2]
d Draw a labelled diagram to illustrate the metallic bonding in a sample of lead. [2]
[TOTAL: 15 MARKS]
(OCR Chemistry B (Salters) question, adapted for the 2008 specication)
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 23 16/4/08 15:52:43
150
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
M
a
p

o
f

t
h
e

m
o
d
u
l
e
:

E
l
e
m
e
n
t
s

o
f

L
i
f
e
T
h
i
s

s
h
o
w
s

t
h
e

r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
h
i
p

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

t
h
e

C
h
e
m
i
c
a
l

S
t
o
r
y
l
i
n
e
s
,

t
h
e

A
c
t
i
v
i
t
i
e
s

a
n
d

t
h
e

C
h
e
m
i
c
a
l

I
d
e
a
s
.

T
o

a
i
d

p
l
a
n
n
i
n
g
,

l
a
b
o
r
a
t
o
r
y
-
b
a
s
e
d

p
r
a
c
t
i
c
a
l

w
o
r
k

i
s

i
n
d
i
c
a
t
e
d

b
y

(
P
)
,

a
c
t
i
v
i
t
i
e
s

i
n
v
o
l
v
i
n
g

I
T

s
k
i
l
l
s

a
r
e

i
n
d
i
c
a
t
e
d

b
y

(
I
T
)

a
n
d

t
h
o
s
e

d
e
v
e
l
o
p
i
n
g

s
t
u
d
y

s
k
i
l
l
s

b
y

(
S
)
.
A
C
T
I
V
I
T
I
E
S
C
H
E
M
I
C
A
L

S
T
O
R
Y
L
I
N
E
C
H
E
M
I
C
A
L

I
D
E
A
S
*

I
f

E
L

i
s

b
e
i
n
g

t
a
u
g
h
t

b
y

o
n
e

t
e
a
c
h
e
r
,

C
h
e
m
i
c
a
l

I
d
e
a
s

2
.
1

a
n
d

2
.
2

d
o

n
o
t

n
e
e
d

t
o

b
e

r
e
v
i
s
i
t
e
d

a
s

p
a
r
t

o
f

E
L
3
,

a
s

t
h
e
y

w
i
l
l

h
a
v
e

b
e
e
n

c
o
v
e
r
e
d

d
u
r
i
n
g

E
L
1
.


I
f

E
L

i
s

b
e
i
n
g

t
a
u
g
h
t

i
n

t
w
o

s
e
p
a
r
a
t
e

h
a
l
v
e
s

b
y

t
w
o

t
e
a
c
h
e
r
s

w
o
r
k
i
n
g

i
n

p
a
r
a
l
l
e
l

(
s
e
e

n
o
t
e
s

o
n

T
e
a
c
h
i
n
g

A
S

w
i
t
h

t
w
o

t
e
a
c
h
e
r
s


i
n

t
h
e

A
b
o
u
t

t
h
e

c
o
u
r
s
e


s
e
c
t
i
o
n
)

t
h
e
n

s
e
c
t
i
o
n
s

E
L
1

a
n
d

E
L
2

f
o
r
m

o
n
e

h
a
l
f

a
n
d

s
e
c
t
i
o
n
s

E
L
3

t
o

E
L
5

t
h
e

s
e
c
o
n
d
.


I
n

t
h
i
s

c
a
s
e

C
h
e
m
i
c
a
l

I
d
e
a
s

2
.
1

a
n
d

t
h
e

a
s
s
o
c
i
a
t
e
d

a
c
t
i
v
i
t
y

(
E
L
1
.
1
)

c
a
n

b
e

t
a
u
g
h
t

b
y

e
i
t
h
e
r

t
e
a
c
h
e
r
,

a
s

c
a
n

C
h
e
m
i
c
a
l

I
d
e
a
s

2
.
2
.
E
L
1
.
1

H
o
w

d
o

w
e

k
n
o
w

a
b
o
u
t

a
t
o
m
s
?

(
I
T
)
*
E
L
1
.
2

H
o
w

m
u
c
h

i
r
o
n

i
s

i
n

a

s
a
m
p
l
e

o
f

a
n

i
r
o
n

c
o
m
p
o
u
n
d
?

(
P
)
E
L
1
.
3

I
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
i
n
g

v
i
s
i
b
l
e

e
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

s
p
e
c
t
r
a

(
P
)

(
I
T
)
E
L
1
.
4

S
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
n
g

r
a
d
i
o
a
c
t
i
v
e

d
e
c
a
y
E
L
1

W
H
E
R
E

D
O

T
H
E

C
H
E
M
I
C
A
L

E
L
E
M
E
N
T
S

C
O
M
E

F
R
O
M
?
2
.
1

A

s
i
m
p
l
e

m
o
d
e
l

o
f

t
h
e

a
t
o
m
*
2
.
2

N
u
c
l
e
a
r

r
e
a
c
t
i
o
n
s

(
s
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
n

s
s
i
o
n

a
n
d

f
u
s
i
o
n
)
*
6
.
1

L
i
g
h
t

a
n
d

e
l
e
c
t
r
o
n
s
2
.
3

E
l
e
c
t
r
o
n
i
c

s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e
:

s
h
e
l
l
s
2
.
2

N
u
c
l
e
a
r

r
e
a
c
t
i
o
n
s

(
s
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
n

h
a
l
f
-
l
i
f
e
)
*
E
L
2
.
1

W
h
y

d
o

a
t
o
m
s

f
o
r
m

i
o
n
s
?
E
L
2
.
2

S
h
a
p
e
s

o
f

m
o
l
e
c
u
l
e
s

P
a
r
t

1
:

B
a
l
l
o
o
n

m
o
l
e
c
u
l
e
s


P
a
r
t

2
:

S
h
a
p
e
s

a
n
d

b
o
n
d

a
n
g
l
e
s
E
L
2
.
3

W
h
a
t

t
y
p
e

o
f

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
i
e
s

d
o

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t

s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e
s

h
a
v
e
?
E
L
2
.
4

C
h
e
c
k

y
o
u
r

k
n
o
w
l
e
d
g
e

a
n
d

u
n
d
e
r
s
t
a
n
d
i
n
g

(
P
a
r
t

1
)

(
S
)
E
L
2

T
H
E

M
O
L
E
C
U
L
E
S

O
F

L
I
F
E
3
.
1

C
h
e
m
i
c
a
l

b
o
n
d
i
n
g

(
s
e
c
t
i
o
n
s

o
n

b
o
n
d

p
o
l
a
r
i
t
y

a
n
d

e
l
e
c
t
r
o
n
e
g
a
t
i
v
i
t
y
)
3
.
2

T
h
e

s
h
a
p
e
s

o
f

m
o
l
e
c
u
l
e
s
E
L
1
.
1

H
o
w

d
o

w
e

k
n
o
w

a
b
o
u
t

a
t
o
m
s
?

(
I
T
)
*
E
L
3

M
a
k
i
n
g

a
n
d

a
n
a
l
y
s
i
n
g

E
p
s
o
m

s
a
l
t
s

(
P
)
E
L
3

W
H
A
T

A
R
E

W
E

M
A
D
E

O
F
?
2
.
1

A

s
i
m
p
l
e

m
o
d
e
l

o
f

t
h
e

a
t
o
m
*
2
.
2

N
u
c
l
e
a
r

r
e
a
c
t
i
o
n
s
*
1
.
1

A
m
o
u
n
t

o
f

s
u
b
s
t
a
n
c
e
E
L
4
.
1

I
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
i
n
g

t
h
e

c
h
e
m
i
s
t
r
y

o
f

G
r
o
u
p

2

e
l
e
m
e
n
t
s

(
P
)
E
L
4
.
2

I
s
o
t
o
p
i
c

a
b
u
n
d
a
n
c
e

a
n
d

r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

a
t
o
m
i
c

m
a
s
s
E
L
4
.
3

P
a
t
t
e
r
n
s

i
n

t
h
e

p
h
y
s
i
c
a
l

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
i
e
s

o
f

e
l
e
m
e
n
t
s

(
I
T
)
E
L
4

L
O
O
K
I
N
G

F
O
R

P
A
T
T
E
R
N
S

I
N

E
L
E
M
E
N
T
S
1
.
2

B
a
l
a
n
c
i
n
g

e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
s
1
1
.
2

T
h
e

s

b
l
o
c
k
:

G
r
o
u
p
s

1

a
n
d

2

6
.
5

M
a
s
s

s
p
e
c
t
r
o
m
e
t
r
y
1
1
.
1

P
e
r
i
o
d
i
c
i
t
y
E
L
5

C
h
e
c
k

y
o
u
r

k
n
o
w
l
e
d
g
e

a
n
d

u
n
d
e
r
s
t
a
n
d
i
n
g


(
P
a
r
t

2
)

(
S
)
E
L
5

S
U
M
M
A
R
Y
984_07_SAC SP_TT EL.indd 150 17/4/08 08:00:33
151
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Concept map
The concept map shows how the major chemical ideas in this teaching module develop throughout the AS course.
Concept First introduced in
module
Developed in
module(s)
Assumed in
module(s)
Relative atomic mass and relative formula mass EL all
Amount of substance EL DF all
Chemical formulae and inorganic nomenclature EL ES all
Balanced chemical equations EL DF all
Atomic structure EL
Atomic orbitals and electron conguration EL ES
Nuclear processes EL
Ionic bonding EL ES
Ionisation enthalpy EL ES
Size of ions EL
Covalent bonding EL DF, ES, PR
Giant covalent (network) structures EL A ES
Shapes of molecules EL DF ES
Metallic bonding EL ES
Relationship between properties, and bonding and structure EL DF, ES, PR
Electromagnetic spectrum EL A
Quantisation of energy EL A
Interaction of radiation with matter EL A
Atomic absorption and emission spectra EL
Mass spectrometry EL
The Periodic Table EL ES
Groups 1 and 2 EL
Advance warning
The following items needed for activities in this module may not be in your school currently, and might take a little time to
obtain.
Activity Item(s) Essential/optional Typical quantity per activity
EL1.4 Ditalini pasta (or ditali lisci pasta) Essential 86 g ditalini (or 162 g ditali lisci)
per pair of students (reusable)
EL2.2 Balloons (sausage-shaped) and balloon pump Essential 3 per pair of students
EL4.1 Small pieces of barium metal (do not use strontium)
Strontium and barium compounds solutions of
the nitrates
Essential
Essential
small pieces
1 cm
3
of each per pair
EL
ELEMENTS OF LIFE
984_07_SAC SP_TT EL.indd 151 17/4/08 08:00:34
152
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Storyline: answers to assignments
1 a
4
2 He b
15
8 O c
1
1 H
2 Sodium, magnesium, iron, helium and hydrogen lines are
all visible.
3 a The radioactivity of blood samples would be taken
before, during and after receiving the tracer.
b Detectable quantities of radiation have to be given off
during the short time the patient is being observed.
There is also a health risk involved in using long-lived
isotopes which may become built into the body, e.g.
radioactive calcium in bones.
c Ionising radiation is being produced inside the patient
in sensitive organs and may cause damage. Isotopes
must be rushed from the production lab to the
hospital before too much decay has occurred.
4 Communication and presentation of data are important
aspects of this course. Students should be able to see that
the pie charts show up the differences between mass and
percentage of atoms more clearly than the table. This may
be an appropriate point at which to discuss other ways of
presenting data.
Activities: notes and answers to questions
EL1.1 How do we know about atoms?
Comments
This activity is an opportunity for students to practise and
develop their communication and IT skills by extracting
information from several sources, including the Internet, and
preparing a PowerPoint presentation.
EL1.2 How much iron is in a sample of an
iron compound?
Safety note Information about hazardous chemicals is given on
the activity sheet.
Comments
This activity extends students experience of quantiable
errors by considering the specialist glassware used in
volumetric analysis.
Calculations involving reacting amounts and concentrations
are dealt with in modules DF and ES, respectively. Students
who have already covered these ideas could perform a
standard calculation from their results. Students who have not
previously encountered mole calculations should be able to
do the activity by making use of the conversion factor
provided in the notes.
You may wish to spend some time showing students how
to make up a solution and perform a titration before starting
this activity.
Answers
1 The actual percentage errors depend on the size of the
values measured. The answers for the volumetric ask,
burette and pipette are given in the activity.
2 Students should be able to identify the stages in the
procedure that could lead to errors. They should also be
encouraged to think through how the error would affect
the result.
3 Students should identify the stages in their procedure and
the measurements that are likely to have the greatest
impact on the closeness of the nal answer to the true
value. Since the titration is repeated, they should
comment on the reliability of their average titre as
indicated by the closeness of successive values.
EL1.3 Investigating visible emission
spectra
Safety note Information about hazardous chemicals is given on
the activity sheet.
Comments
The wooden splints need to be pre-soaked in the salt
solutions overnight. Alternatively, the splints can be soaked
overnight in water. A splint can then be removed, excess water
drained off and the end dipped into a small sample of the salt.
The activity is best organised as a circus with each station
being dedicated to a specic salt. Pairs of students can then
move from station to station observing the different ame
colours.
This activity aims to help students to see and explain the
link between ame colours and emission spectra. Teachers
may want students to use handheld spectroscopes to view the
ame colours. However, this is not essential because students
are asked to explain the background theory that accounts for
the emitted light and the formation of atomic emission spectra
in their PowerPoint presentation. Demonstration of a
spectroscope (which might be found in a physics department)
or the use of a digital video clip showing particular atomic
spectra would complement this activity.
The colours seen are:
Li bright red
Na yellow
K lilac
Ca brick red
Ba apple green.
EL1.4 Simulating radioactive decay
Comments
Ditalini (little thimble) pasta is available from a number of
suppliers (an Internet search will provide a list). Each
manufacturer produces different sizes of ditalini pasta so the
mass required will vary. Another pasta (which may be more
readily available) that works quite well is ditali lisci. This is a
bigger form of pasta which is easier to count and to pick out
with tweezers.
162 g of ditali lisci pasta is needed per pair of students. The
pasta can be reused. Pre-weighed bags of pasta are easy to use
and store. The tops of boxes used to supply photocopy paper
make good trays.
The rst drop of the tray should produce between 70 and
90 pieces of pasta standing on end. If this is not the case then
try dropping the pasta from a slightly greater height. Teachers
could set up a spreadsheet in which pairs of students enter
their results in order to get class average results. Use of
computer spreadsheet software will enable the graphs to be
drawn quickly and accurately.
EL Storyline: answers to assignments
984_07_SAC SP_TT EL.indd 152 17/4/08 08:00:34
Activities: notes and answers to questions EL
153
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Answers
1 The radioactive half-life values will depend on students
data.
2 Students should notice that the three values for the half-
lives are similar.
3 The class average radioactive half-lives should be very
similar to each other, and similar to the data from
students own graphs. Emphasise how averaging a larger
data sample reduces anomalies which may be apparent in
any one set of data.
EL2.1 Why do atoms form ions?
Comments
This activity is based on ideas in Chemical Misconceptions
prevention, diagnosis and cure; Volume II: Classroom
Resources, London: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2002. It aims
to help students to identify misunderstandings they may have
about the formation of ions. The statements they are given
should promote discussion between students which help
reveal any misconceptions.
Answers
1 a False: energy needs to be supplied to remove an
electron from an atom (the ionisation enthalpy)
b False: the Na
7
ion would be highly unstable
c False: Cl

is much more stable than Cl


7+
since a great
deal of energy would be needed to remove 7 electrons
from an atom
d False:

all the protons attract all the electrons (and vice
versa)
e True: this is the ionisation enthalpy
f True: in the case of both sodium and chlorine, more
energy is needed to remove a second electron, but the
difference is greater with sodium because the second
electron to be removed is in a lower energy level
g False: an electron can be added to a sodium ion to
reform the atom
h False: a second electron can be removed from a
sodium atom but it would need more energy to do so
this is the second ionisation enthalpy
i False: solid sodium chloride is made up of an ionic
lattice containing many ions with each ion attracting
several oppositely charged ions
j False: sodium chloride solution contains hydrated
sodium and chloride ions
EL2.2 Shapes of molecules
Part 1
The activity is fun to do, but students must also realise the
signicance and importance of the summary table they obtain.
Answers
a Tetrahedral; e.g methane, CH
4
b Octahedral; e.g. sulfur(VI) uoride, SF
6
c Trigonal bipyramid; e.g phosphorus(V) chloride, PCl
5
d Planar triangular; e.g boron(III) uoride, BF
3
Part 2
It is helpful if students work in pairs so that they can talk with
each other about drawing appropriate dotcross diagrams and
about assigning shapes and bond angles to them. The
summary table will be useful for revision later.
Teachers may choose to prepare laminated cards with
molecule names, shapes and bond angles before the lesson to
avoid using class time for cutting out the cards.
EL2.3 What type of properties do different
structures have?
This is a quick assessment for learning activity to check the
students understanding about structure and properties. It is
important that students identify any features explicitly that
they are less certain about so that they can focus on them in
the future.
Answers
Methane Iron Diamond Sodium
chloride
A: Structure
Giant lattice
(metallic)
3
Giant structure
(ionic)
3
Giant structure
(covalent
network)
3
Simple
molecular
3
B: Melting
temperature
High 3 3 3
Low 3
C: Solubility in
water
Soluble 3
Insoluble 3 3 3
D: Conduction
of electricity
Conducts as a
solid and when
molten
3
Conducts in
solution and
when molten
3
Does not
conduct
electricity
3 3
EL2.4 Check your knowledge and
understanding (Part 1)
Comments
This activity ensures that students are aware of the learning
outcomes (specication statements) that their assessment will
be based on, and provides an opportunity for them to reect
on how well they understand the ideas they have covered.
Crucially, it enables teachers to identify areas where individual
students are less condent, and to provide appropriate
additional support to improve their understanding.
EL3 Making and analysing Epsom salts
Safety note Information about hazardous chemicals is given on
the activity sheet. Note that care must be taken when heating
the salt.
984_07_SAC SP_TT EL.indd 153 17/4/08 08:00:34
EL Activities: notes and answers to questions
154
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Comments
Students have the opportunity to make crystals of hydrated
magnesium sulfate, and then to analyse the resulting salt to
nd its exact formula. Some teachers may prefer to provide
crystals for analysis to avoid waiting for students own samples
to crystallise.
Answers
1 a Crystals which contain molecules of water associated
with the cations and anions are said to be hydrated.
b Crystals which do not contain any molecules of water
are said to be anhydrous.
c The water molecules associated with ions in a crystal
are called water of cystallisation.
2 Heating to constant mass ensures that all the water of
crystallisation has been driven off to leave only the
anhydrous salt.
3 a 120.4 b 18.0
5 a 7 b MgSO
4
7H
2
O
EL4.1 Investigating the chemistry of Group 2
elements
Safety note Information about hazardous chemicals is given on
the activity sheet. Barium metal is difcult to cut into smaller
pieces. Barium rods can be held in a vice and a junior hacksaw
used, with care, to cut off small pieces of the metal. It is better
to buy granules if possible. Do not use strontium. When
barium reacts with water, the resulting alkaline solution will be
an irritant. The solution will absorb carbon dioxide and turn
cloudy (barium carbonate).
Comments
This activity needs careful management. Students often have
difculty making observations from test tube experiments at
this stage of the course. Also, it may be better to divide up the
work so that different groups are responsible for different
parts of the activity or for different elements.
The second part of the activity introduces student to
microscale techniques in chemistry. The student sheets can be
covered by a plastic sheet such as those used with OHPs, or
put into plastic le pockets. Some teachers may prefer to
laminate the sheets instead.
Answers
Reactions of the elements with water:
3 Magnesium does not appear to react. Ca and Ba react
to produce an alkaline solution of the metal hydroxide
and hydrogen.
The metals are reactive and are denser than water. The
hydroxides are white, slightly soluble compounds
which form alkaline solutions. The metals become
more reactive from Mg to Ba.
6 The hydroxides become more soluble from Mg(OH)
2
to
Ba(OH)
2
. The carbonates are insoluble.
EL4.2 Isotopic abundance and relative atomic
mass
Answers
1 Students may nd the intensity of each peak from the
scale, or measure the peak heights with a ruler. The results
here use the relative intensity of each peak.
Mass Relative intensity Relative abundance
80 4.0 2.3
82 20.5 11.7
83 20.5 11.7
84 100 56.9
86 30. 5 17.4
175.5 100.0
A
r
of krypton
= [(80 2.3) + (82 11.7) + (83 11.7) + (84 56.9)
+ (86 17.4)] / 100
= 83.9 (the Data Book value is 83.8)
2 The mass spectrum of chlorine consists of two peaks at
mass 35 and 37 with relative intensities in the ratio of 3 : 1
respectively.
EL4.3 Patterns in the physical properties of
elements
Comments
Students are expected to make use of the Internet to nd
information about the melting temperatures and boiling
temperatures of elements from hydrogen to argon
Period 1: H, He; Period 2: Li to Ne; Period 3 Na to Ar.
Answers
2 Melting and boiling temperatures rise to elements in
Group 4 (C, Si) then fall to low values.
3 The pattern across Period 2 is similar to that in Period 3.
4 Periodicity describes how a pattern in a property across
one period is repeated across another period
5 a Peaks occur at Group 4.
b Troughs occur at Group 0 the noble gases although
the melting and boiling temperatures of elements in
Groups 5, 6 and 7 are also low.
6 Sodium is represented on the graph by the fth point from
the left. The point at the peak must represent an element
in Group 4; so sodium in Group 1 is three places to the
left. Alternatively, the sequence of four low points must
represent elements in Groups 5, 6, 7 and 0; so sodium
must be represented by the next point.
EL5 Check your knowledge and
understanding (Part 2)
Comments
This activity ensures that students are aware of the learning
outcomes (specication statements) that their assessment will
be based on, and provides an opportunity for them to reect
on how well they understand the ideas they have covered.
Crucially, it enables teachers to identify areas where individual
students are less condent, and to provide appropriate
additional support to improve their understanding.
This activity could be used as part of the preparation for an
end of module test.
984_07_SAC SP_TT EL.indd 154 17/4/08 08:00:35
EL Answers to end of module tests
188
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Answers to Elements of Life end of module test
Q Answer Maximum mark
1 (a) Neutron: mass = 1 (1); electron: charge = 1 (1) 2
1 (b) (i) Two nuclei join together (1); to form a heavier nucleus (1) 2
1 (b) (ii) Same number of protons (1); different number of neutrons/mass number (1) 2
1 (b) (iii)
1
0
n (1) for numbers; (1) for n or neutron 2
1 (c) Dark lines (1); on a coloured or bright background (1) 2
1 (d) At least three horizontal lines, spacing smaller at the top (1); arrows between levels up
labelled absorption, down emission (1); transitions only occur between energy levels (1);
different gaps give rise to different lines (1)
4
1 (e) (i) It is unstable 1
1 (e) (ii)
21
8
6
4
Po
4
2
He (1) +
21
8
2
2
Pb (1) 2
1 (e) (iii) This is the time taken for half the sample to decay 1
1 (e) (iv) 125 000 1
1 (f) -particles penetrate more (1); therefore more easily detected (1) 2
1 (g) Central nucleus (which is very small and very heavy) (1); the few particles that hit it bounced
back (1)
2
Q Answer Maximum mark
2 (a) (i) Their properties/reactions/behaviour matched the reversed groups (1) 1
2 (a) (ii) Atomic number/number of protons 1
2 (b) (i) ZnCO
3
(1) ZnO + CO
2
(1) 2
2 (b) (ii)
Ca
2 2
O
(1) for calcium (can have eight electrons); (1) for oxygen; [(1) if no charges but otherwise
correct]
2
2 (b) (iii) High melting point (1); conducts electricity when molten (1) 2
2 (c) (i) P 1
2 (c) (ii) Mg 1
2 (c) (iii) Si 1
2 (c) (iv) S (allow SF
6
) 1
2 (d) (i)
H S H

Lone pairs (1); bonding pairs (1)
2
2 (d) (ii)
109
S
H
H

Shape (1); bond angle 105110 (1)
2
2 (d) (iii) Four pairs of electrons (1); repel (1); and get as far away from each other as possible (1) 3
2 (e) 40/32.1 moles S (= 1.25) (1);
60/16.0 moles O (= 3.75) (1); formula SO
3
(1)
3
984_12_SAC SP_TT Mark.indd 188 17/4/08 08:21:17
189
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Q Answer Maximum mark
3 (a) (i)
Sample
inlet
Ionisation
area
Acceleration
area
Ion detector
(1) for each correctly labelled area; only award ion detector mark if ight path area is shown
(not necessarily labelled)
4
3 (a) (ii)
206
Pb
2+
faster because lighter ions faster (1); all have same kinetic energy initially, lower mass
higher velocity (1)
2
3 (b) ((206 25) + (207 22) + (208 53))/100 = 207.3
(1) for top of fraction; (1) for dividing by 100; (1) for answer to 4 sf
3
3 (c) (i) 237.4 g (238 g) 1
3 (c) (ii) 207.2 g (207 g) 1
3 (c) (iii) 207.2 100/444.6 (1) = 46.6% (46.5%) (1) (credit correct working and answers from previous
incorrect steps)
2
3 (d) Diagram showing positive ions (1); in a sea of electrons (1) 2
Answers to end of module tests EL
984_12_SAC SP_TT Mark.indd 189 17/4/08 08:21:18

You might also like