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Control of Utility Interactive Inverters

Yilmaz Sozer David A. Torrey


Advanced Energy Conversion, LLC
405 Front Street
Schenectady, NY 12305, USA
1 Introduction
As the cost of conventional energy sources continues to increase, alternative energy sources continue to
gain in popularity beyond those that see them as a way to reduce environmental pollution. The new
technological developments in renewable energy systems make them commercially viable alternatives. Small
hydro turbines, wind turbines and solar photovoltaics (PV) are the most common alternative energy sources
currently. Solar electric energy usage has grown consistently at a rate of 20-25% annually over the last 20
years, and has accelerated to nearly 50% per annum in the last ve years. In 2001, just under 350 MW of
solar systems were installed. In 2005, 1.460 GW of PV systems were put into use. This number increased
to 1.744 GW in 2006. On-grid installations (also known as utility-interactive) are being installed at almost
twice the rate of o-grid installations for two reasons. First, most homes and businesses are connected to
the utility grid. Second, most government incentive programs apply only to utility-interactive systems. The
majority of the on-grid applications are distributed, namely installed at the point of use.
According to the Global Wind Energy Council wind power plants generated 22,199 GWh in 2006, which is
6.48% higher than in 2005. This production represents a 9% coverage of demand. However, most alternative
energy systems do not have constant energy sources. Wind speed, sun irradiance, and water ow rate might
change quite a lot during the day. A stable grid interface is desired to lter the uctuation in the renewable
energy sources to provide reliable power to the user. As such, most of the renewable energy sources interface
to the grid. The source side of the energy is mostly in DC form. Solar PV cells provide DC voltage, small
and mid size wind generators output AC which is then rectied to DC voltage. The DC electric energy is
usually converted into AC electric energy by use of an inverter. The control objective on the DC side is
to capture maximum energy and deliver it to the utility grid. The resulting AC electric energy has to be
compatible with the energy within the AC utility system at the point where the inverter is connected to the
utility system.
High penetration of so many distributed systems to the utility grid brings many issues with it. An unregulated
interface to the utility grid aects the quality of the energy provided and safety of maintenance personnel
or the system user. Standards have been developed to impose restrictions on connecting utility interactive
inverters to the grid.
A common feature of utility interactive inverters is an algorithm that seeks to maximize the energy extracted
from the renewable resource. In solar PV, this is generally referred to as maximum power point tracking
(MPPT). Wind turbines also seek to maximize energy capture, but this is typically accomplished by forcing
the turbine to operate at maximum aerodynamic eciency. Conceptually, this is a form of MPPT, but it
involves more than the utility interactive inverter.
This paper provides an overview of the challenges in modeling and control of the inverter interfaced to the
utility grid. MPPT for solar pv implementation are explained in Section 2. Grid synchronization methods are
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discussed and details of the widely accepted phase-locked loop (PLL) algorithm is presented in Section 3. The
islanding phenomenon and the vulnerability of the inverters to the phenomenon are discussed. Commonly
used anti-islanding techniques with an emphasis on the Sandia voltage and frequency shift algorithm are
given in Section 4. Current regulation algorithms are discussed and a linearized feedforward digital PI current
regulator is developed in Section 5. PWM generation algorithms are presented for multilevel inverters, made
generic to be implemented by an inverter with any number of levels in Section 6; both sine PWM and space
vector techniques are discussed. Section 7 provides information about stand alone inverters that are not
interfaced to the utility grid. Challenges for embedded control implementation of the inverter algorithms
given is Section 8. Summary and conclusions are provided in Section 9.
2 Maximum Power Point Tracking for Solar PV Systems
A typical solar PV system is comprised of an array of solar photovoltaic panels that convert sunlight into
DC electric energy that is proportional to the solar irradiance striking the panels. The DC electric energy is
usually converted into AC electric energy by use of an inverter. The amount of solar energy available is subject
to change with irradiance, temperature, and aging of the panels, so it is dicult to estimate it without the
measurement of sun radiance and panel temperature. The sensing elements add extra costs. Even with the
sensing elements estimation is not accurate. Shading happens quite frequently and aects the performance of
the array. Also, the performance of the array degrades as the panels age. The inverter needs to automatically
adjust the power output to draw maximum available power at any time. The algorithm to draw to maximum
power available from the solar panel is called a maximum power point tracking algorithm (MPPT). Voltage
and current characteristic of the solar arrays suggest that for any sun radiance and panel environment there
is an optimum operating condition that processes maximum power from the array. The inverter need to
actively search for the maximum power point. The desired MPPT algorithm quickly adjusts the inverter
to a maximum power condition during transients and without oscillating at steady state conditions. Both
slow acting and oscillating MPPT algorithms waste an opportunity to capture available power. Oscillating
algorithms might also cause the array voltage to collapse. The stable and maximum power extraction from
solar PV systems relies on accuracy and speed of the embedded processor capability to read, process, and
respond to physical variables of the inverter.
3 Grid Synchronization
The phase tracking system is one important part of the control system. It aects power factor control of the
inverter output as well as the harmonic content of the inverter output current. Ideally the phase tracking
algorithm should respond quickly to changes in the utility phasing but it should reject the noise and higher
harmonics in the utility voltage. Many algorithms have been proposed[1, 2, 3, 4]. The easiest phase tracking
algorithm is based on zero crossing detection. The inverter output current is synchronized to the utility
during zero crossings of the utility voltage. This algorithm suers from noise and higher order harmonics in
the utility voltage. Also, zero crossing detection suers from speed as it adapts to utility phasing only twice
in each utility cycle. Many ltering techniques have been used to estimate the phasing of the utility using
open loop and closed loop techniques.
Phase-locked loop (PLL) techniques have become something of an industry standard to estimate the phase
of the utility [5]. Convergence speed and steady state noise and disturbance rejection performance can be
adjusted through compensator design. The PLL performs quite well in tracking of the utility phase even in
the presence of higher order harmonics in the utility voltage. On the other hand, PLL performance might
deteriorate in the presence of unbalance in the utility voltage. Using pre- or post-ltering techniques, the
eect of unbalance in the utility system can be rejected [6, 7, 8].
A time-varying three phase utility voltage is convenient for control purposes. To manipulate the natural
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model we use transformations to move quantities from one reference frame to another. One transformation
takes three coupled phase voltages (the abc frame) into two decoupled phase voltages (the frame). A
second transformation allows us to move quantities in one reference frame to a second reference frame that is
displaced from the rst by a phase angle (the dq frame). The purpose of the PLL is to estimate phase angle
of the utility system. Combining the two transformations that converts three phase utility abc quantities
into dq quantities gives

V
d
V
q

=
2
3

cos sin
sin cos

1
1
2

1
2
0

3
2

3
2

cos
cos


2
3

cos

+
2
3

. (1)
After the transformations, the two phase decoupled utility voltages become
v
d
(t) = cos ( ) (2)
v
q
(t) = sin ( ) . (3)
As approaches , v
d
(t) goes to zero. We can linearize it for control purposes as
v
d
(t) = ( ) . (4)
The PLL frequency and phase can track the utility frequency and phase angle respectively by the
proper design of the loop lter. A proportional-integral (PI) type lter for the second order loop can be
given as
K
f
(s) = K
p
1 + s
s
. (5)
The transfer functions of the closed loop system are rewritten in the general form of second order system as
H(s) =
s
2
s
2
+ 2
n
+
2
n
, (6)
where
n
=

K
p
V
m
/, and =

K
p
V
m
/2. A second order digital loop PI lter can be obtained as
K
d
(z) = K
p
z(z )
(z 1)
2
, (7)
where = 1 T/, and T is the sampling period. Figure 1 shows the block diagram of the PLL for a single
phase inverter. The three phase PLL algorithm is shown in Figure 2.
4 Anti-islanding
For safety reasons, it is a requirement that utility interactive inverters disconnect themselves from the utility
if the utility is interrupted for any reason. This will protect utility workers and equipment from energy being
injected into the utility system that is not under the direct control of the utility. An inverter that feeds
energy into the utility when the utility is not operating creates an islanding condition.
All utility interactive inverters are required to have over/under frequency (OFP/UFP) and over/under
voltage protection (OVP/UVP) methods that prevent the inverter from supplying power to the utility if
the utility voltage or frequency is outside of an acceptable range. Figure 3 shows the typical connection of
the inverter to the utility grid. The inverter outputs power P + jQ while local loads take P
ld
+ jQ
ld
with
the rest of power being supplied by the utility P + jQ. The operation of the system after the utility
disconnects depends on the amount of P and Q. If P = 0 the amplitude of the utility voltage will
change and OVP/UVP can detect the change and prevent islanding. If Q = 0 the phase of the utility will
3
Grid Voltage
Kf(s)
Loop Filter
1/s
dq
V to V

Delay

V

V

+
-
d
V
q
V
0 g

Figure 1: The single phase PLL algorithm.


Grid Voltage
Kf(s)
Loop Filter
1/s
dq
V to V

V

V

+
-
d
V
q
V
0 g

V to V
abc

a
V
b
V
c
V
Figure 2: The three phase PLL algorithm.
suddenly shift and OFP/UFP will detect the change in frequency and detect the islanding condition. If the
real and reactive power of the inverter is not matched closely to the loads or the resonant frequency of the
load network is not close to the resonant frequency of the inverter OVP/UVP, then the OFP and UFP would
be adequate to detect the islanding condition. However, when the load requirements are being satised by
the inverter only, detection of an islanding condition becomes much more challenging. Certication test
requirements for an inverter (such as IEEE1547) examine the response time of the inverter for the case
where P and Q are near zero.
The non-detection zone (NDZ) concept is developed to determine the eectiveness of the anti-islanding
algorithm for a given Q and P [9, 10, 11]. The reaction time of the islanding detection is dependent on
the NDZ. Calculation of the NDZ for Q is given as
Q
NDZ
=
V
2
1
Xc

1
XL
, (8)
where = 1/

LC. There are many active and passive methods that have been developed to detect an
4
AC
DC
AC
L C
R
S1 S2
P+jQ P+jQ
Pld+jQld
Inverter
Grid
Figure 3: An inverter interface to the utility grid.
islanding condition [12, 13, 14, 15]. Passive methods are either dicult to implement or have larger NDZs.
Active methods require injecting disturbances into the utility. Those injections need to be controlled properly
or harmonized with other inverters to avoid destabilization of the utility under normal operation.
The Sandia frequency and voltage shift algorithms are very eective in detecting islanding if implemented at
the same time [12]. The Sandia frequency shift is basically modication of frequency shift algorithm given
as
c
f
= c
f0
+ K(f
a
f
line
) , (9)
where K is an accelerator to destabilize the inverter output frequency when the utility is disconnected.
The Sandia voltage shift algorithm is similar to the frequency shift algorithm. An additional term is added
to the inverter output current based on the change in utility voltage as
i
out
= i
ref
+ KV . (10)
Both of these methods cause the power quality of the inverter output waveform to deteriorate. The quality
of the waveform and desired detection times are trade os that can be adjusted through the value of K. The
Sandia algorithm adds a small amount of positive feedback to both voltage and frequency regulation by the
inverter, so the inverter is continuously trying to destabilize the utility. This works well if the utility is sti;
however, one can imagine what could happen with deep penetration of renewable resources.
5 Current Regulation
The amount of desired output power delivered to the utility is controlled through the current regulation
algorithm. The accuracy of the current regulation algorithm is important for eective maximum power
processing. The quality of the current regulation algorithm is also important to meet the total harmonic
distortion restrictions imposed by the applicable standards.
Many control algorithms have been proposed to control inverter output current for utility interactive opera-
tions. Hysteretic type controllers with dierent closed loop compensators have been used running at varying
or constant switching frequencies [16, 17, 18, 19]. We present here an easily implementable and eective cur-
rent regulation algorithm that works harmoniously with grid synchronization methods. It is also applicable
to multilevel inverters.
5
log
log |D(s)G(s)|
R
K
P sR
K
I
sL
K
P
Figure 4: The open-loop Bode plot asymptotes.
To control the sinusoidal inverter output current, it is advantageous to transform the dynamics into a
reference frame where the desired waveform is a DC quantity rather than sinusoids of a given frequency.
That is, we work in the dq reference frame. This allows the use of integral control action to remove steady-
state error. The electrical dynamics of the inverter after transformation to the dq frame are given as
v
d
(t) = Ri
d
(t) + L
di
d
dt
Li
q
(t) + e
d
(t) (11)
v
q
(t) = Ri
q
(t) + L
di
q
dt
+ Li
d
(t) + e
q
(t) . (12)
The dynamics in one axis are dependent on the current state of the other axis. (This is analogous to the
cross-coupling experienced in electric machines where direct axis ux produces quadrature axis back emf,
and vice versa.) This introduces a coupled multi-input multi-output (MIMO) system that is dependent on
the product of two states, current and frequency. The coupling term can be estimated by the measured
currents and compensated. The utility voltage can be modeled as a disturbance to the system or can be
compensated based on measurements. After feedforward compensation and decoupling, the linear model of
the rst order plant that we are trying to control is:
G(s) =
1
sL + R
=
1
R
s
L
R
+ 1
. (13)
The structure of the controller was chosen to be a PI controller, which has the transfer function
D(s) =
K
p
s + K
I
s
= K
I
s
Kp
KI
+ 1
s
. (14)
The frequency of the compensator zero is K
I
/K
P
, and is assumed to be lower in frequency than the pole of
the plant at R/L. Therefore, the asymptotes of the Bode plot can be drawn as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 5 shows the block diagram of the current regulation algorithm. The same algorithm can be used
for both three-phase and single-phase systems once the dynamics are transferred into the rotating reference
frame. Digital implementation of the PI controller can be realized with
D(z) = K
P
z (1 T
KI
KP
)
z 1
. (15)
6
D(z)
+
-
id_ref(k)
id_act(k)

L*e
iq_act(k)
ed(k)
Vd_ref(k)
+
+
-
D(z)
+
-
iq_ref(k)
iq_act(k)

L*e
id_act(k)
eq(k)
Vq_ref(k)
+
+
+
Figure 5: The current regulation algorithm.
6 PWM Implementation
After calculating the reference voltages for the individual phases, the PWM generation algorithm produces
the duty ratios for individual inverter switches [20]. The sine PWM technique is easy to implement and very
eective. Sine PWM generation is modeled such that it can produce the switching positions for inverters of 2,
3, 4 and 5 levels. The current controller produces a reference voltage (V
ref
) between 1 and 1. V
ref
is scaled
based on the number of levels in the topology; m denotes the number of levels. A multilevel comparator
produces the switch position output between 0 to m1.
Sine PWM techniques provide independent control for each individual inverter phase leg. For three phase
inverters it is possible to control all three inverter phase legs together to better use the available DC bus
voltage. Space vector techniques provide three phase control with a centralized controller [21, 22].
Multilevel inverters generate their output voltage from three or more discrete voltage levels. For an m-level
inverter the switching function for each phase takes on values between 0 to m1. The phase leg voltage is
V
An0
=
S
pos
V
dc
m1
. (16)
Each switching states produces uniquely dened three phase line voltages. If the switching positions for
the three phases are i, j, and k, respectively, then the inverter output voltages can be represented by the
switching vector as
V (ijk) = V
dc

i j
j k
k i

. (17)
7
I IV
III
VI 4 6
A
C
1 2
H
F
E D
II
V
VII
VIII
B G
3 5
7 8
g
h
SECTOR C
SECTOR A
SECTOR B
(2,0)
(1,1)
(0,2)
(-1,2)
(-2,2)
(-2,1)
(-1,1)
(-1,0) (0,0) (1,0)
(0,1)
(-2,0)
(-1,-1)
(0,-2)
(1,-2)
(0,-1) (1,-1)
(2,-1)
(2,-2)
Figure 6: Switching position vectors in coordinates for a three level inverter.
It is important to note that switching vectors can be produced by the dierent switching positions of the
inverter. For balanced output voltages, the sum of the line-to-line voltages must be zero. That means
switching vectors can be represented in two dimensions. The reference voltage can be realized by the
application of the nearest three vectors with the appropriate duration times (duty cycles). That is, the
reference voltage is created through a time-weighted combination of the nearest three vectors. The main
objective of the modulator is to select the switching positions of the inverter and the duration of how long
each switch position needs to be applied by the inverter in order to produce the reference voltage. According
to [22] it is convenient to use non-orthogonal vectors as a new basis to represent the switching vectors. One
base transformation would be
T =
(level 1)
3

2 1 1
1 2 1

. (18)
so V
ref
(g, h) = TV
ref
(a, b, c). After normalization to V
dc
all the switching position vectors are integers.
Switching position vectors in gh coordinates for a three level inverter are shown in Figure 6. Voltage V
ref
can be realized as an inverter output voltage by application of the three closest vectors consecutively during
one switching cycle.
7 Standalone Control
In the absence of the utility grid, renewable energy systems could be used to provide energy to the local
loads [22, 23, 24, 25] assuming an adequate supply of energy for the inverter to draw upon. The control
structure on the DC and AC sides are changed to accommodate the needs of the local loads. Unless there is
battery backup in the system, the system cannot work on the principle of maximum power extraction from
the source since this would lead to a sustained power imbalance. In stand alone operation, power transfer
is dictated primarily by the needs of the local loads and the losses within the inverter. If there is enough
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D(z)
+
-
Vrms_ref(k)
Vrms_act(k)
X
Vcmd(k)
PWM
Generator
Vdc(k)
Phase
Switching
Sin ()

Sine_ref
Figure 7: RMS voltage control for standalone inverters.
D(z)
+
-
Vph_ref(k)
Vph_act(k)

Vcmd(k)
+
+
+
PWM
Generator
Vdc(k)
Phase
Switching
L*(iph(k)-iph(k-1))*1/Ts
iph(k)
Figure 8: Instantaneous voltage control for standalone inverters.
energy available at the source the local loads are fully supported by the inverter. If the demand from the
loads is higher than the available energy at the source then lower priority loads are needed to be shed to
make energy available for supporting the higher priority loads.
The voltage and frequency of the AC side is set by the inverter. Similar voltage regulation algorithms can
be used as in uninterruptable power supplies. Depending on the steady state and transient requirements on
the voltage control dierent techniques can be used. One of the attractive methods used in UPS systems is
RMS voltage control. The RMS voltage is controlled by a PI compensator. The output of the compensator
adjusts modulation index of the 60Hz sine PWM. This type of control provides stable output in the steady
state but transient performance may not be adequate for aggressive load transients [26], such as starting
compressor-driven loads. Figure 7 shows the block diagram for the RMS voltage control of the stand alone
inverters.
Instantaneous voltage control provides more aggressive control during transients [27]. It is more dicult to
design the compensator especially in the presence of noisy analog measurements. Figure 8 shows the block
diagram for the instantaneous voltage control of the stand alone inverters.
Multi-loop voltage control algorithms provide better results at both steady state and transient operations.
The RMS voltage controller commands a 60 Hz reference current. An inner current regulator regulates the
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current using an instantaneous current measurement.
8 Signal Processing Requirements
Almost all of the algorithms discussed in the previous sections are either developed in digital format or
work best with the digital implementation. First, measured analog signals such as voltage, current, and
temperatures are digitized through analog to digital converters, then the digital data are processed with
control algorithms by the processor, and nally control actions are commanded to physical devices, usually
in digital form. The analog signals to be digitized require high accuracy A/D converters; at least 10 usable
bits of precision is important. In addition, the A/D converter must be fast or it will consume an unacceptable
amount of each interrupt cycle.
All of the control actions for the inverter require extensive processing. For example, a current regulator
including grid synchronization requires 930 operations within the interrupt service routine. Beyond this, the
MPPT algorithm may consume 410 operations, anti-islanding may consume 545 operations, etc. It quickly
becomes clear that for 20 kHz PWM operation, the inverter needs a processor with a cycle rate in excess of
200 MHz.
DSPs must also integrate key peripherals such as serial and parallel interfaces, PWM units, and a 12 bit
analog to digital converter with true 12 bit resolution and tight integration to the processor. In addition, it
is preferable that processors provide integrated ash memory for code execution to eliminate the need for
external memory, thereby lowering overall system costs. The accuracy and speed of the processing aects
the amount of power extraction from renewable energy sources, the quality of the power deployed to the
utility grid, the safety of personnel in the case of the islanding conditions, and the ability to communicate
performance to external devices.
In addition to control actions, inverters need to communicate to the outside world for status and data
reporting, harmonization for parallel units working together, and information sharing as a part of the smart
grid. Figure 9 shows the overall block diagram of the single phase solar PV system. High performance
processors can oer all of these capabilities in a single chip, as has been exemplied by Analog Devices
new 400 MHz Blackn BF50x series of processors for digital signal and control processing, which feature
on-chip ash memory, integrated 12-bit A/D converters and a robust peripheral set. Processors with these
capabilities are optimized to support many sophisticated control algorithms for maximum power extraction,
high eciency, reliable, and safe power processing.
9 Summary
Modeling and control of utility interactive inverters are presented in this paper. State of the art techniques
on individual subjects are given and the most applicable techniques have been demonstrated in detail. The
techniques presented are applicable to both single- and three-phase inverters and to any number of levels
within the three-phase inverter. Grid synchronization, anti-islanding control, current regulation algorithm,
PWM generation techniques and stand alone inverter controls are discussed. Control algorithms have been
given in digital control format applicable to embedded control using digital signal processors.
About Advanced Energy Conversion, LLC
AECs technology is focused on the ecient conversion of energy between electrical and mechanical forms
through application of power electronics, electric machines, and embedded controls. AEC has a proven track
record of technical innovation and reducing those innovations to practice.
10
INVERTER AC
INTERFACE CIRCUITRY
CONTROL & COMMUNICATION
DSP
+
-
+
-
ETHERNET
COMMUNICATION
Figure 9: A block diagram of a single phase solar PV system.
AEC has helped clients with assignments ranging from technology assessment and trade studies of competing
technical alternatives, to detailed design, prototyping, and transition to production of complete systems
comprised of power converters, electric machines, and the associated embedded controls. AEC sta have
also provided in-house training courses in power electronics and electric machines.
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