ParsonsJournalForInformationMapping Childers Griscti Leben

PIIM IS A RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
FACILITY AT THE NEW SCHOOL

2013 PARSONS JOURNAL FOR
INFORMATION MAPPING AND PARSONS
INSTITUTE FOR INFORMATION MAPPING
68 Fifth Avenue
New York, NY 10011
THE PARSONS INSTITUTE
FOR INFORMATION MAPPING
212 229 6825
piim.newschool.edu
KEYWORDS Typeface Classifcation, type specimens, type
systems, typeface taxonomy, typography
PROJECT DATE October 2012January 2013
ABSTRACT
Varying typeforms for the Western printing process have
been concurrently designed since the invention of the
printing press c1450. Even though the variation of styles
have expanded in number with fairly good documentation,
and even though the process has been essentially evolu-
tionary, the design community has yet to develop a
comprehensive system of classifcation. Many attempts
have been made to standardize but no naming system has
been successful to the point of its general adaption. Tis
paper analyses 25 typeface classifcation systems published
in the last century, ranging from typographic greats like
Teodore Low De Vinne and Maximilien Vox and culmi-
nating with contemporary type and design scholars such
as Ellen Lupton and Robert Bringhurst. Each system
(despite its original visual organization or lack thereof)
is presented through a color-coded pie chart. Te color
codes reference three main branches of type design: Serif,
Sans Serif, and Topical (Topical is the term used by
Bevington/Chong to reference a subdivision of non-text
faces). In our concluding demonstration we use this term
Topical, to replace Display. By examining a wide cross
section of naming taxonomies, we observe those names
that have prevailed, those that failed, and those that
deserve renewed support in the hierarchy of typeface
classes. We see the useful, and the daring, as they are
removed or afxed to the typographic lexicon. Each name,
from all the systems, within our wider categories of Serif,
Sans Serif, and Topical are collected into a series of master
diagrams. From these a fnal, suggested master classifca-
tionour cumulative research efort is presented. We
submit this master as a suggested industry standard.
I NTRODUCTI ON
A taxonomy may be defned as the study classifcation.
Without scientifc classifcations in biology, there would
be no consistent professional jargon, and scientists would
be far less efectively communicative when studying plants
25 Systems for Classifying Typography:
A Study in Naming Frequency
TAYLOR CHI LDERS
JESSI CA GRI SCTI
LI BERTY LEBEN
and animals. In the typographic world, a shared standardized
system of classifcation is lacking. Typographers and type
scholars have attempted to create proper systems of organi-
zation for decades. Tese systems date back to at least
1899, when Teodore Low DeVinne published a typo-
graphic classifcation system in his book, Te Practice
of Typography. With the invention of the printing press,
photo reproduction, and post script fonts, printing became
more efcient and typographic practice became more
widespread. Today the typographic world is cluttered with
examples along many design approaches; a logical way
to name the group to which any particular design is
challenging. One style can have two, even three names,
all meaning essentially the same exact thing. Typographers
who create systems ofen have a difcult time deciding
which name to chose. Sometimes, they chose both.
Major problem occurs in topical and display classifca-
tions. With so many styles of topical typefaces all obtaining
such specifc diferences, it is ofen hard to classify them
into larger groups. While some create an abundance of
classifcations for such typefaces, others ignore the problem
completely. Ignoring these topical designs leaves a large
number of type styles unaccounted for, or relegated into
the others category. Trough the examination of the
history of typographic classifcation, it may be possible to
create a unifed taxonomy using a consistent naming logic.
Te fnal visual in this paper displays such unifed logic;
it, in turn, is constructed from a series of seven composite
displays. Tese seven composites are organized according
to the fndings from the twenty fve examples that preceed.
(Note: we capitalize classes when they are specifed as classes
within any particular system, and do not capitalize when
they are noted but not included in that particular system.)
Figure: A visual overview of 25 typographic classifcations
REALE
SCRIPT
GERALDE
LINEALE
INCISES
MECANES
VENETIAN
FRACTURE
MANUAIRE
DIDONE
CLASSICAL ROMAN
FORME
VERNACULAR
19TH CENTURY
18TH CENTURY
17TH CENTURY
ITALIC
BATARD
SOMME
GOTHIC / ANTIQUA
16TH CENTURY
FAT FACE
DISPLAY
ROMANS
ANTIQUE/
CLARENDON
BLACKLETTER
S C R I P T
CONDENSED
ITALIC
ITALIAN
MODERN
OLD STYLE
ORNAMENTALS
GOTHIC
RENAISSANCE
FRAKTUR
CLASSICAL
HUMANIST
GROTESK
EGYPTIAN
PRECLASSICAL
SCHWABACHER
TEXTURA
ITALIENNE
ROMAN
BLACKLETTER
LINEAL
SLAB
VENETIAN
HYBRIDA
TEXTURA SCHWABACHER
FRAKTUR ROTUNDA
HANDWRITTEN
SCRIPT
ROMAN
VARIANTS
GROTESK
SLAB SERIF
DIDONE
TRANSISIONAL
FRENCH
BLACKLETTER
SERIF
HUMANIST
GRAPHIC
SCRIPT
LINEALE
GLYPHIC
S L A B
DIDONES
TRANSITIONALS
GERALDS
HUMANIST
GEOMETRIC
GROTESQ.
NEO-GROT.
MECHANISTIC DIDONE
TRANSITIONAL
GERALDE
HUMANIST
FRAKTUR
SCHWABACHER
ROTUNDA TEXTURA SCRIPT INCISED/
GLYPHIC
MANUAL/ GRAPHIC
SERIF
BLACKLETTER
SANS SERIF
M O D E R N
D I D O N E
GLYPHIC
SCRIPT
GRAPHIC GAELIC
H U M A N I S T
HUMANIST
MECHANISTIC
BLACKLETTER
GERALDE
HUMANIST
CALLIGRAPHICS
CLASSICALS
GEOMETRIC
NEO-
GROTESQUE
GROTESQUE
TRANSITIONAL
LINEALS
MODERNS
TRANSISTIONAL
O L D F A C E
V E N E T I A N
T E X T U R A
B A S T A R D A
R O T U N D A
ANTIQUA
RENAISSANCE
MODERN FACE
OLD STYLE
20TH CENT.
ALDINE
VINCENTIO
OLD FACE
MODERNISED
MICS.
OLD FACE
STENCIL CALLIGRAPHIC
CLARENDON OUTLINE
I O N I C
REVERSED
SANS SERIF
SHADOWED
EGYPTIAN FAT FACE SHADED
DECORATED
GOTHIC SCRIPT
BOOK
DISPLAY
ROMAN
ITALIC GOTHIC
REALIST
GEOMETRIC
MODERNIST
NEO CLASSICAL
LYRICAL MODERNIST
POST MODERN
CITNAMOR
RENAISSANCE
SAMPLED
CURVILINEAR DINGBATS
PROBLEMS
INDUSTRIAL/
VERNACULAR
TRANSITIONALS DIDONE
PROCESSED
MANIPULATED
ORNAMENTAL
CALLIGRAPHIC
SLAB
W E D G E
NEO GROTES.
GROTESQUE
GEOMETRIC
HUMANIST
HUMANIST
GERALDE
BLACKLETTER
DISPLAY
SANS
SERIF
OLD STYLE
CLARENDON
TRANSITIONALS MODERNS
SLAB SERIF
GLYPHIC
SCRIPTS GRAPHIC SANS SERIF
D I D O N E
20TH CENT.
VENETIAN
ALDINE
DUTCH
REVIVAL
19TH CENT
NEO CLAR.
CLARENDON
GROTESQUE NEO GROTESQUE
GEOMETRIC
HUMANIST SQUARE
ORNAM
ENTAL
PERIOD
GOTHIC
SCRIPT
GOTHIC
LATIN
I T A L I C
EGYPTIAN OLD STYLE
TRANS.
MODERN PRIMER
FAT FACE
ROMAN
TEXT
BASTARDA
GOTHIC
ANTIQUE ROTUNDA
TRANSITIONAL
FRENCH
ALDINE
VENETIAN
DISPLAY DECORATIVE
SCRIPT CURSIVE HUMANIST
GEOMETRIC
SERIF
BLACKLETTER
SANS SERIF
GOTHIC
SQUARE SERIF
MODERN
SANS
SERIF
SLAB SERIF
MODERN
TRANSITIONAL
TRANSITIONAL
HUMANIST
GEOMETRIC
O L D S T Y L E
CONTEMPORARY
GEOMETRIC
HUMANIST OLD STYLE
TRANSITIONAL
M O D E R N
HUMANIST
CONTEMP.
GEOMETRIC
TEXTURA
ROTUNDA
CURSIVE
P L A C E -
R E F R E N C I N G
T I M E -
R E F R E N C I N G
STYLE-
REFRENCING
CURSIVE
SCRIPT
BRUSH FAT FACE CLARENDON
EGYPTIAN
20TH CENT.
ROMAN
M O D E R N
LATE
TRANSITIONAL
EARLY
DUTCH FRENCH
ITALIC
ITALIAN
VENETIAN
DECORATED
GROTESQUE SANS SERIF
OLD FACE
TRANSITIONAL
DECORATIVE/
DISPLAY
TITLING BLACKLETTER
HANDWRITING
CLARENDON
MODERN
TRANSITIONAL
OLD STYLE
CALLIGRAPHIC
CASUAL
FORMAL
HUMANISTIC
GEOMETRIC
20TH CENT.
GROTESQUE
19TH CENT.
GROTESQUE
GLYPHIC
SLAB/SQUARE
SERIF
SANS SERIF
SCRIPT
OLD STYLE
TECHNO
EXPERIMENTAL
TYPEWRITER DECORATIVE HISTORICAL
HANDWRITTEN
MONOLINE
BRUSH
SPENCERIAN FORMAL PEN TEXTURA
ROTUNDA
BLACKLETTER
SERIF
SANS SERIF
SCRIPT
DISPLAY
SCHWABACHER
FRAKTURA
UNICAL
GLYPHIC
HUMANIST
GEOMETRIC
NEO-GROTES.
G R O T E S Q U E
SLAB
LATIN
MODERN
TRANSITIONAL
COMPUTER RELATED
SCRIPT
MONOSPACED
SANS SERIF
MODERN
DIDONE
TRANSITIONAL
GARALDE
VENETIAN
BLACKLETTER
SWASH
CAPITALS STENCIL OUTLINE INLINE
HAND TOOLED
SERIF
DECORATIVE & DISPLAY
SCRIPT & BRUSH
SANS SERIF
SLAB SERIF
MODERN TRANSITIONAL
OLD FACE
BLACKLETTER/
BROKEN
EXOTIC/ FREEFORM
DECORATIVE &
DISPLAY DISPLAY
SERIF
BLACKLETTER
SLAB
SCRIPT
SANS
SANS SERIF
OLD STYLE
L A T I N
MODERN
EGYPTIAN
SCRIPTS
DIDOT
DISPLAY
EGYPTIENNE
ANTIQUE
ELZEVIR
SERIF
BOOK
DISPLAY
SANS SERIF
BLACKLETTER
TOPICAL
FREE HAND
SLAB SERIF
SANS SERIF
EGYPTIAN
M O D E R N
TRANSITIONAL
OLD STYLE
25 SYSTEMS FOR CLASSIFYING TYPOGRAPHY:
A STUDY IN NAMING FREQUENCY
TAYLOR CHILDERS, JESSICA GRISCTI, AND LIBERTY LEBEN
PARSONS J OURNAL FOR I NFORMATI ON MAPPI NG
VOLUME V I SSUE 1, WI NTER 2013
[ PAGE 2]
THE PRACTI CE OF TYPOGRAPHY
1

Teodore Low De Vinne
Teodore Low De Vinne was an American typographer
and printer practicing in the late nineteenth century.
In Te Practice of Typography De Vinne details the
organizing systems popularized in type specimen books,
commenting, but all ornamental types, and indeed many
plain types, are named and classifed in an unsatisfactory
manner. Which might be because his approach to typeface
classifcation is very classic. De Vinne does not include
Clarendons, or slab serifs, with the Romans, or serif,
types. Instead, he lumps Clarendons in the display
category along with fat faces and the sans serifs, referred
to by De Vinne as Gothics. In fact, it is not until the 1950s
that sans serif faces are treated like their serif predecessors,
with a proper category of their own, when ATypI remodels
the Maximillen Vox system.
THI BAUDEAU CLASSI FI CATI ON
Francis Tibaudeau
Parisian Typesetter Francis Tibaudeau was determined
to create the frst rational system for categorizing type.
He worked as a French typographer who designed type
specimens for Renault and Marcou and Derbergny and
Peignot. Tibadeau was motivated to create a new system
due to the density and disorganization of the type catalogs
he was charged with designing.
Originally, there were only four main categories:
Roman, Didot, Egyptian, and Antique. Due to his French
perspective, he uses Didot to describe Modern Roman
typography, rather than the Didone popularized some
years later by the Vox System in 1954. He also uses
Antique to describe sans serif capital faces, like those
drawn by the Romans and Greeks. Tibaudeau later added
the Script and Display sections to categorize types used
in advertising.
Of the systems of his day, the one he put forward was
quite logical and was the simplest. In beginning a new
taxonomy for typefaces, it is best to start small before
adding a lot of subclassifcations to cover the minutiae
of typography. In that regard, Francis Tibaudeau made
an excellent division of types and nomenclatures.
FAT FACE
DISPLAY
ROMANS
A
N
T
IQ
U
E
/
C
L
A
R
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N
D
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ITALIAN
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SCRIPTS
DIDOT
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P
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P
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N
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A
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T
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V
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[ PAGE 3]
PRI NTI NG TYPES
Daniel Berkeley Updike
Daniel Berkeley Updike was an American printer and
typographic historian. In 1893, he founded the Merry-
mount Press in Providence, Rhode Island.
In Printing Types, Updike discusses 15th century serif
printing types in Europe with astounding depth, far more
depth, in fact, then we could capture within our accompa-
nying pie chart system. (Instead we present a simplifed
version of his typeface classifcation system). To see the
detailed version, one would have to imagine six of these
charts-one each for Germany, Italy, France, Te Netherlands,
Spain and England). In addition, there would be diferen-
tiations in each of those charts.
Aside from it being clunky in that regard, its difcult
to expect that a system that classifes type by the century
would function when we have moved into an age of
so many revivals. Te specifc year a typeface is created
has less and less efect upon its ultimate classifcation.
Of course, history applies to the form of serif families,
but even this becomes suspect for many classifcations.
Additionally, the classifcation lacks hierarchies and
sub-categories in most instances, and as such, it would
be difcult for the general typeface-user population to
remember the intricacies.
THE VOX SYSTEM
Maximilien Vox
Te closest to a broad consensus on typeface classifcation
is the Vox System, created by Maximilien Vox in 1954.
Tere are ten main categories, employing established
terminology along with new terminology. As was vogue,
he classifes the serif typefaces based upon their historical
period and the remainder based on the visual appearance
of the letter.
Vox invented the term Geralde, combining Garamond
and Aldine. Te term is far more specifc than the previous
Old Style, but for its newness it was criticized. Beinging
at frst unfamiliar to the professionals who would be using
the system; those critics had a point, but ultimately, they
were wrong. Te term Geralde is still being used in
subsequent type classifcation systems sixty years later.
Te same goes for his invention of the term Lineal, which
carries the false assumption that sans serif typefaces are
inherently monoline. However, that term remained popular
for several decades before it was replaced by Sans Serif
around the 1980s.
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[ PAGE 4]
THE VOX ATYPI SYSTEM
Maximilien Vox
Association Typographique Internationale (ATypi) was
Founded by Charles Peginot in 1957. Te non-proft
reaches over 40 nations.. Tey provide assembly for the
typographic community to meet and act together.
Te Vox ATypI system is based on the 1954 iteration
of Te Vox System. Upon its release, that system was
widely regarded as the standard in typeface classifcation.
Te ATypI revised version adds much needed subclassif-
cations to the Lineal section, which goes on to become
the norm in Sans Serif subclassifcation.
Tis classifcation divided all of the categories into
three main classes; Classicals, Moderns and Calligraphics,
a bold choice. Te Moderns category includes both serif
and sans serif typefaces. Using Calligraphics to head the
topical category is misleading, because not all of the sub
categories are calligraphic in nature. All in all, its a good
improvement on its predecessor, but its still not perfect.
SCHRI FT MUSS PASSEN
L. Nettlehorst
2
Schrif Muss Passen was published in 1959 for the business
and advertising publishing company, Essen. Te name
translates roughly to Writing Must Fit Font Choice. It
appears within Written Expression in Advertising; Manual
for the Artwork of Advertising Materials, a book that focuses
on the proper use of typography in advertising materials.
It also includes and thorough classifcation system.
Tis is the frst time the Lineal category has been
sub-classifed, though part of that credit is due to Maxim-
ilien Vox, who was working on a revised version of his
1954 system that was to include four subcategories for
the Lineals. Schrif Muss Passen has two subclasses, Grotesk,
and Humanist. It would be hard to force geometric sans
serif faces into either of those two categories, and since
there is no catch-all display section in this system, there
would be no place for these faces to go.
Nettlehorsts classifcation of Serif typefaces is interest-
ing. So soon afer the publication of Voxs system, his
subclasses, Venetian and Geralde, hadnt yet caught on.
Scholars are ofen insistent on inventing their own
terminology, but good scholarship does not always win,
it is ofen the marketing that determines naming protocol.
M
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[ PAGE 5]
THE HI STORY OF PRI NTI NG TYPES
Geofrey Dowding
Dowdings system continues the outdated trend of separating
the Romans and the Italicslong afer their contemporaries
stopped regarding the two as separate typefaces, choosing
instead to see a roman and its italic as two fonts within
same type family. Of course the actual form of the Roman
and Italic variants may difer, but placing them across
categories is a production and organizational awkwardness.
Additionally, Dowding uses the term Old Style to
categorize 19th century types when hes already used Old
Face to describe 15th century types. Its cluttered, and there
is little to no parallelism in his system. Some sections are
named by historical period while others are named for
style. Dowdings attempt to quantify and classify display
types is admirable in its sheer number of categories, but
the Miscellaneous section undermines the whole exercise
toward a comprehensive solution. Tere is no point in
creating all of those categories if the author still needs
to add a catch-all category.
DI N 16518N
Germany
3
In 1959, Te Deustche Industrie Normung released
a draf of a classifcation system that was related to Voxs,
but considerably more complicated. Te later revised
system, DIN 16518, is almost identical to the Vox system.
Being a German system, DIN established a standard
in sub-classifcation of Blackletter typefaces, a sub-classif-
cation that is ofen referenced in subsequent taxonomies.
Afer Vox, a standard in Old Style Serif classifcation is
starting to develop that is exhibited in the DIN 16518
system: Venetian, for Humanist Serif types developed
generally in the 15th century; French, otherwise known
as Geralde, for faces that came in the next two centuries
that have more contrast between the thickness and
thinness of strokes; Transitionals for the period in the
18th century where the axis of curves was ofen vertical
and serifs were unbracketed.
All sans serif faces are organized into a single category,
Grotesk, even though sub-classifcations to that category
had already been made. Te topical category leaves a little
to be desired. Handwritten scripts are the only topical
called out with their own section, and it seems that
anything lef that doesnt ft the mold is dumped into
Roman Variants.
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[ PAGE 6]
BRI TI SH STANDARDS SYSTEM
Great Britain
British Standards (BS) is a service provider for businesses
in 150 countries all over the world. Tey produce the
British Standards as well as being responsible for the English
publication of international and European standards in
the UK.
Tis system is also heavily based on the Vox System.
It has been updated, the slab serif section is no longer
called Mechanistic, but Slab. Tere are no subcategories,
but there could be, especially since there are several old
style serif categories. In 1965, Lineal was the usual term
for sans serif and would be until the late 1980s. Te BSs
usage of Glyphic, Graphic and Script are direct holdovers
from the Vox ATypI, which at this time, the most accepted
standard in topical typeface classifcation. Te British
Standards doesnt include a Blackletter category, though
that decision is probably based upon the fact that most
Blackletter faces are inherently German, and there may
have been a rejection for their use in a system for British
standards of typography.
THAMES AND HUDSON MANUAL OF TYPOGRAPHY
Rurari McLean
Ruari McLean started as a designer for Penguin books on
their Pufn Picture Books line. He wrote many books on
typography, the Tames and Hudson Manual of Typography
included. As a result, he has varied, and respected experi-
ence in the typographic feld.
By 1980, scholars had dropped the term Mechanistic
to refer to slab serif type. Other than that, McLeans system
seems to ft the most widely accepted style. Humanist,
Geralde and Transitional serif typefaces, followed by
Didone. Tere are also the four main groups of Sans Serif
and Blackletter typefaces.
McLean doesnt subclass the topical typefaces, rather
he groups them all into one category, Manual or Graphic.
Its an interesting option, because even though theyve all
been lumped into one, there is no failure in that approach
in that he doesnt resort to using a miscellaneous sub
section. Incised refers to the stone carved letters, and
those typefaces modeled on that aesthetic. Tese faces are
usually all capitals, like Eric Gills Perpetua Titling. Finally,
he has a category for Script typefaces, referring to Scripts
based on handwriting, rather than those typefaces that are
drawn with the built-up method, which would fall into his
Manual category.
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SANS SERIF
[ PAGE 7]
ANATOMY OF A TYPEFACE
Alexander Lawson
Alexander Lawson begins his treatise on classifcation with
what should be on the mind of most typographic scholars:
It must be admitted that the classifcation of printing
types is a controversial subject and one upon which little
amicable agreement may be expected.
4
Lawsons system is consistent and easy to follow. He
falls in with the usual tri-categorical solution for topical
faces: Script, Display, and Blackletter. It makes sense to
separate the Scripts out of the Display category, because
Script faces are ofen regimented and formal. Display
becomes a catch-all, but it is a better solution than trying
to over classify topical typography only to fnd that a
miscellaneous category is still needed. As for Sans Serif
and Blackletter, his subclasses are consistent with the
classifcations of many other scholars, only his language
is slightly diferent. He uses Gothic to describe grotesque
sans serif, and Gothic Antique instead of Fraktur under
the Blackletter section.
Martin Solomon makes a solid attempt to simplify the
Topical category. Solomon uses three categories: Script,
Ornamental and Period. Ornamental describing embel-
lished typefaces, and period referring to faces that reference
a period of time, or a specifc art movement (later to be
used by Bevington/Chong). Te Latin script refers to a
formalized Script based on the Italian hand, while Gothic
script was based on the formal cursive handwriting of the
chanceries in Germanywhat most other scholars refer
to as Blackletter. Te three categories do a succinct job of
describing the topical category, if a little unconventional.
Conversely, he has called the sans serif category Gothic
while the usual term of his time was Lineal.
Solomon separated Old Style (15th Century) typefaces
from what he calls Primer typefaces, or text faces that were
specifcally developed for books, like Century Book. Other
scholars have chosen not to diferentiate these types from
their old style counterparts, or name them based on their
century of design, the 18th century.
THE ART OF TYPOGRAPHY:
AN I NTRODUCTI ON TO TYPO. I CON. OGRAPHY
Martin Solomon
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[ PAGE 8]
THE ELEMENTS OF TYPOGRAPHI C STYLE
Robert Bringhurst
Robert Bringhurst is a man of many trades. Te Los Angeles
native who currently resides in Canada is a poet, book
designer, typographer, historian, and linguist. Bringhursts
book contains a classifcation system based in a chronology
and calligraphy. Bringhurst uses rather poetic language
to describe the eight divisions that make up his system:
Renaissance (15th & 16th centuries), Baroque (17th
century), Neoclassical (18th century), Romantic (18th
and 19th centuries), Realist (19th & early 20th centuries),
Geometric Modernist (20th century), Lyrical Modernist
(20th century) and Postmodern (late 20th & early 21st
century). Bringhurst uses the same name for serif and sans
serif faces. Instead he combines the two in one category
based on style and chronology. For example, a Realist sans
serif would have an unmodulated stroke and vertical axis.
A Realist serif would be exactly the same in style with the
edition of abrupt feet with equal weight.
EYE MAGAZI NE V19 I 5
Catherine Dixon
By the time Dixon wrote her article for Eye Magazine in
1995, Voxs system was inadequate to cover much of the
contemporary design work in the typographic feld, and
so, shes envisioned a system of her own. Its consistent,
and her handling of the serif category is rather sublime;
she doesnt muddle it with conficting categories. She uses
the most commonly accepted term for each section, and
all terms are that which describe the movement. Dixon
doesnt needlessly fip from Humanist and Geralde to
18th century to the cryptic modern.
Tere should not be a Problems category in the Sans
Serif section. It is unnecessarily and undermines the
efcacy of the rest of her system. Since the onset of their
popularity, theyve been the easiest of the three main
sections to sub-classify. Should there be a sans serif that
doesnt actually ft in those categories, all other typographic
scholars have considered them to be a topical typeface.
At least her topicals section doesnt have a catch-all
other category. And that might be the saving grace of her
system. Te only problem is, in most systems, when a
scholar tries too specifcally to defne the myriad world
of topical typography, there is always an outlier.
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[ PAGE 9]
ALPHABET
Allan Haley
Former president of International Typeface Corporation,
editor-in-chief of U&lc, typographer and author, Allen
Haley wrote Alphabet: Te History, Evolution and Design
of the Letters We Use Today.
Haleys typeface classifcation system is based on
history and evolution. He uses the terms Old Style,
Transitional, Modern, Clarendon, Slab Serif, Glyphic,
Sans Serif, Scripts and Graphic. Trough his system, Haley
hopes to have found a compromise between using a simple
sans versus serif system and a system based of of hundreds
of classifcations. It is a rich and fairly complex system
benefting for its increased specifcity, but awkward perhaps
because it has many classes within unequal categories
and sub-categories. Haley acknowledges that there are few
things in typography that can be certainly defned and
hopes his system leaves more room for debate compared
to the more standardized systems.
5
THI NKI NG WI TH TYPE
Ellen Lupton
Ellen Lupton, a typography professor was inspired to write
Tinking With Type: A Critical Guide For Designers, Writers,
Editors & Students when she struggled to fnd a textbook
for her type classes. Lupton published Tinking with Type
in 2004. An enlarged, second edition, arrived in 2010.
In the book she portrays a classifcation system that
has seven categories with corresponding exemplary
typefaces: Humanist or Old Style (Sabon), Transitional
(Baskerville), Modern (Bodoni), Egyptian or Slab Serif
(Clarendon), Humanist Sans Serif (Gill Sans), Transitional
Sans Serif (Helvetica) and Geometric Sans Serif (Futura).
Lupton completely ignores display faces and calligraphics,
that might be for the best. Tere is no better way to handle
the of-fought-over topical typefaces than to ignore them
completely. As seen with other type classifcation systems,
these ofen get lumped into an other category or they
become part of a multilayer system with a too many terms.
Subtle, yet important diferences make subcategories
almost impossible. Unlike Bringhurst, Lupton clearly
separates serif and sans serif. She uses the same three terms
to describe each (humanist, transitional and geometric),
making her logic easy to follow.
OLD STYLE
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DESI GNI NG WI TH TYPE
James Craig
Cooper Union professor James Craig wrote Designing
with Type for his students. In 2005, Craig published the
ffh edition of Designing with Type: Te Essential Guide
to Typography. Te frst edition of Designing With Type
goes back to 1961. Te book is probably the widest selling
book through the decades on typography, in excess of
300,000 copies. Mr. Craig was frustrated by his experience
when learning typography at Yale and set out to simplify
the educational experience of learning about type.
Interestingly, when the book was frst published most
typesetting was still hot metal; the book evolved along
with technologies in phototypesetting, professional digital
typesetting processes, desktop publishing, and contem-
porary digital practice. He has remained loyal to his
original, albeit oversimplifed fve categories. He refers
to these as the fve classical divisions and associates a
representative typeface for each: Garamond (Old Style),
Baskerville (Transitional), Bodoni (Modern), Century
Expanded (Egyptian), and Helvetica (Sans Serif). He
sometimes refers to Century Expanded as a Modifed
Egyptian. Over the years of Designing with Type contrib-
uting authors (William Bevington and Irene Korol Scala)
have contributed to up-to-date character of the book, but
the classifcation system is still based on the initial concept
for extreme simplifcation.
TYPE RULES!
Ilene Sritzver
Stritzver was most well known for her position as director
of Typeface Development for International Typeface
Corporation (ITC). Before that, she was the creative and
production director of Upper & lowercase, the award-
winning international journal for typography and typo-
graphic design.
Aside from the cheeky title of her book, Stritzvers
classifcation system is rather clever. It is the most similar
to the resolved version that the authors presents at the end
of this paper. She uses the most popular terms to describe
her subcategories, including Old Style, Transitional and
Modern as well as the subcategories of Sans Serif, Human-
istic, Geometric and Grotesque. Te only problem there
is her peculiar use of 19th and 20th century Grotesque
instead of the more popular grotesque and Neo-grotesque.
As is common, the classifcation of the topical typefaces
leaves something to be desired. It serves to cover all
of the faces in the category, but the Decorative/Display
section acts as the catch-all for everything that doesnt ft
everywhere else. It is efective, but sloppy and allows many
forms to be jumbled together in this catch-all category.
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[ PAGE 11]
TYPEFORMS: A HI STORY
Alan Bartram
Bartrams serif classifcation is consistent; he uses the
popular manner of classifcation for Old Face types:
organizing them by country of origin. But the system is
stuck in the past in that hes still separating the italic faces
from their roman counterparts.
Furthermore, his choice to separate the Grotesque
faces from the Sans Serif umbrella that most scholars place
them under, is rather peculiar. Of the choice, Bantram says,
Whereas sans serif types are generally more observant
of the classic, traditional structure, grotesques have moved
into a world of their own. Widths of letters have to some
extent been made consistent with one another; shapes are
ofen distorted, especially in the heavier weights (which
can be extreme); early versions, those used for Victorian
jobbing work, quite abandon accepted ideas of good letter
design in their attempts to achieve impact...It is not named
grotesque for nothing.
6
While his disdain for the class
is obvious, what is not obvious are the characteristics that
defne a letter as Grotesque as a opposed to Sans Serif..
Terefore, the category has the feel of an other category
for the few sans serif faces that do not ft into his general
Sans Serif category, which by his standards of classifcation,
Sanserifs are largely monoline, which distinguishes them
from the more colorful and aggressive grotesques...this is
really a classical type without serifs would be called
humanist sans serif by any other contemporary scholar.
7
Bantram is the frst person since Geofrey Dowding
to use the term 20th century to describe types made in
digital printing age based on the model of the 15th century
metal fonts. Te only diference between the two is that
Dowdings category refers to photo type, just becoming
popular at that time, where Bantram means, of course,
digital type produced with open type technology.
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[ PAGE 12]
TYPOGRAPHI C SYSTMES: PRACTI CE & PROCEDURE
William Bevington and Siu Chong
For an upcoming publication, William Bevington and Siu
Chong classify fonts through two organizational schemas.
First, they wished to identify a numerically logical
sequence of main divisions. Tese begin with two classes:
Text and Display. Tese two major groups divide typefaces
into equal felds. Each of these have three divisions: Sans
Serif, Serif, and Slab Serif under the Text category; and
Topical, Blackletter, and Freehand under the Display
category. Te logic continues to the next step with three
categories under each of these groupings. (Serif having
Old Style, Transitional, and Modern; Freehand having
Cursive, Script, and Brush, for example). As the taxonomy
is logically formed of two major groups with three divisions
within each of these and three sub-divisions within each
of these the eighteen fnal classes are generated in a
symmetrical pattern which assists in the memorization
of the classes.
Te second schema is derived by arranging the typeface
designs within a scatterplot feld along two distinctive
dimensions for each sub-category. For example, for the
Sans Serif sub-classifcation the characters are compared
against dimensions of stroke thickness variation and
x-height value. Tis places some fonts at one extreme
of Humanist and others at the extreme of Geometric.
In another example, for the Blackletter classes, aspects
of Gothic (angular) to Roman (roundness) form one
dimension, while compactness and obliqueness from
another dimension.
Te goal was also to deal with the greatly increased
number of display and specialty faces, taxonomies,
and naming protocols that have arisen in the last century,
particularly so in the last several decades. Tis was to
be done without using an other or catch-all category.
Te Bevington/Chong divisions constrain the taxonomy
to an equal division between essentially text, versus
non-text faces. To achieve this Topical Display faces are
recognized through their noun-value, i.e., how they
design-reference aspects of Place, Style, or Time (in the
system called Place Referencing, Style Referencing, and
Time Referencing). However brilliant, the drawback of
this is another unfamiliar method that type-users might
not recognize it at the outset. Still, heres to hoping that
it becomes a widely accepted practice, because it certainly
is the only innovative, viable solution presented among
all of the 25 analyzed systems.
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[ PAGE 13]
FONTFONT
Fontfont is a type foundry centered in Berlin, Germany
created in 1990 by Erik Spiekermann and Neville Brody
Tese two men wanted to push the limits of typography
with a collection unlike any other out there. FontFont
Fontshop has a one layer system for classifying typefaces.
For being such a simple system, it is for the most part
successful. Any typeface could ft in one of the six categories
in the system. It works for what it is intended for; selling
typefaces.
In the end though, it is a one dimensional system that
must ignore many designs, or misclassify them somewhat.
Adding a second layer of sub-categories would substantially
increase the amount of information and clarity in the
system. Currently there is nothing that references time or
style. Sans, Serif, Slab, Blackletter, Display and Script only
reference structure of typography.
PARATYPE
Paratype was established as a font department of Paragraph
International in 1989 in Moscow, Russia. Taking a multilin-
gual approach to typeface design, ParaType has a slightly
diferent way of classifying type. Like the Bevington/
Chong system there is a clean symmetry to the logic which
yields ffeen categories. A strong advantage is the inclusion
of Slavonic characters. Teir two level system is divided
into Blackletter, Script, Decorative, Serif, Sans Serif, and
as noted, Slavonic on the frst level. Each frst level category
then has fve subcategories, making the chart very well
balanced. Te Serif and Sans Serif categories provide
traditional sub-classifcations. We see a large amount of
orange, indicating an abundance of Topicals. Tough there
are a fair number of naming terms, they are certainly
informative and follow the same ideology as the Serif
and Sans Serif subcategories.
One niggling argument is that fve divisions, although
it looks nicely balanced, is, for certain frst level categories
excessive. Textura, Schwabacher, Rotunda, Fraktur and
Uncial may all be needed in the Blackletter category, but
this isnt the case for the whole system. Paratype appear
to be searching for subcategories in Decorative category.
Not only do they use Techno, they also use Decorative,
which is not only repetitive, but rather ridiculous in
a taxonomy of this depth: Display, Display seems more
than just redundant. So, this is yet another system with
an unresolved set of topical categories.
DISPLAY
SERIF
B
L
A
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A
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OLD STYLE
TECHNO
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BLACKLETTER
SERIF
SANS SERIF
SCRIPT
DISPLAY
SCHWABACHER
FRAKTURA
U
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IC
A
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G
L
Y
P
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[ PAGE 14]
LI NOTYPE
8

Ottmar, youve cast a line of type! were the words spoken
by the editor of the New York Tribune that inevitably gave
the Linotype typesetting machine its name. Linotype
Corporation, an 125 year old type foundry, was founded
by the inventor of the Linotype machine, Ottmar Mergen-
thaler. Linotype today now operates as a wholly owned
subsidiary of Monotype Imaging Holdings. Tey are the
home to some of the mos esteemed and time honored
typefaces, such as Helvetica, Frutiger, and Univers, to
name just a few in the Sans Serif category. For these and
other reasons Linotype is well respected in the global
design community.
Despite this, Linotypes classifcation system may be
argued as collection of half-executed ideas. It seems as
though the company wanted to keep it very simple so
clients could easily fnd what they were looking for, but
ultimately realized that typography cannot be classifed
in such a simple way. In order to reference specialty faces,
a two layer system is needed. Maybe it is possible for
typography classifcation to be watered down to an ultra
simple form, but this would require committing to the
idea fully and grouping other classes as extensively as Sans
Serif for every example of such. FontFont is the closest
to such a system.
ADOBE TYPE GUI DE
Known as the frst name in digital type, Adobe Type Library
is a collection of original typefaces designed specifcally
for electronic publishing. Adobe uses their PostScript
sofware technology and crafsmanship of original
typefaces to master the Adobe Type Library. Adobe
assembled the Adobe Type Guide as a reference for
designers, desktop publishers and business users. To aid
designers when it comes to selecting type, Adobe included
a type classifcation system in the Adobe Type Guide.
It is a simplifed version of the system adopted by the
Association Typographique Internationale (ATypI),
an organization that sets standards for the typographic
industry. Te system includes Venetian, Garalde, Transi-
tional, Didone, Slab Serif, Sans Serif, Glyphic, Script,
Display, Blackletter, Symbol, and Non-Latin.
S
C
R
I
P
T

&

B
R
U
S
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S
A
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S
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ODERN
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IC
/
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M
DECORATIVE &
DISPLAY
COMPUTER
RELATED
SCRIPT
M
O
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VENETIAN
BLACKLETTER
S
W
A
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A
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D
SERIF
DECORATIVE & DISPLAY
[ PAGE 15]
LETRASET
In 1959 Letraset was founded in London, England. Tey
revolutionized the way the commercial artist may transfer
pre printed lettering quickly and efciently with the creation
of what is still very popular today, the Dry Transfer. With
the rise of Adobe and Macintosh, Letraset converted their
library to open type.
Letraset uses a one layer, typographic classifcation
system that is inconsistent in its ideology. Te serif
categories are determined by style (egyptian, modern,
latin and old style). But the Sans Serif category is not.
A simple grotesque, neo-grotesque and transitional would
allow Letraset to keep their one layer format as well as
keep a consistent ideology. If this system was originally
created in the early 1800s, there may not have been a need
to break up the sans serif category, but this was developed
in the new millennium and there are too many sans serif
faces to lump them into one category.
S
A
N
S

S
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[ PAGE 16]
serifs 1: Part one of a
collective count of all serif
classifcations. Because of
the large amount of terms,
the team devised two
charts for the serif classif-
cation. Te outer circles
document the usage of
the term throughout the
25 classifcation systems
studied.
20TH CENT
1
9
T
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1
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VENETIAN
APPEARANCE
COUNTRY
USEAGE
serifs 2: Part two
showing a collective count
of all serif classifcations.
Because of the large
amount of terms, the
team devised two charts
for the serif classifcation.
Te outer circles document
the usage of the term
throughout the 25 classif-
cation systems studied.
[ PAGE 17]
slab serifs: A collective
count of all slab serif
classifcations. Te outer
circles document the usage
of the term throughout
the 25 classifcation
systems studied.
sans serifs: A collective
count of all sans serif
systems studied.
E
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P
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REALIST
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[ PAGE 18]
display: A collective
count of all display
systems studied.
script: A collective
count of all script classif-
cations. Te outer circles
document the usage of
the term throughout the
25 classifcation systems
studied.
TYPEWRITER
IONIC
TO
PIC
A
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IN
LIN
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DECORATED
MANIPULATED
C
A
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SW
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EX
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TIC
CURVILINEAR
C
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A
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A
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[ PAGE 19]
blackletter:
A collective count of all
blackletter classifcations.
Te outer circles document
the usage of the term
throughout the 25 classif-
cation systems studied.
resolved: Te collective
results of the authors investi-
gations composed into a fnal
taxonomic model for Typeface
classifcation. Te three areas
distribute typographic forms
over nineteen fnal classes.
Tis model respects the full
range of naming conventions
without chasing Topicals down
into subcategories that are too
granular, while respecting the
necessary sub-categories in
other groups. It is felt that
a very high level of specifcity
is achieved with this model
without becoming overtly
caught-up-up in unnecessary
jargon. It is therefore more
usual than over-simplifed
orders and viable for extensive
typeface class naming uses.
BROKEN
S
C
H
W
A
B
A
C
H
E
R
B
A
S
T
A
R
D
A
H
Y
B
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I
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A
U
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I
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A
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FRAKTURA
A
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A
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HANDWRITTEN
F
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GEOMETRIC
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U
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A
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IST
U
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IF
O
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IT
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A
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VENETIAN
S
L
A
B

S
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R
IF
O
L
D

S
T
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L
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B
LACKLETTER
S
C
R
I
P
T
SERIF
SANS
TOPICAL
[ PAGE 20]
A RESOLVED SYSTEM
We have chosen to divide our resolved Typeface Classifca-
tion system into three parts; Serif, Sans Serif and Topical.
In 1954, Maximilien Vox was the frst typographic scholar
to divide his system into a similar three categories. Rather
than Classical and Moderns, which mix serif and sans-serif
types between the two groups, weve chosen to divide our
text faces based on the serifs. Instead of using the misleading
header of Calligraphics, weve chosen to name our display
faces Topical, because it clearly and accurately describes
all of the types that would be listed underneath. Afer all,
a Serif or a Sans Serif could surely be used as a display face,
should the designer choose.
SERI F
Tere are four main categories of serif typefaces: Old Style,
Transitional, Modern, and Slab Serif. Our subclasses
of Old Style faces, can be described as follows. Venetian
types are humanist serif faces developed in the 15th
century. Tese type are characterized by short, thick,
bracketed serifs, and ascenders with slanted serifs. Tere
is little contrast between horizontals and verticals, and
the lowercase e ofen has a stylized slanted cross stroke.
Examples are Bembo and Jenson. Gerald is a term coined
by Maximilien Vox, a nod to Claude Garamond and Aldus
Manutius, two prolifc typographers who practiced in the
ffeenth and sixteenth centuries. Te category could also
have been called French, but we felt that was too limiting
to its intention. Te section meant to hold typefaces made
in the Gerald style, rather than only those that were cut
in France. Geralde typefaces have more contrast between
the thickness and thinness of strokes and more delicate
proportions than the Venetian types. Te axis of the curve
in most letters is oblique as compared to the vertical axis
of the next movement in old style typography, the
Transitionals. Eighteenth century Transitional types like
Deberny & Peignots Baskerville had an even stronger
contrast between thick and thin strokes, so much so that
the letters almost glitter on the page. Tese faces marked
the diference between the Geralde and Modern didone
typography. At the time that they were cutting types,
typographers wouldnt have considered themselves in
a transitional period. Te term was only given to those
typefaces afer the beginning of Modern typography.
As such, many fnd issue with the name. However, the
alternate name for these types, Realist, never caught on
with the same fervor that Transitional did, and so here,
we revert to the most popular name. Weve also included
a section for Revival Old Style faces, for those types
designed post 19th century in the style of either Venetian,
Geralde, or Transitional typefaces. Modern typography
started with typographers Giambattista Bodoni and
Firmin Didot. Modern typography has almost become
synonymous with Didone typography, which is of course
takes its name from Didot and Bodoni. Modern types
have the strongest contrast between thick and thin lines.
Te serifs are hairline thin and unbracketed.
Te fnal category in serif typefaces is Slab Serifs. Tese
faces grew out of Modern typefaces. Slab serifs are heavy,
ofen rectilinear serifs a thick or thicker than the rest of
the letter. Clarendon slabs are of similar or smaller size
to the body of the letter, and they are bracketed. Italienne
slabs are also bracketed, but thicker than the body of the
letter. We created the category Uniform Slab Serifs to
cover slab faces that are of similar weight to the body
of the letter, but lef unbracketed.
SANS
Tese four Sans Serif subcategories have been standard
since the Vox ATypI system in 1961. Grotesques, like
Bertholds Azkidenz Grotesk were the frst sans serif
typeface. Tey originated in the nineteenth century, and
therefore have some holdover from their predecessors;
there is a degree of contrast between thick and thin
strokes. From there, the Neo-Grotesque typefaces evolved
in the 1950s. Tey were cleaner, and more mechanical
than the Grotesques. Te Neo-Grotesque was a large part
of Swiss typography; in the beginning, they were used
as display faces. Teir stroke contrast was minimal, the
letters were set wider and the x-height was raised. Many
grotesque faces, like Helvetica, have been drawn with
a great degree of varying weights and widths to accommo-
date for their diferent uses in display design.
Geometric Sans Serifs lef behind all of their historical
connotations. Tey were the most mechanical of all of
the sans serifs, made to look as if they were developed
by machine. Te body of the letters are constructed from
simple geometric shapes, ofen they are monoline, and
there is little diferentiation between each letter. Whereas
the geometric abandons all notion of being derived from
earlier typography, the humanist sans serif draws from the
classical manuscript hand. Te design is ofen informed
by the classical Roman letter, and informs the decisions
the designer makes to his fresh, monoline letter. Te most
celebrated humanist sans serif is Eric Gills Gill Sans.
TOPI CALS
While in the days of Johannes Gutenberg, the blackletter
was the most common text face, now,as a modern civiliza-
tion, we are no longer trained to read letters so dense and
[ PAGE 21]
calligraphic. Terefore, blackletter faces are now regarded
as decorative. Textura is the most calligraphic form of
blackletter. Te letters are tall, narrow, and drawn with
sharp, angular lines. Textura was used in France, England,
and parts of Germany. Schwabacher blackletters are the
earliest German print typefaces. It is closer to the manu-
script handwriting that the Textura face. By 1530, it was
replaced by the Fraktur, as the most of-used text face in
Germany. Fraktur faces were so common that almost all
German blackletters of the time carried Fraktur somewhere
in their name. Te capital letters are created from a rounded
C-shape, and S-shaped strokes. Rotunda, also know as
Cursiva, blackletters is much like modern script, there
are no real standards except that the letters run together.
Scholars of all sorts have pulled the Script faces out of
the general display sections because they can be qualifed,
classifed and separated from display typography. Formal
scripts are based on the writing of calligraphy masters.
Te letters are drawn either with a metal pen nib or quill.
Handwritten scripts come from the more active modern
hand. Strokes vary in width, and are generally not created
with pen nib or quill. Te most difcult task any typo-
graphic scholar has set out to do is classify the display
types, and every scholar fails, whether because he has
chosen to attempt classifcation or ignore the types entirely.
We felt that neither solution was acceptable. Display faces
are becoming more and more popular, and as we march
father into Open Type, only more are expected to appear.
Tere are simply too many faces to qualify, and far too
many faces to leave them absent from our system. So
weve carved out a place for them in our Graphic category.
Graphic, because Display is a tired term that has failed
too many times before. Tese typefaces ofen reference
the style of something else, they are bold, statement pieces
that arent meant for paragraphs of text, and so they need
a bold category.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank Professor Paul Shaw for acquainting
us with so many typeface classifying systems and moving
us deeply down the path of taxonomic typography.
BI OGRAPHY
Taylor Childers is currently a BFA in Communication
Design at Parsons, Te New School for Design, holds a
design internship for the Indiana Department of Education.
She has always had a particular fascination with the art
of typography.
Jessica Griscti is currently pursuing dual degree, BFA
and BA In Communication Design and Writing at Parsons
Te New School for Design, Jessica Griscti is a part time
designer for C&G Partners LLC. Shes been nursing an
unhealthy fondness for all things typography before she
learned to read.
Liberty Leben is currently pursuing BFA in Communication
Design at Parsons Te New School for Design, Liberty
Leben was born and raised in Wichita, KS, but spent her
fnal years of high school living in Austin, TX. Liberty
currently lives and studies in New York City.
NOTES
1 Teodore Low De Vinne, The Practice of Typography,
(New York: Te De Vinne Press, 1899), 183.
2 Te system was published in German, so please
allow for some slight inconsistencies with the translation.
3 Te system was published in German, so please
allow for some slight inconsistencies with the translation.
4 Alexander Lawson, Anatomy of a Typeface, (Boston:
David R. Godine, 1990), 713.
5 Allen , Haley. Alphabet: Te History, Evolution
and Design of Letters We Use Today. (New York: Watson-
Guptill Publications) 1995, 1013.
6 Alan Bartram, Typeforms: a history, (London: Te
British Library & Oak Knoll Press, 2007). 84.
7 Bartram, Typeforms: A History, 77.
8 Linotype, History. Accessed January 7, 2013.
http://www.linotype.com/49/history.html.
[ PAGE 22]
BI BLI OGRAPHY
Adobe Type Guide. Mountain View, CA: Adobe Systems,
1991. Print.
Allen, Haley. Alphabet: Te History, Evolution and Design
of Letters We Use Today. New York: Watson-Guptill
Publications, 1995.
Bartram, Alan. Typeforms: a history. London: Te British
Library & Oak Knoll Press, 2007.
Bringhurst, Robert. Te Elements of Typographic Style:
Version 3.2. Roberts: Hartley & Marks, 2008.
Craig, James, and Irene Korol Scala. Designing with Type:
Te Essential Guide to Typography. New York: Watson-
Guptill Publications, 2006.
De Vinne, Teodore Low. Te Practice of Typography.
New York: Te De Vinne Press, 1899.
Dowding, Geofrey. And Introduction to the History of
Printing Tyes. London: Wace & Company Ltd., 1961.
FontFont, About FontFont. Accessed January 7, 2013.
https://www.fontfont.com/about.
Headley, Gywn. Te Encyclopaedia of Fonts. London:
Cassell Illustrated, 2005.
Hill, Will. Te Complete Typographer. Upper Saddle River:
Pearson Prentice Hall, 1995.
Jaspert, W. Pincus, W. Turner Berry, and A.F. Johnson.
Te Encyclopaedia of Typefaces. London: Blandford
Press, 1970.
Lawson, Alexander. Anatomy of a Typeface. Boston:
David R. Godine, 1990.
Linotype, History. Accessed January 7, 2013. http://
www.linotype.com/49/history.html.
Lupton, Ellen. Tinking With Type: A Critical Guide
For Designers, Writers, Editors & Students. New Yok:
Princeton Architectural, 2010.
McLean, Ruari. Te Tames and Hudson Manual of
Typography. London: Tames & Hudson Ltd., 1980.
My Fonts, Letraset. Accessed January 7, 2013.
http://www.myfonts.com/foundry/Letraset/.
My Fonts, ParaType. Accessed January 7, 2013.
http://www.myfonts.com/foundry/ParaType/.
My Fonts, Robert Bringhurst. Accessed December 29,
2012. http://www.myfonts.com/person/Robert_Brin-
ghurst/.
Nettelhorst, Leopold. Schrif Muss Passen: Schrifwahl
und Schrifausdruck in der Werbung Handbuch fur
Gestalungsarbeit an Webemitteln. Essen: Wirtschaf
und Werbung Verlagsgesellschaf mbH., 1959.
Solomon, Martin. Te Art of Typography: And introduc-
tion to Typo.icon.ography. New York: Watson-Guptill
Publications, 1986.
Strizver, Ilene. Type Rules! Te Designers Guide to Profes-
sional Typography. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
2006.
Typographie & Civilisation, Classifcation Tibaudeau.
Last modifed 2006. Accessed January 10, 2013.
http://caracteres.typographie.org/classifcation/
thibaudeau.html.
Updike, Daniel Berkeley. Printing Types: Teir Histories,
Forms, and Use. Boston: Te Merrymount Press, 1937.

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