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Term test 1, Feb 4, Class Time (1 hour)
Cover lecture material from Part 1.
50 multiple choice questions
2 hand-graded questions
Bring pencil, calculator, ruler.
Equation sheet supplied with test is now
on Courselink.
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Part 2: Soil Density, Texture and
Geology of Groundwater
Density, particle size, specific surface
Geology of aquifers and aquitards
Groundwater velocity
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3
Bulk Density, Particle Size and
Density, and Specific Surface
Used to estimate porosity, hydraulic
conductivity, and other physical
properties.
Measure on intact non-lithified
samples taken from above or below the
water table.
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4
Bulk Density
Mass of dry particles per bulk or total
volume of soil.
Symbol r
b
.
Includes both mineral and organic
fractions but not soil water or soil air.
4
5
5
Bulk Density Exercises
Calculate the overall wet density of a
soil with volume fractions of solid,
liquid, and gas of 0.5, 0.3, and 0.2.
Assume that the three densities are:
2650, 1000, and 1.3 kgm
-3
,
respectively.
Calculate the bulk (dry) density of the
soil ignoring the air.
Re-calculate the bulk (dry) density
including the air.
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Particle Density
Mass of Particles\Volume of Particles
r
d
7
7
7
Some Mineral Particle Densities
Quartz 2.65 g/cm
3

Pyrite 5.02 g/cm
3
Kaolinite 2.6 g/cm
3
Galena 7.5 g/cm
3
Halite 2.2 g/cm
3
Diamond 3.5 g/cm
3


Organic matter particle density much less
8
8
8
Particle Size
Particle size and mineral composition
control pore shape, porosity,
interactions with fluids and solutes,
compressibility, strength, and thermal
properties.
Soil texture is the size range of
particles in the soil.
Can include\exclude organic matter
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9
10
10
10
a. Solid phase (mineral and organic matter) occupies 50% by volume, the rest
(50%) is pore space.

b. 50%.

c. When saturated, 50% by volume of the soil is filled with water, this amounts
to 0.5 m
3
of 500 kg water.

d. When completely dry, there is 0.5 m
3
air in the soil. M
a
= 1.3 kg/m
3
x 0.5 m
3
=
0.65 kg.

e. V
min
= 45% = 0.45 m
3
; M
min
= 2700 kg/m
3
x 0.45 m
3
= 1215 kg
V
org
= 0.05% = 0.05 m
3
; M
org
= 1400 kg/m
3
x 0.05 m
3
= 70 kg
M
s
= M
min
+ M
org
= 1285 kg

f. When the soil is saturated its mass = M
s
+ M
w
= 1785 kg
When the soil is dry its mass = M
s
+ M
a
= 1285.65 kg

g. r
d
= Ms/Vs = 1285 kg/0.5 m
3
= 2570 kg/m
3
r
b
= Ms/V
t
= 1285 kg/1 m
3
= 1285 kg/m
3

h. M
w
= 0.25 x 1000 = 250 kg
M
a
= 0.25 x 1.3 = 0.325
Total mass of soil = M
s
+ M
w
+ M
a
= 1285 kg + 250 kg + 0.325= 1535. 325 kg
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Particle Size Classification
(Canadian System)
Gravel: > 2.0 mm in diameter.
Sand: .05 2.0 mm in diameter.
Silt: .002 - .05 mm in diameter.
Clay: < .002 mm in diameter.

Organic fraction excluded.
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Other Systems
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Soil Texture Classes: Canadian System
S = sand
Si = silt
C = clay
L = loam
H = Heavy
What is particle size
distribution of a loam?
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14
Particle Size Analysis
Stack of sieves for particles > 0.05 mm
(sand).
Particles < 0.05 mm use sedimentation.
Measure the settling (terminal) velocity
of each particle size.
Stokes Law.
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Physics\Math of Stokes Law
Particles falling in a fluid encounter a
resistance force, F
r
, proportional to m,
the fluid viscosity, r, particle radius,
and v, particle velocity:
F
r
= 6m r v
Gravity works against F
r
:
F
g
= (4/3) r
3
(r
d
- r
f
) g
Set the two forces equal to determine
the terminal velocity.
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16
v = (2r
2
g/9m) (r
d
- r
f
)
If length unit is cm and time unit is s,
acceleration due to gravity is 980 cm/s
2

and fluid viscosity is:
0.01 g/(s cm) at 20 C
-and fluid density is 1 g/cm
3

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17
Calculate the times required for
particles of quartz, 1 mm and 10
mm diameter, to fall 10 cm in a
fluid of temperature 20C.
Density of quartz = 2.65 g/cm
3


See also Example 1.1, page 3 of
Jury and Horton textbook
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18
18
v = (2r
2
g/9m) (r
d
- r
f
)
t=z/v

z = 10 cm
m = 0.01 g/cm s
d1 = 1 mm (0.1 cm)
d2 = 10 mm (0.01 mm, 0.001 cm)
g = 980 cm/sec
2
r
d
= 2.65 g/cm
3
r
f
= 1 g/cm
3

Using particle diameter directly:
t
d1
= (18 x 10 x 0.01)/[(0.1)
2
x 980 x (2.65-1)]
= 1.8/16.17 = 0.111 sec
t
d2
= (18 x 10 x 0.01)/[(0.001)
2
x 980 x (2.65-1)]
= 1.8/0.0016 = 1113.17 sec = 18.55 min
How about the finest sand particle?
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Stokes Law: Assumptions
Particles unaffected by fluid thermal
motion.
Particles are rigid, spherical, and smooth.
Particles are of equal density.
No interference between particles.

Really measure an effective particle diameter.
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Measuring Particle Size
Pipette: considered standard procedure.
Hydrometer: more convenient, more
rapid method. Measure density of the
suspension at regular times. Use
Stokes Law to estimate particle size in
suspension.
No soil pretreatments (removal of
organic matter, other cements)
performed other than clay dispersion.

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23 24
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Particle Shape
Sand: Spherical.
Silt: Near spherical, may have clay
coatings.
Clay: Plate- or needle-like.
Which size fraction has the greatest
surface area per unit mass?
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25
SEM of halloysite.
1 mm
Particles of clay
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Specific Surface, s
Total surface area of particles per unit
mass, volume, or bulk volume.
Traditionally expressed as square meters
per gram.
Depends on particle size.
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27
Specific Surface, Who cares?
Proportional to adsorption and release of
chemicals on soil particle adsorption
sites, swelling and retention of water,
soil plasticity, cohesion, and strength.
May provide a basis for predicting soil
behaviour.
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28
Specific Surface of Sand vs. Clay
First, estimate specific surface using spheres
to represent sand particles.
Surface area\volume ratio is (d
2
)/(d
3
/6) =
6/d, where d is sphere diameter.
Surface area\mass = 6/(d r
d
)


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Now consider a square-shaped platy
particle to represent clay, length L and
thickness z.
Surface area/volume = (2L
2
+ 4Lz)/(L
2
z).
Surface area/mass = 2(L + 2z)/(r
d
L z).
If L >> z, then
Surface area/mass 2/ r
d
z.


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Some example calculations
For coarse sand, d = 1.0 mm = 0.001 m,
Surface area/mass = 6/(0.001 2.65 10
6
)
= 2.3 10
-3
m
2
/g.
For a clay platelet of thickness 4 10
-8
m,
Surface area/mass = 2/(2.65 10
6
4 10
-8
)
= 18.9 m
2
/g.

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31
Specific Surface Area
a. Calculate the specific area of a soil that has the following
particle-size distribution:
80% fine sand (Avg. d = 0.1 mm)
10% silt (Avg. d = 10 mm)
10% illite clay (Avg. L = 20 nm and z = 5 nm)
The density of the solid phase for sand and silt is 2660 kg
m
-3
, and for illite clay 2750 kg m
-3
.
b. What is the contribution of each of the textural separates to
the specific surface area of the soil?
c. What is the textural class name of this soil?
d. To which component can most of the physical and chemical
properties of such a soil be attributed?

Note: Sand and silt: s = 6/ r
d
d ; Clay: s = 2/r
d
z
specific surface area of this soil = S s
i
x m
i


m
i
is the mass fraction of particles of specific area s
i

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32
a. Sand: s = 6/ r
d
d = 6/(2660 x 10
-4
) m
2
kg
-1
= 22.6 m
2
kg
-1

Silt: s = 6/ r
d
d = 6/(2660 x 10
-5
) m
2
kg
-1
= 226 m
2
kg
-1

Clay: s = 2/ r
d
z = 2/(2750 x 5 x 10
-9
) = 145454.5 m
2
kg
-1

The specific surface area of this soil, s = Ss
i
x m
i
= (0.8 x
22.6 + 0.1 x 226 + 0.1 x 145454.5) m
2
kg
-1
=
(18.1+22.6+14545.5) m
2
kg
-1
= 14586 m
2
kg
-1

b. Contribution of:
Sand: 18.1/ 14586 = 0.12%
Silt: 22.6/ 14586 = 0.15%
clay: 14545.5/14586 = 99.7%

c. The soil is loamy sand

d. Since the 10% illite clay contributes 99.7% of the specific
area of the soil, the chemical and physical properties of
the soil are attributed mainly to the clay.
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More specific surface examples
Examples 1.3 and 1.4, pages 15 and 16
of Jury and Horton
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Geology of Groundwater

Geologic Inventory
Types of Geologic Heterogeneity
Glacial Sediments
Flow in Fractured Rock
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Geologic Inventory
Field Mapping: existing maps,
topographic maps, air photos.
Existing well logs (MOEE water well
records), new drill holes (samples for
K, n, S analyses).
Geophysics, e.g. GPR.
36
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
For more information see:
http://www.sensoft.ca/
Transmitter dragged along the ground
emits radio waves and the waves reflect
off boundaries between geologic units,
the water table, contaminated zones,
metallic objects, etc., and are detected by
the receiver on the land surface.

37
Reflection Survey Mode
R
38
R R R
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41 42
43 44
44
Types of Geologic Heterogeneity: Layers
Unconfined Aquifer

Aquitard

Confined Aquifer
100 m
45
Layers
Unconfined Aquifer
Aquitard
Confined Aquifer
46
Small-scale Layers
47
Faults
48
Folds
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Glacial Sediments in SW Ontario
Till: a sediment deposited by glaciers,
little to no sorting by water, aquitards.
Glaciofluvial: deposited by glacial
meltwater, aquifers.
Glaciolacustrine: silt and clay
deposited in proglacial lakes, aquitards.
50
Glacial
Sediments
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Glacial Till
52
Hydrogeology of Glacial
Sediments
n K (ms
-1
)
Till 0.25-0.40 10
-11
- 10
-6

Glaciofluvial 0.30 - 0.50 1 - 10
-6


Glaciolacustrine 0.40 - 0.60 10
-11
- 10
-8
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54
Estimating Groundwater Travel
Times Through Fractured Rock
1. Equivalent porous medium approach
2. Calculate flow velocity through a
single pore: Poiseuilles Law.
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55
Poiseuilles Law
Estimate flow through cylindrical
fractures.
Pressure-induced force balanced by the
fluid resistance or shear force.
v = R
2
P/(8Lm)
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56
Equivalent Porous Medium
Use Darcys Law if scale of
measurement is large enough to
include many fractures.
Average groundwater flow velocity
estimated from Darcys Law.
57
Estimating Groundwater Flow Velocity
A B
C D
58
Estimating Groundwater Flow
Velocity
v = q/n
e

v = -Kdh/dl
n
e
59
Is groundwater flow faster
through overburden or fractured
Guelph Dolostone Formation?
E
r
a
m
o
s
a

R
i
v
e
r

Overburden, n
e
= 0.35, K = 10
-6
ms
-1
Guelph Dolostone Formation, n
e
= 0.05, K = 10
-6
ms
-1
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60
Groundwater Flow in Karst Terrain
Rare occurrence of underground open
streams and small lakes.
Limestone or dolostone rock dissolved
by weakly acidic groundwater creates
underground caves filled with
groundwater.
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62
Mapping a Groundwater Flow
System to Identify Areas of
Recharge and Discharge
Topography
Piezometers
Amount of Dissolved Salts
Field Observations
Tritium
63
Effect of Topography on
Groundwater Flow
Fetter, 4
th
Edition, page 238
Equipotential Lines
Flow Lines
Water Table
Fetter, 2001.
64
Water Levels in Piezometers?
Fetter, 2001.
65
Water Levels in Piezometers
Fetter,2001.
6
5
4
3
2
1 m
66
Effect of Local Topography on
Areas of Recharge and Discharge
Freeze and Cherry, 1979.
67
Using Amount of Dissolved Salts
to Estimate Age of
Groundwater
68
Age of Groundwater
Equipotential Lines
Flow Lines
Water Table
Fetter, 2001.
Young
Old
69
S
o
d
i
u
m

+

P
o
t
a
s
s
i
u
m

Chloride + Sulphate
70
Using Tritium to Determine
Age of Groundwater
What is major source of tritium?
71
Tritium (
3
H, half-life of 12.43 years) is an excellent
tracer of young groundwater.
3
H input to ground water has occurred in a series of
spikes following periods of atmospheric testing of
nuclear devices that began in 1952 and reached a
maximum in 1963-1964.

Radioactive decay of
3
H produces the noble gas
helium-3 (
3
He). The
3
H/
3
He ratio can be used to
calculate an apparent age of groundwater from a
single water sample.
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Case Study:
http://water.usgs.gov/lab/3h3he/research/
capecod/

3
H/
3
He method is used to date
groundwater in a sewage plume over a
distance of 4 km in a sand and gravel
aquifer located on Otis Air Base in
Falmouth, Massachusetts.
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Map of sewage plume
Equipotential Lines
Arrows show direction
of groundwater flow
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