CHAPTERONE

SKETCHING, DRAFTINGANDDRAWINGS.
1.1 Sketching
1.1.1 Technical Sketching
1.1.2 SketchingMaterials
Many freehand sketches may be made to develop some of the details
to arrive at some basic dimensions before a project is started and layout made.
These sketches are useful in developing various ideas. Ideas originate in the mind,
and to be useful they must be communicated to others. Many engineering ideas
are far expressed in the form of a free Rand pencil sketches. Sketches show the
features of the device, serve as an aid in-performing related calculations. In
engineering drawing parlance sketches are either.
i. Any freehand drawing regardless of the amount of detail shown (i.e.
complete drawings are sketches if drawwithout any instruments), and
ii. Any rough, quick, unfinished drawing i.e. a right edge and compass could be
used to show quickly and roughly the principal parts of a device. Generally,
sketching refer tofreehand drawing.
When a new project is being started an engineering meeting is usually held to
resolve the various problems that arise, one of the best means of presenting new
ideas and approaches at such a meeting is through the use of technical sketches.
The preliminary sketching of details to determine some ideas. Such sketches help
to establish tentative component placement and check calculations. They are
useful as layouts for the sketch or connection diagrams and the graph or charts, as
a means of familiarizing persons handling specific details with the project as a
whole. These sketches may be drawn in orthographic, isometric or projections,
either in rough forms or sketched to a definite scale. Sketches are used temporarily
until regular drawing can be prepared; they should include title, date, draftsman's
initials or name, job order number and similar information.
Material required for sketching are paper medium, soft pencil and eraser. Asketch
pad or plane paper can be used, graph or cross-section paper is helpful in drawing
straight lines and approximating circles arcs and angles. Aclip pad is convenient
An image, drawn freehand, without the use of a straightedge or any other
mechanical instrument, is a freehand sketch. Such sketches, though drawn
quickly, effectively convey significant information if drawn with attention to
proportion and accuracy. Freehand sketches are useful because they may be
used to communicate ideas or designs to a coworker, your boss, or a client quickly
and simply.
1
to retain the sketch sheets and to provide sheets of paper and to provide a working
surface. Transparent paper can be used to make prints of the sketches, so that
original may be kept for reference and filing. Graph paper with non-producing lines
is useful when it's desirable to have copies. A sketch with inside and out side
calipers will help tomaintain measurement.
It is important to obtain complete information
for sketching purposes. For example, if a manufactured item is being examined,
the name plate data, such as manufacturer's name and address the catalog and
type numbers, terminal markings, and colour coding of removable connections
should all be recorded. If an itemis a part of the equipment, such details as over all
dimensions, special tolerance and clearances should be noted; failure to record all
the required details can result in unnecessary details, especially if there is some
distance between the drafting room and the equipment being produced or
measured. Considerable time and effort can be saved by obtaining all available
data before starting a sketch for example the details of commercial components
can be quickly formed in catalogue thus eliminating the need to take actual
measurement. If complete identification of such component is provided, the sketch
may be simplified (or found unnecessary). The application of a sketch will
determine the amount of detail required. If it conveys change in the information,
dimensional notation can be reduced to minimum sometimes multi-view. The
Sketch is advisable to bring out all cases as auxiliary views that may be required to
illustrate positioning, dimensioning or a pictorial viewtosupplement the sketch.
1.1.3 SketchingProcedure
Although freehand sketches are drawn quickly, with only a pencil and paper, this
does not mean that the sketches are done carelessly. All lines should be clearly
visible and the sketch easy to interpret. Freehand sketching requires simple
equipment: a pencil and some paper .
Graphite pencils are often used for sketching and drafting. There are a number of
grades of graphite pencils available. The grade of the pencil indicates the
hardness of the pencil. The grades range from 9H, the hardest pencil, to the very
soft EE. A 2H (hard) pencil works well for construction drawing while a 2B (soft,
plus) may be useful for sketching and shading. When choosing a pencil, be sure to
select one that is hard enough to avoid smearing but not so hard that it will cause
grooves in the paper even when used with normal pressure. If you wish to use only
one pencil, a medium hard H will work well; you may make dark or light lines by
simply varying the pressure you use as you draw. This is also a good choice if you
find that drawings made with other grades of pencils tend tosmear.
Pencils
2
Mechanical pencils, also known as lead holders, are popular with drafters. Such
pencils hold lengths of lead, allowing the drafter to have any length of the lead
exposed. These pencil leads may be shaped, if desired, by rubbing the lead on a
fine sandpaper pad or file, just as for a wooden pencil lead.
Soft vinyl type erasers are recommended if you need to remove light pencil
markings from your drawing. To avoid marring the finish of the paper, erase
carefully, along the direction of your work.
Plain paper is useful for most sketching. However, graph paper may make
accurate sketching easier, especially if you are relatively new to sketching. Graph
paper is useful to maintain proportions when sketching. Avariety of graph paper is
available. The most common type of graph paper is made of squares; however,
special graph paper for particular kinds of drawings, such as isometric drawings, is
also available. If you find that the lines on graph paper "get in the way", you may
wish to sketch on the back of the graph paper. Another option is dot paper, which
uses dots instead of lines. Beloware links todifferent types of graph paper.
Erasers
Paper
1.2. DimensionsAndNotes
In developing industrial drawing practice, it has been found that the most effective
means of communicating ideas and instructions is a combination of graphical
elements (lines and points) Numbers (dimensions and quantities), and words
(materials and finishes). The graphical portion of the drawing provides the shape
description; numbers in the form of dimensions and angles provide the size
description and lettered notes provide all other necessary information. Discussion
on what should be included and here it should be presented must be based on an
analysis of the requirements of the user of the drawings. Some dimensions
indicate sizes, lengths, angles, location etc. The given dimensions must be those
necessary to make the part and not those necessary to make the drawing.
Information regarding the material to be used, the finish to be achieved and the fit
to be provided between mating parts is included in the formof neatly lettered notes.
Spinal instructions to the pattern maker, the machinist or the assembler may be
included. The location, size, spacing, and even the form of the letters in the notes
are carefully selected toprovide a maximum legibility.
3
1. 3. DraftingAndDesign
1.3.1 Procedure
The drafting man must consider the existing shop facilities in case of fabrication
and possibilities of lowering cost in design and drawing details are needed in
specification provision. He is also concerned with the products maintenance and
repairs. The constantly expanding nature of electrical/electronic drafting and
design in which one is called to solve any problem makes the field interesting and
profitable one. Through the acquisition of techniques experience and knowledge,
the draft man is likely to develop into a well trained capable designer. The
draftsmen must begin by having information about basic drawing types; the
drawing may be classified into several categories and may further be sub-divided
into other categories as will be discussed in the next section. These drawings are to
provide complete manufacturing details to the construction of equipment or of its
prototype. He must be able to prepare the various drawings in accordance with the
government and i ndustry standards. To become an experi enced
electrical/electronic draftsman or designer and to perform work of this nature, het
must have the idea of material and components with a knowledge of
electrical/electronic theory. He is expected to be neat and very patient and able to
visualize any proposed construction or layout. He must have the ability to solve
problem during the course of his work. He should maintain an open attitude words
new development. The draftsman converts engineering ideas to workable
products through the preparation of sketches, drawing and parts list. He is
expected to provide information pertaining to the purchase on raw material,
components and hardware. He also acts as a link between engineers and
technologist. His clear and understandable reading of paper's and information is
required. His knowledge of components material and engineering terminology
comes to plays as he translates this information into various standardized type as
graphic symbols.
The same basic drawing instruments and materials are required in
electrical/electronics drafting work. As well as some specialized instruments and
accessories.
When an extensive ink work such as inking schematics or other drawings, a new
type of technical fountain pen such as radiographic save time and effort. The pen
has several interchange points section for drawing various width, and can be used
with French curves or templates as well as conventional straight line work.
1.3.2 DraftingTools
Special InkInstruments
4
DrawingPapers
1.3.3 Basic Computer AidedDrafting(CAD)
There are many or several drawing papers available. The selection of papers
depends on the importance and the ultimate use of the drawing. Using a poor
quality material a frequently used to produce a complete assembly diagram will
only result in the drawing it again. Engineering drawing should be on transparent
paper, so that copies may be easily reproduced. Drawing papers should also
possess stability, variation in temperature and humidity should be suitable for
writing by a pencil, pen as well as for typing and micro filming. There are four
materials available for drawings. They are (1) Bond paper (2) Vallon paper (3) Cloth
paper (4) Polyester filmpaper.
1.The Bond Paper: It is tracing paper less expressive but it lacks durability and
transparency. The only type that is suitable for pencil and ink work.
2. Vallon Paper: Vallon is a rag paper that is been used togive greater transparency.
3. Cloth Paper: It a coated liner, it resists better than the vallon paper and very good
for micro filming purpose. Some grade are and made for either pencil or ink work
and they are moisture resistant.
Polyester film: This film is durable and is suitable for both pencil and ink and has
transparent resistance. It is also available for general drafting work and for printed
and layout where extreme stability is required clear sharp line can be obtained with
either ordinary or special pencil.
The process of preparing engineering drawings on a computer is known as
computer-aided drafting (CAD), and it is the most significant development to occur
recently in this field. It has revolutionized the way we prepare drawings. The
drafting part of a project is often a bottleneck because it takes so much time.
Drafters spend approximately two-thirds of their time laying lead. But on CAD,
You can make design changes faster, resulting in a quicker turn-around time. CAD
also can relieve you from many tedious chores such as redrawing. Once you have
made a drawing you can store it on a disk. You may then call it up at any time and
change it quickly and easily. It may not be practical to handle all of the drafting
workload on a CAD system. While you can do most design and drafting work more
quickly on CAD, you still need to use traditional methods for others. For example,
you can design certain electronics and construction projects more quickly on a
drafting table. A CAD system by itself cannot create; it is only an additional and
more efficient tool. You must use the system to make the drawing; therefore, you
must have a good background in design and drafting. In manual drawing, you must
have the skill to draw lines and letters and use equipment such as drafting tables
and machines, and drawing aids such as compasses, protractors, triangles,
5
parallel edges, scales, and templates. In CAD, however, you dont need those
items. A cathode-ray tube, a central processing unit, a digitizer, and a plotter
replace them.
Generating Drawings OnCAD
ACADcomputer contains a drafting programthat is a set of detailed instructions for
the computer. When you bring up the program, the screen displays each function or
instruction you must followto make a drawing. The CADprograms available to you
contain all of the symbols used in mechanical, electrical, or architectural drawing.
You will use the keyboard and/or mouse to call up the drafting symbols you need as
you need them. Examples are characters, grid patterns, and types of lines. When
you get the symbols you want on the screen, you will order the computer to size,
rotate, enlarge, or reduce them, and position them on the screen to produce the
image you want. You probably will then order the computer to print the final product
and store it for later use.
Engineering drawings show the relations between points, tines, surfaces,
projections, holes etc, such drawing are useful and practical. Is a graphical
language that has been developed to record ideas and to transmit instructions.
Drawings are used to tell how something looks, its nature (what it is like), how it is
constructed, assembled, connected up (assembled) taken apart. Just like a report,
in each case the user determines the form, and requirements of the reader must be
kept in mind. Drawings must always satisfy the requirements of the used hence
accepted convention must be used as much as possible with complete details.
Companies and Government agencies make or prepare standard drawing to
illustrate and list the details of such items commonly used in the electronic
equipment, applications as hard-wares (nuts, screens and bolts) and components
(capacitor, resistor, inductor) etc. In the military standard field these drawings are
known as MS.
Drawings may be classified into several categories and
may further be sub-divided into other categories; Pictorial, Mechanical, Outline,
Instillation, Working/Shop, Assembly and exploded, Diagrammatic, Maintenance,
Multi view, Construction and Electrical/Electronic drawings
Aphotograph provides a two dimensional picture of a three-dimensional object by
introducing a type of distortion (perspective).
1.4 TheGraphical Language- EngineeringDrawing
1.4.1 Types Of Drawings.
Pictorial Drawing
6
Apicture represents the projection of the object into a single plane. When used by
engineers, it indicates what the object looks like. The object can either be shown as
it appears or will appear to the eye. Also, an aerial photograph results in maps
which provides the best picture of what the viewis really like.
When several
parts are joined together they form a unit known as such assembly, the drawing
representing such a unit is known sub assembly drawing. There is no sharp line of
dimension between such assembly and assembly drawing, assembly drawing
generally show more part or may include one or more sub assembly that shows a
larger unit.
An out line drawing is a simplified fashion of a detail drawing or of a sub assembly
drawing shows only the essential and the overall dimension such drawings are
frequently in trade technical publications to illustrate the shapes dimension and
other characteristics of the part.
Some electronic items or equipment may required an installation drawing to show
mounting details, over all dimensions wiring connection, and other information.
This data may be required to install service or adjust the equipment, as well as to
showits relative location to other equipment.
Shop drawings are drawings and related data used to show some portion of the
work prepared by the construction contractor, manufacturer, distributor, or supplier.
Product data, such as brochures, illustrations, standard schedules, performance
charts, and other information, are furnished by the contractor or the manufacturer
to show a material, product, or system for some portion of the work. Engineering
Aids are sometimes required to draft shop drawings for minor shop and field
projects. These drawings may include shop items, such as doors, cabinets, and
small portable buildings (prefabricated berthing quarters and modifications of
Mechanical Drawing
The complexity of electronic equipment determine the number of mechanical
drawing needed to showthe details of various parts components and assemblies of
this parts and components. Regardless of whether the equipment complex or
simple. It design begins with the preparation of lay out drawing to show the
positioning of several major units that compose the equipment. After the layout
drawing projection has been established. It is necessary to prepare detail drawing
of each part using the layout drawing as a guard. The detail drawing shows the
constructional dimensions, finish and material to each part, if several part have
minor difference they may be shown on the same details drawing with the
difference indicated by dash number added to the drawing member.
OutlineDrawings
InstallationDrawings
Working(shop) Drawings
7
existing structures), or they may come from portions of design drawings,
specifications, or freehand sketches given by the design engineer. Working froma
shop drawing is much like working from other working drawings. You convert the
ideas you get from your interpretation of the lines and symbols into the product
represented by the drawing.
inside another, but the drawing must be rapt as simple as possible to avoid
confusing the assembler. Sometimes, an exploded (blown-out) drawing is used to
help the person who is not. trained to read engineering drawing. The pasts are
usually numbered in the order that they are handled by the assembler.
The installation assembly and diagrammatic drawing have special applications in
piping and wiring. The piping drawing maybe semi pictorial, showing the contours
of pumps, piping, values etc or it may be a single-line diagram with units indicated
symbolically. This type of drawing is used in exaction or installation, and the only
dimensions shown will be those needed for locating the individual components or
for showing over-all sizes. Electrical circuits are always shown diagrammatically
with conventional symbols for resistors, motors, contactor, etc, such a Schematic
Diagramis designed for clarity and in attempt is made to indicated location or size.
In chemical engineering, flow diagrams used for layouts are examples of
diagrammatic drawings.
Whenever a complex device is manufactured, specs instruction sheets must be
prepared to guide the concerned with its operation and maintenance. These
instructions range in length from a few lines on a care to several large volumes. In
explaining the operation and maintenance procedures, clear drawings are highly
effective. Ingeneral, maintenance drawings are similar toinstitution assembles,
This is made to indicate how the various pasts go together in the complete unit. It
may shone just the external features of the component pasts the mean of section
views, indicate internal features. It is frequently used by the design engineer
indicate hone a device works and the functions of the components. It carries certain
dimensions. Novel features are usually shown in great detail but standard parts will
be indicated by symbols only. In the drawings used for guiding the assembly of
complex units, only the information needed to show the relationship of parts is
shown. The individual parts are not dimensioned, but clearances and distances
between centers are given. Section views are used to indicate how one part fits
Assembly andExplodedDrawing
Diagrammatic Drawings
Maintenance Drawings
8
however, special details are shown to guide the repairmen. Part are designated by
catalogue number to facilitate ordering, but dimensions and materials are not
shown. Details are given on the adjustments which compensate for wear, and the
clearances required for proper operation are indicated.
This is a combination of various views: front, back, top, bottom and sides giving an
accurate representation of an object to be shown in two dimensional paper. They
show hone accurately and object can be constructed Orthographic means
drawings on the basis of points and lines projected at right angles to planes of
projection Dotted lines are used toindicate hidden details.
Aconstruction drawing is any drawing that furnishes the information required by the
craftsmen to rough in equipment or erect a structure. The terms
and are sometimes used interchangeably. Information
presented in a set of working drawings, along with the specifications, should be
complete so the craftsman who uses them will require no further information.
Working drawings show the size, quantity, location, and relationship of the building
parts. Generally, working drawings may be divided into three main categories:
architectural, mechanical, and electrical. Regardless of the category, working
drawings serve several functions:
(I). They provide a basis for making material, labor, and equipment estimates
before construction starts.
(ii). They give instructions for construction, showing the sixes and location of the
various parts. They provide a means of coordination between the different ratings.
(iii). They complement the specifications; one source of information is incomplete
without the other when drawings are used for construction work.
Architectural drawings consist of all the drawings that
describe the structural members of the building and their relationship to each other.
This includes foundation plans, floor plans, framing plans, elevations, sections,
details, schedules, and bills of materials.
Aplan is actually a part of the architectural drawing that represents a viewof
the project from above. Two types of plans will be discussed here: plot plans and
floor plans.
Asite plan includes not only the project but also the surrounding area.
The project may be represented only by an outline, such as the one on the plot
plan in figure 1.1. The north arrowsymbol, used for orientation of the drawing, is
Multi ViewOr OrthographicDrawing
ConstructionDrawings
workingdrawings
construction drawings
Architectural Drawings:
Plans:
Site Plans:
9
shown. close coordination between the construction engineer/technician, the
Engineering Aids, Equipment Operators, and Builders translates to the overall
success of the project. By looking over the plot plan, you will know what to do to
prepare for the job.
Mechanical drawings include all drawings and notes that
have something to do with the water supply, sewage, drainage, heating and
ventilating, refrigeration, air conditioning, and gas supply systems. It may also
include other drawings that are necessary to present the system properly in
relation tothe other portions of the project.
Mechanical Drawings
p
r
o
p
o
s
e
d

b
u
i
l
d
i
n
g
g
a
t
e
E
X
I
S
T
I
N
G
R
O
A
D
Figure 1.1. Site plan showing proposed building.
10
These drawing showelectrical inter-connection between the various components
in an assembly or equipment or between the equipment units. Such drawing may
also gain some of the mechanical features of the exact connection points and to
clarify the operation of such components. In addition to the construction drawings
discussed above, you will be working with other types of electrical drawings or
diagrams. These drawings show the arrangement and relationship of parts.
Electrical/Electronic diagrams are usually used to show how the parts of one or
more pieces of equipment are wired together. There are several types of these
diagrams. They are similar, yet different in some way. The short description of each
that follows should enable you torecognize their differences.
: This shows the terminal to terminal wiring within the equipment.
The control panel or other electronic assembly. Unlike the schematic diagram, the
electronic or the mechanical component are represented by their physical shape
rather than by graphic symbol and are shown in their relative on their control panel,
equipment assembly connection are shown point to point to that they represent the
actual wire by were wiring of the equipment Awiring diagram is a detailed diagram
of each circuit installation showing all of the wiring, connectors, terminal boards,
and electrical or electronic components of the circuit. It also identifies the wires by
wire numbers or color coding. Wiring diagrams are necessary to troubleshoot and
repair electrical or electronic circuits. The wiring diagram is almost a picture
drawing. It shows the wiring between components and the relative position of the
components. Figure 1.2 shows a wiring diagram of a motor, components are
shown much as they would appear in a picture. The lines representing wires are
marked with numbers or letter-number combinations. Lines L1, L2, and L3 are
incoming power leads. The diagramshows which terminals these power leads are
connected to in the motor starter. Leads connected to terminals T1, T2, and T3 are
the motor leads. The numbers without letters mark the control terminals of the
starter. Wiring diagrams are often used along with a list of repair parts. Wiring
diagrams may be of some help in troubleshooting circuit problems.
Electrical/Electronic Diagrams
Wiring Diagram
11
Figure 1.2. wiring diagramof a motor
12
The numbers without letters mark the control terminals of the starter. Wiring
diagrams are often used along with a list of repair parts. Wiring diagrams may be of
some help in troubleshooting circuit problems. Also of importance is the connection
and terminal diagrams;
Figure 1.3 Connection Diagram
The in figure 1.3 shows all the internal and external
connections. The circuitry can be traced more easily than on the wiring diagram.
The components are still shown in their relative positions. This diagramcan be used
to help you connect all the wiring and trace any part of the circuit. The connection
diagramis a valuable troubleshooting tool. This type of diagramis often found
connection diagram
L3 L1 L2
STOP
START
OVERLOAD
RELAY
RESET
T2
T 1
T3
MOTOR
M
OL
2
13
inside the access cover of a piece of equipment. The is useful
when connecting wires to terminal boards, relays, switches, and other components
of a circuit. An illustration is shown in figure 1.4.
The schematic is a diagram that represents the elements of
a systemusing abstract, graphic symbols rather than realistic pictures. Aschematic
usually omits all details that are not relevant to the information the schematic is
intended to convey, and may add unrealistic elements that aid comprehension. For
example, a subway map intended for riders may represent a subway station with a
dot; the dot doesn't resemble the actual station at all but gives the viewer
information without unnecessary visual clutter. Aschematic diagram of a chemical
process uses symbols to represent the vessels, piping, valves, pumps, and other
equipment of the system, emphasizing their interconnection paths and
terminal diagram
Schematic Diagram:
Figure 1.4. Terminal diagrams.
B20D
B20E
B23D
B23E
B36B
B36C
B31A
B31B
B31C
B21A
B21A
TB1
TYPICAL TERMINAL
BOARD DIAGRAM
A
TYPICAL RELAY
TERMINAL DIAGRAM
B
5 4 3 2 1
BLK
GREEN
YELLOW
WHITE
RED
14
suppressing physical details. In an electronic circuit diagram, the layout of the
symbols may not resemble the layout in the physical circuit. In the schematic
diagram, the symbolic elements are arranged to be more easily interpreted by the
viewer.
A diagram combines some of the abstraction of a purely
schematic diagram with other elements displayed as realistically as possible, for
various reasons. It is a compromise between a purely abstract diagram and an
exclusively realistic representation.
Figure 1.6 One-line diagramof a motor control circuit.
1.5
by a schematic diagram, the same motor control systemshown in figures 1.1 - 1.3.
This diagram is laid out in a way that makes the operation of the components easy
to understand. This type of schematic diagram with the components laid out in a
line is sometimes called a one-line or single-line diagram. Most schematic
diagrams are more complicated than this one. The more complicated ones can be
broken down into one-line diagrams, circuit by circuit. You can draw (or freehand
sketch) your own one-line diagram by tracing only one circuit, component by
component, through a multi circuit schematic, using the symbols in figure 1.5. Your
own freehand sketches can help you understand other types of diagrams as well as
the schematic. You may vary these sketches tosuit your needs. You may drawa
semi-schematic
The schematic or elementary diagram in figure 1.6 is a drawing that shows the
electrical connections and functions of a specific circuit arrangement. It facilitates
tracing the circuit and its functions without regard to the physical size, shape, or
relative position of the component device or parts. The schematic diagram, like the
connection diagram, makes use of symbols instead of pictures. Figure shows,
L1
M
0L STOP START
2
0L
M
L1
STOP
M
3
L3
L3
2
CIRCUIT S
CIRCUIT M
15
one-line diagram, using symbols, froma wiring diagram, an isometric diagram, or a
connection diagram, as long as all the necessary details are there for you to convert
tolines and symbols.
Schematic diagrams are used extensively in
repair manuals to help users understand the interconnections of parts, and to
provide graphical instruction to assist in taking apart and rebuilding mechanical
assemblies. Many automotive and motorcycle repair manuals devote a significant
number of pages toschematic diagram
A flow diagram or chart shows the sequence of operations or
stages for a computer programor an industrial process. The name may have been
derived from various plans for the flow of water. The name of each operation or
stage in a flowdiagramis contained in a box or block, to simulate a process or area
of operation. The blocks are usually rectangular and are connected with single
lines to indicate the sequence of operation in a flow chart usually progresses from
the top of the sheet to the bottom. Figure 1.7 shows a flowchart for the steps in the
manufacture of an electronic chassis. It begins with the raw sheet steel and ends
with the plated chassis to a storage area. The plating department block and every
other block may be further broken down into a departmental flowchart. The blocks
should all be drawing to the same dimensions. The block containing the most
lettering usually determines the size of all the blocks in a diagram. The flowlines
Schematic Diagram
Schematics in repair manuals:
Flow Diagrams:
Layout Principles:
The following principles should be followed as closely as possible for layout of
schematic diagrams.
1. Normal signal flowshould be fromleft toright and fromtop tobottom.
2. Large multistage diagrams may be laid out in layers; signal flow should be from
left toright (or top tobottom).
3. It is customary to begin with a rough sketch of diagram observing normal signal
flow.
4. Transistor and tube symbols should be aligned horizontally.
5. When several similar components in (Resistors, coils, capacitors, etc) are
connected toa common bus they also should be aligned horizontally.
6. When components are connected a parallel, the centers of the component
symbols should be aligned horizontally.
7. Uniform density of all graphic symbols is desirable, do not crows symbols in one
area while permitting large open areas toexist on a drawing.
8. Letter and number all components to ensure that all are included in the final
drawing in their proper location and connection in the schematic.
16
Figure 1.7. Chassis fabrication flowchart
Figure 1.8. Computer FlowDiagram
SHEET STEEL
PUNCH PRESS
DEGREASER
PLATING
INSPECTION
STORAGE
INPUT CONTROL OUTPUT
LOGIC
ARITHMETIC
MEMORY
17
are drawn with arrows to indicate the direction of flow between operation block.
The arrows are usually drawn at the input side of the blocks but may also be
centered on a flowline. The flowlines should not be staggered but must followeach
other vertically unless the chart is drawn to illustrate multiple flow paths. When
more than one flow line emerges from the side of a block, the lines should be
spaced symmetrically.
This
represents the component groups of component, or the units of the equipment in a
series of block or rectangle. It reduces the complex circuit in each stage of
equipment to single block form. The blocks should all be drawn to the same
dimensions e.g. TV and Radio/Electronic watch block diagram shown in figure
1.10a. A very simple single-line block diagram of a tuned radio frequency TRF
receiver. By Convention, the input or signal is drawn at the left side of the diagram.
The Signal progresses through amplification and detection horizontally to the right
or output side of the diagram.
Alogic block is defined by giving the output condition for
every possible combination of input conditions. Such input-output characteristics
are tabulated in a truth table. Note that the name of a logic block refers to the input-
output characteristics. For example, the AND logic gate does not have a I output
until both A and B input lines are at a 1 level similarly, the OR logic gate has a 1
output when a 1 level signal or pulse is applied toeither theAor Binputs. The
Block Diagrams: These diagrams of electrical systems show major units of the
system in block form. They are used with text material to present a general
description of the systemand its functions. Block diagrams describe the functional
operation of an electronics systemin the same way they do in electrical systems. In
addition, some electronics block diagrams provide information useful in
troubleshooting, which will be discussed later Block diagrams that break down the
simplified diagram into enough detail to show a fairly detailed picture of functional
operation, but do not include wave forms, test points, and so on, are usually called
functional block diagrams. Graphic electrical and electronic symbols are frequently
used in functional and detailed block diagrams of electronic systems to present a
better picture of how the system functions The distinction between flow diagrams
and block diagrams is vague since common usage dictates the name given the
diagramby a particular industry. In electronics a left-to-right convention exists, and
these systemdrawings are normally called block diagrams. The simplest electrical
black diagramor single-line diagramis intended to describe the basic functions of a
circuit or output system. It usually does not include the detailed information and
individual parts identification of the schematic diagramas shown in figure 1.9.
.
.
Note:
Digital Logic Diagrams:
18
Figure 1.9. Block diagramof automotive starter and ignition systems.
basic shape of the inverter block in is a triangle. The triangle symbols indicate that
it is an amplifier. The digital logic designer builds a computer or control circuit by
starting with a few types of simple, basic circuits, called logic blocks. Many blocks
are interconnected to perform the various computer functions. Although the
numerical input data to a computer are decimal numbers, the logic operations
within the computer are performed in the binary member system. The binary
number systemuses only two digits, 0 and I. However, the tiny circle (or bobble) at
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
DISTRIBUTOR
BATT STARTER ALT
IGN
SW
IGN
COIL
1
2
3
4
5
5
SPARK
PLUGS
{
19
(a).
(b).
Radio/electronic watch block diagram. (b)
Circuit Diagram: A circuit diagram also known as an electrical diagram,
elementary diagram, or electronic schematic is a simplified conventional graphical
representation of an electrical circuit. A pictorial circuit diagram uses simple
images of components, while a schematic diagramshowthe connections between
the devices, including power and signal connections. Arrangement of the
Figure 1.10.(a) single-line block diagram
of a tuned radio frequencyTRFreceive.
the output symbolizes that the amplified output is inverted or reversed in polarity.
For this reason, sometimes an inverter logic gate is called a NOT gate. One side of
the triangle is always drawn vertically and is considered the input side of the black.
Note that in the NAND logic gate symbol ( ), the output of an AND gate is inverted
by the small bubble at the output. The acronymNANDmeans not- AND.

Radio
frequency
employers
Detector
Audio
frequency
amplifier
Antenna
Quart
Crystal
Battery
Decoder
Network
oscillator
Frequency
Divider
Ware
shaper
Digital
Readout
20
components interconnections on the diagram does not correspond to their
physical locations in the finished device. Unlike a block diagram or layout diagram,
a circuit diagramshows the actual wire connections being used. The diagramdoes
not show the physical arrangement of components. A diagram does not show the
physical arrangement of components. A drawing with wires meant to depict what
the physical arrangement of components they connect is called artwork or
layout or physical design. Circuit diagrams are used for circuit design,
construction of PCBlayout and maintenance of electrical/electronic equipment.
Printed Circuit Drawing:
1.4.2 Electrical/ electronic Industry
one-line diagram
The printed at drawing is usually the art work required to
lay out the printed circuit board which serves the function of mounting and inter
connection by the various group that use such equipment e.g. laboratories.
Industrial drawing use a different approach in circuit graphic symbols than those
used in military and commercial electronic drawing. Commercial electronics
drawing may depict electronic air craft equipment that has its own specific
requirement.
In the electrical industry, a schematic diagram is often used to describe the design
of equipment. Schematic diagrams are often used for the maintenance and repair
of electronic and electro-mechanical systems. Original schematics were done by
hand, using standardized templates or pre-printed adhesive symbols, but today
Electrical CADsoftware is often used. More recently, with the progress of computer
technology, other representations were introduced and specialized computer
languages were developed. Since with the explosive growth of the complexity of
electronic circuits, traditional schematics are becoming less practical. Schematics
for electronic circuits are prepared by designers using EDA (Electronic Design
Automation) tools called schematic capture tools or schematic entry tools. In
electric power systems design, a schematic drawing called a is
frequently used to represent substations, distribution systems or even whole
electrical power grids. These diagrams simplify and compress the details that
would be repeated on each phase of a three-phase system, showing only one
element instead of three. Electrical diagrams for switchgear often have common
device functions designate by standard function numbers.
When these symbols are seen in a manual, be alert to the potential for personal
injury. Followthe recommended precautions and safe operating practices included
1.5. WiringDiagram&Schematic SafetyAlert Symbols.
21
with the alert symbols. Safety notices in any manual provide important information.
Read and be familiar with these instructions before attempting installation,
operation, or maintenance. Failure to observe these precautions could result in
serious bodily injury, damage to the equipment, or operational difficulty. The safety-
alert symbols are:
ANSI Z535 encourages the use of safety symbols that communicate a comparable
message to the worded message on the sign or label. The safety symbol when
selected properly, should identify:
* The hazard
* Identify a means of avoiding the hazard
* Or identify the consequences of not avoiding the hazard.
The safety symbol should clarify or reinforce the worded message on the label.
When safety symbols are being used they should be as simple as possible and
should contain only essential details. They should be easy to learn and to
recognize.
There are four types of safety symbols described inANSI Z535.5 2007.
* HazardAlerting
* MandatoryAction
Warning Alerts users to potential physical danger or harm. Failure to
follow warning notices could result in personal injury or death.
Caution Directs attention to general precautions, which if not followed,
could result in personal injury and/or equipment damage.
Note Highlights information critical to your understanding or use of the
product.
!
22
* Prohibition
* Information
When using safety symbols to comply with ANSI, the symbol can be black on a
white background, other colors may be used, like safety red for fire related symbols,
green for emergency equipment, etc. To comply with both ANSI Z535.4 and ISO
3864 Standards simultaneously, then, the following applies, ISO 3864 2002
standards require that all of the safety symbols used on international product safety
labels be within a surround shape, yellow equilateral triangle with black inner
border for hazard alerting symbols, blue circle for mandatory actions, and red circle
with 45 degree slash for prohibition symbols. ANSI Z535.4 2007 does not required
the use of a yellowequilateral triangle or the mandatory surround shape but, it does
recognize it and permits their use.
Area of the safety sign that contains the signal word. For personal
injury hazards, the signal word panel must contain the safety alert symbol. Asignal
word is selected according to the risk of harmpresented by the hazardous situation
that the safety message addresses. That is, signal word selection is based on the
risk posed if the safety message is not followed. This is the word that calls attention
to the safety sign and designates a degree or level of hazard seriousness. The
signal words for product safety labels are: " ", " ", " "
and " ". See figure 1.11.
Asymbol which indicates a potential personal injury hazard.
It is composed of an equilateral triangle surrounding an exclamation mark. The
safety alert symbol shall not be used to alert persons to property-damage-only
accidents see figure 1.12..
Signal Word:
DANGER WARNING CAUTION
NOTICE
Safety Alert Symbol:
Figure1.11. Signal Word
DANGER ! DANGER ! WARNING ! WARNING !
! CAUTION ! NOTICE CAUTION CAUTION
23
Figure 1.12. SafetyAlert Symbols
For use with DANGER signal word: white triangle, red exclamation mark and red
back ground.
For use with WARNINGsignal word: black triangle with orange exclamation mark.
For use with CAUTIONsignal word: black triangle with yellowexclamation mark.
For use with DANGER, WARNINGor CAUTIONsignal words: yellowbackground,
black border and black exclamation mark.
For use with DANGER, WARNINGor CAUTIONsignal words: yellowbackground,
black border and black exclamation mark with a yellow border around the black
border.
Warning:
Caution:
Danger, Warning, CautionBlack border:
Danger, Warning, CautionYellowborder :
Safety Symbol:
Safety symbols are graphic representations chosen to clearly convey a specific
alerting message. The conveyed message of a safety symbol is to describe the
type of hazard, potential consequences of the hazard, or evasive/avoidance
actions to be taken. When used, the Safety Symbol shall be compatible with the
word message. See figure 1.13.
24
Figure 1.13 Safety symbols
ISOallows the use of symbol only labels and/or safety symbols
with supplementary text labels. When a product safety label contains a single
symbol, the layout of the product safety label should use one of the surround
shapes below. The surround shape and color is determined by the type of safety
symbol: HazardAlerting, Prohibition, MandatoryAction or Information
Surround Shape:
Figure 1.x Surround shapes
There are 2 basic types of safety symbols for use on safety signs, labels and tags:
hazard alerting and hazard avoidance.
HazardAlerting Symbols: Awell developed hazard description pictorial should
ANSI Z535
Safety Symbols
ISO 3864-2
Safety Symbols
Hazrdd Identification Prohibition
Mandatory Action Information:
Safety Condition
Information:
Fire Safety
25
clearly identify the hazard and portray the potential consequences of a failure to
followinstructions. See figure 1.14.
HazardAlerting Symbols Figure 1.14
HazardAvoidance Symbols: Should clearly identify the actions necessary to avoid
interaction of persons with the hazard. See figure 1.15.
Figure 1.15 Hazard avoidance symbols.
26
2.0. Electrical AndElectronicSchematic Symbols.
2.1. Wires andconnections.
.
CHAPTERTWO
BASICELECTRICALANDELECTRONIC
SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS AND REGULATORY
AGENCIES.
Circuit symbols are used in circuit diagrams which showhowa circuit is connected
together. The actual layout of the components is usually quite different from the
circuit diagram. To build a circuit you need a different diagramshowing the layout of
the parts on strip-board or printed circuit board. In order to understand the
functioning of an electrical or electronic circuit, you must be able to "read" the
schematic diagram of that circuit. A schematic diagram is the road map of the
circuit. In order to get from one point to another, you must be able to follow the
appropriate route and understand the meanings of the various symbols found
along the way. Symbols are used to indicate conductors, resistors, switches,
motors, transistors, and other electrical and electronic parts. Components in a
circuit schematic are generally represented by such a symbol and/or a letter
designator.
Figure 2.1 wires and crossing conductors
( a) Wires
( b) Wires joined
( c ) Wires not joined
27
Basic to any schematic diagram is the use of straight lines to indicate conductors.
The conductor is the "roadway" of the circuit map. The conductors interconnect the
components of the circuit. Conductors often cross paths with one another in the
circuit. This may occur with or without their making electrical contact. Figure 2.1
illustrates the typical methods for wires and crossing conductors within a schematic
diagram.
2.1a: To pass current very easily fromone part of a circuit toanother.
2.1b: A 'blob' should be drawn where wires are connected (joined), but it is
sometimes omitted. Wires connected at 'crossroads' should be staggered slightly
toformtwoT-junctions, as shown on the right.
2.1c: In complex diagrams it is often necessary to drawwires crossing even though
they are not connected. I prefer the 'bridge' symbol shown on the right because the
simple crossing on the left may be misread as a join where you have forgotten to
add a 'blob'!
There are many types of conductors used in electrical and electronic circuits. They
may range from the thin layers of metal foil used in printed-circuit boards to heavy
cables used in power transmission. Cables generally consist of two or more
conductors, usually in the same insulation jacket. Aspecial type of conductor found
in many electronic applications is the shielded wire or coaxial cable. Here, the
conductor is surrounded by a metallic shield to protect against interference from
adjacent electrical influence. The shielding on the cable may or may not be
grounded. Figure 2.2 shows some common symbols for shielded conductors.
Figure 2.2. Shielded Conductors
Ungrounded
Grounded
28
2.2. Basic Components: There are literally hundreds of different types of
electrical and electronic components in use today. However, three components are
widely used in a wide variety of applications. These three components are found in
most circuit schematics of any complexity. The three components are (a) resistors;
(b) capacitors; and (c) inductors.
Resistors. Resistors are unquestionably the most commonly used circuit
components. They are found in almost every electrical and electronic schematic
diagram. Resistors are appropriately named in that they are designed to "resist" the
flowof electrical current. Resistors are typically shown in schematics by the symbol
illustrated in figure 2.3. In addition to the symbol, the resistor is generally labeled by
the letter "R" followed by a number, e.g., R1, R2, etc. The resistance value,
measured in ohms, may also be indicated. If the resistance is not indicated, you
can determine it by observing the color coding used on most resistors.
(d) Variable Resistor
(Preset)
(a) Fixed Resistor
( b) Variable Resistor
(Rheostat)
( c) Variable Resistor
(Potentiometer)
29
Figure 2.3a: A resistor (fixed resistor) restricts the flow of current, for example to
limit the current passing through an LED. A resistor is used with a capacitor in a
timing circuit. Some publications still use the old resistor symbol:
Figure 2.3b: This type of variable resistor with 2 contacts (a rheostat) is usually
used to control current. Examples include: adjusting lamp brightness, adjusting
motor speed, and adjusting the rate of flow of charge into a capacitor in a timing
circuit.
Figure 2.3c: This type of variable resistor with 3 contacts (a potentiometer) is
usually used to control voltage. It can be used like this as a transducer converting
position (angle of the control spindle) to an electrical signal.
Figure 2.3d: This type of variable resistor (a preset) is operated with a small
screwdriver or similar tool. It is designed to be set when the circuit is made and then
left without further adjustment. Presets are cheaper than normal variable resistors
so they are often used in projects to reduce the cost.
Resistor color codes.
Howtoread Resistor Color Codes:
The 4-band code is used for marking lowprecision resistors with 5%, 10%and 20%
tolerances. Identifying the value will become easy with a little practice, as there are
only a fewsimple rules toremember:
1. The first two bands represent the most significant digits of the resistance value.
Colors are assigned to all the numbers between 0 and 9, and the color bands
basically translate the numbers into a visible code. Black is 0, brown is 1, red is 2
and so on (see the color code table below). So, for example, if a resistor has brown
and red as the first two bands, the most significant digits will be 1 and 2 (12).
2. The third band indicates the multiplier telling you the power of ten to which the
two significant digits must be multiplied (or howmany zeros to add), using the same
assigned value for each color as in the previous step. For example, if this band is
red (2), you will multiply it by 10 = 100 (or add 2 zeros). So, for the resistor we used
in the previous example, the value would be: 12 x 100 =1200? (1.2k?).
Note: If the multiplier band is gold or silver, the decimal point is moved to the left by
one or two places (divided by 10 or 100).
3. The tolerance band (the deviation from the specified value) is next, usually
spaced away from the others, or it's a little bit wider. A color is assigned to each
tolerance: gold is 5%, silver is 10%. 20% resistors have only 3 color bands - the
tolerance band is missing.
30
The standard resistor color code table:
Color 1st digit 2nd digit 3rd digit* Multiplier Tolerance Te m p .
Black 0 0 0 100
Brown 1 1 1 101 1%(F) 1%
Red 2 2 2 102 2%(G) 0.1%
Orange 3 3 3 103 0.01%
Yellow 4 4 4 104 0.001%
Green 5 5 5 105 0.5%(D)
Blue 6 6 6 106 0.25%
Violet 7 7 7 107 0.1%(B)
Gray 8 8 8 108 0.05%(A)
White 9 9 9 109
Gold 0.1 5%(J)
Silver 0.01 10%(K)
None 20%(M)
* 3rd digit - only for 5-band resistors
So, for a 560 ohm, 5%resistor the color stripes will be green, blue, brown and gold.
Green and blue are the first significant digits (56); brown is the multiplier (101 = 10)
and gold is the tolerance (5%). 56 x 10 =560?.
If the 3rd band would be red instead of brown, the multiplier would be (102 = 100)
instead of 10 and the resistor value would be 56 x 100 =5600 ohms =5.6 k ohms.
If the multiplier band is gold or silver, then the decimal point is moved to the left one
or two places (divided by 10 or 100). For example, a resistor with green, blue, silver
and gold rings has a value of 56 x 0.01 =0.56?.
The 5 band code is used for marking high quality, precision resistors with 2%, 1%or
lower tolerances. The rules are similar to the previous system; the only difference is
the number of digit bands. The first 3 bands will represent the value, the 4th band
will be the multiplier and the 5th stripe will give us the tolerance.
A few resistors have an additional band - often giving beginners a bit of trouble -
indicating either the reliability or the temperature coefficient. The reliability band
specifies the failure rate per 1000 hours (assuming that a full wattage being applied
to the resistor). This stripe is found primarily on 4-band resistors made for military
applications and seldomused in commercial electronics.
The5-bandcode
Optional band
31
The temperature coefficient is more commonly marked, especially on quality 5-
band resistors, as it starts to become an important factor for precision components.
For a resistor with temperature coefficient of 200 ppm, for example, a change in
temperature of 50C causes a value change of 1%. The most common values for
this band are presented in the color chart above.
Examples:
Green, blue, red, with silver tolerance band: 56 x 100 = 5.6 k with a tolerance of
10%
Brown, black, orange, gold tolerance band: 10 x 1000 = 10000 ohms (or 10K ),
with a tolerance of 5%
Red, red, brown, silver tolerance band: 22 x 10 = 220 ohms (220 ohms), with a
tolerance of 10%
More 4 band resistor color code examples: E12 and E24 series.
Blue, brown, white, brown, red tolerance band: 619 x 10 = 6190 ohms (6.19K ),
with a tolerance of 2%
Red, red, brown, black, with a brown tolerance band: 221 x 1 = 221 ohms, with a
tolerance of 1%
Brown, black, black, red, with a brown tolerance band: 100 x 100 = 10000 ohms
(10.0K ), with a tolerance of 1%.
Resistors are available in standard values such as 1K, 2.2K, 4.7K, and so on. The
two most common standards are the E12 and E24. You will notice that in the E12
series each succeeding value falls within +/- 10% of the previous value. The E24
range includes all of the E12 values, plus a further 12 to enable the selection of more
precise resistances.
The E6 (20%) range is a subset of the E12 (10%) range and the E12 range is a
subset of the E24 (5%) range. Similarly, the E48 (2%) range is a subset of the E96
(1%) range and the E96 range is a subset of the E192 (0.5% or less) range. Note,
that the E24 range is technically also a subset of the E48 range, however, because
of the different number of digits used for representation and rounding errors, the
corresponding values in the two series do not match.
E6 series: (20%tolerance)
10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68
E12 series: (10%tolerance) - examples...
10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, 82
Four bandcode:
Fivebandcode:
StandardEIADecade Resistor Values

32
E24 series: (5%tolerance) - examples...
10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39, 43, 47, 51, 56, 62, 68, 75, 82,
91
E48 series: (2%tolerance) - examples...
100, 105, 110, 115, 121, 127, 133, 140, 147, 154, 162, 169, 178, 187, 196, 205,
215, 226, 237, 249, 261, 274, 287, 301, 316, 332, 348, 365, 383, 402, 422, 442,
464, 487, 511, 536, 562, 590, 619, 649, 681, 715, 750, 787, 825, 866, 909, 953
E96 series: (1%tolerance)
100, 102, 105, 107, 110, 113, 115, 118, 121, 124, 127, 130, 133, 137, 140, 143, 147,
150, 154, 158, 162, 165, 169, 174, 178, 182, 187, 191, 196, 200, 205, 210, 215,
221, 226, 232, 237, 243, 249, 255, 261, 267, 274, 280, 287, 294, 301, 309, 316,
324, 332, 340, 348, 357, 365, 374, 383, 392, 402, 412, 422, 432, 442, 453, 464,
475, 487, 491, 511, 523, 536, 549, 562, 576, 590, 604, 619, 634, 649, 665, 681,
698, 715, 732, 750, 768, 787, 806, 825, 845, 866, 887, 909, 931, 959, 976
The resistance value could be stamped or painted on the body of the through-hole
resistor, no? Yes, but the numbers would be quite small and difficult to read. Also,
the markings would easily rub off or become smeared with time. Old, clear-marked
resistors were less confusing for the beginners, but - for example - if such a resistor
is mounted with the marked side down, you cannot read its value unless you take it
out of the circuit. The resistor color code might seem a bit confusing and rather
inconvenient at first, but most electronics hobbyists and technicians are surprised
when they realize howquickly they've memorized the color chart without the use of
mnemonics or other silly shortcuts. The color code is quite intuitive, and after a brief
familiarization period, it's quite easy touse, it will become almost a second nature.
Examples:
Yellow, violet, black -- 47 ohm20%
Orange, orange, brown -->330 ohm20%
Brown, black, red --1k 20%
Green, blue, red, gold -- 5.6kohm5%
Red, yellow, orange, gold -- 24kohm5%
Blue, gray, yellow, silver -- 680k 10%
More 4 band resistor color code examples: E12 and E24 series.
Red, yellow, orange, black, brown -- 243 ohms, 1%precision 5-band resistor
Yellow, violet, gold, gold, yellow-- 4.7 ohms, 5%- this resistor is calculated with the
3 bands:
4 bands:
5 bands:
33
4-band rule (the yellowband is ignored).
Orange, black, black, brown, brown -- 3.00 k ohms, 1%- note: this is a non-standard
1% (E96) resistor, but some manufacturers make every value from the E24 series
with 1%tolerance!
More: 5 band E48 (2%) series resistor color code examples.
Red, red, brown, brown, brown, red -- 2.21k, 1%50ppm/C
White, black, white, brown, red, red -- 9.09k, 2%50ppm/C
-If you are using the online resistor color code calculator do not enter the last band
(red in the two examples above).
6 bands:
Capacitors: Capacitors are the most common components found in schematic
diagrams. Capacitors are capable of storing electrical charges. They have the
ability to block direct current (DC) while passing alternating current (AC). The
standard symbols used to represent fixed capacitors are shown in figure 2.4. In
addition to the symbol, a capacitor is generally labeled with the letter "C." The value
of the capacitor may also be indicated. The basic unit of capacitance is the farad;
but most practical capacitors will be rated in microfarads ( F) or picofarad (PF). As
with resistors, if the value is not given, determine it by observing the color coding
found on many types of capacitors. Figure 2.5 is a table indicating the use of color
coding for some capacitors.
Figure 2.4. Capacitor types.

(d) Trimmer Capacitor

(a) Fixed Capacitor
(b) Capacitor, polarized
( c) Variable Capacitor
34
Figure 2.4:
(a). Acapacitor stores electric charge. Acapacitor is used with a resistor in a timing
circuit. It can also be used as a filter, toblock DCsignals but passACsignals.
(b). Acapacitor stores electric charge. This type must be connected the correct way
round. Acapacitor is used with a resistor in a timing circuit. It can also be used as a
filter, toblock DCsignals but passACsignals.
( c). Avariable capacitor is used in a radio tuner.
(d). This type of variable capacitor (a trimmer) is operated with a small screwdriver
or similar tool. It is designed to be set when the circuit is made and then left without
further adjustment.
Capacitor Number Code
102
472J
Capacitor Colour Code
brown, black, orange
widered, yellow
Real capacitor values (theE3 andE6 series)
Anumber code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult:
the 1st number is the 1st digit,
the 2nd number is the 2nd digit,
the 3rd number is the number of zeros togive the capacitance in pF.
Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating.
For example: means 1000pF=1nF(not 102pF!)
For example: means 4700pF=4.7nF(J means 5%tolerance).
Acolour code was used on polyester capacitors for many years. It is nowobsolete,
but of course there are many still around. The colours should be read like the
resistor code, the top three colour bands giving the value in pF. Ignore the 4th band
(tolerance) and 5th band (voltage rating).
For example:
Note that there are no gaps between the colour bands, so 2 identical bands actually
appear as a wide band.
For example:
Why
is this? Imagine that you decided to make capacitors every 10 F giving 10, 20, 30,
40, 50 and so on. That seems fine, but what happens when you reach 1000?
means 10000pF=10nF=0.01F.
means 220nF=0.22F.
You may have noticed that capacitors are not available with every possible value,
for example 22F and 47F are readily available, but 25F and 50F are not!

35
Figure 2.5. Capacitor color code.
It would be pointless to make 1000, 1010, 1020, 1030 and so on because for these
values 10 is a very small difference, too small to be noticeable in most circuits and
capacitors cannot be made with that accuracy. To produce a sensible range of
capacitor values you need to increase the size of the 'step' as the value increases.
The standard capacitor values are based on this idea and they forma series which
follows the same pattern for every multiple of ten.
150, 220, 330, 470, 680, 1000 etc. Notice how this is the E3 series
with an extra value in the gaps. The E3 series is the one most frequently used for
capacitors because many types cannot be made with very accurate values.
While not used as extensively as resistors and capacitors, inductors (or coils) are
still a common basic componentof many electrical and electronic circuits. An
inductor has the property of opposing a change in the existing current.
Inductors:
The E3 series 10, 22, 47,
The E6 series 10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68,
(3 values for each multiple of ten) ... then it continues 100,
220, 470, 1000, 2200, 4700, 10000 etc. Notice how the step size increases as the
value increases (values roughly double each time).
(6 values for each multiple of ten) ... then it
continues 100,
CAPACITANCE
COLOR 1ST DIGIT 2ND DIGIT MULTIPLIER
TOLERANCE
(PERCENT)
VOLTAGE RATING
1ST DIGIT 2ND DIGIT
BLACK 0 0 1 20 0 0
BROWN 1 I 10 1 1
RED 2 2 100 2 2
ORANGE 3 3 1,000 3 3 30
YELLOW 4 4 10,000 5 5 40
GREEN 5 5 100, 000 4 4 5
BLUE 6 6 1,000. 000 6 6
VIOLET 7 7 7 7
GRAY 8 8 8 8
WHITE 9 9 9 9 10
36
The standard symbol for an inductor is shown in figure 1-9. Inductors are generally
labeled with the letter "L" and are rated in henrys, the basic unit of inductance. In
most practical applications, the actual rating will be given in millihenrys or
microhenrys.
Figure 1-9. Air Core Inductor.
Acoil of wire which creates a magnetic field when current passes through it. It may
have an iron core inside the coil. It can be used as a transducer converting electrical
energy tomechanical energy by pulling on something.
Every electrical circuit must have a source of electrical power. Some electrical
and/or electronic devices have an internal power source, but most rely on some
external source to supply the power necessary to operate them. When the power
source is external to the particular schematic diagram being examined, generally
only the connectors bringing in the power are identified and labeled with the
appropriate originating source. However, when the source of the power for a given
circuit is internal to the schematic, it must be identified and represented by the
appropriate schematic symbol. Most electrical and electronic equipment is
operated by "plugging" it into an external power source, or by some installed power
source (usually a battery). As previously stated, external power sources are usually
identified on a schematic diagramby their point of entry into the circuit.
Another common source of power for electrically powered equipment is the
generator. Simply put, generators convert mechanical energy to electrical energy.
Depending on the design and construction of the generator, the output may be set
to meet the needs of the equipment supplied. Generators may be designed to
provide either AC or DC power. AC generators are often referred to as alternators.
Figure 2.7 shows the standard symbols used to represent generators or alternators
in schematics.
Power Sources:
Generators:
Inductor
(Coil, Solenoid)
37
Figure 2.6. Power supplies.
Figure 2.6:
(a). Supplies electrical energy. The larger terminal (on the left) is positive (+). Asingle
cell is often called a battery, but strictly a battery is two or more cells joined together.
(b). Supplies electrical energy. Abattery is more than one cell. The larger terminal
(on the left) is positive (+).
(c ). Supplies electrical energy. DC=Direct Current, always flowing in one direction.
(d). Supplies electrical energy. AC = Alternating Current, continually changing
direction.
(e). Asafety device which will 'blow' (melt) if the current flowing through it exceeds a
specified value.
(e) Fuse
(a) Cell
(b) Battery
( c) DC supply
(d) AC supply
~
38
Figure 2.8. Generators.
Although transformers are not a true power source, they are often the source of the
voltages used in a given circuit. Typically, an external power source is applied to a
transformer, which converts the input power to the voltage(s) necessary to operate
the circuit supplied. Transformers are a special application of inductors, thus the
similarity in the schematic symbol used. Figure 1-13 illustrates several types of
transformers used in a variety of circuits.
Like transformers, power supplies are not a true power source. They generally take
an input froman external, power source and convert that source tousable voltages t
Transformers:
Power Supplies.
Figure 2.9. Transformer
G
Gen
Generator (general)
G
Generator, direct - current
~
~
Generator, alternating - current
G
39
o operate the circuits they supply. Typically, a power supply will convert anACinput
into one or more DC outputs. Most power supplies consist of four basic sections: a
transformer; a rectifier; a filter; and a regulator Power supplies may be designed to
produce one or several different output voltages. Depending on the complexity of
the circuit demand, power supplies may be fairly simple or they may be quite
extensive. Often the power supply for a circuit will require a separate schematic
diagramtoillustrate the components and functional operation of the power supply.
Many electrical and electronic circuits include controls and indicators to assist the
operator in the use and repair of the equipment. These controls may consist of
devices such as switches, relays, fuses, plugs and jacks, test points, and
indicators. These operator aids are normally represented in the circuit schematic
diagramtoillustrate their effect on the circuit operation.
give the operator control over the operation of the equipment. By
positioning the switch, the operator directs the operation of the circuit by routing the
direction of electrical signals within the circuit. Switches may be simple, such as an
on/off switch, or they may be complex, being of multi position/multifunction design.
They may be designed to be momentary action, to latch in a given position, make-
before-break, or to perform any number of specific functions. While the possible
designs for switches are almost limitless, figure 2.9 illustrates several commonly
used switch symbols. In addition to the symbol, switches are normally labeled with
the letter "S." A special type of switch is the circuit breaker. Circuit breakers
normally act as on/off switches as well as providing over voltage/overcurrent
protection tothe circuit.
rather than being controlled manually by the operator, a relay is operated
electrically by energizing a coil to realign the contacts of the relay and re-route the
electrical signals. Relays may be indicated in schematics only by their coil and its
energizing source, only by the contacts used by the particular circuit, or by both.
Contacts are normally shown in the position with the relay de-energized, unless
otherwise indicated.
Plugs and jacks are generally used to connect the equipment to some external
device, or tointerconnect circuits and components within the equipment. Plugs and
jacks may be single conductor or multiconductor. They may be permanent or
removable, shielded or unshielded. Jacks and plugs often provide a convenient
means to check or test critical signals. This provides an extremely useful function in
troubleshooting. Where it is impossible or impractical tocheck a signal at a jack or
.
Controls:
SwitchesandRelays.
Switches
Relays
Plugs, Jacks, andTest Points:
40
Figure 2.9. Switches and relays.
(g) Relay
(a) Push Switch
(push-to-make)
(b) Push-to-Break Switch
( c) On-Off Switch
(SPST)
(d) 2-way Switch
(SPDT)
(e) Dual On-Off Switch
(DPST)
(f) Reversing Switch
(DPDT)
NO
COM
NO
41
Figure 2.9:
(a). A push switch allows current to flow only when the button is pressed.
Thisistheswitchusedtooperate a doorbell.
(b). This type of push switch is normally closed (on), it is open (off) only when
thebuttonispressed.
(c ). SPST = Single Pole, Single Throw.An on-off switch allows current to flow
only whenit isintheclosed(on) position.
(d). SPDT = Single Pole, Double Throw. A 2-way changeover switch directs
the flowof current to one of two routes according to its position. Some SPDT
switches have a central off positionandare describedas 'on-off-on'.
(e). DPST = Double Pole, Single Throw. A dual on-off switch which is often
used to switch mains electricity because it can isolate both the live and
neutral connections.
(f). DPDT = Double Pole, Double Throw. This switch can be wired up as a
reversing switch for a motor. Some DPDT switches have a central off
position.
(g). An electrically operated switch, for example a 9V battery circuit
connected to the coil can switch a 230V AC mains circuit. NO = Normally
Open, COM=Common, NC=Normally Closed.
plug, circuits are often designed to provide test points. These test points may be
internal to the circuit or tapped off and provided at an external point. Figure 2.10
illustrates some typical symbols used for jacks, plugs, and test points. Jacks are
labeled with the letter "J"; plugs with the letter "P"; and test points with the letters
"TP." With multiconductor plugs and jacks, the individual conductors are generally
identified by pin or pin socket numbers.
Figure 2.10. Test points and Connections.
COMMON
CONNECTIONS
CONTACTS
FEM. MALE
MULTIPLE.
MOVABLE
COAXIAL
RECEPTACLE
COAXIAL PLUG
FEMALE MALE
MULTIPLE.
FIXED
230 V
117 V
CONNECTORS
TP
TP
TEST
POINTS
42
Indicators: Indicators are generally placed in electrical or electronic circuits to
provide the operator a status of some function of the equipment. The indicator may
be audible, visual, or both. Audible indicators may consist of a horn, buzzer,
speaker, or other noise producing device. Most often these devices are used as
alarms or warnings. Visual indicators are typically some type of a light, dial, or
meter. Visual indicators may provide a warning or present some type of status. See
figure 2.11.
Figure 2.11. Indicators
Light Indicators.
A
W
P
V
G
Audible Indicators.
Dials and meters
43
Solid State Devices: Solid-state devices may be represented symbolically by the
symbols shown in figure 2.12 and 2.13. Solid-State Devices. Solid-state devices
(sometimes referred to as semiconductors) have, to a large extent, replaced
vacuum tubes in the design of most modern electronic equipment. Solid-state
devices are generally made of silicon or germanium that is "doped" with impurities
toprovide the desired conductivity.
They may be doped to produce either p-type material (positive) or n-type material
(negative). These semiconductors are used in the place of vacuum tubes due to
these advantages: they are smaller, take less power to operate, usually cost less,
and are more rugged.
(d) Zener Diode
(a) Diode
(b) Light Emitting Diode
(LED)
( c ) Photodiode
Figure 2.12. Diodes
Figure 2.13. Transistors.
(a) Transistor NPN
(b) Transistor PNP ( C) Phototransistor
44
The most common of these solid-state devices is the transistor. While there are
numerous variations, most transistors are either pnp transistors or npn transistors.
Figure 2.13a and b shows the symbol for a npn and a pnp transistor. The key to
recognizing a npn or pnp is the direction of the arrow on the emitter. On the pnp
transistor symbol, the arrowpoints inward; on the npn, the arrowpoints outward.
Another solid-state component the diode is consists of one piece of p-type
material and one piece of n-type material formed together to create a p-n junction.
This p-n junction has the property to pass current in only one direction. Diodes are
also designed in a number of variations to meet special applications. Figure 2.12
shows the schematic symbol for some commonly used diode applications.
Transistors and diodes may be constructed in a variety of designs to meet the
needs of special applications. some of the more common special purpose solid-
statesymbols are shown in figure 2.14. The symbols shown are as follows:
(i) Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR).
(ii) Silicon-controlled switch (SCS).
(iii) Triac.
(iv) Field-effect transistor (FET).
(v) Unijunction transistor (UJT).
Figure 2.14. Special applications devices.
(a) SCR (b) SCS. Triac.
(d) FET. (e) UJT.
45
Transistor Codes
European(Pro-Electron) codingletters.
Transistor types are coded either by the USMILspecifi cation or by the European (Pro-
Electron) lettering system. The US system starts with 2N followed by a code number;
the 2N portion identifi es the device as a transistor (1N indicates a diode). The full
description can be found only if you can identify the manufacturer by looking up the
code number. The European system, used for all types of semiconductors, uses two or
three letters followed by a number. The letters indicate the type of device, with the
numbers indicating how recent the design is. Table 8.1 shows the meanings of the
letters.
The first letter indicates the semiconductor material used:
A Germanium
B Silicon
C Galliumarsenide and similar compounds
D Indiumantimonide and similar compounds
R Cadmiumsulphide and similar compounds
The second letter indicates the application of the device:
A Detector diode, high speed diode, mixer diode
B Variable capacitance (varicap) diode
C AF(not power) transistor
D AFpower transistor
E Tunnel diode
F RF(not power) transistor
G Miscellaneous
L RFpower transistor
N Photocoupler
P Radiation detector (photodiode, phototransistor, etc.)
Q Radiation generator
R Control and switching device (such as a thyristor)
S Switching transistor, lowpower
T Control and switching device (such as a triac)
U Switching transistor, high power
X Multiplier diode (varactor or step diode)
Y Rectifi er, booster or effi ciency diode
Z Voltage reference (Zener), regulator or transient suppressor diode.
The figures or letters following indicate the design. Athree-figure serial number is used
for consumer types, used in domestic radio, television, tape-recorders, audio, etc. A
46
serial consisting of a letter (Z Y, X, W, etc.) followed by two figures means a device for
professional use (transmission, etc.). The European systemis much more informative,
because you can tell the type of device immediately fromthe code. The 1N, 2Nsystem
tells you only whether the device is a diode or a transistor. AF: audio frequency; RF:
radio frequency.
2SA PNP transistor
2SB PNP Darlington
2SC NPN transistor
2SD NPN Darlington
2SJ P-channel MOSFET or JFET
2SK N-channel MOSFET or JFET
3SK Dual-gate N-channel FETs
Japanese transistor coding
Logic Gates:
Logic gates process signals which represent true (1, high, +Vs, on) or false (0, low,
0V, off). There are two sets of symbols: traditional and IEC (International
Electrotechnical Commission). There are two primary types of digital gates, with
several variations; AND Gates: The AND gate is a digital circuit designed to
produce a high level output when all input levels are high. If any of the input levels is
low, the output of the gate will be low. OR Gates: The OR gate is designed to
produce a high level output when any one of the input levels is a high level. To
provide variations to the two basic gates, inverters are used at either the input or the
output of the gate. The inverter is used to change the logic level of the input or
output froma high to a low, or froma lowto a high. When the inverter is used with the
basic gate, only the small circle of the inverter symbol is used in the schematic
diagram. AnANDgate with an inverter at its output result in a NANDgate whereas
an inverter at the output of an ORgate will produce a NORgate. See figure 2.15 for
details.
47
Gate
Type
Traditional
Symbol
IEC Symbol Function of Gate
NOT
A NOT gat e can only have one
input. The 'o' on the output means
'not'. The output of a NOT gate is
the inverse (opposite) of its input, so
the output is true when the input is
false. A NOT gate is also called an
inverter.
AND
An AND gate can have two or more
inputs. The output of an AND gate
is true when all its inputs are true.
NAND
A NAND gate can have two or more
inputs. The 'o' on the output means
'not' showing that it is
a Not AND gate. The output of a
NAND gate is true unless all its
inputs are true.
OR
An OR gate can have two or more
inputs. The output of an OR gate is
true when at least one of its inputs is
true.
NOR
A NOR gate can have two or more
inputs. The 'o' on the output means
'not' showing that it is
a Not OR gate. The output of a
NOR gate is true when none of its
inputs are true.
EX-OR
An EX -OR gate can only have two
inputs. The output of an EX -OR
gate is true when its inputs are
different (one true, one false).
EX-
NOR
An EX -NOR gate can only have two
inputs. The 'o' on the output means
'not' showing that it is a Not EX-
OR gate. The output of an EX-NOR
gate is true when its inputs are the
same (both true or both false).
Figure 2.15. Two input logic gates Types.
1
=
&
&
1
1
1
1
48
2.3. Other Symbols:
Grounds:
Figure2.16. GroundConnections.
Chassis
Antennas:
Motors:
Many other symbols exist and may be found on schematic diagrams. It would be
impractical toattempt toillustrate themall.
The circuit return or completion is normally accomplished through the
use of grounds. Grounds are usually of two types:
(1) Earth ground is a direct conducting connection to the earth or some structure.
The symbol used torepresent earth ground is shown in figure 2.16.
ground is a conducting connection to the chassis or frame of the
equipment or circuit. The chassis ground may not be at the same potential as the
earth ground. The symbol for a chassis ground is shown in figure 2.16b.
A third symbol may be used to indicate a ground connection when all identically
annotated return connections are at the same potential. The symbol for these
common-ground connections is shown in figure
2.16c
Many electronic devices require the use of an antenna to receive input
signals. The types of antennas used vary greatly, based on the function of the
equipment. Figure 2.17 illustrates some of the common symbols used for antennas.
Many electrical or electronic circuits are affected by drive motors. Motors
are the electrical opposite of generators, theys convert electrical energy to
mechanical energy. Like generators, motors may be either AC or DC. Figure 2.18
shows the symbols for motors.
( c) Common (a) Earth (b) Chasis
49
Figure 2.17. Antenna Symbols.
50
Figure 2.20. Motor Types.
( c) A.C Motor (a) General (b) D.C Motor
M M M
~
51
2.4. RegulatoryAgencies andOrganizations.
Thenational electrical code:
National fire protectionassociation:
The NEC establishes regulations for the installation of electrical conductors,
equipment, raceways, and signaling and communications systems. The code
covers public and private premises including homes, buildings and structures,
mobile homes, recreational vehicles, and floating buildings. Installation locations
include yards, parking lots, carnivals, and industrial substations. The NEC also
sets standards for the installation of conductors and equipment that connect to
electricity supplies, and installations used by electrical utilities such as office
buildings, garages, warehouses, machine shops, recreational buildings, and other
structures that are not an integral part of generating plants, substations, or control
centers. Beloware the definitions of key NECterms;
ARTICLE a segment of the Code focused on a specific topic. Artides are
numbered and divided by Sections numbered as subsets. Example: Article 100,
Section 100.1
CODE An extensive compilation of provisions covering broad subject matter or
that is suitable for adoption into lawindependently of other codes and standards.
FPN Abbreviation for Fine-Print Note which supplements an Articles rules.
FPNs are not requirements and are for information purposes only.
MANDITORY Aprovision of the NEC that must be followed by law. Mandatory
rules are marked by the word shall.
STANDARDAdocument that contains only mandatory provisions which use the
work shall to indicate requirements and that is in a form generally suitable for
mandatory reference by another standard or code, or that is for adoption into law.
Nonmandatory provisions are located in the appendix, footnotes, or fine-print note
and are not considered a part of the requirements of a standard.
The NEC is only one of several standardized safety volumes published by the
NFPA. The NFPA is a U.S. organization developed to create and maintain
minimum standards and requirements for fire prevention, fire suppression,
training, and other life-safety codes. All types of subjects are covered frombuilding
codes, emergency response methods, and investigations, to personal protective
equipment (PPE) for both electrical tradesmen and firefighters. Publications are
numbered for identification
and include the following:
NFPA70National Electrical Code
NFPA70BRecommended Practice for Electrical Equipment Maintenance
NFPA70EStandard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace
52
NFPA72National FireAlarmCode
NFPA79Restriction of Access toHazardous Energy
NFPA101Life Safety Code NFPA704Standard Systemfor the Identification of
the Hazards of Materials for Emergency Response
NFPA853Standard for the Installation of Stationary Fuel Cell Power Systems
NFPA921Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations
Fees received fromthese technical manuals and other material finance the NFPA.
The NFPA was originally formed in 1896 by a group of insurance representatives
who thought it prudent to establish standards for the emerging market of fire
sprinkler systems. Within a year, the NFPA's focus broadened to the development
of regulations for fire protection in another fast-growing technologybuilding
electrical systems. Fromthere it developed codes for all aspects of building design
and construction.
The IEEE, administers the National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) that sets the
ground rules for practical safety codes for people involved in the installation,
operation, or maintenance of electric supply and communication lines and
equipment. At first glance, this might seem like a duplication of material covered in
the NEC; however, each code covers uniquely different aspects of electrical
installations. While the NECis focused on hazards arising fromthe use of electricity
in buildings and structures, the NESC is designed to bring consistency and safety
to the design, construction, operation, and use of electric supply and
communication installations. Excluded from the standards covered by the NESC
are installations in mines, ships, railway rolling equipment, aircraft, automotive
equipment, and utilization wiring.
From1973 to 1993, the NESCwas revised every 3 years. Beginning with the 2002
edition, the NESC began issuing updated publications every 5 years, with the next
scheduled revision due in 2012. The NESC is made up of subcommittees that are
responsible for the content of the NESC. Subcommittee section assignments are
as follows:
Subcommittee 1Coordination (Sections 1, 2, and 3; coordination between
technical subcommittees)
Subcommittee 2Grounding Methods (Section 9)
Subcommittee 3Electric Supply Stations (Sections 10-19)
Subcommittee 4Overhead LinesClearances (Sections 20-23)
Subcommittee 5Overhead LinesStrength and Loading (Sections 24-27)
Subcommittee 7Underground Lines (Sections 30-39)
Subcommittee 8Work Rules (Sections 40-43)
National electrical safety code:
53
As with the NEC, the NESC is written as a voluntary standard. However, some
editions and some parts of the code have been adopted, with and without changes,
by somel authorities.
The ANSI is a nonprofit organization that oversees the development of voluntary
standards for products, services, processes, systems, and personnel in the United
States. The organization also coordinates U.S. standards with international
standards so that American products can be used worldwide. For example,
standards make sure that people who own cameras can find the film they need for
them anywhere around the globe. The ANSI mission is to enhance the global
competitiveness of U.S. business and the U.S. quality of life by promoting and
facilitating conformity and voluntary consensus standards and maintaining their
integrity. ANSI accredits standards that ensure consistency among the
characteristics and performance of products, that people use the same definitions
and terms regarding materials, and that products are tested the same way. ANSI
also accredits organizations that certify products or personnel in accordance with
requirements that are defined in international standards.
The institute is like the umbrella that covers thousands of guidelines that directly
impact businesses in almost every sector. Everything fromconstruction equipment,
to dairy standards, to energy distribution, and electrical materials is affected. ANSI
is also actively engaged in accrediting programs that assess conformance to
standards, including globally recognized programs such as the ISO 9000 Quality
Management and ISO 14,000 Environmental Systems. Accreditation by ANSI
signifies that a procedure meets the Institute's essential requirements for
openness, balance, consensus, and due process safeguards. For this reason,
American National Standards are referred toas open standards
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is a United States
Department of Labor agency. Unlike other organizations such as NESC or ANSI,
OSHA is not publically run, but is comprised of private company representatives.
OSHA's statutory authority extends to non governmental workplaces where there
are employees. The mission of OSHAis to prevent work-related injuries, illnesses,
and deaths by issuing and enforcing standards for workplace safety and health,
providing training, outreach, and education, establishing partnerships, and
encouraging continual improvement in workplace safety and health. This means
this agency oversees regulations that affect both employers and employees. The
Occupational Safety and HealthAdministration publishes regulations by which
Americannational standards institute:
Occupational SafetyAndHealthAssociation(OSHA):
54
safety in the workplace are measured.
The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is a worldwide organization
for standardization comprising all national electrotechnical committees (IEC
NationalCommittees). The object of IECis to promote international co-operation on
all questions concerning standardization in the electrical and electronic fields. To
this end and in addition to other activities, IEC publishes International Standards,
Technical Specifications, Technical Reports, Publicly Available Specifications
(PAS) and Guides (hereafter referred to as IECPublication(s)). Their preparation
is entrusted to technical committees; any IECNational Committee interested in the
subject dealt with may participate in this preparatory work. International,
governmental and non-governmental organizations liaising with the IEC also
participate in this preparation. IEC collaborates closely with the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) in accordance with conditions determined
by agreement between the two organizations.
Examples of these codes is as follows;
IEC60027
(all parts) --------------------------Letter symbols to be used in electrical technology.
IEC 60617------------------------ Graphical symbols for diagrams.
IEC 61175---- 1993------------- Designations for signals and connections.
IEC 81714-2-- 1998------------ Design of graphical symbols for use in the
technical documentation of products -Part 2:
Specification for graphical symbols in a computer-
sensible form including graphical symbols for
a reference library.
extracted from the codes published as a compilation in ISO Standards Handbook,
Quantities and units.
material on which data can be recorded and fromwhich data can be retrieved.
[ISO/IEC2382-1]
fixed and structured amount of information intended for human perception that can
be managed and interchanged as a unit between users and systems.
NOTES:
1. The termdocument is not restricted toits meaning in a legal sense.
TheInternational Electrotechnical Commission(IEC):
Basic terms:
data medium
document
55
2. Adocument can be designated in accordance with the type of information and the
form of presentation, for example overview diagram, connection table, function
chart.
3. A document may appear in a static manner on paper and microform or
dynamically on (video) display devices. [ISO/IEC8613-1]
information, represented graphically in accordance with agreed rules and usually to
scale.
collection of documents related to a given subject
[IEC 62023,]
collection of data organized according to a conceptual structure describing the
characteristics of the data and the relationships among their corresponding entities,
supporting one or more application areas.
[ISO/IEC2382-1]
active link from a point in a document to another point in the same document or in
another document.
1. Ahyperlink is only available in documents presented on video screens.
2. The hyperlink implies that a user can activate the link in order to get to the other
point.
identifier of a specific object with respect to the system of which the object is a
constituent, based on one or more aspects of that system.
[IEC61346-1]
reference designation assigned with respect to the object of which the specific
object is a direct constituent.
[IEC61346-1]
set of reference designations of which at least one unambiguously identifies the
object of interest.
[IEC61346-1]
graphical representation depicting the shape, size, etc. of a physical part or
assembly drawing showing a horizontal view, section or cut
2)
drawing(technical)
documentation
database
hyperlink
reference designation
single-level reference designation
reference designationset
pictorial form
diagram
56
graphical representation depicting, by the use of graphical symbols and outlines
with inscriptions, the relations among the objects of a system or of a product
including the interconnections
2)
graphical presentation of an installation with respect toits surrounding topography
2)
graphical presentation describing the behavior of a system, for example the
relations between two or more variable quantities, operations or states
presentation formusing columns and rows.
map
chart, graph
Reference designations
Areference designation is a combination of letters and numbers used to identify the
various parts and components on electronic drawings, diagrams, parts lists, and so
on. For objects having a reference designation or a reference designation set in
accordance with IEC 61346-1, at least one unambiguous reference designation
shall be shown at every representation of the object. The reference designation
shall be readable fromthe bottomedge of the page and should be located above or
to the left of the object representation, see IEC 81714-2 for further details. A
reference designation shall be presented on a single line. The reference
designation set may be presented on a single line or on successive lines; if the
reference designations are presented on successive lines each reference
designation shall start on a new line; If more than one reference designation is
presented on the same line, and if not clearly separated for example as in a table,
the character SOLIDUS ( / ) shall be used as the separator sign between the
different reference designations; The order of the presented reference
designations in a reference designation set has no significant meaning.
57
CHAPTERTHREE
Electrical symbols used on an architectural plan show the location and type of
electrical device required. The National Electrical Codes describes outlet as a point
on a wiring system where current is taken to supply utilization equipment. A
receptacle outlet is an outlet where one more receptacles are installed, figure 3.1.
A lighting outlet is an outlet intended for it direct connection of a lamp holder, a
lighting fixture, or a pendant cord terminating in a lam holder, figure 3.2. A toggle
switch is not an outlet. The term outlet is used broadly by electrician to include
noncurrent-consuming switches an similar control devices in a wiring systemwhen
estimating the cost of the installation. Each type o outlet is represented on the plans
as a symbol. The NEC defines a device as a unit of an electrical system which is
intended to carry but no utilize electric energy. The outlets an shown by the symbols
froma floor plan in figure 3.3.
ELECTRICALSYMBOLSANDOUTLETS
3.1. Introduction
always allow at least 6 inches of
free conductor at all outlets and
junctions so as to be able to work
easily with the wiring devices to be
installed.
the 6 inches is measured from
front edge of box
Figure 3.1 Receptacle outlet
58
Astudy of residential electrical plans shows that many different electrical symbols are
used to represent the electrical devices and equipment used in the building. Designers
and electrical engineers use standard symbols wherever possible but many plans may
contain symbols that are not found in the standards; when such nonstandard and
unlisted symbols are used, we must refer to the for the interpretation of these
symbols.
legend
figure 3.2 lamp holder
figure 3.3 fig. Use of electrical symbols and notation on floor plans.
white black
S
3
S
3
59
3.2. Graphic Electrical Wiring Symbols
DraftingPracticesApplicabletoGraphicElectrical WiringSymbols.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Electrical layouts should be drawn to an appropriate scale or figure dimensions
noted. They should be made on drawing sheets separate from the architectural or
structural drawings or on the drawing sheets for mechanical or other facilities.
Clearness of drawings is often reduced when all different electric systems to be
installed in the same building area are laid out on the same drawing sheet. Clearness is
further reduced when an extremely small drawing scale is used. Under these
circumstances, each or certain of the different systems should be laid out on separate
drawing sheets. For example, it may be better to show signal system outlets and
circuits on drawings separate fromthe lighting and power branch circuit wiring.
Outlet and equipment locations with respect to the building should be shown as
accurately as possible on the electrical drawing sheets to reduce reference to
architectural drawings. Where extremely accurate final location of outlets and
equipment is required, figure dimensions should be noted on the drawings. Circuit and
feeder run lines should be so drawn as to show their installed location in relation to the
building insofar as it is practical to do so. The number and size of conductors in the runs
should be identified by notation when the circuit-run symbol doesnt identify them.
All branch circuits, control circuits, and signal system circuits should be laid out in
complete detail on the electrical drawings, including identification of the number, size,
and type of all conductors.
Electric wiring required in conjunction with such mechanical facilities as heating,
ventilating and air-conditioning equipment, machinery, and processing equipment
should be included in detail in the electrical layout insofar as possible when its
installation will be required under the electrical contract. This is desirable to make
reference to mechanical drawings unnecessary and to avoid confusion as to
responsibility for the installation of the work.
A complete electrical layout should include at least the following on one or more
drawings:
Floor plan layout toscale of all outlet and equipment locations and wiring runs.
A complete schedule of all of the symbols used with appropriate description of the
requirements.
Riser diagram showing the physical relationship of the service, feeder and major
power runs, units substations, isolated power transformers, switchboards, panel
boards, pull boxes, terminal cabinets, and other systems and equipment.
Where necessary for clearness, a single line diagram showing the electrical
relationship of the component items and sections of the wiring system.
Where necessary to provide adequate information elevations, sections and details of
equipment and special installations and details of special lighting fixtures and devices.
Sections of the building or elevation of the structure showing floor-to-floor, outlet, and
60
equipment heights, relation to the established grade, general type of building
construction, etc. Where practical, suspended ceiling heights indicated by figure
dimensions on either the electrical floor plan layout drawings or on the electrical
building section or elevation drawings.
Where necessary to provide adequate information, plot plan to scale, showing the
relation of the building or structure to other buildings or structures, service poles,
service manholes, exterior area lighting, exterior wiring runs, etc.
In the case of exterior wiring systems for street and highway lighting, area drawings
showing the complete system.
Any changes to the electrical layout should be clearly identified on the drawings
when such changes are made after the original drawings have been completed and
identified on the drawing by a revision symbol.
7.
8.
9.
61
3.3. A list of lighting outlet symbols.
1.1 Surface or pendant incandescent
mercury vapor or similar lamp fixture
1.2 Recessed incandescent mercury
vapor or similar lamp fixture
1.3 Surface or pendant individual
fluorescent fixture
1.4 Recessed individual fluorescent
fixture
1.5 Surface or pendant
continuous-row fluorescent fixture
1.7 Bare-lamp fluorescent strip**
1.6 Recessed continuous-row fluorescent
fixture*
Ceiling Wall
R
R
R
R
62
*In the case of combination continuous-row fluorescent and incandescent
spotlights, use combinations of the above standard symbols.
**In the case of continuous-row, bare-lamp fluorescent strip above an area-wide
diffusing means, showeach fixture run, using the standard symbol; indicate area of
diffusing means and type by light shading and/or drawing notation.
1.12 Outlet controlled by low-voltage
switching when relay is installed in
outlet box
1.8 Surface or pendant exit light
1.9 Recessed exit light
1.10 Blanked outlet
1.11 Junction box
(continued)
X X
XR XR
B B
J J
L L
63
Receptacle Outlets: Symbolsfor Receptacle Outlets.
Ungrounded Grounding
2.1 Single receptacle outlet.
2.2 Duplex receptacle outlet.
2.3 Triplex receptacle outlet.
2.4 Quadruplex receptacle outlet.
2.5 Duplex receptacle outletsplit
wired.
2.6 Triplex receptacle outletsplit
wired.
2.7 Single special-purpose
receptacle outlet.*
2.8 Duplex special-purpose
receptacle outlet.*
2.9 Range outlet.
2.10. Special-purpose connection or provision
for connection. Use subscript letters to indicate
function (DW - dishwasher, CD- cloths dryer, etc.
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
RG
G
DW
* *
* *
DW
R
64
(continued)
*Use numeral or letter either within the symbol or as a subscript alongside the
symbol in the drawing list of symbols toindicate type of receptacle or usage.
Ungrounded Grounding
2.11 Clock hanger receptacle.
2.12 Fan hanger receptacle
2.13 Floor single receptacle outlet.
2.14 Floor duplex-receptacle outlet
2.15 Floor special-purpose outlet.*
2.16 Floor telephone outletpublic.
2.17 Floor telephone outletprivate.
F C
G
C F
G
G
G
G
* *
65
Switch Outlets: Symbols for Switch Outlets
S 3.1 Single-pole switch
S 3.2 Double-pole switch
S 3.3 Three-way switch
S 3.4 Four-way switch
S 3.5 Key-operated switch
S 3.6 Switch and pilot lamp
S 3.7 Switch for low-voltage switching system
S 3.8 Master switch for low-voltage switching system
S 3.9 Door switch
S 3.10 Time switch
S 3.11 Circuit breaker switch
S 3.12 Momentary contact switch or pushbutton for other than
signaling
2
3
4
K
P
L
LM
D
T
CB
MC
3.13 Switch and single receptacle
3.14 Switch and double receptacle
3.15 Ceiling pull switch
S
S
S
66
Circuiting:
Wiring method identification by notation on drawing or in specification
Symbols for Circuiting
Note: Use heavy-weight line to identify service and feeders. Indicate empty conduit
by notation CO (conduit only). Unless indicated otherwise, the wire size of the
circuit is the minimumsize required by the specification. Identify different functions
of wiring system, e.g., signaling system, by notation or other means.
4.1 Wiring concealed in ceiling or wall.
4.2 Wiring concealed in floor.
4.3 Wiring exposed
4.4 Branch circuit home run to panel board.
Number of arrows indicates number of
circuits. (A numeral at each arrow may be
used to identify circuit number.)Note: Any
ci rcui t wi thout further i denti fi cati on
indicates two-wire circuit. For a greater
number of wires, indicate with cross lines.
4 . 5
4.6 Wiring turned down.
W i r i n g t u r n e d u p
3 wires
4 wires
2 1
67
Symbols for Panel boards, Switchboards, and Related Equipment:
5.1 Flush-mounted panel board and cabinet.*
5.2 Surface-mounted panel board and cabinet.*
5.3 Switchboard, power control center, unit
substations* - should be drawn to scale.
5.4 Flush-mounted terminal cabinet.*
(In small-scale drawings the TC may be
indicated alongside the symbol.)
5.5 Surface-mounted terminal cabinet.*
(In small-scale drawings the TC may be
indicated alongside the symbol.)
5.6 Pull box. (Identify in relation to wiring section
and sizes.)
5.7 Motor or other power controller.*
5.8 Externally operated disconnection switch.*
5.9 Combination controller and disconnection
means.*
*Identify by notation or schedule.
TC
TC
68
Signaling System Outlets: Residential Occupancies
Presented here are signaling system symbols for use in identifying standardized
residential-type signal system items on residential drawings where a descriptive
symbol list is not included on the drawing. When other signal system items are to be
identified, use the basic symbols presented here for such items together with a
descriptive symbol list.
Signaling SystemSymbols for Residential Occupancies.
6.1 Pushbutton
6.2 Buzzer
6.3 Bell
6.4 Combination bell-buzzer
6.5 Chime
6.6 Annunciator
6.7 Electric door opener
CH
D
69
6.8 Maids signal plug
6.9 Interconnection box
6.10 Bell-ringing transformer
6.11 Outside telephone
6.12 Interconnecting telephone
6.13 Radio outlet
6.14 Television outlet
BT
R
TV
M
70
Bus Ducts and Wireways
Symbols for Bus Ducts and Wireways
Electric Distribution or Lighting System, Underground:
Symbols for Underground Electric Distribution or Lighting System
7.1 Trolley duct*
7.2 Bus way (service, feeder, or plug-in)*
7.3 Cable trough ladder or channel*
7.4 Wire way*
8.1 Manhole.*
8.2 Transformer manhole or vault.*
8.3 Transformer pad.*
T T T
B B B
C C C
W W W
M
TP
TM
71
(Continues)
Electric Distribution or Lighting System Aerial:
Symbols for Electric Distribution or Lighting System Aerial.
8.4 Hand hole.
8.5 Underground direct burial cable. (Indicate type,
size and number of conductors by notation or schedule.)
8.6 Underground duct line. (Indicate type, size, and
number of ducts by cross-section identification of each
run by notation or schedule. Indicate type, size, and
number of conductors by notation or schedule.)
8 . 7 S t r e e t l i g h t s t a n d a r d f e e d f r o m
underground circuit.*
9.1 Pole*
9.2 Street light and bracket*
9.3 Transformer*
9.4 Primary circuit*
9.5 Secondary circuit*
9.6 Down guy
H
72
(Continues)
*Identify by notation or schedule.
Symbols for Arrester, Lightning Arrester Gap
Arrester, Lightning Arrester (Electric Surge, etc.) Gap:
9.7 Head guy
9.8 Sidewalk guy
9.9 Service weather head*
10.2 Carbon block. Block, telephone protector.
The sides of the rectangle are to be
approximately in the ratio of 1 to 2 and the
space bet ween r ect angl es shal l be
approximately equal to the width of a rectangle
10.1 General.
10.3 Electrolytic or aluminum cell. This symbol is
not composed of arrowheads.
10.4 Horn gap.
10.5 Protective gap. These triangles shant be
filled.
73
(Continues)
Meter Instrument:
Symbols for Meter Instruments.
A Ammeter IEC
AH Ampere-hour
CMA Contact-making (or -breaking) ammeter
CMC Contact-making (or -breaking) clock
CMV Contact-making (or -breaking) voltmeter
CRO Oscilloscope or cathode-ray oscillograph
DB DB (decibel) meter
10.5 Protective gap. These triangles
shant be filled.
10.6 Sphere gap.
10.7 Valve or film element.
10.8 Multi-gap, general.
10.9 Application: gap plus valve plus
ground, 2 pole.
74
(continued)
DBM DBM(decibels referred to1 milliwatt) meter
DM Demand meter
DTR Demand-totalizing relay
F Frequency meter
G Galvanometer
GD Ground detector
I Indicating
INT Integrating
_Aor UA Microammeter
MA Milliammeter
NM Noise meter
OHM Ohmmeter
OP Oil pressure
OSCG Oscillograph string
PH Phasemeter
PI Position indicator
PF Power factor
RD Recording demand meter
REC Recording
RF Reaction factor
SY Synchroscope
TLM Telemeter
T Temperature meter
THC Thermal converter
TT Total time
V Voltmeter
VA Volt-ammeter
VAR Varmeter
VARH Varhour meter
VI Volume indicator; meter, audio level
VU Standard volume indicator; meter, audio level
W Wattmeter
WH Watthour meter
75
Remote Control Stations for Motors or Other Equipment:
Symbols for Remote Control Stations for Motors or Other Equipment.
11.1 Pushbutton station
11.2 Float switchmechanical
11.3 Limit switchmechanical
11.4 Pneumatic switch mechanical
11.5 Electric eyebeam source
11.6 Electric eyerelay
11.7 Thermostat
F
L
P
T
76
CHAPTERFOUR
PRINTS ANDDRAWINGS.
4.1 IntroductiontoPrint Reading
TheTitleBlock
First Area of theTitleBlock
SecondArea of theTitleBlock
The ability to read and understand information contained on drawings is essential
to perform most engineering-related jobs. Engineering drawings are means of
communicating detailed and accurate information on how to fabricate, assemble,
troubleshoot, repair, and operate a piece of equipment or a system. To understand
howto "read" a drawing it is necessary to be familiar with the standard conventions,
rules, and basic symbols used on the various types of drawings. A generic
engineering drawing can be divided into the following five major areas or parts.
1. Title block
2. Grid system
3. Revision block
4. Notes and legends
5. Engineering drawing (graphic portion)
The title block of a drawing, usually located on the bottom or lower right hand
corner, contains all the information necessary to identify the drawing and to verify
its validity. Atitle block is divided into several areas as illustrated by Figure 1.
The first area of the title block contains the drawing title, the drawing number, and
lists the location, the site, or the vendor. The drawing title and the drawing number
are used for identification and filing purposes. Usually the number is unique to the
drawing and is comprised of a code that contains information about the drawing
such as the site, system, and type of drawing. The drawing number may also
contain information such as the sheet number, if the drawing is part of a series, or it
may contain the revision level. Drawings are usually filed by their drawing number
because the drawing title may be common toseveral prints or series of prints.
The second area of the title block contains the signatures and approval dates,
which provide information as to when and by whom the component/system was
designed and when and by whom the drawing was drafted and verified for final
approval. This information can be invaluable in locating further data on the
system/component design or operation. These names can also help in the
resolution of a discrepancy between the drawing and another source of
information.
ELECTRICAL
77
ThirdArea of theTitleBlock
Drawing Scale:
1" = 1"
3/8" = 1'
1/2" = 1'
Grid System:
The third area of the title block is the reference block. The reference block lists other
drawings that are related to the system/component, or it can list all the other
drawings that are cross-referenced on the drawing, depending on the site's or
vendor's conventions. The reference block can be extremely helpful in tracing
down additional information on the systemor component.
Drawings can be classified as either with scale or those not drawn
to scale. Drawings without a scale usually are intended to present only functional
information about the component or system. Drawings with scale allow the figures
to be rendered accurately and precisely, it also allowcomponents and systems that
are too large to be drawn full size to be drawn in a more convenient and easy to read
size. Avery small component can be scaled up, or enlarged, so that its details can
be seen when drawn on paper. Scale drawings usually present the information
used to fabricate or construct a component or system. If a drawing is drawn to
scale, it can be used to obtain information such as physical dimensions, tolerances,
and materials that allows the fabrication or construction of the component or
system. The scale of a drawing is usually presented as a ratio and is read as
illustrated in the following examples:
Read as 1 inch (on the drawing) equals 1 inch (on the actual component or
system). This can also be stated as FULL SIZE in the scale block of the drawing.
The measured distance on the drawing is the actual distance or size of the
component.
Read as 3/8 inch (on the drawing) equals 1 foot (on the actual component
or system). This is called 3/8 scale. For example, if a component part measures 6/8
inch on the drawing, the actual component measures 2 feet.
Read as 1/2 inch (on the drawing) equals 1 foot (on the actual component
or system). This is called 1/2 scale. For example, if a component part measures 1-
1/2 inches on the drawing the actual component measures 3 feet.
To help locate a specific point on a referenced print, most drawings,
especially Piping and Instrument Drawings (P&ID) and electrical schematic
drawings, have a grid system. The grid can consist of letters, numbers, or both that
run horizontally and vertically around the drawing. Like a city map, the drawing is
divided into smaller blocks, each having a unique two letter or number identifier. For
example, when a pipe is continued from one drawing to another, not only is the
second drawing referenced on the first drawing, but so are the grid coordinates
locating the continued pipe. Therefore the search for the pipe contained in the block
is much easier than searching the whole drawing.
78
Revision Block: When a drawing is first issued, it is called revision zero, and the
revision block is empty. As each revision is made to the drawing, an entry is placed
in the revision block. This entry will provide the revision number, a title or summary
of the revision, and the date of the revision. The revision number may also appear
at the end of the drawing number or in its own separate block. As the component or
systemis modified, and the drawing is updated to reflect the changes, the revision
number is increased by one, and the revision number in the revision block is
changed toindicate the newrevision number.
There are two methods of indicating where a revision has changed in a
drawing, the first is the cloud method where each change is enclosed by a hand-
drawn cloud shape and the second method involves placing a circle (or triangle or
other shape) with the revision number next to each effected portion of the drawing.
The cloud method indicates changes from the most recent revision only, whereas
the second method indicates all revisions to the drawing because all of the previous
revision circles remain on the drawing.
Drawings are comprised of symbols and lines that represent
components or systems. Although a majority of the symbols and lines are self-
explanatory or standard a fewunique symbols and conventions must be explained
for each drawing. The notes and legends section of a drawing lists and explains any
special symbols and conventions used on the drawing. Also listed in the notes
section is any information the designer or draftsman felt was necessary to correctly
use or understand the drawing. Because of the importance of understanding all of
the symbols and conventions used on a drawing, the notes and legend section
must be reviewed before reading a drawing.
The five engineering drawing categories are:
P&IDs
Electrical single lines and schematics
Electronic diagrams and schematics
Logic diagrams and prints
Fabrication, construction, and architectural drawings
are usually designed to present functional information about a system or
component. Examples are piping layout, flowpaths, pumps, valves, instruments,
signal modifiers, and controllers,
Changes :
Notes and Legend:
4.2 Types of DrawingsandDrawingFormats.
P&IDs
P&IDs do not have a drawing scale and present
only the relationship or sequence between components
79
These drawings only present information on howa systemfunctions, not the actual
physical relationships. Because P&IDs provide the most concise format for how a
system should function, they are used extensively in the operation, repair, and
modification of the plant. One of the main purposes of a P&ID is to provide
f u n c t i o n a l
i n f o r ma t i o n a b o u t h o w i n s t r u me n t a t i o n i n a s y s t e m o r
pi ece of equi pment i nt er f aces wi t h t he syst em or pi ece of
equipment.
are designed to present functional
information about the electrical design of a system or component. Examples of
typical single lines drawings that are related to the system/component, or it can list
all the other drawings motor start circuits, and breaker circuits are site or building
power distribution, systempower distribution, and motor control centers. Electrical
schematics provide a more detailed level of information about an electrical system
or component than the single lines. Electrical schematic drawings present
information such as the individual relays, relay contacts, fuses, motors, lights, and
instrument sensors. Examples of typical schematics are valve actuating circuit
are designed to present information about
the individual components (resistors, transistors, and capacitors) used in a circuit.
These drawings are usually used by circuit designers and electronics repair
personnel.
can be used to depict several types of information.
The most common use is to provide a simplified functional representation of an
electrical circuit, For example, it is easier and faster to figure out how a valve
functions and responds to various inputs signals by representing a valve circuit
using logic symbols, than by using the electrical schematic with its complex relays
and contacts. These drawings do not replace schematics, but they are easier to
use for certain applications.
are designed to present
the detailed information required to construct or fabricate a part, system, or
structure. These three types of drawings differ only in their application as opposed
to any real differences in the drawings themselves and are usually drawn to scale..
Fabrication drawings are usually found in machine shops and provide the
necessary detailed information for a craftsman to fabricate a part. Construction
drawings, commonly referred toas "blueprint" drawings, present the detailed
Electrical single lines and schematics
Electronic diagrams and schematics
Logic diagrams and prints
Fabrication, construction, and architectural drawings
80
information required to assemble a structure on site. Architectural drawings
present information about the conceptual design of the building or structure.
Examples are house plans, building elevations (outside view of each side of a
structure), equipment installation drawings, foundation drawings, and equipment
assembly drawings.
P&IDs, fabrication, construction, and architectural drawings can be presented
using one of several different formats. Each format provides specific information
about a component or system. The standard formats are single line, pictorial or
double line, and cutaway.
represents all piping, regardless of size, as single line
commonly used in P&IDs . All systemequipment is represented by simple standard
symbols. single lines allow the system's equipment and instrumentation
relationships tobe clearly understood by the reader.
present the same type information as a single
line, but the equipment is represented as if it had been photographed. This format is
rarely used since it requires much more effort to produce than a single line drawing
and does not present any more information as to howthe systemfunctions. Used in
advertising and training materials.
are a special application of pictorial drawings that are common
in the engineering field , an assembly drawing is a pictorial viewof the object with all
the components shown as they go together. This type pictorial is usually found in
vendor manuals and is used for parts identification and general information relative
tothe assembly of the component
is another special type of pictorial drawing. In a cutaway, as the
name implies, the component or system has a portion cut away to reveal the
internal parts of the component or system. Figure 15 is an illustration of a cutaway.
This type of drawing is extremely helpful in the maintenance and training areas
where the way internal parts are assembled is important.
To read and interpret electrical prints, you need to recognize the graphic symbols
for electrical diagrams and the electrical wiring equipment symbols as shown in
Symbols for Electrical and Electronic Diagrams and Electrical Wiring
4.3 DrawingFormat
The single line format
Pictorial or double line formats
Assembly drawing
Cutaway drawing
4.4 Electrical WiringAndSchematic DiagramReading
Graphic
81
Equipment Symbols. In addition, you must also be familiar with the system of
numbering electrical units and marking electrical cables as described in the
following paragraphs. , you need to understand the symbols
for various electronic components. It's also helpful to know how to analyze the
circuits to determine their function. Schematics often assign labels to parts based
on their type and arbitrary ordering on the schematic. For example, R stands for
resistor; on a schematic with numerous resistors, it might show the first resistor on
the left-hand side of the schematic labeled as R1.
To read a schematic
To read a wiring diagram
4.5 HowtoReadElectrical Diagrams
, you
need to understand the types of packages available for different parts. For large-
scale wiring diagrams, such as those for a house, the resources on installing
electrical components provide symbols. For wiring diagrams for a small circuit,
such as the one found in a cell phone, a parts list provides the information needed to
look up each component's packaging on its manufacturer's website. In some cases,
the schematic symbol and the wiring diagram symbol are the same. Many wiring
diagrams also have a key that provides important information such as wire gauge
and colors. Wiring diagrams for circuits use the same labels as the schematic.
Using the same example as above, the wiring diagram includes R1 from the
schematic but, instead of being on the far left, it is depicted in the middle, which is its
actual location on the circuit board.
Electrical diagrams range fromthe very simple to the very complicated, but they all
are based on the same elementary principles. To learn how to read them, it is
necessary to have a basic understanding of the parts used in circuits, including their
symbols, what they are used for, and howthey are placed inside a circuit.
1. Identify the most common symbols for electrical components. Resistors,
capacitors, inductors, transistors, op-amps and diodes all have different symbols.
Wires are represented as straight lines. They are treated as perfect conductors, so
are considered tohave zero resistance.
2. Study the rules that are used to wire these components together. These are
found in basic physics and electronics texts. They may also be found on the back of
the component packages and on some data sheets.
For example, the rules for connecting resistors are different from those of
capacitors or inductors. An extremely important rule for components is that they
may be wired in series or parallel. Points connected by the same wire are at the
same potential and are electrically equivalent.
3. Memorize the symbols for voltage sources. A voltage source, such as a power
supply or battery, may be symbolized in more than one way on a diagram. Adirect
current may come froma power supply or battery, while an alternating current
82
comes from a power supply. A voltage source is polarized, which means that the
way it is placed into a diagram is important. The anode is the + (plus) or positive
side, and the cathode is the -- (minus) or negative side. The negative side is also
referred toas the ground.
4. Recognize the difference between polarized and non-polarized components.
Like voltage sources, some components are also polarized. The way they are
placed into the circuit with respect to the voltage source is important, while others
are independent of their circuit direction. Some capacitors are polarized, while
resistors are not.5. Identify the outlets. Outlets usually are small, unshaded circles,
with one line leading from the circle to the wall. If there are two lines, it indicates
multiple outlets. Three lines mean an appliance outlet for larger items like dryer and
ranges. 5. Learn the most common fundamental circuit combinations. These are
certain electrical components that are always wired the same way using the same
parts. Their role is to form mini-circuits that are used to perform certain tasks for a
larger circuit. They may be viewed as building blocks. Examples of such are voltage
dividers, diode clamping circuits and filters. Once you have mastered the basic
analog circuits, you may proceed tologic circuits.
Residential electrical diagrams vary according to what the diagramis for and who is
compiling the information. These kinds of diagrams are helpful in aiding
homeowners in not only wiring their own home but locating the existing wires within
the completed structure. Diagrams that are in color, not just black and white, may be
more helpful the novice reader however everyone should be aware that the
symbols used on their diagrammay be different fromothers for currently there is no
"official code" regarding the use of symbols on blueprints or schematics for
residential drawings.
Instructions:
1. Obtain a key or reference chart for use when identifying the wiring symbols. Most
wiring diagrams will have one included on the printout. If one is not included,
libraries usually have a good selection of reference material regarding electrical
symbols. Some dictionaries, such as Webster's, have the symbols included in the
back.
2. Acquire a copy of the wiring diagramfor your home. If it is being built, or is a newer
home, try getting one from the contractor or architect. For older homes, the local
code enforcement office may have a copy in larger municipalities however for some
projects the diagrammay not be available except through the previous homeowner
or builder.
3. Locate the main panel on the diagram. This panel is where the main power line
4.6 HowtoReada Residential WiringDiagram
83
enters the residence and is typically indicated by a diagonally striped or shaded
rectangle shape located on/in a wall in a utility room, garage or basement. On some
drawings, there may be an angled line extending fromthe panel icon as to indicate
an open door.
4. Recognize the switches. Switch symbols usually resemble an "S," with or without
a single or multiple lines running vertically through it; however it may have a small
number beside it in lieu of the lines. The number, or number of lines, usually
indicates the type of switch that will be installed along with how many. A letter "S"
beside the outlet means it is "switched" and can be turned off and on with a switch. If
there is a number next to the circle, it means there will be more than one outlet
installed. Special purpose outlets will have a triangle inside the circle. And floor
outlets are indicated by a dot inside a circle.
6. Find the fixtures. Fixtures are things such as lights, fans, exhaust vents over
stoves, etc. Lights are usually drawn as a circle with four lines extending out from
the sides. Recessed lights may have a square shape around them. Vanity, track,
and bar lights may be a series of small circles attached to a rectangle. Spotlights
may be two side-by-side triangles. Fluorescent lights are usually a long rectangle
shape.
7. Identify the special symbols. Special symbols indicate things such as
thermostats (a circle with a "T"), smoke detectors (a circle with an "SD"), phones (a
lone triangle with line to wall), doorbells (a square with a circle within), and
televisions (a rectangle with the letter "TV"). Ceiling fans look like small, four-
bladed fans. And electrified exhaust vents or vents are usually square with an "X"
shape inside.
Circuit wiring diagrams are important tools in electronics. They are representations
of circuits, and so allowusers to replicate themwithout needing models or having to
be physically present. Their form makes it an easy way to transmit important
information.
Circuit wiring diagrams are different from schematics in that they emphasize
pictures instead of symbols. They show the positions of the wires, and how the
devices are physically arranged next to each other. They are useful in
troubleshooting circuits that don't work properly. To learn to read circuit wiring
diagrams, it is necessary tolearn some basic rules.
1. Memorize the colors most often used to distinguish the role of wires in circuits.
The hot wires are normally colored red and black. Red is connected to the positive
side of a voltage source, while black is connected tothe negative side. Green or
4.7 HowtoReadCircuit WiringDiagrams
84
bare wire usually means neutral, which means it is connected to a point on a device
that carries no current. There may be additional wires as well, and some diagrams
may use colors different fromthe ones stated. These will be clearly indicated.
2. Study the different types of switches, including their purpose and operation.
Switches are one of the most common types of devices shown in wiring diagrams.
Popular ones include light dimmers, and three-way or four-way switches. Three-
way switches let the user control electricity fromtwo areas, such as controlling one
lamp from two different floors. Four-way switches can control electricity from three
areas.
3. Examine the different types of outlets, which are another very popular subject for
wiring diagrams. Outlets for household use are usually made for 110 to 120 volts,
and have ground connections. Dryers and other large household appliances may
require 240-volt outlets.
4. Recognize the symbols and drawings used most often in circuit wiring diagrams.
Colored lines are used to represent wires and their various roles. Lamps are
symbolized using light bulbs. Outlets and switches have drawings that clearly look
like them, though some may be shown as merely boxes or rectangles.
A wiring diagram or schematic visually represents the way that a circuit is
constructed. A typical automotive wiring diagram represents a single system of
your vehicle. For instance a wiring diagram for your vehicle might represent the
interior lighting system. When you are having electrical issues with your car, it is a
useful skill to know how to read these diagrams. Remember that the diagrams are
not literal drawings of the locations of electrical parts, but symbolize the parts and
connections
Instructions:
1. Obtain a sample wiring diagram representing a system of a vehicle. Try factory
repair manuals, website, or your vehicle's owner's manual as a source for a
diagram.
2. Learn the symbols for the basic components on a wiring diagram; these are the
switch, resistor, ground point, and battery. Remember the standard variations that
exist for the battery (variable battery) symbol and the ground (case ground) symbol
.
3. Memorize what the advanced component symbols look like and what the labels
near them stand for. They might be used to designate component positive and
negative terminals, component pin numbers, or component electrical or circuit
values. Obtain a guide with a full listing of symbols if you come across a schematic
with something that is not labeled.
4.8 HowtoReadCar WiringDiagrams
85
4. Learn how the wires and connections are drawn. Remember a dot symbolizes
that two wires are connected, while a wire with no dot symbolizes wires that cross
physically but are not connected. Note that the notations like "BRN/WHT" or "LT
GRN" denote the colors of the wires themselves.
Automotive wiring has been standardized over the decades, and most cars will
have "color-coded" wiring for lighting, radio, ignition, and secondary systems. This
color coding makes it easier for the layman to quickly repair most automobile wiring
issues. You can learn to understand the wiring diagrams by following some basic
principles.
Understanding colors:
1. Locate the source of the electrical problem, such as a damaged relay. Find the
location of the issue shown in the diagram. The repair manual will provide
troubleshooting steps to determine which electrical component is damaged or
malfunctioning.
2. After locating the faulty part on the diagram, usually by labels or shape, the colors
of wire on the page should exactly match the wire colors in the vehicle. This will
assist in tracing the wire back to it's power source, or on to the next electrical circuit.
Symbols on the diagramcould vary, but typically followelectrician standards.
3. In rare cases, the diagram could be in black and white, or printed without colors.
This is when the "path", or lines on the schematic become important. Sometimes,
there may even be very small text next to each line, designating what color it is. This
can appear as "DRKGRN" for dark green, or "YEL/BLK" for a yellowwire with a thin
black stripe.
Modern automotive wiring diagrams use electronics symbols to depict the different
components in the vehicle. Each circuit has its own diagram, and the placement of
each component in the diagram bears no resemblance to the location of that
component in the vehicle. Despite their complexity, it is possible to read automotive
wiring diagrams with a basic knowledge of electronics symbols.
Instructions:
1. Choose one circuit in your vehicle to examine. Typical circuits include the alarm
control, airbag, engine control, heater, horn, instrument panel, lighting, ignition,
power windows, starter, transmission and windshield wipers.
2. Examine the wires on the diagram indicated by straight lines on the diagram,
referenced by the color of the wire in the vehicle or printed in that color. Where wires
cross on the diagram, a dot represents a connection. Where there are no dots, this
represents wires that are not physically connected.
3. Note the colors of the wires on the diagram. If the diagramis printed in color, the
4.9 HowtoReadAutomotiveWiring
86
lines are usually the same color as the wire. For black and white diagrams, the
color will appear in small print beneath the wire. Ared wire is usually a 12-volt hot
wire. Ablack wire is typically a ground wire.
4. Identify the power supply on the diagram, generally placed at the top of the
diagram. A battery power cell would be represented by two wires with a space
between them, with two vertical lines terminating at each wire line. The tall vertical
line is positive, and the small vertical line is negative. A direct current supply is
illustrated by two wires and a space between them, with a "+" over the end of one
wire and a "-" over the end of the other wire.
5. Trace the wire on the diagramuntil you find the fuse. Afuse is depicted as a line
for the wire running through a long rectangle.
6. Trace the wire from the fuse to the functioning device on the circuit. A motor is
depicted as an "M" inside a circle. An indicator light, such as a turn signal indicator
on the dashboard, is shown as an "X" inside a circle.
7. Refer to the detailed notes that go with the wiring diagram of the circuit you are
reading. This will give you a full understanding of the circuit and help you compare
what you see on the diagramwith what you see in the circuits of the vehicle.
8. Compare the wiring diagram to the wires and electrical components on your
vehicle.
Here are some examples todeepen the readers understanding of print reading:
Examples:
1. ReadingAWiringDiagramFor ApplianceRepair
A wiring diagram is a drawing of the electrical circuit of whatever it is you are
working on. Often when working on appliances, it is necessary to read these
diagrams when there is an electrical problem with the appliance you are working
on. Knowing howto read a wiring diagramcan save you frombuying parts you don't
need. Every appliance comes with a diagram hidden on it somewhere such as
under the bottom, in the control panel behind the storage drawer or taped to the
back. It will be somewhere you will not find it unless you were looking for it. IIf you
have an electrical device that will not work, look at the diagramand find the device.
Everything between the two main lines that the light is on can affect the light. Also
you should knowthat the main lines are marked L1, L2 and N. If a diagramhas just
L1 and Nthen the circuit is 110V, if the diagramhas L1 and L2 then it is a 240 circuit
and if it has L1, L2 and N it is a 110-220V circuit. Below is a picture of a few simple
ladder-wiring diagrams tohelp in the explanation.
87
Figure 4.1. 110VLight Circuit
looking at figure 4.1 you should see that both lights run all the time because there
isn't a switch to control them or a fuse. Also note that both lights run off of 110V
because they are connected between the Land the N.
Figure 4.2. 110VLight Circuit WithSwitchAnd Fuse
Light
Light
L n
Light
Switch
Fuse
L N
88
Figure 4.2 is a 110-220V circuit controlled by a switch; one of the lights is switched
controlled while the other is directly connected tothe supply.
Looking at figure 4.3, there is a light that runs off of 110V and is controlled by a
switch. There is a heater that runs off of 220V and is controlled by a switch and a
thermostat. There is a fuse that turns both the heater and the light off if it is blown.
Figure 4.3. 110 - 220VCircuit
Figure 4.4 is a simple dryer wiring diagram that shows examples of most of what
you will see on many other wiring diagrams. Lets break it down and explain each
component of the dryer and howit is controlled.
The Motor: The motor is the most complicated part of this diagram. Notice that the
motor coils are connected to an internal motor switch, which is only closed if the
motor is running. This is why there is a start switch; the start switch temporary
bypasses the motor switch to allow the motor to run. Once the motor starts, you no
longer need the start switch because the motor switch takes over so the start switch
is only closed when you are pressing on it. There is also a timer switch and a door
switch that have got to be closed in order for the motor to run. So when the timer is
on, the door is closed and the start switch is pressed, the motor will start. It runs off
of 110V.
The heater: Atimer switch, two thermostats and the motor switch control the heater.
The motor switch will only close if the motor is running. One of the thermostats is for
turning the heater on and off during normal operation. The other thermostat is for
safety and will turn the heater off if it overheats. The timer switch is on when the
timer is on and calling for heat. It runs off of 220V.
Light
Switch
Fuse
Heater
Switch
Thermostat
L1
N
L1
89
Figure 4.4. Simple Dryer Circuit
someone comes and turns it on. This means that the timer turns off when it gets to a
point. It runs off of 110V.
The light: The light is on when the door is open so that you can see inside the drum.
It runs off of 110V.
The safety switch: The safety switch is a switch that cuts the entire dryer off if it
overheats.
Note that this is not an actual dryer wiring diagram, it is just a sample drawn to help
you understand wiring diagrams.
The first thing that should be done upon receiving a set of plans for a building is to
review them, scanning each one to get an overview of the building. The electrical
system, the air-conditioning and heating system, and the plumbing system for a
building are very closely related. Design technicians and installation technicians
must coordinate the systems of all trade areas to have a well-designed and smooth
installation on the job. On larger buildings, the electrical plans usually contain plans
for lighting, power distribution (showing receptacles and special connections),
The timer: The timer motor runs until the timer switch turns it off and it stays off until
4.10 ReadingandInterpretingElectrical Plans.
Safety Thermostat
Timer Switch
Timer Motor
Start Switch
Timer Switch
Timer Switch
Light
Door Switch
Thermostat Thermostat Heater
Motor Switches
Motor
L1
L2
N
90
panel schedules, and other schedules and details pertaining to the electrical
system.
The lighting plan and the power distribution plan are consolidated on the same floor
plan an illustration shown in figure 4.5. Lighting fixtures are shown with rectangles
for fluorescent fixtures and circles for other types of fixtures. Each lighting fixture is
identified by a letter of the alphabet. These letters are shown on the lighting fixture
schedule on the plan. The power distribution is not shown on the plan. The
electrical receptacles use the standard symbol. The hash marks on the circuit lines
indicate the number of conductors (wires) required. All of the circuits are indexed
(numbered), and these numbers indicate the number of the circuit breaker in the
distribution panel. Aschedule for any Panel is always shown on the plan with each
circuit numbered. The service to the panel is shown with a separate detail. The
main circuit breaker is located inside the Panel. The exact location of the wiring
and conduit is left to the installing technician. On each wire are hash marks
indicating howmany wires are required with the circuit. The arrowhead at the end of
a wiring symbol indicates that the conduit should to be extended to the panel. The
small number that is sometime located at the arrowhead gives the number of the
circuit breaker to which the wiring is to be connected. Additional information that is
always rendered in the plan includes, A lighting fixture schedule on the plan
describing the lighting fixtures that are to be used is always rendered on the plan
also. Each fixture shown on the floor plan has a letter that corresponds to the fixture
schedule. A symbol schedule identifies the symbols used on the plan. The power
riser diagram is also shown in the lower right-hand corner. A general note is also
shown on the plan giving instructions tothe contractor.
A note at the top right corner of the plan restricts the use of the plans. Electrical
work shown on the site plan can be the first sheet of the electrical section. The
electrical section also includes the following:
shows electrical equipment (panel boards,
switches, electrical outlets, etc.) required for the basement, located in the crawl
space, or located under a slab on grade.
show the electrical equipment required for each floor, including
receptacles, lighting fixtures, and necessary electrical connections to equipment
furnished by other contractors.
electrical wiring, equipment, and electrical connections to equipment
on the roof are shown on the electrical roof plan.
these are detailed drawings showing howthe
electrical equipment is installed. Special instructions and information are relayed to
ReadingTheElectrical Plans
Foundation/Basement Plan
Floor Plans
Roof Plan
Elevations, Sections, andDetails
91
Figure 4.5. Electrical Plan.
LEGEND
CEILING MOUNTED FIXTURE
RECESSED FIXTURE
WALL MOUNTED FIXTURE
WALL MOUNTED FIXTURE WITH
PULLCHAIN
DUPLEX OUTLET
DUPLEX OUTLET (220)
EXHAUST FAN
FLUORESCENT FIXTURE
ELECTRICAL PANEL
SWITCH
3 WAY SWITCH
PANEL
220
S
S3
92
the electrical worker through these drawings.
contains schedules for the electrical devices, including the
following:
A. Lighting fixture schedule
B. Panel board schedule
C. Conduit and raceway schedule
Interpreting plans is an important part of the electrical trade. Floor plans can be
used to showthe location of electrical installations. It is important that information is
correctly understood to enable the planning, construction and alteration of
electrical installations.
Calculating Dimensions:
The understanding of plans is necessary to establish the exact positions of
electrical installations. Positions of electrical installations are dictated by room
dimensions, the location of appliances and the wiring rules. Positions are
determined by allowing for, the dimensions of appliances and fittings.
Dimensions:
Fromfigure 4.5,
The roomLength 3 meters (300 cm)
The shower base 90 cm
The wash basin unit 90 cm
Distance of wash basin unit fromwestern wall xcm=Unknown
= Room Length - ( Wash Basin Unit + Shower base)
x = 300 - (90 +90)
x = 120 cm
Most plans are drawn to a scale. For ease of representation, large dimensions
are converted to smaller metric units. The principle of ratio is used to indicate
the scale
For example;
1:1000
1:100
1: 50
On a plan 1:100 might mean that 1 cm is equivalent to 100 cm (1 meter).
On a map 1:10 might mean that 1 mm is equivalent to 10 kilometers.
Schedule Plan
4.11 InterpretingPlans
Scale:
93
Figure 4.6 Bathroom Floor Plan: Example 1

B
a
t
h
r
o
o
m

F
l
o
o
r

P
l
a
n
3
0
0
0
m
m
9
0
0
m
m
9
0
0
m
m
W
a
s
h

B
a
s
i
n
S
h
o
w
e
r
94
Figure 4.7: Example 2The GPOin the Lounge Roomis located on the southern wall.
Figure 4.8: Example 3The Dining Roomis east of the kitchen.
Lounge Room
Dining Room
Kitchen
North
West East
South
95
Example 4
Figure 4.9 Floor Plan
96
Calculate the following dimensions and record the measurements in meters on the
above floor plan (figure 4.9). Use a ruler with centimeter markings to find the
measurement.
a. The length of the interior southern wall of Bedroom2?
b. The length of the external northern wall of the house?
c. The length of the interior eastern wall of the house?
d. The length of the interior northern wall of the Laundry?
e. The width of the Entrance?
f. The length of the interior eastern wall of the Lounge.
g. The length of the eastern wall of Bedroom3.
An electrical plan is a detailed drawing of all outlets, lights, and switches in a house.
The plan will show the location of the outside electrical service, inside panel, and
any disconnects. Three way switches will be noted along with any switched
receptacles. The location of all lights will be shown and it should note if there will be
any specialty switching such as dimmers. Other items that should be shown on an
electrical plan are GFI receptacles, outside receptacles, dryer or stove outlets and
any specialty receptacles such as for sight and hearing impaired. The overall plan
should give a complete viewof everything pertaining to electrical items in a house.
The electrical plan should contain an electrical symbols list. This will show each
electrical symbol and what it means.
An electrical plan is a plan view similar to the floor plan in that all the walls, doors,
and windows are shown along with the electrical symbols that describe service to
the house. It also includes what is known as a legend which defines what each
symbol represents. There are several considerations that have to be made when
drawing an electrical plan for a house. They are as follows:
The electrical meter is always on the exterior of the home. This is the location where
power enters the house into the circuit box. The circuit box is located no more than
twelve feet away from where the power enters the homes. From this location
electricity is distributed to the individual rooms. The circuit box is usually located in
a service area of a home like the utility roomor kitchen. If the home has a basement,
this is usually the preferred location for it tobe placed.
Light fixtures are usually placed in the middle of a room to allow even lighting
throughout. Sometimes these are included in special fixtures like ceiling fans.
4.12 DrawingAnElectrical Plan
TheMeter andService Box
Light Fixtures, Light Switches, andReceptacles
97
When a fixture is placed in a large closet, it is usually mounted so that it is at least
three feet from where the clothing is hung to insure against a fire from its heat.
Exterior lighting should be waterproof in some way to eliminate the possibility of
electrical short. The light switches almost always are mounted next to a room
entrance for convenience. When switching an exterior light, these are usually
located inside near the exterior lights location. Receptacles, also known as outlets
are usually spaced every six feet in a room. This is to make sure that electrical
cords do not have to be stretched far from the appliance they are powering. Some
times a homeowner requests that the top half of a receptacle be controlled by a light
switch to make turning off lamps simpler. Exterior receptacles and those inside the
house within six feet of a water source like a sink are ground fault interrupt. This is
to eliminate possible shock if shorted by water. All of these are one hundred and
twenty volt with a fewexceptions and the amperage varies
These are required by code for fire safety. The must be located in each individual
bedroom and also near each exit from the home. These are usually battery
powered so that even if the power is out, they will still function.
These are usually drawn using a arched dashed line showing which switch controls
what light or receptacle. There are many more considerations like two twenty volt
power for appliances such as the stove or electrical clothes dryer. You may also
place special fixtures like phone jacks and cable tv connections on this plan.
Drawing accurate, detailed electrical floor plans is one of the essential steps in
applying for an electrical-wiring permit. Standard symbols indicate the location of
duplex outlets, special-purpose outlets, switches, wall-light outlets, ceiling-light
outlets, and switches on electrical floor plans. ANSI (American National Standard
Institute) symbols are industry standards and recognized by the AHJ (Authority
Having Jurisdiction), electrical inspectors, and building department engineers who
issue electrical permits. The symbols are easy to remember but keep a copy of
themnearby toavoid errors.
1. Draw a floor plan to scale. A scale of inch to the foot is a convenient scale to
work with. Using that scale, most homes will fit on a sheet of 11-inch by 17-inch
graph paper.
2. Indicate the locations of all general-purpose duplex receptacles in rooms and
hallways. ReviewNECArticle 210.52 Dwelling Unit Receptacle Outlets for more
Smoke Detectors
WiringConnections
4.13 HowtoDrawanElectrical Floor PlanWithCircuits
98
information. In summary, no point measured along the unbroken floor line can be
more then 6 feet from a receptacle outlet, keeping in mind that a duplex outlet
counts as two outlets. Any wall space 2 feet in width or wider must have a
receptacle outlet. Any hallway 10 feet or longer must have at least one receptacle
outlet. Place the first receptacle 6 feet fromthe first break in floor line, then place the
rest at 12-foot intervals. One duplex receptacle fulfills the rule for a span of 6 feet to
each side of its location.
3. Drawin the positions of all wall- and ceiling-light outlets.
4. Drawin the positions of all wall-mounted switches.
5. Show the position of all the special-purpose receptacles--those for an electric
range, clothes dryer, garbage disposal, dishwasher, trash compactor, refrigerator,
and deep freezer, for example.
6. Lay out the position of the kitchen countertop small-appliance circuits so no
space 2 feet or more in width is without a receptacle outlet and every wall space 12
inches or more in width has a receptacle outlet per NEC Article 210.52(C)(1).7.
Indicate the position of the circuit-breaker panel on the drawing.
8. Use solid, curved lines to indicate branch-circuit wiring concealed in walls and
ceilings; broken lines with long and short dashes to indicate branch-circuit wiring
concealed in floors; and dotted lines to indicate branch-circuit wiring that's
exposed.
9. Use solid lines with solid arrowheads pointing toward the circuit-breaker panel to
indicate the cable bringing power from the service panel to the first device on that
circuit.
10. Use short slashes drawn across these lines to indicate the number of circuit
conductors in each cable run.
Produce the electrical wiring diagram of the ground floor plan for figure 4.10 - 4.12
with standard symbols showing the legend, fixture and sub-circuit material
schedule, power riser diagram, control panel and the notes. Calculate the
amperage of the distribution board and predict the generator size for the load
rendered on this plan.
Exercise.
99
Figure 4.10 Ground Floor Plan
sitting room
dining
car-port/entrance
masters room
bedroom 1 bedroom 2 sh/wc
bath/wc
bath/wc
foyer
storage
kitchen
lobby
ver.
2025 1200 1050 600 900 1200 1425 1050
150
2325 900 600 600 1125
3600
150
1200
150
3000 1200
150
3600
150
1650
150 150
9600
3
0
7
5
1
2
0
0
9
3
8
6
0
0
4
5
0
6
0
0
1
3
1
3
1
2
0
0
2
6
2
5
1
5
0
4
4
6
3
1
6
5
0
1
5
0
0
4
0
5
0
1
5
0
6
0
0
1
3
0
5
0
2325 1200 975 750
325
300 4450 300
325
450 1800 1950
150
4200
150
750
150
5550
150
4050
150
15150
1
5
0
1
6
5
0
2
4
0
0
6
0
0
9
0
0
9
0
0
1
5
0
0
9
0
0
7
5
0
3
1
5
0
1
5
0
1
5
0
1
6
5
0
1
5
0
1
8
0
0
1
2
0
0
1
5
0
4
5
0
0
1
5
0
3
1
5
0
1
5
0
1
8
0
0
4
5
0
0
1
2
0
0
1
5
0
1
8
0
0
3
1
5
0
1
5
0
4
5
0
0
1
5
0
3
0
0
0
3
3
0
0
1
5
0
1
5
0
0
1
5
0
3
1
5
0
1
5
0
4
5
0
0
1
9
5
0
1
5
0
0
3
1
5
0
1
8
0
0
2
5
5
0
4
0
5
0
1
5
0
1
5
0
0
1
5
0
0
1
5
0
3
6
0
0
1
5
0
1
2
0
0
1
5
0
2
2
3
2
0
9
6
6
8
1
8
2
52
2
5
3
7
5
0
1650 150 3600 1050 150 3000 600 600 3600
5400 3000
1800 600
150
150
2250
d1
d1
d2
d2
d2
d2
d2
d2
d3
d3
d3
d3
d3
d3
4200 900 5400
w1
w1
w2
w2
w2
w2 w2
w3
w3
w3
w3
w4
w4
w4
w4
w4
w4
w3
w4
Scale: 1:100
ground floor
01
1200
900
4950
300
1800 475 1200 1625 150 1350
5550
7
9
5
0
3
3
0
0
S
0
1
S
0
1
wc
6
0
0
4
5
0
9
0
0
100
Figure 4.11
entry
bedroom 1
bedroom 2
dining
lounge
wc
wc/sh
kitchen
store ver.
101
Figure 4.12
lobby
1
lounge
entrance
bedroom 2
kitchen
dining
store
sh/wc
bedroom 1
ver.
master bdrm
bath/
wc
wc
sh/wc
F
102
CHAPTERFIVE
A breadboard is used to make up for testing or to try out an
idea. No soldering is required so it is easy to change connections and replace
components. Parts will not be damaged so they will be available to re-use
afterwards. Almost all the Electronics circuits and projects started life on a
breadboard tocheck that the circuit worked as intended.
temporary circuits
ELECTRONICCOMPONENTSLAYOUTANDDRAWING
5.1 IntroductiontoCircuit Boards
Breadboard
Stripboard
Printed circuit boards
5.2 BreadBoards andUses.
Circuit boards are used for constructing prototype and permanent electronic
circuits. They include the following:
used for temporary or prototype circuit construction where no
soldering is required. It provides a way of making a temporary circuit, for testing
purposes or to try out an idea. No soldering is required and all the components can
be re-used afterwards. It is easy to change connections and replace components.
Almost all the Electronics Club projects started life on a breadboard to check that
the circuit worked as intended.
has parallel strips of copper track on one side. The strips are 0.1"
(2.54mm) apart and there are holes every 0.1" (2.54mm). Stripboard requires no
special preparation other than cutting to size. It can be cut with a junior hacksaw, or
simply snap it along the lines of holes by putting it over the edge of a bench or table
and pushing hard.
have copper tracks connecting the holes where the
components are placed. They are designed specially for each circuit and make
construction very easy. However, producing the PCB requires special equipment
so this method is not recommended if you are a beginner unless the PCB is
provided for you.
Figure 5.1 Bread Board
103
Figure 5.1 shows a typical small breadboard which is suitable for building simple
circuits with one or two ICs (chips).
Breadboards have many tiny sockets (called
'holes') arranged on a 0.1" grid. The leads of most components can be pushed
straight into the holes. ICs are inserted across the central gap with their notch or dot
to the left. Wire links can be made with single-core plastic-coated wire of 0.6mm
diameter (the standard size) see figure 5.2. Stranded wire is not suitable because it
will crumple when pushed into a hole and it may damage the board if strands break
off.
Figure 5.2 Physical connections on a bread board
Fromfigure 5.3 the top and bottomrows are linked all the way across.
The power supply is connected to these rows, + at the top and 0V(zero volts) at the
bottom. I suggest using the upper row of the bottom pair for 0V, then you can use
the lower rowfor the negative supply with circuits requiring a dual supply (e.g. +9V,
0V, -9V). The other holes are linked in blocks of 5 with no link across the
center. Notice howthere are separate blocks of connections toeach pin of ICs.
On larger breadboards there may be a break halfway along
the top and bottompower supply rows. It is a good idea to link across the gap before
you start to build a circuit, otherwise you may forget and part of your circuit will have
no power!
Connections on Breadboard:
Large Breadboards:
horizontally
vertically
104
Figure 5.3 Connection of Bread board holes
.
5.3. Convertinga circuit diagramtoa breadboardlayout
Converting a circuit diagramto a breadboard layout is not straightforward because
the arrangement of components on breadboard will look quite different from the
circuit diagram. When putting parts on breadboard you must concentrate on their
connections not their positions on the circuit diagram. The IC (chip) is a good
starting point so place it in the center of the breadboard and work round it pin by pin,
putting in all the connections and components for each pin in turn. An example is
building a 555 timer circuit on breadboard shown in figure 5.4. We Begin by
carefully inserting the 555 ICin the center of the breadboard with its notch or dot to
the left. Then deal with each pin of the 555:
Pin 1: Connect a wire (black) to 0V.
Pin 2: Connect the 10k resistor to +9V.
Connect a push switch to 0V (you will need to solder leads onto the switch)
Pin 3: Connect the 470 resistor to an used block of 5 holes, then Connect an
LED (any colour) from that block to 0V (short lead to 0V).
Pin 4: Connect a wire (red) to +9V.
Pin 5: Connect the 0.01 F capacitor to 0V.
Pin 6: Connect the 100 F capacitor to 0V (+ lead to pin 6). Connect a wire
(blue) to Pin 7: Connect 47k resistor to +9V.
Check: there should be a wire already connected to pin 6.
Pin 8: Connect a wire (red) to +9V.

105
Figure 5.4Timer circuit on bread board
Check all the connections carefully.
Check that parts are the correct way round (LEDand 100 Fcapacitor).
(unless they connect tothe same block).
Connect the breadboard to a 9V supply and press the push switch to test the
circuit.
Strip board has parallel strips of copper track on one side. The tracks are 0.1"
(2.54mm) apart and there are holes every 0.1" (2.54mm). Strip board is used to
make up permanent, soldered circuits. It is ideal for small circuits with one or two
ICs (chips) but with the large number of holes it is very easy to connect a
component in the wrong place. For large, complex circuits it is usually best to use a
printed circuit board (PCB) if you can buy or make one. Strip board requires no
special preparation other than cutting to size. It can be cut with a junior hacksaw, or
simply snap it along the lines of holes by putting it over the edge of a bench or table
and pushing hard, but take care because this needs a fairly large force and the
edges will be rough. You may need to use a large pair of pliers to nibble away any
jagged parts. Avoid handling strip board that you are not planning to use
immediately because sweat fromyour hands will corrode the copper tracks and this
will make soldering difficult. If the copper looks dull, or you can clearly see finger
marks, clean the tracks with fine emery paper, a PCBrubber or a dry kitchen scrub

Check that noleads are touching

5.4. StripBoards
9V
Power
Supply
106
before you start soldering. Figure 5.5 shows a typical small strip board that is
commonly used for simple circuits.
Components are placed on the non-copper side, then the strip board is turned over
to solder the component leads to the copper tracks. Strip board layouts are shown
from the component side, so the tracks are out of sight under the board. Layouts
are normally shown with the tracks running across the diagram.
Placing components on strip board requires care. The large number of holes
means it is very easy to make a mistake! For most small circuits the best method is
to very carefully place the IC holder(s) in the correct position and solder in place.
Then you can position all the other components relative tothe ICholder(s).
Converting a circuit diagram to a strip board layout is not straightforward because
the arrangement of components is quite different. Concentrate on the connections
between components, not their positions on the circuit diagram. Collect all the parts
you will be using in the circuit so you can use a piece of strip board to work out the
minimum space they require. For some components (such as IC holders) the
space required is fixed, but for others you can increase the space to obtain a better
layout. space required is fixed, but for others you can increase the space to obtain a
better layout. For example most resistors require at least 3 hole-spacings if they
are tolie flat on the board, but they can easily span across a greater distance. If
horizontally
5.6. Planninga stripboardlayout
Figure 5.5 Small strip board.
5.5. Placing Components on Strip board.
107
necessary resistors can be mounted vertically between adjacent tracks (0.1"
spacing) as shown in the diagram. This arrangement can help to produce a simpler
layout but the tracks are more likely to be damaged if the resistor is knocked. If you
are designing a strip board layout for a serious long-termpurpose it is best to mount
all resistors horizontally. Plan the layout with a pencil and paper (or on computer if
you have suitable software) and check your plan very carefully against the circuit
diagrambefore you attempt to solder any part of the circuit. The planning process
is explained using figure 5.6. The circuit diagram is the starting point for any strip
board layout, even if you have already built a trial circuit on breadboard.
Figure 5.6. Astable Circuit Diagram
Place the ICholder near the center of your planning sheet with pin 1 at the top left
(as in the diagram). You may find it helpful tonumber the pins.
2. Mark breaks in each track under the IC holder with a cross (X). The breaks
prevent opposite pins of the IC being connected together. The track beside each
pin of the ICis connected tothat pin, the diagramshows this for pins 3 and 6.
3. Mark the power supply tracks +Vs and 0V, choose tracks which are 2 or 3 spaces
above and belowthe ICholder as shown in the diagram.
4. Nowadd the wire links. Drawa 'blob' diagram at each end of a link. The links are
vertical because the strip board tracks make the horizontal connections. Tinned
copper wire (with no insulation) can be used for these links unless there is a risk of
them touching other wires (in which case use single core insulated wire). Work
bund the ICpin-by-pin frompin 1.
1.
R1
R2
C1
R3
Vs
0V
555
timer
2
6
7
8 4
3
1
+
108
Draw all the (+Vs and 0V). The diagram shows
pin 1 connected to0Vand pins 4 and 8 connected to+Vs.
Drawany links required of the IC. There are none
in the example, but these links are straightforward toadd.
require more thought. If the pins happen
to
direct links to the supply tracks
between pins on the same side
Links to pins on the other side of the IC
be opposite one another you can erase the track break (X) between them. Otherwise
the pins can be linked by connecting both of them to an unused track above or below
the IC. The diagram shows pins 2 and 6 linked in this way. Another method is to link
themwith insulated wire bent around the IC
Layout step 1
Layout step 2
The four tracks must be
broken under t he chi p
holder; marked with a cross x
this track if for + Vs
this track if for 0 Vs
this track is for + Vs
this track is for 0 Vs
R3
R1
R2
C1
LED
555
109
Layout step 3
Layout step 4
5. Add components which will be mounted on the strip board such as resistors,
capacitors and diodes. Make sure you allow for their size which determines the
minimumnumber of holes, and sometimes the maximumas well. This is usually the
most difficult stage of planning a layout so expect to change your plan several
times! Remember to label the components, otherwise it will become confusing
once there are several on the plan. connections which do not involve the IC are
made using an unused track.
this track is for + Vs
this track is for 0 Vs
R3
R1
R2
C1
LED
555
red wire
to + Vs
black wire
to OV
this track is for + Vs
this track is for 0 Vs
R3
R1
R2
C1
LED
555
red wire
to + Vs
black wire
to OV
110
An alternative arrangements using the links you have already made. Tthe
LED needs to connect to 0V but it is a long stretch to the 0V track. It is easier to
connect the LED to the same track as pin 1 of the IC because that track is already
connected to 0Vby a wire link. Resistor R2 needs to connect frompin 7 to pin 6 and
it could do this directly by mounting it vertically. However, it has been connected
frompin 7 to the track used to link pins 2 and 6, the extra space this gives allows R2
tolie horizontally on the board.
6. Add wires to components which will be off the strip board such as switches.
These should normally be on the left and right at the edges of the board. Start by
adding the battery clip or power supply leads to the +Vs and 0Vtracks. Connections
for the other off-board components are usually easy because you do not need to
allowfor their size, just drawwires tothe correct tracks.
7. Check your plan very carefully by checking every connection shown on the circuit
diagram. A good way to do this is to work round the IC pin-by-pin. Check all the
connections and components connected topin 1, then move on topin 2, and so on.
8. Look for ways to improve your plan. For example it may be possible to eliminate
an unused track by moving a supply track nearer to the IC - but make sure there is
still sufficient space for the components. It may also be possible to move links and
components closer to the IC horizontally to make the area of board required a little
smaller. Unused tracks above and below the IC have been eliminated in the
example. This affected two components, resistor R1 and capacitor C1, but both will
still fit in the reduced space.
Layout step 5
9. Finally, check your plan again and make a neat copy fully labeled with all the
component references or values. Work out the size of strip board required. Notice
that an extra hole has been allowed on the left and right toavoid soldering at the end
R3
R1
R2
C1
LED
555
red wire
to + Vs
black wire
to OV
8 tracks (strips) x 20 holes
111
of a track. Joints made at the end of a track are likely to break because the small
piece of track beyond the last hole easily breaks away fromthe board. The process
explained above give the outlines and steps to follow when developing the outline
of a given electronic circuit. Apart from the small strip board here are some other
boards used in electronic circuit construction and fabrication.
112
5.7. ReadingElectronicPrints, Diagrams andSchematics
To properly read prints and schematics, we must identify the condition of the
components shown and also follow the events that occur as the circuit functions.
Electronic schematics are more difficult to read than electrical schematics,
especially when solid state devices are used. Knowledge of the workings of
these devices is necessary to determine current flow. The first observation in
dealing with a detailed electronic schematic is the source and polarity of power.
Generally, power will be shown one of two ways, either as an input transformer, or
as a numerical value. When power is supplied by a transformer, polarity
marks will aid in determining current flow. In this convention, dots on the primary
and secondary indicate current flow into the primary and out of the secondary at a
given instant of time. Figure 5.7 shows a circuit schematic showing power supply
connections +15.0v and -15.0v.
Figure 5.7 Schematic Showing Power Supply Connections
In any circuit, a ground must be established to
create a complete current path.
R10
+15.0V
150W
RB
1.5K
RB
1.5K
Cr1
MZ8.2
CRS
IN277
CRB
IN277
C1
50 f m
+
_
R1
100W Q1
2N479A
Q2
2N179
R4
150W
INPUT
R2
250 POT W
CR2 IN1530A
R6 150W
CR4
MZ12
RS
77W
R7
177W
R3
R11
4.7K
R12
330W
500 POT W
CR3
IN1530A
R13
3.3W
CRB
MZ3.9
R15
300W
R14
1.5K
CR7
IN157
RELAY
K1
04
2N672
03
2N396
113
Ground is usually depicted by the use of the ground symbol that was shown
previously. The direction of current flow can be determined by observing the
polarity of the power supplies. When polarities are shown, current flow can be
established and ground may not always be shown. With the power sources located
and the ground point established, operation of the devices can be determined. The
most common semiconductor devices are the transistor and the diode. They are
made from materials like silicone and germanium, and have electrical
properties intermediate between conductors and insulators. The semiconductor
will be one of two varieties, the PNPor NPN. The designation indicates the direction
the electrons move through the device. Even though transistors contain multiple
junctions of p- or n-type material, current flow is generally in the same
direction. Using conventional current flow(i.e. from+to-), current will travel
Figure 5.8. (a) conducting, (b) non conducting transistors.
(a)
(b)
INPUT
POWER
CURRENT FLOW
EMITTER
BASE
JUNCTION
INPUT
POWER
NO CURRENT FLOW
EMITTER
BASE
JUNCTION
114
through the transistor frommost positive to least positive and in the direction of the
arrowon the emitter. In Figure 5.8a, the transistor has a positive power supply with
ground on the emitter. If the input is also positive, the transistor will conduct. If the
input goes negative, as in Figure 5.8b, the conduction of the device stops because
the input, or in this case the base junction, controls the transistor condition. Notice
that when current flows, it does so in the direction of the arrow. The same rules that
apply to transistors hold true with diodes. However, diodes are simpler than
transistors because they have only one junction and conduct in only one direction.
Note these simple rules will not allowyou to read all electronic schematics, they will
aid in understanding some of the basic concepts.
To assist in your understanding of reading symbols and schematics, answer
the following questions:
Using figure 5.7 attempt answering the following questions;
1a. List the number which corresponds to Coil or inductor, PNP
transistor, diode, positive power supply, fixed resistor, capacitor, NPN, transistor,
variable resistor, negative power supply, circuit ground, potentiometer.
b. What is the value of R13? (Include units)
c. With the input to Q1 at -15 volts, will the transistor be conducting or
nonconducting?
Give reasons for your answer.
d. What is the value of C1? (Include units)
2.
Figure 5.9.
these components;
Use Figure 5.9 and 5.10 toanswer the following:
1-5VDC
INPUT INPUT
+15
+
-
U
2
-15
CR
3
R
13
R
14
O
2
O
3
R
20
C
7
R
12
1W
R
11
15
R
1
250W
R
L
24VDC
CR
4
9
115
figure 5.10 100Winverter.
Howmany resistors are there in the circuit?
b. Howmany transistors are there? , are they PNPor NPNtransistors?
c. What is Cr4?
d. Howmany power supplies are there feeding the circuit and its components?
e. Howmany capacitors are in the circuit?
f. Will conduct when the output of U2 is a positive or negative voltage?
5.8. ReadingLogicDiagrams
When reading logic prints we must decide the input values to each gate. But
occasionally the print will provide information as to the normal state of each logic
gate. This is denoted by a symbol similar to the bistable symbol. The symbol is
drawn so that the first part of the square wave indicates the normal state of the gate.
The second part of the square wave indicates the off-normal state of the gate.
Reading a logic diagramthat does not provide information on the status of the gates
is not any more difficult. It simply requires the reader to choose the initial
conditions, determine the response of the circuits, and modify the inputs as needed.
+12V C2
220uF
50V
Q5
R7
0.1 Ohm
5 Watt
R6
0.1 Ohm
5 Watt
F1
10A
Fuse
12
0
T1
220 V
AC out
12
D1
BY 127
D2
9.1V
4 5 6
Q1
Q6
R2
4.7K
IC1 = CD4047
3
2
10
IC1
11
7 8 9
1
250K
0.022uF
C1
R1
4.7K
R3
Q1 & Q2 = TIR122
Q3 Io Q4= 2N3055
Q2
100W INVERTER
0.1 Ohm
R5
5 Watt Q3
R4
0.1 Ohm
5 Watt
Q4
116
Figure 5.11. Example of a Logic Print
Logic diagrams and prints can be used to depict several types of information. The
most common use is to provide a simplified functional representation of an
electrical circuit, as illustrated in Figure 5.11. it is easier and faster to understand
how a valve functions and responds to various inputs signals by representing a
valve circuit using logic symbols, than by using the electrical schematic with its
complex relays and contacts. Note that these drawings do not replace schematics,
but they are easier touse for certain applications.
Why Read Electrical Electronic Diagrams
It is absolutely essential that personnel in the electrical or electronic profession be
able to "read" (interpret) various types of electrical diagrams. Each of the various
diagrams has a specific purpose and distinguishing features that set it apart from
the others. The diagrams may be used for the following purposes:
O
b
D
d
B
A
C
D
E
e
G
F
f
g

117
To learn a specific systemoperation
To locate the components of a system
To identify the components of a system
To trace a circuit
The troubleshoot equipment
The repair equipment.
118