Professional Documents
Culture Documents
RESEARCH DIGEST
JULY 2005
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The contents of the Transportation Research Digest reflect the views of the authors who
are responsible for the facts and the accuracy of the data presented. The contents do not
necessarily reflect the official views or policies of the Institute
.
2
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A “Topic” code in the Table of Contents will help readers more quickly identify items of
interest. The topic codes are explained in the table below.
3
Code Topic Code Topic
ADM Administration PLAN Planning
AIRP Airports PRIV Privatization
AVIA Aviation RAIL Railroads
BICY Bicycles RDSD Roadside
CON Construction ROW Right-of-Way
ECON Economics SAFE Safety
ENV Environment STR Structures
FIN Finance TECH Technology
INOV Innovations TOLL Toll Roads
MAIN Maintenance TRAN Transit
MISC Miscellaneous TRF Traffic
MVD Motor Vehicle Dept TRK Trucking
PAVE Pavement VEH Vehicles
Thank you.
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ECON/ Per Mile Costs of Operating Automobiles and Trucks in Transportation 9-10
vehicle Research Record 1864 by Gary Barnes and Peter Langworthy, Humphrey
cost/mile Institute of Public Affairs, University of Minnesota, 301 19th Avenue South,
Minneapolis, MN 55455 (Transportation Research Board, 2101 Constitution
Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418; ph. 202-334-2934;
http://www.national-academies.org/trb/bookstore) (2004) Tables of costs are
presented.
ENV/ Evaluating Speed Differences Between Passenger Vehicles and Heavy Trucks 11-12
modeling for Transportation-Related Emissions Modeling by Shauna L. Hallmark,
Hillary Isebrands (Center for Transportation Research and Education, Iowa
State University, 2901 South Loop Drive, Suite 3100, Ames, IA 50010-8634;
http://www.ctre.iastate.edu/reports/truck_speed.pdf) (July 2004) Emission
differences are more pronounced in the lower speeds for all pollutants.
ENV/ Smog Hits a Record Low by Joel Schwartz (American Enterprise Institute, 13-14
air Client Distribution Services, 193 Edwards Drive, Jackson, TN 38301; 800-343-
quality 4499; http://www.aei.org/docLib/20041025_OTI2graphics.pdf) (Oct 2004)
Data undermines the claim that urban “sprawl” increases air pollution.
FIN/ Liberating the Roads by Gabriel Roth (Cato Institute, 1000 Massachusetts 15-16
turnback Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20001; (202) 842-0200;
http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa538.pdf) (March 17, 2005) Congress should
liberate the roads by passing turnback legislation.
PAVE/ A Mechanistic Approach to Evaluate Contribution of Prime and Tack Coat in 17-18
asphalt Composite Asphalt Pavements by A. A. Tayebali, M. S. Rahman, M. B.
Kulkarni, Q. Xu, North Carolina State University, Dept. of Civil Engineering,
Campus Box 7908, Raleigh, NC 27695 (North Carolina Department of
Transportation, Research and Analysis Group, 1 South Wilmington Street,
Raleigh, NC 27601) (Jun 2004) This research study provides a methodology
and design guide based on mechanistic analysis to select appropriate tack or
prime coat for given field conditions.
5
PLAN/ Evaluating Design-Build vs. Traditional Contracting Methods for STIP 21-22
design- Projects by Dr. Peter Martin, Abhro Mitra, Alexander Stevanovic (Utah
build Department of Transportation, 4501 South 2700 West-Box 148410, Salt Lake
City, Utah 84114-8410; http://www.udot.utah.gov/download.php/tid=851/UT-
04.21%20Final_Report.pdf) (July 2004) The fast track method saves
significantly in delay costs when compared to the traditional build method.
PLAN/ A Guide for Achieving Flexibility in Highway Design (American Association 23-24
highway of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 444 North Capitol Street, N.W.,
design Suite 249 Washington, D.C. 20001; (202) 624-5800 www.transportation.org)
(May 2004) Context sensitive design involves a collaborative, interdisciplinary
approach in which citizens are part of the design team.
PLAN/ How Urban Planners Cause Congestion and Death in Liberty by Randal 25-26
traffic O’Toole and Michael Cunneen (Liberty Foundation, 1018 Water St., #201, Port
calming Townsend, WA 98368; 360-379-0242) (Feb 2005) One-way streets are safer,
for both auto users and pedestrians.
SAFE/ Development of Guidelines for Identifying and Treating Locations with a 27-28
red light Red-Light-Running Problem by James Bonneson and Karl Zimmerman, Texas
running Transportation Institute, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843-
3135 (Texas Department of Transportation, Research and Technology
Implementation Office P. O. Box 5080, Austin, Texas 78763-5080; ph. 979-
845-1713; http://tti.tamu.edu/documents/0-4196-2.pdf) (Aug 2004) Red-light-
related crashes tend to be at a minimum value when the clearance time is about
2.5 seconds.
SAFE/ The Impact of Driver Cell Phone Use on Accidents by Robert W. Hahn & 31-32
cell James E. Prieger (American Enterprise Institute, Client Distribution Services,
phone 193 Edwards Drive, Jackson, TN 38301; 800-343-4499;
http://www.aei.org/publications/pubID.21405,filter./pub_detail.asp) (July 2004)
There is no significant impact of a cell phone ban or a hands-free requirement
on accidents.
6
SAFE/ Impact of Left-Turn Phasing on Older and Younger Drivers at High-Speed 33-34
left turn Signalized Intersections by Shauna L. Hallmark and Kim Mueller (Center for
Transportation Research and Education, Iowa State University, 2901 South
Loop Drive, Suite 3100, Ames, IA 50010-8634;
http://www.ctre.iastate.edu/reports/protect_permit.pdf) (Aug 2004) Protected
phasing is much safer than protected/permitted and permitted phasing.
SAFE/ Median Crossover Accident Analyses and the Effectiveness of Median 35-36
median Barriers by Venky Shankar, Songrit Chayanan, Sittipan Sittkariya, Ming-Bang
crossover Shyu, Gudmundur Ulfarsson, Naveen Kumar Juvva, Washington State
Transportation Center (TRAC), University of Washington, Box 354802,
University District Building; 1107 NE 45th Street, Suite 535, Seattle,
Washington 98105-4631 (Research Office, Washington State Department of
Transportation, Transportation Building, MS 47370, Olympia, Washington
98504-7370; Kathy Lindquist, Project Manager, 360-705-7976) (Aug 2004)
Injury profiles on sections with barriers were not significantly different from
those without barriers.
SAFE/ Supplemental Transportation Programs for Seniors (AAA Foundation for 37-38
older Traffic Safety, 607 14th Street, NW, Suite 201, Washington, DC 20005; 202
drivers 638-5944; http://www.aaafoundation.org/pdf/STP2.pdf) (July 2004) Thousands
of supplemental transportation programs (STPs) are operating throughout the
country.
SAFE/ Traffic Safety Facts: Pedestrians (National Highway Traffic Safety 39-40
ped Administration, National Center for Statistics and Analysis, 400 Seventh St.,
S.W., Washington, D.C. 20590) (2004) Pedestrian fatalities have decreased by
16% over the last decade.
TRAN/ Evaluating Public Transit Benefits and Costs by Todd Litman (Victoria 43-44
cost/ Transport Policy Institute, 1250 Rudlin Street, Victoria, BC, V8V 3R7,
benefit CANADA; www.vtpLorg; info@vtpLorg; 250-360-1560) (Oct 2004) A
significant portion of users either cannot drive or lack access to an automobile.
7
TRAN/ Performance-Based Measures in Transit Fund Allocation, TCRP Synthesis 45-46
perform 56, by Robert G. Stanley and Patricia G. Hendren (Transportation Research
Board, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418; ph. 202-
334-2934; http://www.national-academies.org/trb/bookstore) (2004) There
appears to be a high level of stability and limited impetus for change in fund
allocation processes and the measures and factors currently in place.
TRAN/ Report Card for Sound Transit by Emory Bundy, ebundy@nwlink.com (The 47-48
perform Coalition for Effective Transportation Alternatives, P.O. Box 33045, Seattle
WA 98133; 206 368-0814; www.effectivetransportation.org (April 2005) The
region is destined to spend more and more money for extravagant transit
options, higher per-trip costs, with diminished transit market share.
TRF/ Effects of Increased U-Turns at Intersections on Divided Facilities & Median 49-50
u-turns Divided vs. Five-Lane Undivided Benefits by Stacie L. Phillips, Daniel L.
Carter, Joseph E. Hummer, Robert S. Foyle, North Carolina State University,
Dept. of Civil, Construction, & Environmental Eng. & ITRE, Campus Box
7908, Raleigh, NC 27695 (North Carolina Department of Transportation,
Research and Analysis Group, 1 South Wilmington Street, Raleigh, NC 27601)
(Aug 2004) The raised median design was associated with fewer collisions.
8
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH DIGEST
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Per Mile Costs of Operating Automobiles and Trucks in Transportation Research Record 1864 by
Gary Barnes and Peter Langworthy, Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs, University of Minnesota,
301 19th Avenue South, Minneapolis, MN 55455 (Transportation Research Board, 2101
Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418; ph. 202-334-2934; http://www.national-
academies.org/trb/bookstore) (2004).
9
and indirect costs and that the truck travels 1 mi unlikely to be greatly influenced by increasing
in 1 min leads to a result of 50 cents per mile in congestion levels, beyond what is already due
driver costs. The variable cost of 43 cents is to city driving conditions.
33% of the non-driver total cost of $1.30. That Table 4 shows per mile costs given
compares quite precisely with automobile extremely rough pavement (PSI = 2), again
variable costs, which at 15 cents per mile are with other assumptions the same as the
33% of a typical “total” operating cost of 45 baseline. A PSI of 3.5 is used as the baseline,
cents per mile, as cited, for example, in so roughness levels between these extremes
American Automobile Association brochures. could be evaluated by interpolation. Pavement
Table 3 shows per mile costs given for smoother than PSI of 3.5 will not further reduce
city rather than highway conditions, with other costs; pavement rougher than PSI of 2 (or
assumptions the same. Projects with a mix of unpaved roads) could use higher multipliers.
highway and city conditions could be analyzed To incorporate both rough pavement
using costs in between those in Tables 2 and 3. and city driving conditions at the same time,
Projects involving extreme congestion levels the appropriate marginal increases due to each
could use fuel costs that are even higher than factor should both be added to the baseline cost
those in Table 3. However, other costs appear estimates.
10
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Evaluating Speed Differences Between Passenger Vehicles and Heavy Trucks for
Transportation-Related Emissions Modeling by Shauna L. Hallmark, Hillary Isebrands (Center for
Transportation Research and Education, Iowa State University, 2901 South Loop Drive, Suite 3100,
Ames, IA 50010-8634; http://www.ctre.iastate.edu/reports/truck_speed.pdf) (July 2004)
11
speeds were lower than passenger vehicle speeds, using the average speed for passenger
speeds for all arterial segments in Des Moines. vehicles at 26 mph to estimate heavy-truck
Average speed differences ranged from 0.8 emissions would result in emission rates that
mph to 15.1 mph; although, not all differences are 66%, 14%, and 47% lower for CO, NOx,
were at the 95% confidence level. Average and VOC than the actual emission rates would
speeds for passenger vehicles were higher than be if trucks speeds were modeled separately at
average speeds for heavy trucks for all 16 mph.
segments in Minneapolis/St. Paul, with Significant differences in heavy-truck
differences ranging from 5.9 mph to 11.4 mph. speeds were found at a number of the locations
All differences were significant at the 5% level studied. Most data were collected during off-
of significance. peak conditions, but higher volumes and
Spot speeds for heavy trucks were also congestion occurred at three locations.
lower than for passenger vehicles in all cases. Significant congestion and/or significant idling
Passenger vehicle speeds were higher and time at intersections would tend to minimize
statistically different from heavy-duty truck differences in average speeds between the two
spot speeds at the 95% confidence level for all vehicle classes. However, emission differences
Des Moines locations except for the I-35 site. are more pronounced in the lower speeds for all
Heavy-truck speeds were 0.8 mph to 6.1 mph pollutants.
lower than passenger vehicle speeds. Spot Whether heavy-truck and passenger vehicle
speeds for passenger vehicles were also higher average speeds should be modeled separately
than for heavy trucks for all Minneapolis/St. and whether data should be collected to
Paul locations. Speed differences ranged from determine speed differences depends on the
0.2 mph to 3.9 mph; although, not all individual situation. However, the conclusion
differences were statistically significant. of this research is that heavy trucks and
The impact that differences in on-road passenger vehicles operate differently on the
speeds would have on emissions was also road. Differences could have consequences for
evaluated using MOBILE6.2. Misspecification project level and regional emissions modeling
of average truck speed is the most significant at particularly since the ability to demonstrate
lower and higher speed ranges. For instance, if conformity is based on the ability to correctly
average speeds for heavy trucks were actually estimate and model vehicle activity.
10 mph lower than average passenger vehicle
12
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Smog Hits a Record Low by Joel Schwartz (American Enterprise Institute, Client Distribution
Services, 193 Edwards Drive, Jackson, TN 38301; 800-343-4499;
http://www.aei.org/docLib/20041025_OTI2graphics.pdf) (Oct 2004)
13
14
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Liberating the Roads by Gabriel Roth (Cato Institute, 1000 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20001; (202) 842-0200; http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa538.pdf) (March 17,
2005)
15
nonroad “enhancements” to address projects, their roads, whereas others might prefer to
such as bicycle and pedestrian facilities, commercialize them. New approaches to
historic preservation, and scenic easements. highway concessions could be tested.
Federal regulations and programs make Electronic road-pricing technology would
building roads more expensive. First, federal enable road providers, whether in the public or
specifications for road construction can be private sector, to get their roads paid for
higher, and therefore more expensive, than directly by road users, without the need to levy
state standards. Second, states are required to fuel surcharges or annual license fees.
adopt federal regulations, such as the Davis- States fully responsible for their own
Bacon and ‘Buy America’ provisions, which roads would have stronger incentives to ensure
can raise highway costs substantially. Davis- that funds paid by road users were spent
Bacon rules, by themselves, can increase efficiently. For example, in the absence of
project costs by anywhere between 5 and 38%. federal grants for new construction, some states
Third, there are significant administrative costs could prefer to better manage and maintain
to sending tax money from the states to the their existing roads rather than build new ones.
federal government and then back to the states. Others might find ways to encourage the
Total expenditures (federal, state and local) on private sector to assume more of the burden of
“Administration and Research” at the road provision-for example, by contracting
establishment of the Highway Trust Fund in with private firms to maintain their roads to
1956 were 6.8% of construction costs, and in designated standards or to provide new roads.
2002 they were 17.0%. This suggests that Some states might stop discriminating against
federal financing increased these expenditures. privately provided roads, most of which are
Furthermore, in the period 1956-2002, currently ineligible to receive funding from the
construction expenditures (not adjusted for federal Highway Trust Fund although their
inflation) increased 12-fold, but administration users pay the required federal taxes.
and research expenditures increased 35-fold. New arrangements would be noticed by
Ralph Stanley, the entrepreneur who other states, and those that brought
conceived and launched the Dulles Greenway-- improvements could be copied, while failed
a 14-mile privately provided toll road from reforms could be avoided. In time, road users
Dulles airport to Leesburg in Northern would get better value for their money, and
Virginia--estimated that federal regulations some would even get the road services they
increased project costs by 20%. Robert Farris, were prepared to pay for, while their states
who was commissioner of the Tennessee could expend their scarce resources on
Department of Transportation (1981-1985) and activities such as public safety, which could not
Federal Highway Administrator (1987-1989) be made commercially viable.
suggested that federal regulations increase costs Yet much of this is impossible or
by 30%. discouraged under the current system of federal
Turnback legislation would enable each financing of roads. Instead of haggling over
state to finance its roads in accordance with the how to tweak a broken system, Congress
wishes of its voters. Some might follow the should let the current transportation
example of Oregon and develop road financing authorization expire and liberate the roads by
methods that do not rely on the taxation of fuel. passing turnback legislation.
Some might wish to retain political control of
16
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A Mechanistic Approach to Evaluate Contribution of Prime and Tack Coat in Composite Asphalt
Pavements by A. A. Tayebali, M. S. Rahman, M. B. Kulkarni, Q. Xu, North Carolina State
University, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Campus Box 7908, Raleigh, NC 27695 (North Carolina
Department of Transportation, Research and Analysis Group, 1 South Wilmington Street, Raleigh,
NC 27601) (Jun 2004)
17
asphalt in CMS-2 emulsion had a SuperpaveTM usually used on subgrades, subbases and
grading of PG52 as compared to asphalt cement aggregate bases. However, in this study CTB
that was PG64 (higher viscosity); and 2) the was used as it was not possible to determine the
rate of application was same for both tack coat, bond strength with sub grade or subbase due to
and therefore the amount of residual asphalt in their low stiffness. Results of the analysis
CMS-2 is less. conducted in this study shows that CSS-1h
On the other hand, for PCC-AC performs better than the other two emulsions.
composite pavement, the CMS-2 emulsion Mechanistic analysis indicates that, in general,
performs better relative to the PG64-22. The a prime coat must be used to counteract
reason for this behavior is attributed to the induced shear stresses and hence prevent
imperviousness of the PCC layer. It appears delamination when the AC overlay thickness is
that a higher amount of PG64-22 actually less than 3.5 to 4 inches. These results support
enables the slippage between layers to occur current construction practices followed by
more readily giving poor bond strength. It is, Georgia, New Jersey, and Missouri.
therefore, apparent that the application rate of Finally, this research study provides a
tack coat plays a very important role. Too much methodology and design guide based on
will not only lead to delamination but may also mechanistic analysis to select appropriate tack
result in bleeding of asphalt on the surface. or prime coat for given field conditions. Based
With respect to prime coats, three were on the AC layer thickness a suitable tack or
evaluated in this study - CSS-lh, EPR-I, and prime coat can be chosen (or vice versa in some
EA-P. All three are on the NCDOT approved cases) to minimize the delamination distress.
list. It should be noted here that prime coats are
18
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Substantive Limits Such as uncertainty erodes a healthy business climate.
Determinations of Blight Not Effectively In fact, one of the justifications for using
Limiting Eminent Domain. Little evidence eminent domain is to allow local officials to
suggested either site “impairs or arrests” reduce uncertainty for their client.
economic growth in their respective areas of Yet, public officials following this line
the city. Moreover, these properties did not of reasoning are missing the forest for the trees.
constitute a “menace” to the community. Both Cities develop as a result of hundreds, and
cities adopted such broad criteria for what often thousands, of investment decisions, not
constituted a redevelopment area or blight that just the chosen few selected to participate in a
private ownership of property had no development project. The decisions are made
substantive restraining power on local by small and big businesses alike. Eminent
government’s authority to seize property. As a domain destabilizes the investment climate for
result, private property owners have virtually everyone except those negotiating directly with
no ability to check abuses of eminent domain, the city for a piece of the development project.
including the ability of private investors to Even in these cases, investors cannot be certain
seize private property for personal gain. their investment and property are safe. If the
Eminent Domain Serving Private Gain. neighborhood or commercial area continues to
Since the public planning process is decline, or fails to achieve the investment
subordinate to facilitating the expansion of a objectives established by the redevelopment
select set of private companies, the primary plan, their property rights will be at risk as
benefits of redevelopment accrue to the private well. In fact, based on the conventional wisdom
investors. In Mesa’s case, the public benefits in the economic development community,
were small. The city justified its role in the cities would be obligated to reinitiate the
redevelopment process based on sales tax redevelopment process, putting each property
revenue, not whether the project achieves the at risk again. Few people will invest in homes
basic goals of the redevelopment plan. or small businesses if they are unsure if they
The implications for urban development will be in the home or neighborhood for long.
are much broader than the impact on the Yet, this is the climate the broad-based use of
property owners targeted in these cases. eminent domain for redevelopment purposes
Economic development policy is essentially an creates.
ongoing stream of negotiations between public Cities increasingly think of
officials and private developers. In the long redevelopment as large-scale, comprehensive
run, this approach undermines the climate for projects. Under this framework, an incremental
private investment in urban areas. approach to redevelopment is discouraged even
Private investment requires a reasonable when a project’s timetable for completion
expectation of return on investment. This (build out) may be 10 or 15 years. An alternate
expectation can only occur in a business approach is to look for more incremental and
climate with established and respected rules for property-rights-friendly approaches to
investment. Planners and economic redevelopment.
development specialists understand that
20
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Evaluating Design-Build vs. Traditional Contracting Methods for STIP Projects by Dr. Peter
Martin, Abhro Mitra, Alexander Stevanovic (Utah Department of Transportation, 4501 South 2700
West-Box 148410, Salt Lake City, Utah 84114-8410;
http://www.udot.utah.gov/download.php/tid=851/UT-04.21%20Final_Report.pdf) (July 2004)
21
range for both time periods; the AM is within project, the delay cost savings for FT is $7.2
320-440 and the PM is within 350-500. This is million when compared to TB; for the 7800
due to the fact that, since I-215 is an interstate, South project it is $5.4 million and for I-215 it
the travel demand is equal during the day and is $2 million.
night. In terms of absolute value, the VHD for From this study it can be seen that the
this project is 1/10 of the VHD for the other FT method saves significantly in delay costs
two projects. The average second delay for I- when compared to the TB method. The delay
215 is the lowest among all the projects for all savings observed at 700 East is significant and
the scenarios. With the FT method, a lower it is highly recommended that this project be
second delay is observed for all the projects. done using the FT method. Also, it is
For the 700 East project, the savings in second recommended that the construction be done in
delay with FT compared to TB is 0.91; for the off peak periods and definitely not during
7800 South it is 0.7 and for I-215 it is 0.35. The the PM peak. The highest impact will be due to
FT method results in significant savings in the 700 East and 7800 South projects, followed
delay cost for all the projects. For the 700 East by the State St. and 10600 S and I-215 projects.
22
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A Guide for Achieving Flexibility in Highway Design (American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials, 444 North Capitol Street, N.W., Suite 249 Washington, D.C. 20001;
(202) 624-5800 www.transportation.org) (May 2004)
23
objective being the completion of projects that may be jointly used by motorists, pedestrians,
meet transportation needs and are viewed as cyclists, and public transit vehicles. In addition
improvements or enhancements to the to the movement of people, CSS also considers
community through preservation efforts and the distribution of goods and the provision of
sensitivity to local values. CSS recognizes the essential services.
need to consider that transportation corridors
24
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How Urban Planners Cause Congestion and Death in Liberty by Randal O’Toole and Michael
Cunneen (Liberty Foundation, 1018 Water St., #201, Port Townsend, WA 98368; 360-379-0242)
(Feb 2005).
25
highways during peak periods, so when a new auto flows through various forms of so-called
highway did open, it was almost immediately traffic calming. This means putting barriers in
congested as people changed times, routes, or roads that force cars to slow down or turning
modes. This led to the myth that “building one-way streets back to two-way operation.
roads simply leads to more driving,” when in Planners argue that converting one-way
fact the increased driving was taking place to two-way streets will make them more
whether the new roads were built or not -- just pedestrian friendly and better for business. Not
not at times or on routes most convenient to surprisingly, they offer no evidence for these
drivers. claims, since they were disproved by engineers
One result of the increasing criticism of 50 years ago. But few people remembered the
the automobile was that transportation benefits gained from converting two-way to
engineers lost the favor of city officials. one-way streets, so many believed the planners.
Elected officials turned instead to urban Conversions are costly in terms of
planners, who promised a more holistic view of accidents, congestion, and pollution. Austin
transportation. planners admit that their plan of converting
Urban planners wanted to “revitalize” nine streets will increase traffic delays by 23%
downtowns by closing streets to auto traffic and and downtown air pollution by 10% to 13%.
turning them into pedestrian malls to compete On just about any ground imaginable --
with suburban shopping malls. Far from safety, congestion, pollution, and effects on
revitalizing retail districts, most of the most businesses -- one-way grids and one-way
pedestrian malls killed them. Vacancy rates couplets are superior to two-way streets for
soared. By 2002, more than three out of four moving people and vehicles. The idea that
pedestrian malls had been partly or entirely building pedestrian-deadly environments can
reopened to traffic. In most cases, this led to an create pedestrian-friendly neighborhoods is a
immediate and often dramatic decline in retail planning fantasy. Cities that want to create
vacancy rates. livable, safe environments for pedestrians and
Why did it take planners 15 years to businesses should return transportation
realize that pedestrian malls rarely worked? planning to the engineers, whose programs are
Why did it take another 20 years for most cities grounded in reality, not fantasy. In the long run,
to reopen their streets to autos? One answer is American cities need to rethink their support
that planners are resistant to reality. They told for urban planning. Why should cities employ
themselves and everyone else that their projects members of a profession that advocates policies
were successful no matter how badly they that reduce safety, increase pollution, and waste
turned out in reality. people’s time? It is time to return to the
Having failed in their efforts to close methods and vision of the engineer.
streets to autos, planners began trying to reduce
26
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27
clearance time is about 2.5 s. This time of ratios yields minimal violations,
corresponds to clearance path widths of regardless of speed, path length, yellow
110, 120, 150, and 165 ft for speed duration, heavy-vehicle percentage,
limits of 30, 35, 40, and 45 mph, cycle length, phase duration, or traffic
respectively. volume.
o Area-wide officer enforcement of o Enforcement efforts are likely to reduce
intersection traffic control devices will violations occurring primarily in the
reduce red-light-related crashes by 6.4% first few seconds of red and, therefore,
during the time of the enforcement should significantly reduce left-turn-
activity. opposed crashes. In an indirect manner,
these efforts should also reduce some
o Heavy vehicle operators are more than
right-angle crashes by encouraging
twice as likely to run the red indication
driver compliance with the signal. In
as passenger car drivers.
contrast, engineering countermeasures
o Red-light violations are influenced by, are most likely to reduce violations
or correlated with, several intersection throughout the red and, therefore,
factors. These relationships were reduce both right-angle and left-turn-
exploited in the development of a opposed crashes in somewhat equal
violation prediction model. This model proportion.
can be used to predict the expected
o Increasing the all-red interval is likely
violation frequency for an intersection
to reduce the portion of right-angle
approach based on the following
crashes that occur in the first few
factors: yellow interval duration, use of
seconds of red. However, right-angle
signal head back plates, 85th percentile
crashes are relatively infrequent in the
speed, clearance path length, heavy-
first few seconds of red, so increasing
vehicle percentage, and volume-to-
the all-red interval may not significantly
capacity ratio.
reduce the total number of right-angle
o Red-light violations are at their lowest crashes.
level when the volume-to-capacity ratio
is in the range of 0.6 to 0.7. This range
28
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C.2 Make sure to understand the needs F. Communications
and expectations of other agencies. F.1 Establish interoperable and
C.3 Play an active role in evacuation redundant communication systems.
planning, including cross-jurisdictional
evacuations. G. Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)
G.1 Use ITS as a key resource for
D. Relationships with External Agencies and security planning and incident response.
Transportation Providers G.2 Expand the role of TMCs/TCCs to
D.1 Establish good institutional and include 24/7 operations and/or serve as an
personal relationships at federal, state, regional, EOC.
and local levels.
D.2 Pay particular attention to fostering H. Infrastructure Protection
relationships at the regional/local level. H.1 Use the AASHTO methodology to
D.3 Do not limit relationships to those prioritize assets, assess vulnerabilities and
within the public sector. risks, and develop potential countermeasures.
H.2 Include staff from other agencies on
E. Plans and Procedures Threat and Vulnerability Assessment (TVA)
E.1 Develop plans and procedures for teams.
security and emergency management. H.3 Be cautious about large capital
E.2 Undertake periodic evaluations and investments in security.
updates of security and emergency H.4 Devote additional effort to highest
management plans. priority critical assets.
E.3 Include the protection of key
information as an essential component of a I. Training
security plan. I.1 Provide all DOT staff with, at
E.4 Develop plans to ensure continuity minimum, basic terrorism awareness training.
of operations during emergencies and/or I.2 Provide supplemental security
adverse conditions. training, based on job responsibilities.
E.5 Have a plan for communicating I.3 Perform exercises to test response.
with the public.
30
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The Impact of Driver Cell Phone Use on Accidents by Robert W. Hahn & James E. Prieger
(American Enterprise Institute, Client Distribution Services, 193 Edwards Drive, Jackson, TN
38301; 800-343-4499; http://www.aei.org/publications/pubID.21405,filter./pub_detail.asp) (July
2004)
31
These policies could be evaluated using Because cell phone use while driving is
standard statistical methods. There are several likely to increase unless it is constrained by
problems that would need to be addressed in regulation, it poses interesting challenges for
such empirical studies, however. For example, researchers as well as policy makers. This
when compliance with a ban is low, then failure paper has shown that analyzing cell phone use
to find a lower accident rate after a ban may be while driving is more complicated than some
due to a low compliance rate, a lack of earlier studies would suggest. In essence, we
causality between cell phone usage and have shown that selection effects and
accidents, or both. Disentangling these two heterogeneity among drivers are likely to be
explanations would be complicated by the fact important, and should not be ignored in a
that the effects of a hand-held ban are likely to policy setting. Exactly how important is less
be small. Furthermore, it may be difficult to clear. What is clear is that more work will be
find individual-level data for such studies, and needed on various aspects of this problem to
the selection effects and varying impacts of cell develop policies that actually reduce accidents
phone use found in the authors’ study imply at a reasonable social cost.
that aggregated data may mask important parts
of the story.
32
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was determined to have caused the accident. lowest at protected phasing for older drivers.
The other driver is assigned the designation of Middle-aged drivers had the lowest crash rates
“not-at-fault.” Drivers who are “not-at-fault” under all types of phasing among the three age
are assumed to approximate the general groups. Under the three different types of
population. Consequently, the percentage of phasing, young drivers had the highest crash
drivers in a particular age category can be used rate at protected/permitted phasing, followed
to estimate exposure by age group. by permitted phasing.
Poisson regression was used to analyze A severity index was also calculated for
left-turn crash rates by age group and type of each crash by assigning points to each of five
phasing. Three age groups were evaluated: 15 types of injuries. Protected/permitted phasing
to 24, 25 to 64, and 65+. Overall, left-turn crash had the highest average severity index. The
rates indicated that protected phasing is much severity index was the lowest for permitted.
safer than protected/permitted and permitted Younger drivers had the highest severity per
phasing. Protected/permitted phasing had the crash under all types of phasing. However, the
highest left-turn crash rates overall. However, it number of occupants per vehicle is not included
should be noted that left-turn crash rates were in the crash records and was not considered.
calculated as crashes per million entering Rear-end crashes by type of phasing
vehicles (MEV) of the approach in question was also evaluated. The total number of rear-
and not left-turn volume, which was not end crashes for each high-speed approach was
available and could not be collected with used to calculate a rear-end crash rate by type
project resources. Older drivers had the highest of left-turn phasing. The rear-end crash rate
left-turn crash rates of all age groups for all was the highest for approaches with protected
types of phasing. For older drivers, crash rates phasing. However, it should be noted that all
were the highest at protected/permitted rear-end crashes were used in the analysis since
phasing, followed by permitted phasing. Of the the crash data could not specifically relate rear-
three types of phasing, crash rates were the end crashes to left-turning vehicles.
34
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Median Crossover Accident Analyses and the Effectiveness of Median Barriers by Venky
Shankar, Songrit Chayanan, Sittipan Sittkariya, Ming-Bang Shyu, Gudmundur Ulfarsson, Naveen
Kumar Juvva, Washington State Transportation Center (TRAC), University of Washington, Box
354802, University District Building; 1107 NE 45th Street, Suite 535, Seattle, Washington 98105-
4631 (Research Office, Washington State Department of Transportation, Transportation Building,
MS 47370, Olympia, Washington 98504-7370; Kathy Lindquist, Project Manager, 360-705-7976)
(Aug 2004)
35
slopes, surface type and widths, In developing accident data for sections without median
the decision matrix on median barrier barriers were used as the “without median
installation, two types of statistical models barrier” data, and 1990-94 accident data for
were examined. The first model examined the sections containing barriers (and similar in
contribution of roadway geometries, median attributes to the sections without barriers) were
widths, weather, traffic volumes, and roadside used as ‘‘with median barrier” data. The
characteristics to annual median crossovers. median barrier sections were chosen so that
This type of model is referred to in this study as they were physically near the sections without
the “crossover frequency” model, i.e., a model median barriers and hence very closely
that forecasts the mean number of yearly represented the behavior of the median barrier-
median crossovers. less sections after median barriers were put in
A second type of statistical model them. A preliminary contingency analysis of
examined the contribution of roadway total crash counts determined that barrier
geometries, median widths, weather, traffic installation did not necessarily uniformly
volumes, and roadside characteristics to the increase overall crash counts on the highway
annual societal cost of median crossovers. The section. Some sections reported lowered crash
cost-level model in this study is referred to as counts with barrier installation, whereas others
the “median crossover societal cost” model, reported higher crash counts. To examine the
i.e., a model that forecasts the annual cost of characteristics of sections that exhibited this
median crossovers. The intent behind this difference in crash profiles, the researchers
model was to determine if the cost-level estimated a statistical model for all reported
examination and frequency-level examination crashes for sections with and without median
from the first model provided a common point barriers. In estimating the model, traffic
of decision-making for barrier installation volumes, precipitation, geometries, and the
policy. One might consider the following presence of median barriers were controlled
design policy in this case: for. The examination determined that as the
number of curves per mile increased in a
o Barrier all medians less than or equal to
section with barriers, the overall crash profile
50 feet wide.
on those sections increased in comparison to
o Do not barrier medians wider than 60 similar sections with no barriers. It was also
feet. found that a section with two to five grade
o Consider case-by-case assessments for changes per mile and median barriers
barriering medians in the 50-foot to 60- experienced fewer overall crashes than similar
foot range. sections without median barriers. Injury
profiles on sections with barriers were not
Finally, the effectiveness of the significantly different from those without
installation of median barriers on the selected barriers, but that finding could be an artifact of
road sections was also tested. The 1990-94 the dataset used.
36
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Supplemental Transportation Programs for Seniors (AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, 607 14th
Street, NW, Suite 201, Washington, DC 20005; 202 638-5944;
http://www.aaafoundation.org/pdf/STP2.pdf) (July 2004)
37
raising, management issues, and so on. All 50 The end result was a successful pilot
states are represented in the STPs database; the project (and PasRide was then placed in a
greatest concentrations are in New York, permanent home), a demonstrated approach
California, Michigan, and Washington. that could be adapted by others, and
Information on STPs in three special sectors informational and technical materials that
(Indian Country, institutional settings, and rural include all the necessary information for
areas) also has been introduced. planning and start-up activities.
A section on the concepts and practices Next the STAR Awards for Excellence
of STPs includes discussion of the insights are described. A brief overview of the award is
provided by an in-depth analysis of the data, provided, and then profiles and program
extensive discussions with program staff, reviews of the seven STAR Award Winners
researchers, and policy makers. Key topics from 2002 and 2003 are presented.
include the features of senior-friendly In the concluding section, an agenda for
transportation, the cost/maintenance action is described. The several hundred STPs
continuum, and the “volunteer friends” included in this study are just the tip of the
approach. iceberg: there are indications that thousands of
An 18-month “volunteer friends” pilot STPs are operating throughout the country,
project undertaken in Pasadena, California, is sponsored by hospitals, nursing homes,
described in the next section. In addition to churches and interfaith communities, volunteer
providing rides for seniors, “PasRide” was groups, health programs, senior centers,
designed to test a low-cost/low-maintenance nutrition programs, agencies on aging, and
service model that would complement existing even by transportation services. Whatever their
transportation services as well as to create an sponsorship, most STPs indicate that they face
adaptable process model that could be a variety of challenges, and these must be
implemented in communities throughout the addressed as STPs become an agenda for
country. action.
38
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Traffic Safety Facts: Pedestrians (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, National
Center for Statistics and Analysis, 400 Seventh St., S.W., Washington, D.C. 20590) (2004)
39
Pedestrian Traffic Fatalities and Fatality Rates by State, 2003
Resident
Total Traffic Pedestrian Percent of Per 100,000
State Population
Fatalities Fatalities Total Population
(thousands)
Alabama 1,001 4,501 62 6.2 1.38
Alaska 95 649 8 8.4 1.23
Arizona 1,120 5,581 121 10.8 2.17
Arkansas 627 2,726 40 6.4 1.47
California 4,215 35,484 701 16.6 1.98
Colorado 632 4,551 56 8.9 1.23
Connecticut 294 3,483 34 11.6 0.98
Delaware 142 817 19 13.4 2.32
District of Columbia 67 563 18 26.9 3.19
Florida 3,169 17,019 500 15.8 2.94
Georgia 1,603 8,685 156 9.7 1.80
Hawaii 135 1,258 24 17.8 1.91
Idaho 293 1,366 13 4.4 0.95
Illinois 1,453 12,654 188 12.9 1.49
Indiana 834 6,196 62 7.4 1.00
Iowa 441 2,944 18 4.1 0.61
Kansas 471 2,724 25 5.3 0.92
Kentucky 928 4,118 61 6.6 1.48
Louisiana 894 4,496 87 9.7 1.93
Maine 207 1,306 13 6.3 1.00
Maryland 649 5,509 114 17.6 2.07
Massachusetts 462 6,433 86 18.6 1.34
Michigan 1,283 10,080 166 12.9 1.65
Minnesota. 657 5,059 53 8.1 1.05
Mississippi 871 2,881 40 4.6 1.39
Missouri 1,232 5,704 78 6.3 1.37
Montana 262 918 10 3.8 1.09
Nebraska 293 1,739 12 4.1 0.69
Nevada 368 2,241 65 17.7 2.90
New Hampshire 127 1,288 19 15.0 1.48
New Jersey 747 8,638 147 19.7 1.70
New Mexico 439 1,875 51 11.6 2.72
New York 1 ,491 19,190 334 22.4 1.74
North Carolina 1,531 8,407 150 9.8 1.78
North Dakota 105 634 7 6.7 1.10
Ohio 1,277 11 ,436 99 7.8 0.87
Oklahoma 668 3,512 36 5.4 1.03
Oregon 512 3,560 46 9.0 1.29
Pennsylvania 1,577 12,365 170 10.8 1.37
Rhode Island 104 1,076 13 12.5 1.21
South Carolina 968 4,147 80 8.3 1.93
South Dakota 203 764 10 4.9 1.31
Tennessee 1,193 5,842 96 8.0 1.64
Texas 3,675 22,119 382 10.4 1.73
Utah 309 2,351 28 9.1 1.19
Vermont 69 619 7 10.1 1.13
Virginia 943 7,386 86 9.1 1.16
Washington 600 6,131 75 12.5 1.22
West Virginia 394 1,810 22 5.6 1.22
Wisconsin 848 5,472 54 6.4 0.99
Wyoming 165 501 7 4.2 1.40
U.S. Total 42,643 290,810 4,749 11.1 1.63
Puerto Rico 493 3,879 150 30.4 3.87
40
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requiring all tenants to offer Eco Passes to their the demand for transit will be higher where all
employees. Either way, Eco Passes can be more commuters can ride free. These service
profitable than free parking. improvement s will benefit all riders, not just
By shifting some commuters from cars Eco Pass holders, and they may attract
to transit, Eco Passes can save employers some additional riders who pay the full fare.
of the money they now spend to subsidize Parking requirements increase the
parking. The added fringe benefit of free transit supply of parking whereas Eco Passes increase
for all commuters may also help recruit the demand for public transportation. Providing
workers. Eco Passes are a tax-deductible Eco Passes in lieu of required parking will
expense for employers and a tax-free benefit therefore convert a supply-side subsidy for cars
for commuters. Employers will earn higher into a demand-side subsidy for transit. The
profits if they save more on reduced parking appropriate reduction in required parking
subsidies than they spend for Eco Passes. depends on how much Eco Passes reduce
Eco Passes clearly benefit commuters parking demand, and cities should specify the
who ride transit to work, and commuters who reduction they will grant for offering Eco
usually drive to work can consider the passes a Passes rather than oblige developers and
form of insurance for days when their cars landowners to seek a variance in the parking
aren’t available. Eco Passes offer commuters requirement. If cities specify the by-right
day-to-day flexibility in commuting; public reduction in parking requirements they will
transit is always an option, not a long-term give to developers who offer Eco Passes,
commitment. Commuters can also use their Eco parking demand management will become
Passes for nonwork trips. In the Silicon Valley more feasible and profitable. Seattle, for
survey, 60% of commuters reported using their example, reduces the parking requirement for a
Eco Passes for purposes other than commuting, development by up to 10% if transit passes are
with an average of four nonwork trips a month. provided to all employees and if transit service
Eco Passes are a demand-side transit is within 800 feet of the development.
subsidy paid for by the private sector. If cities Cities can offer bigger reductions in
allow developers to provide Eco Passes instead required parking in transit-oriented
of required parking spaces, Eco Pass sales will developments (TODs) because Eco Passes will
increase. The reduction in parking subsidies reduce parking demand more at sites with
will finance the Eco Passes and will provide a better transit service. In these areas,
reliable revenue source for transit agencies. substituting Eco Passes for parking spaces will
Transit planners can also increase service to allow higher density without more vehicle
sites where developers make long-term traffic.
commitments to purchase Eco Passes because
42
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Evaluating Public Transit Benefits and Costs by Todd Litman (Victoria Transport Policy Institute,
1250 Rudlin Street, Victoria, BC, V8V 3R7, CANADA; www.vtpLorg; info@vtpLorg; 250-360-
1560) (Oct 2004)
Highlights Portion of
I Use Public Transit Because...
q elasticity of transit ridership is low
Respondents
It is the most convenient way for me 82%
q a significant portion of users either cannot
Costs less than driving 78%
drive or lack access to an automobile Do not have access to a car 74%
q bus is the slowest transit mode Avoids stress of driving 74%
q light rail has the highest fatality rate of the Is better for the environment. 72%
transit modes Avoids buying a car. 65%
q buses are subsidized more than any other I don’t drive or don’t like to drive. 60%
road user It is faster than a private vehicle. 43%
I can do something else 41%
43
Trolley Commuter Demand
Bus Heavy Rail Light Rail Other Totals
Bus Rail Response
Capital Expenses (m) $3,028 $188 $4,564 $2,371 $173 $1 ,723 $253 $12,301
Operating Expenses (m) $12,586 $187 $4,268 $2,995 $1,636 $778 $457 $22,905
Total Expenses (m) $15,613 $374 $8,832 $5,366 $1,809 $2,502 $710 $35,206
Average Fare Per Trip $0.71 $0.51 $0.93 $3.50 $2.34 $0.67 $1.14 $0.92
Fare Revenues (m) $3,731 $60 $2,493 $1,449 $185 $226 $132 $8,275
Subsidy (Total Exp. - Fares) $11,882 $315 $6,339 $3,917 $1,624 $2,276 $577 $26,931
Vehicle Revenue Miles (m) 1,864 13 604 259 525 60 102 3,427
Passenger Miles (m) 19,527 188 13,663 9,450 651 1,432 1,034 45,944
A vg. Veh. Occupancy 10.5 14.1 22.6 36.5 1.2 23.9 10.1 13.4
Avg. Trip Distance (miles) 2.8 8.7 4.5 1.6 0.2 5.6 1.1 2.6
Unlinked Trips (m) 5,268 116 2,688 414 79 337 116 9,017
Total Expend. Per Pass. Mile $0.80 $1.99 $0.65 $0.57 $2.78 $1.75 $0.69 $0.77
Fare Rev. Per Pass. Mile $0.19 $0.32 $0.18 $0.15 $0.28 $0.16 $0.13 $0.18
Subsidy Per Pass. Mile $0.61 $1.68 $0.46 $0.41 $2.50 $1.59 $0.56 $0.59
Percent Subsidy 76% 84% 72% 73% 90% 91% 81% 76%
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allocation factors is in evidence at each in fund allocation processes and the
level. measures and factors currently in place.
o Management and oversight of transit o The use of traditional performance
performance and the allocation of funds measures in fund allocation can conflict
to transit systems are being pursued with the desire for stable and reliable
increasingly as independent activities. funding needed to sustain basic levels
o Transit system performance of service.
measurement is broadening to include o Data quality and consistency, varied
progress against goals and objectives goals, and outside forces and influences
that extend beyond efficiency in the use were among the points that survey
of available resources. respondents mentioned.
o There has been no apparent increase in o There appears to be a lack of clarity
the use of traditional internal measures outside the transit industry in
of performance in fund allocation at differentiating traditional internal
either the state or regional level since measures of performance (ratio
the 1994 synthesis survey and report. measures of inputs and outputs
o There are a wide array of perspectives measuring efficiency, effectiveness, and
and approaches to achieving “equity” in organizational productivity) from other
fund allocation. factors measuring agency or community
o There appears to be a high level of goal achievement.
stability and limited impetus for change
46
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Report Card for Sound Transit by Emory Bundy, ebundy@nwlink.com (The Coalition for
Effective Transportation Alternatives, P.O. Box 33045, Seattle WA 98133; 206 368-0814;
www.effectivetransportation.org (April 2005)
47
Absent accurate information, the region and operating in 2006, fully paid for with the
is destined to spend more and more money for initial tax increase. The agency is spending
extravagant transit options, higher per-trip $2.7 billion just for the easiest, cheapest, least
costs, with diminished transit market share. productive portion of Central Link, and will
This is contributing to the worst possible require upwards of $5 billion more for the
outcome, more intense congestion in tandem balance.
with higher taxes and subsidies. Taken in by the agency’s “strategic
With massive resources thus misrepresentations,” citizens voted $2.3 billion
squandered, the useful and effective things that for Central Link light rail in 1996, relying on
could be done, won’t be done. Now, Sound Sound Transit’s promise that it would complete
Transit is conspiring to obtain an enormous, it on budget, and on schedule, “for certain,” and
additional tax increase. A large portion of that premised on operating costs and ridership
is required for the completion of Central Link benefits that will prove as distorted and
light rail, which itself is merely “a starter rail.” manipulated as the capital cost estimates and
Sound Transit promised it would be completed construction schedule.
48
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Effects of Increased U-Turns at Intersections on Divided Facilities and Median Divided Versus
Five-Lane Undivided Benefits by Stacie L. Phillips, Daniel L. Carter, Joseph E. Hummer, Robert S.
Foyle, North Carolina State University, Dept. of Civil, Construction, & Environmental Eng. &
ITRE, Campus Box 7908, Raleigh, NC 27695 (North Carolina Department of Transportation,
Research and Analysis Group, 1 South Wilmington Street, Raleigh, NC 27601) (Aug 2004)
49
exclusive left turn lanes at 14 intersections. Overall, this research found that many
Regression analysis relating U-turn percentage of the typically cited drawbacks to median
to saturation flow rate indicates a 1.8% oriented designs are not justified. Raised
saturation flow rate loss in the left turn lane for medians may increase U-turns at adjacent
every 10% increase in U-turn percentage and intersections, but this was found to have
an additional 1.5% loss for every 10% U-turns minimal effects on safety and operational
if the U-turning movement is opposed by performance. Additionally, raised medians are
protected right turn overlap from the cross generally safer than TWLTLs on midblock
street. segments.
50
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Performance Measures for Analyzing Real-Time Freeway Operations by Robert E. Brydia and
Kevin N. Balke, Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
77843-3135 (Texas Department of Transportation, Research and Technology Implementation
Office P. O. Box 5080, Austin, Texas 78763-5080; ph. 979-845-1713;
http://tti.tamu.edu/documents/0-4196-2.pdf) (Oct 2003)
51
Additionally, what qualifies as a better literature revealing hundreds of uses for
result is often not known. While past performance measures to analyze all aspects of
experiences from similar incidents are a vast transportation, including safety, efficiency,
resource for implementing a response, they are mobility, and many more.
of little use in determining the current roadway However, performance measures have
performance from that response. not been widely used to support real-time
Real-time performance measurement is applications. This lack of implementation is
an analysis technique used to answer such most likely due to the obstacles in establishing
questions. A real-time performance measure a comprehensive performance measurement
system provides feedback from the operational system that supports real-time applications.
response to incident conditions and provides a With real-time usage, baselines must be
quantitative methodology for assessing the obtained and stored for comparison against
impacts of various operational strategies. non-normal conditions. This leads to significant
The significance of this feedback data archiving needs. Repeatability is an issue,
system is that it offers the ability to enhance the as incidents are random events and data are
efficiency of freeway incident management. often quite limited in a real-world situation.
Even a small percent reduction in the length of However, marrying simulation with an
an incident accrues millions of dollars of time- advanced transportation management software
savings for the affected portion of the roadway. (ATMS) application will allow the
Constructing a framework for the real- investigation of real-time performance
time application of performance measure measures to examine freeway operations. This
analysis will allow operators to fine-tune their report has briefly described the history of
incident response methodologies and move performance measures in general, examined the
closer to the optimal mitigation strategy. Also, state-of-the-practice in performance measures
such systems can be applied to a multi-faceted usage in transportation, and proposed a
response scenario to examine the factors that framework, methodology, and experimental
influence additional responses and at what time design for a prototype system. This prototype
should those additional measures be will allow an operator to examine the benefits
implemented. of a particular response to an incident. This
The use of performance measures is system will help approach the optimal
increasing across virtually all disciplines. mitigation strategy for freeway incidents.
Transportation is no different, with the
52