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TRANSPORTATION

RESEARCH DIGEST
JULY 2005

ARIZONA TRANSPORTATION INSTITUTE

e-mail jsemmens@cox.net
The contents of the Transportation Research Digest reflect the views of the authors who
are responsible for the facts and the accuracy of the data presented. The contents do not
necessarily reflect the official views or policies of the Institute
.

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FROM: ARIZONA TRANSPORTATION INSTITUTE

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A “Topic” code in the Table of Contents will help readers more quickly identify items of
interest. The topic codes are explained in the table below.

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Code Topic Code Topic
ADM Administration PLAN Planning
AIRP Airports PRIV Privatization
AVIA Aviation RAIL Railroads
BICY Bicycles RDSD Roadside
CON Construction ROW Right-of-Way
ECON Economics SAFE Safety
ENV Environment STR Structures
FIN Finance TECH Technology
INOV Innovations TOLL Toll Roads
MAIN Maintenance TRAN Transit
MISC Miscellaneous TRF Traffic
MVD Motor Vehicle Dept TRK Trucking
PAVE Pavement VEH Vehicles

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Thank you.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Topic Title Pages

ECON/ Per Mile Costs of Operating Automobiles and Trucks in Transportation 9-10
vehicle Research Record 1864 by Gary Barnes and Peter Langworthy, Humphrey
cost/mile Institute of Public Affairs, University of Minnesota, 301 19th Avenue South,
Minneapolis, MN 55455 (Transportation Research Board, 2101 Constitution
Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418; ph. 202-334-2934;
http://www.national-academies.org/trb/bookstore) (2004) Tables of costs are
presented.

ENV/ Evaluating Speed Differences Between Passenger Vehicles and Heavy Trucks 11-12
modeling for Transportation-Related Emissions Modeling by Shauna L. Hallmark,
Hillary Isebrands (Center for Transportation Research and Education, Iowa
State University, 2901 South Loop Drive, Suite 3100, Ames, IA 50010-8634;
http://www.ctre.iastate.edu/reports/truck_speed.pdf) (July 2004) Emission
differences are more pronounced in the lower speeds for all pollutants.

ENV/ Smog Hits a Record Low by Joel Schwartz (American Enterprise Institute, 13-14
air Client Distribution Services, 193 Edwards Drive, Jackson, TN 38301; 800-343-
quality 4499; http://www.aei.org/docLib/20041025_OTI2graphics.pdf) (Oct 2004)
Data undermines the claim that urban “sprawl” increases air pollution.

FIN/ Liberating the Roads by Gabriel Roth (Cato Institute, 1000 Massachusetts 15-16
turnback Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20001; (202) 842-0200;
http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa538.pdf) (March 17, 2005) Congress should
liberate the roads by passing turnback legislation.

PAVE/ A Mechanistic Approach to Evaluate Contribution of Prime and Tack Coat in 17-18
asphalt Composite Asphalt Pavements by A. A. Tayebali, M. S. Rahman, M. B.
Kulkarni, Q. Xu, North Carolina State University, Dept. of Civil Engineering,
Campus Box 7908, Raleigh, NC 27695 (North Carolina Department of
Transportation, Research and Analysis Group, 1 South Wilmington Street,
Raleigh, NC 27601) (Jun 2004) This research study provides a methodology
and design guide based on mechanistic analysis to select appropriate tack or
prime coat for given field conditions.

PLAN/ Eminent Domain, Private Property, and Redevelopment: An Economic 19-20


land use Development Analysis by Samuel R. Staley and John P. Blair (Reason
Foundation, 3415 S. Sepulveda Blvd., Suite 400, Los Angeles, CA 90034; 310-
391-2245; http://www.rppi.org/ps331.pdf) (Feb 2005) Property rights no longer
serve as a meaningful check on government authority.

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PLAN/ Evaluating Design-Build vs. Traditional Contracting Methods for STIP 21-22
design- Projects by Dr. Peter Martin, Abhro Mitra, Alexander Stevanovic (Utah
build Department of Transportation, 4501 South 2700 West-Box 148410, Salt Lake
City, Utah 84114-8410; http://www.udot.utah.gov/download.php/tid=851/UT-
04.21%20Final_Report.pdf) (July 2004) The fast track method saves
significantly in delay costs when compared to the traditional build method.

PLAN/ A Guide for Achieving Flexibility in Highway Design (American Association 23-24
highway of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 444 North Capitol Street, N.W.,
design Suite 249 Washington, D.C. 20001; (202) 624-5800 www.transportation.org)
(May 2004) Context sensitive design involves a collaborative, interdisciplinary
approach in which citizens are part of the design team.

PLAN/ How Urban Planners Cause Congestion and Death in Liberty by Randal 25-26
traffic O’Toole and Michael Cunneen (Liberty Foundation, 1018 Water St., #201, Port
calming Townsend, WA 98368; 360-379-0242) (Feb 2005) One-way streets are safer,
for both auto users and pedestrians.

SAFE/ Development of Guidelines for Identifying and Treating Locations with a 27-28
red light Red-Light-Running Problem by James Bonneson and Karl Zimmerman, Texas
running Transportation Institute, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843-
3135 (Texas Department of Transportation, Research and Technology
Implementation Office P. O. Box 5080, Austin, Texas 78763-5080; ph. 979-
845-1713; http://tti.tamu.edu/documents/0-4196-2.pdf) (Aug 2004) Red-light-
related crashes tend to be at a minimum value when the clearance time is about
2.5 seconds.

SAFE/ Effective Practices in State Department of Transportation Security Planning 29-30


security by Rachel Winkeller and Matthew Rabkin (Planning and Policy Analysis
Division, US Department of Transportation/Volpe Center 55 Broadway, DTS-
46, Cambridge, MA 02142; Phone: 617-494-2764; Email:
winkeller@volpe.dot.gov; http://www.pooledfund.org/documents/TPF-
5_085/effective_practices.pdf) (Aug 2004) The research process generated
approximately 30 key findings.

SAFE/ The Impact of Driver Cell Phone Use on Accidents by Robert W. Hahn & 31-32
cell James E. Prieger (American Enterprise Institute, Client Distribution Services,
phone 193 Edwards Drive, Jackson, TN 38301; 800-343-4499;
http://www.aei.org/publications/pubID.21405,filter./pub_detail.asp) (July 2004)
There is no significant impact of a cell phone ban or a hands-free requirement
on accidents.

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SAFE/ Impact of Left-Turn Phasing on Older and Younger Drivers at High-Speed 33-34
left turn Signalized Intersections by Shauna L. Hallmark and Kim Mueller (Center for
Transportation Research and Education, Iowa State University, 2901 South
Loop Drive, Suite 3100, Ames, IA 50010-8634;
http://www.ctre.iastate.edu/reports/protect_permit.pdf) (Aug 2004) Protected
phasing is much safer than protected/permitted and permitted phasing.

SAFE/ Median Crossover Accident Analyses and the Effectiveness of Median 35-36
median Barriers by Venky Shankar, Songrit Chayanan, Sittipan Sittkariya, Ming-Bang
crossover Shyu, Gudmundur Ulfarsson, Naveen Kumar Juvva, Washington State
Transportation Center (TRAC), University of Washington, Box 354802,
University District Building; 1107 NE 45th Street, Suite 535, Seattle,
Washington 98105-4631 (Research Office, Washington State Department of
Transportation, Transportation Building, MS 47370, Olympia, Washington
98504-7370; Kathy Lindquist, Project Manager, 360-705-7976) (Aug 2004)
Injury profiles on sections with barriers were not significantly different from
those without barriers.

SAFE/ Supplemental Transportation Programs for Seniors (AAA Foundation for 37-38
older Traffic Safety, 607 14th Street, NW, Suite 201, Washington, DC 20005; 202
drivers 638-5944; http://www.aaafoundation.org/pdf/STP2.pdf) (July 2004) Thousands
of supplemental transportation programs (STPs) are operating throughout the
country.

SAFE/ Traffic Safety Facts: Pedestrians (National Highway Traffic Safety 39-40
ped Administration, National Center for Statistics and Analysis, 400 Seventh St.,
S.W., Washington, D.C. 20590) (2004) Pedestrian fatalities have decreased by
16% over the last decade.

TRAN/ Eco Passes: An Evaluation of Employer-Based Transit Programs by Donald 41-42


eco C. Shoup (Department of Urban Planning, University of California, Los
passes Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095-1656; 310-825-5705;
shoup@ucla.edu; http://www.uctc.net/papers/727.pdf) (Fall 2004) Eco Passes
can yield benefits for developers, property owners, employers, commuters,
transit agencies, and cities.

TRAN/ Evaluating Public Transit Benefits and Costs by Todd Litman (Victoria 43-44
cost/ Transport Policy Institute, 1250 Rudlin Street, Victoria, BC, V8V 3R7,
benefit CANADA; www.vtpLorg; info@vtpLorg; 250-360-1560) (Oct 2004) A
significant portion of users either cannot drive or lack access to an automobile.

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TRAN/ Performance-Based Measures in Transit Fund Allocation, TCRP Synthesis 45-46
perform 56, by Robert G. Stanley and Patricia G. Hendren (Transportation Research
Board, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418; ph. 202-
334-2934; http://www.national-academies.org/trb/bookstore) (2004) There
appears to be a high level of stability and limited impetus for change in fund
allocation processes and the measures and factors currently in place.

TRAN/ Report Card for Sound Transit by Emory Bundy, ebundy@nwlink.com (The 47-48
perform Coalition for Effective Transportation Alternatives, P.O. Box 33045, Seattle
WA 98133; 206 368-0814; www.effectivetransportation.org (April 2005) The
region is destined to spend more and more money for extravagant transit
options, higher per-trip costs, with diminished transit market share.

TRF/ Effects of Increased U-Turns at Intersections on Divided Facilities & Median 49-50
u-turns Divided vs. Five-Lane Undivided Benefits by Stacie L. Phillips, Daniel L.
Carter, Joseph E. Hummer, Robert S. Foyle, North Carolina State University,
Dept. of Civil, Construction, & Environmental Eng. & ITRE, Campus Box
7908, Raleigh, NC 27695 (North Carolina Department of Transportation,
Research and Analysis Group, 1 South Wilmington Street, Raleigh, NC 27601)
(Aug 2004) The raised median design was associated with fewer collisions.

TRF/ Performance Measures for Analyzing Real-Time Freeway Operations by 51-52


freeway Robert E. Brydia and Kevin N. Balke, Texas Transportation Institute, Texas
A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843-3135 (Texas Department of
Transportation, Research and Technology Implementation Office P. O. Box
5080, Austin, Texas 78763-5080; ph. 979-845-1713;
http://tti.tamu.edu/documents/0-4196-2.pdf) (Oct 2003) The state-of-the-
practice in current incident management systems focuses on identification of an
incident and rapid implementation of an established recovery plan.

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TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH DIGEST
ARIZONA TRANSPORTATION INSTITUTE
e-mail jsemmens@cox.net

JULY 2005

Per Mile Costs of Operating Automobiles and Trucks in Transportation Research Record 1864 by
Gary Barnes and Peter Langworthy, Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs, University of Minnesota,
301 19th Avenue South, Minneapolis, MN 55455 (Transportation Research Board, 2101
Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418; ph. 202-334-2934; http://www.national-
academies.org/trb/bookstore) (2004).

Highlights context of deciding among alternative designs,


q Tables of costs are presented for… construction scenarios, or project timing.
§ Baseline Costs The objective of this research was to
§ Costs with City Driving Conditions develop some simple parameters that analysts
§ Costs with Poor Pavement Quality can use to understand how these costs change
as a result of the new conditions created by
When work is done on highways or highway projects or by the construction itself.
when new highways are built, one possible Thus it is important not just to have a baseline
impact is that the people who make trips on value for these costs, but also to understand
those highways might spend more or less how to adjust-the costs to account for variations
money to operate their vehicles. That could in factors such as start-stop conditions,
occur during construction, either because pavement roughness, and price inflation for
detours increase the distance that must be future projects.
traveled to complete a trip or because Table 2 shows baseline per mile costs in
slowdowns cause vehicles to be operated at 2003 U.S. cents for automobiles, pickups
less-than-optimal speeds. Costs could also (including other large personal vehicles), and
change after the project is over, again because large commercial trucks. These costs are
either the length or the operating conditions, derived from a baseline scenario of highway
especially speed, might have changed for driving conditions, smooth pavement, and fuel
certain trips. For example, a bypass around a prices of $1.50 per gallon. Because the various
town will generally increase the distance that categories of cost are broken out separately, it
must be driven, but will improve conditions by should be straightforward for the analyst to
avoiding stops and starts. adjust for different fuel prices, apply
The analysis of whether and how appropriate inflation rates to each category, or
highway projects ought to be done is based on make other desired adjustments. To obtain an
the benefits gained and costs incurred under average cost for the entire personal vehicle
various scenarios. Two of the biggest benefits fleet, car and pickup costs should be weighted
of most highway projects are reductions in according to their proportion of the local fleet.
travel time and in crashes. A third major impact A point that is worth addressing
on highway users, and the focus of this paper, explicitly is the size of the variable cost
is the cost of operating vehicles for trips estimates for large commercial trucks; 43 cents
through the affected area. While vehicle per mile may appear low relative to total costs
operating costs are typically a small part of of about $1.80 per mile. However, the
total project costs, they can be significant in the assumption that the driver costs $30/h in wages

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and indirect costs and that the truck travels 1 mi unlikely to be greatly influenced by increasing
in 1 min leads to a result of 50 cents per mile in congestion levels, beyond what is already due
driver costs. The variable cost of 43 cents is to city driving conditions.
33% of the non-driver total cost of $1.30. That Table 4 shows per mile costs given
compares quite precisely with automobile extremely rough pavement (PSI = 2), again
variable costs, which at 15 cents per mile are with other assumptions the same as the
33% of a typical “total” operating cost of 45 baseline. A PSI of 3.5 is used as the baseline,
cents per mile, as cited, for example, in so roughness levels between these extremes
American Automobile Association brochures. could be evaluated by interpolation. Pavement
Table 3 shows per mile costs given for smoother than PSI of 3.5 will not further reduce
city rather than highway conditions, with other costs; pavement rougher than PSI of 2 (or
assumptions the same. Projects with a mix of unpaved roads) could use higher multipliers.
highway and city conditions could be analyzed To incorporate both rough pavement
using costs in between those in Tables 2 and 3. and city driving conditions at the same time,
Projects involving extreme congestion levels the appropriate marginal increases due to each
could use fuel costs that are even higher than factor should both be added to the baseline cost
those in Table 3. However, other costs appear estimates.

TABLE 2: Baseline Costs [cents per mile]


Cost Category Automobile Pickup/Van/SUV Commercial Truck
Fuel 5.1 7.8 21.4
Maintenance/Repair 3.1 3.7 10.5
Tires 0.9 1.0 3.5
Depreciation 6.2 6.7 8.0
Total 15.3 19.2 43.4

TABLE 3: Costs with City Driving Conditions [cents per mile]


Cost Category Automobile Pickup/Van/SUV Commercial Truck
Fuel 7.0 10.1 28.0
Maintenance/Repair 3.7 4.2 12.1
Tires 0.9 1.0 3.5
Depreciation 7.5 7.7 9.2
Total 19.1 23.1 52.9

TABLE 4 Costs with Poor Pavement Quality [cents per mile]


Cost Category Automobile Pickup/Van/SUV Commercial Truck
Fuel 5.1 7.8 21.4
Maintenance/Repair 3.9 4.6 13.1
Tires 1.1 1.2 4.4
Depreciation 7.8 8.4 10.0
Total 17.9 22.0 48.9

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TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH DIGEST
ARIZONA TRANSPORTATION INSTITUTE
e-mail jsemmens@cox.net

JULY 2005

Evaluating Speed Differences Between Passenger Vehicles and Heavy Trucks for
Transportation-Related Emissions Modeling by Shauna L. Hallmark, Hillary Isebrands (Center for
Transportation Research and Education, Iowa State University, 2901 South Loop Drive, Suite 3100,
Ames, IA 50010-8634; http://www.ctre.iastate.edu/reports/truck_speed.pdf) (July 2004)

Highlights spot speeds were collected for heavy trucks and


q Average speeds for passenger vehicles were passenger vehicles for four arterial segments,
higher than average speeds for heavy trucks and spot speeds were collected for two freeway
for all segments. segments in Des Moines, Iowa. Average and
q Emission differences are more pronounced spot speeds were collected for four arterial
in the lower speeds for all pollutants. segments and three freeway segments in the
q These differences should be accounted for Minneapolis/St. Paul, Minnesota metropolitan
in emissions modeling. area. Only one category was used to represent
heavy trucks since the number of average speed
Heavy vehicles emit emissions at samples that could be collected at a particular
different rates than passenger vehicles. They location was limited. It is expected that some
may behave differently on the road as well, yet differences would occur between different
they are often treated similarly to passenger categories of heavy trucks.
vehicles in emissions modeling. Although not Average time was collected in the form
frequently considered in calculating emission of travel time and included actual time to
rates, differences in the operating speeds of accelerate, decelerate, operational delay, and
passenger vehicles and heavy trucks may time to traverse the link, but it did not include
influence emissions. Emission rates from stopped-time delay. Ordinarily, stopped delay
MOBILE are correlated to average speed. would be included in average speed studies.
Typically, average speeds are output for a However, since average speeds were being
roadway link or facility type from travel compared across vehicle types and sample sizes
demand forecasting models and a single were limited by practical constraints, it was not
average speed is input to MOBILE to represent possible to collect a representative sample of
all vehicle types. However, since emission rates both categories of vehicles queued for different
are correlated to average vehicle speed, amounts of time during the red phase. It was
systematic differences in operating speed assumed that stopped delay would be similar
between heavy vehicles and passenger vehicles for all vehicle types and that collection of
have the potential to adversely affect emissions intersection delay minus stopped delay would
and the ability to estimate and reduce pollution better meet study objectives. Stopped delay can
levels. be included by estimating average stopped
This research project evaluated whether delay per vehicle and adding this value to all
heavy trucks travel at significantly different travel times.
operating speeds than passenger vehicles and Average and spot speeds were
what impact differences in on-road speeds compared for heavy trucks and passenger
would have on emissions. Average speeds and vehicles by facility. Average heavy-duty truck

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speeds were lower than passenger vehicle speeds, using the average speed for passenger
speeds for all arterial segments in Des Moines. vehicles at 26 mph to estimate heavy-truck
Average speed differences ranged from 0.8 emissions would result in emission rates that
mph to 15.1 mph; although, not all differences are 66%, 14%, and 47% lower for CO, NOx,
were at the 95% confidence level. Average and VOC than the actual emission rates would
speeds for passenger vehicles were higher than be if trucks speeds were modeled separately at
average speeds for heavy trucks for all 16 mph.
segments in Minneapolis/St. Paul, with Significant differences in heavy-truck
differences ranging from 5.9 mph to 11.4 mph. speeds were found at a number of the locations
All differences were significant at the 5% level studied. Most data were collected during off-
of significance. peak conditions, but higher volumes and
Spot speeds for heavy trucks were also congestion occurred at three locations.
lower than for passenger vehicles in all cases. Significant congestion and/or significant idling
Passenger vehicle speeds were higher and time at intersections would tend to minimize
statistically different from heavy-duty truck differences in average speeds between the two
spot speeds at the 95% confidence level for all vehicle classes. However, emission differences
Des Moines locations except for the I-35 site. are more pronounced in the lower speeds for all
Heavy-truck speeds were 0.8 mph to 6.1 mph pollutants.
lower than passenger vehicle speeds. Spot Whether heavy-truck and passenger vehicle
speeds for passenger vehicles were also higher average speeds should be modeled separately
than for heavy trucks for all Minneapolis/St. and whether data should be collected to
Paul locations. Speed differences ranged from determine speed differences depends on the
0.2 mph to 3.9 mph; although, not all individual situation. However, the conclusion
differences were statistically significant. of this research is that heavy trucks and
The impact that differences in on-road passenger vehicles operate differently on the
speeds would have on emissions was also road. Differences could have consequences for
evaluated using MOBILE6.2. Misspecification project level and regional emissions modeling
of average truck speed is the most significant at particularly since the ability to demonstrate
lower and higher speed ranges. For instance, if conformity is based on the ability to correctly
average speeds for heavy trucks were actually estimate and model vehicle activity.
10 mph lower than average passenger vehicle

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TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH DIGEST
ARIZONA TRANSPORTATION INSTITUTE
e-mail jsemmens@cox.net

JULY 2005

Smog Hits a Record Low by Joel Schwartz (American Enterprise Institute, Client Distribution
Services, 193 Edwards Drive, Jackson, TN 38301; 800-343-4499;
http://www.aei.org/docLib/20041025_OTI2graphics.pdf) (Oct 2004)

Highlights short-term variability in smog levels, but


q Variations in weather create the large short- superimposed on this is a long-term decline in
term variability in smog levels, but ozone exceedances driven by emission
superimposed on this is a long-term decline reductions.
in ozone exceedances driven by emission Other potential-but unmentioned-
reductions. contributors to the recent ozone improvements
q This year has seen the lowest ozone smog are a 60% reduction in coal-fired power plant
levels since states began measuring back in NOx emissions during the May-September
the 1970s. “ozone season” implemented in May 2004
q This undermines the claims that urban under EPA’s NOx SIP Call regulation, and an
“sprawl” increases air pollution. ongoing reduction of about 8% per year in total
automobile emissions due to fleet turnover to
This year has seen the lowest ozone cleaner vehicles. This undermines the claims
smog levels since states began measuring back that urban “sprawl” increases air pollution.
in the 1970s. Preliminary data from around the Despite the substantial decline in ozone
country indicate that the number of days exceedances since the 1970s, in a story on the
exceeding the Environmental Protection State of the Air 2004 the Washington Post
Agency’s tough new eight-hour ozone standard asserted: “Ozone pollution has declined slightly
declined an average of about 50% below 2003, over the past 30 years.” But many reporters
which was itself a record year. around the country have noticed this year’s
A combination of continuing emission unusually low pollution levels and have let the
reductions and favorable weather explains the public know about it. Even here, however, most
improvements. Weather is the single largest stories gave the impression that mild weather
factor affecting year-to-year variations in smog was the sole cause and failed to discuss the
levels. All else equal, cool, wet, and windy long-term decline in smog forming emissions
years will have less ozone than warm, dry, and or to compare smog levels in 2004 with much
calm ones, But weather is only part of the story. higher smog levels in previous years that had
During the last thirty years, most of the country favorable weather.
has had several years that were cooler and/or Will air pollution remain just as low
wetter than 2004, but never have smog levels next year? That depends largely on the weather.
been anywhere near this low. Either way, emissions will continue to decline
Figure 1 shows the average number of and the long-term trend will continue
days per year exceeding the EPA’s one-hour downward. Regardless, environmental activists
and eight-hour ozone standards at the nation’s are sure to tell us the sky is falling.
ozone monitoring sites from 1975 to 2003.
Annual variations in weather create the large

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TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH DIGEST
ARIZONA TRANSPORTATION INSTITUTE
e-mail jsemmens@cox.net

JULY 2005

Liberating the Roads by Gabriel Roth (Cato Institute, 1000 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20001; (202) 842-0200; http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa538.pdf) (March 17,
2005)

Highlights priority projects at the expense of road users in


q The current system encourages low priority other states. The federal funding of state roads
and unnecessary projects. results in excessive demands for expensive
q Fuel taxes are used to fund all sorts of non- facilities, because, to the states, federal funds
highway spending. are almost costless, and state officials are
q Federal regulations and programs make accountable to their voters only for state funds.
building roads more expensive. Thus, the system encourages the construction
q Congress should liberate the roads by of expensive road projects for which local
passing turnback legislation. funding would have never been considered.
Fuel taxes are used to fund all sorts of
There are major disadvantages to the nonhighway spending. The large-scale
federal financing of roads. The Federal diversion of money from the FHTF started in
Highway Trust Fund (FHTF) is not, and never 1982 with the opening in the FHTF of the Mass
was, a trust fund in any meaningful sense, and Transit Account, and accelerated with the 1991
its custodians are under no obligation to spend Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency
its revenues for the benefit of road users. Act.
Legally, the FHTF is a separate account, A main diversion is transit. This
maintained in the U.S. Treasury, from which diversion results from 2.86 cents per gallon of
the FHWA can draw amounts determined motor fuel being taken for the Mass Transit
annually by Congress. The FHWA uses these account of the FHTF. The funds are used to
revenues to reimburse state governments for subsidize transit services that have so little
the federal share of expenditures previously appeal to passengers that users are unwilling to
made by the states. Congress is free to attach pay even the operating costs. Passenger-mile
any conditions it wishes to the appropriation of costs for light rail average $1.20, and for bus
FHTF revenues, and is also free to decline to transit $0.75-both well in excess of the cost of
appropriate them, so that they can accumulate travel by car, which averages $0.34 per vehicle-
to reduce the overall budget deficit. mile.
The current system encourages low The Congestion Mitigation and Air
priority and unnecessary projects. Decisions Quality (CMAQ) program is intended to assist
regarding federally financed highways-for states to improve air quality. These funds are
which federal contributions range from 75% to not used to finance road improvement, despite
90%-require the involvement of both federal the fact that some increases in road capacity
and state administrations. The states retain might actually reduce traffic congestion and
formal responsibility for their highways, but do thus improve air quality.
not have to meet more than a small percentage Since 1991, one-tenth of the Surface
of the bills. This allows them to fund low- Transportation program has to be spent on

15
nonroad “enhancements” to address projects, their roads, whereas others might prefer to
such as bicycle and pedestrian facilities, commercialize them. New approaches to
historic preservation, and scenic easements. highway concessions could be tested.
Federal regulations and programs make Electronic road-pricing technology would
building roads more expensive. First, federal enable road providers, whether in the public or
specifications for road construction can be private sector, to get their roads paid for
higher, and therefore more expensive, than directly by road users, without the need to levy
state standards. Second, states are required to fuel surcharges or annual license fees.
adopt federal regulations, such as the Davis- States fully responsible for their own
Bacon and ‘Buy America’ provisions, which roads would have stronger incentives to ensure
can raise highway costs substantially. Davis- that funds paid by road users were spent
Bacon rules, by themselves, can increase efficiently. For example, in the absence of
project costs by anywhere between 5 and 38%. federal grants for new construction, some states
Third, there are significant administrative costs could prefer to better manage and maintain
to sending tax money from the states to the their existing roads rather than build new ones.
federal government and then back to the states. Others might find ways to encourage the
Total expenditures (federal, state and local) on private sector to assume more of the burden of
“Administration and Research” at the road provision-for example, by contracting
establishment of the Highway Trust Fund in with private firms to maintain their roads to
1956 were 6.8% of construction costs, and in designated standards or to provide new roads.
2002 they were 17.0%. This suggests that Some states might stop discriminating against
federal financing increased these expenditures. privately provided roads, most of which are
Furthermore, in the period 1956-2002, currently ineligible to receive funding from the
construction expenditures (not adjusted for federal Highway Trust Fund although their
inflation) increased 12-fold, but administration users pay the required federal taxes.
and research expenditures increased 35-fold. New arrangements would be noticed by
Ralph Stanley, the entrepreneur who other states, and those that brought
conceived and launched the Dulles Greenway-- improvements could be copied, while failed
a 14-mile privately provided toll road from reforms could be avoided. In time, road users
Dulles airport to Leesburg in Northern would get better value for their money, and
Virginia--estimated that federal regulations some would even get the road services they
increased project costs by 20%. Robert Farris, were prepared to pay for, while their states
who was commissioner of the Tennessee could expend their scarce resources on
Department of Transportation (1981-1985) and activities such as public safety, which could not
Federal Highway Administrator (1987-1989) be made commercially viable.
suggested that federal regulations increase costs Yet much of this is impossible or
by 30%. discouraged under the current system of federal
Turnback legislation would enable each financing of roads. Instead of haggling over
state to finance its roads in accordance with the how to tweak a broken system, Congress
wishes of its voters. Some might follow the should let the current transportation
example of Oregon and develop road financing authorization expire and liberate the roads by
methods that do not rely on the taxation of fuel. passing turnback legislation.
Some might wish to retain political control of

16
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A Mechanistic Approach to Evaluate Contribution of Prime and Tack Coat in Composite Asphalt
Pavements by A. A. Tayebali, M. S. Rahman, M. B. Kulkarni, Q. Xu, North Carolina State
University, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Campus Box 7908, Raleigh, NC 27695 (North Carolina
Department of Transportation, Research and Analysis Group, 1 South Wilmington Street, Raleigh,
NC 27601) (Jun 2004)

Highlights coats, a host of materials is used that includes


q this research study provides a methodology emulsions as well as asphalt cements of various
and design guide based on mechanistic grades.
analysis to select appropriate tack or prime In North Carolina, CMS-2 emulsion is
coat for given field conditions popularly used as tacking material. So in this
study, its performance was compared to the
This investigation was undertaken to asphalt cement with SuperpaveTM grade PG64-
develop a mechanistic design procedure for 22.
selection of tack and prime coat type in relation The methodology used in this study to
to traffic loading, pavement temperature and compare the performance of different tack and
the required AC overlay thickness. prime coats required first, the development of a
The need for this research was based on 3-D computer program that takes into account
the occurrence of excessive delamination the horizontal shear stresses induced on the
problems in Division 13 ofNCDOT. Pavements pavement surface due to vehicle braking effects
in Buncombe County where emulsions were (acceleration and deceleration). Taking into
used as tack coat, experienced higher incidence account the induced shear loading, the shear
of delamination distress compared to the stresses at the interface layers were computed.
pavement sections in Rutherford County where These shear stresses were then compared to the
PG64-22 asphalt cement was used as tack coat. bond strength of the tack or prime coat under
The question that arose was, is PG64-22 consideration. It should be noted here that: 1)
a better tack coat compared to the emulsions the induced shear stress at the interface depends
used? The first task undertaken to answer this on the AC overlay material properties as well
question was a survey of practices followed by as the temperature that the pavement is
other departments of transportation. The survey subjected to; and 2) the thickness of the
included both the use of tack and prime coats. overlay. If the induced shear stress is more than
In all, 26 states responded to the survey the bond strength, delamination will be
questionnaire. With regards to the use of prime imminent.
coats, of the 26 states, 10 states responded that The tack coat performance was
there is no requirement for the use of prime evaluated for both AC over AC and AC over
coats for new construction. Two states, Georgia PCC (PCC-AC) pavements. The results of this
and New Jertey, require use of prime coat if the study indicate that PG64-22 used as a tack coat
AC thickness is less than 5 inches, and for AC-AC shows superior performance
Missouri requires it if the AC thickness is less compared to the CMS-2 emulsion. There are
than 4 inches. With regards to the use of tack two possible reasons for this: 1) the residual

17
asphalt in CMS-2 emulsion had a SuperpaveTM usually used on subgrades, subbases and
grading of PG52 as compared to asphalt cement aggregate bases. However, in this study CTB
that was PG64 (higher viscosity); and 2) the was used as it was not possible to determine the
rate of application was same for both tack coat, bond strength with sub grade or subbase due to
and therefore the amount of residual asphalt in their low stiffness. Results of the analysis
CMS-2 is less. conducted in this study shows that CSS-1h
On the other hand, for PCC-AC performs better than the other two emulsions.
composite pavement, the CMS-2 emulsion Mechanistic analysis indicates that, in general,
performs better relative to the PG64-22. The a prime coat must be used to counteract
reason for this behavior is attributed to the induced shear stresses and hence prevent
imperviousness of the PCC layer. It appears delamination when the AC overlay thickness is
that a higher amount of PG64-22 actually less than 3.5 to 4 inches. These results support
enables the slippage between layers to occur current construction practices followed by
more readily giving poor bond strength. It is, Georgia, New Jersey, and Missouri.
therefore, apparent that the application rate of Finally, this research study provides a
tack coat plays a very important role. Too much methodology and design guide based on
will not only lead to delamination but may also mechanistic analysis to select appropriate tack
result in bleeding of asphalt on the surface. or prime coat for given field conditions. Based
With respect to prime coats, three were on the AC layer thickness a suitable tack or
evaluated in this study - CSS-lh, EPR-I, and prime coat can be chosen (or vice versa in some
EA-P. All three are on the NCDOT approved cases) to minimize the delamination distress.
list. It should be noted here that prime coats are

18
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Eminent Domain, Private Property, and Redevelopment: An Economic Development Analysis by


Samuel R. Staley and John P. Blair (Reason Foundation, 3415 S. Sepulveda Blvd., Suite 400, Los
Angeles, CA 90034; 310-391-2245; http://www.rppi.org/ps331.pdf) (Feb 2005)

Highlights cases, redevelopment policies were


q property rights no longer serve as a characterized by…
meaningful check on government authority Arbitrariness. While both cities had
q any property could be subject to eminent approved redevelopment plans, the areas were
domain at any time sufficiently broad and general that any property
q smaller property owners have virtually no could be subject to eminent domain at any time
chance whether it was blighted or economically robust.
In Mesa’s case the timing of redevelopment
Eminent domain has become part of the was determined by private sector interest in the
lexicon of economic development policy. As project area and was not keyed into a sequence
the courts have tolerated increasingly broad established by the general redevelopment plan.
definitions of the public use clause of the Fifth Because a largely unconstrained political
Amendment, state and local governments have process drives these redevelopment efforts,
seized on opportunities to expand their own they tend to be subjective, arbitrary and ad hoc.
power of land and property within their Inequities. Smaller property owners
jurisdictions. As a result, property rights no have virtually no chance to participate in the
longer serve as a meaningful check on process. Bailey’s Brake Service has been a
government authority. viable business in the city of Mesa and an
For some, most notably planners and economic anchor at the intersection of Country
economic development officials, this change Club and Main Street. Yet, the owners had
represents an opportunity. They are not bound neither the financial capacity nor sufficient
by legal or substantive constraints as they understanding of the redevelopment process to
promote redevelopment plans and projects. The realistically submit a proposal.
ability to define virtually any action by Eminent Domain Serving a Private
government as a public purpose gives Purpose. Eminent domain has become a
policymakers and redevelopment officials standard tool for redevelopment used by private
discretion unavailable when they were unable investors to avoid the normal costs of business
to seize property except for clear public uses. expansion. In Mesa, potential developers
The redevelopment cases of both Mesa, effectively ignored existing property owners
Arizona and Lakewood, Ohio provide and refused to consider incorporating their
important insights into the urban businesses into their redevelopment plans even
redevelopment process, the role eminent though they were compatible with existing
domain plays, and the ways both public zoning. The city’s redevelopment process
officials and private interests game the system allowed for private-to-private transfers for
at the expense of small landowners. In both property in direct violation of the intent of the
Arizona Constitution.

19
Substantive Limits Such as uncertainty erodes a healthy business climate.
Determinations of Blight Not Effectively In fact, one of the justifications for using
Limiting Eminent Domain. Little evidence eminent domain is to allow local officials to
suggested either site “impairs or arrests” reduce uncertainty for their client.
economic growth in their respective areas of Yet, public officials following this line
the city. Moreover, these properties did not of reasoning are missing the forest for the trees.
constitute a “menace” to the community. Both Cities develop as a result of hundreds, and
cities adopted such broad criteria for what often thousands, of investment decisions, not
constituted a redevelopment area or blight that just the chosen few selected to participate in a
private ownership of property had no development project. The decisions are made
substantive restraining power on local by small and big businesses alike. Eminent
government’s authority to seize property. As a domain destabilizes the investment climate for
result, private property owners have virtually everyone except those negotiating directly with
no ability to check abuses of eminent domain, the city for a piece of the development project.
including the ability of private investors to Even in these cases, investors cannot be certain
seize private property for personal gain. their investment and property are safe. If the
Eminent Domain Serving Private Gain. neighborhood or commercial area continues to
Since the public planning process is decline, or fails to achieve the investment
subordinate to facilitating the expansion of a objectives established by the redevelopment
select set of private companies, the primary plan, their property rights will be at risk as
benefits of redevelopment accrue to the private well. In fact, based on the conventional wisdom
investors. In Mesa’s case, the public benefits in the economic development community,
were small. The city justified its role in the cities would be obligated to reinitiate the
redevelopment process based on sales tax redevelopment process, putting each property
revenue, not whether the project achieves the at risk again. Few people will invest in homes
basic goals of the redevelopment plan. or small businesses if they are unsure if they
The implications for urban development will be in the home or neighborhood for long.
are much broader than the impact on the Yet, this is the climate the broad-based use of
property owners targeted in these cases. eminent domain for redevelopment purposes
Economic development policy is essentially an creates.
ongoing stream of negotiations between public Cities increasingly think of
officials and private developers. In the long redevelopment as large-scale, comprehensive
run, this approach undermines the climate for projects. Under this framework, an incremental
private investment in urban areas. approach to redevelopment is discouraged even
Private investment requires a reasonable when a project’s timetable for completion
expectation of return on investment. This (build out) may be 10 or 15 years. An alternate
expectation can only occur in a business approach is to look for more incremental and
climate with established and respected rules for property-rights-friendly approaches to
investment. Planners and economic redevelopment.
development specialists understand that

20
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Evaluating Design-Build vs. Traditional Contracting Methods for STIP Projects by Dr. Peter
Martin, Abhro Mitra, Alexander Stevanovic (Utah Department of Transportation, 4501 South 2700
West-Box 148410, Salt Lake City, Utah 84114-8410;
http://www.udot.utah.gov/download.php/tid=851/UT-04.21%20Final_Report.pdf) (July 2004)

Highlights grouped into three analysis regions. The


q the FT method saves significantly in delay simulation results were quantified in terms of
costs when compared to the TB method measures of effectiveness (MOEs) viz. vehicle
q it is recommended that the construction be miles of travel (VMT), vehicle hours of delay
done in the off peak periods and definitely (VHD) & Second Delay (VHD in sec/VMT).
not during the PM peak Then the delay was converted into “delay cost”
to measure the impacts of NB, TB and FT on
Highway improvement projects have a the individual projects.
significant impact on road users in terms of The findings of the study indicate that
increase in travel time due to the construction the VMT shows an increasing trend for all the
activity. Therefore, the construction period projects for the NB, TB and FT scenarios
plays a significant role in the impact on road without a significant change. For the 700 East
users. With the Traditional Build (TB) method, project, the daily increase in VMT is 10.8%;
construction time is longer, while innovative for the 7800 South project it is 11.3%, and for
design build methods, also called fast track the I-215 project the increase in daily VMT is
(FT), can reduce the time of construction 11.2%. However, there is a significant variation
drastically. This study is an assessment of TB in VHD for all the projects for the NB, TB and
and FT construction methods to measure the FT scenarios.
travel impact for five Statewide Transportation The 700 East project shows that the
Improvement Program (STIP) projects. These daily VHD is much lower for FT than for the
are part of the Utah Department of TB and NB scenarios. Daily VHD increases by
Transportation’s (UDOT’s) five-year road only 6.5% from 2004 to 2008, whereas, for the
improvement program that incorporates many TB scenario, it increases by approximately
highway projects funded through federal, state 12.2%. For the 7800 South project it was
and local agencies. observed that the PM peak VHD is not much
The macroscopic “transportation different than the AM peak. This suggests that
planning” model, VISUM, was used to this roadway needs a capacity augmentation.
simulate various time of day scenarios from The PM peak VHD is higher than the AM
2004 through 2010. No-build (NB), TB and FT, peak. This suggests that construction should not
scenarios were modeled in the network and be done during the PM period.
traffic was assigned using travel demand The I-215 project shows that the AM
matrices for all the years. A partial network peak VHD for all the scenarios is almost equal,
algorithm was developed to run traffic with a marginal difference in the absolute VHD
assignments on the reduced networks that value between the TB and FT scenarios. The
represented the five projects eventually AM and PM peak VHD are within the same

21
range for both time periods; the AM is within project, the delay cost savings for FT is $7.2
320-440 and the PM is within 350-500. This is million when compared to TB; for the 7800
due to the fact that, since I-215 is an interstate, South project it is $5.4 million and for I-215 it
the travel demand is equal during the day and is $2 million.
night. In terms of absolute value, the VHD for From this study it can be seen that the
this project is 1/10 of the VHD for the other FT method saves significantly in delay costs
two projects. The average second delay for I- when compared to the TB method. The delay
215 is the lowest among all the projects for all savings observed at 700 East is significant and
the scenarios. With the FT method, a lower it is highly recommended that this project be
second delay is observed for all the projects. done using the FT method. Also, it is
For the 700 East project, the savings in second recommended that the construction be done in
delay with FT compared to TB is 0.91; for the off peak periods and definitely not during
7800 South it is 0.7 and for I-215 it is 0.35. The the PM peak. The highest impact will be due to
FT method results in significant savings in the 700 East and 7800 South projects, followed
delay cost for all the projects. For the 700 East by the State St. and 10600 S and I-215 projects.

22
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A Guide for Achieving Flexibility in Highway Design (American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials, 444 North Capitol Street, N.W., Suite 249 Washington, D.C. 20001;
(202) 624-5800 www.transportation.org) (May 2004)

Highlights expand their consideration in applying the


q Context sensitive design involves a Green Book criteria. It shows that having a
collaborative, interdisciplinary approach in process that is open, includes good public
which citizens are part of the design team. involvement, and fosters creative thinking is an
q Context-sensitive solutions recognizes the essential part of achieving good design.
need to consider that transportation The terms context-sensitive solutions,
corridors may be jointly used by motorists, context-sensitive design, and flexibility in
pedestrians, cyclists, and public transit highway design are used interchangeably by
vehicles. some. Other terms expressing the concepts
include place-sensitive design and Thinking
Context-sensitive solutions (CSS) are Beyond the Pavement. These terms all refer to
an emerging concept in highway project the same process and result: a highway or
planning, design, construction, and transportation project that reflects a community
maintenance in recent years. CSS reflects the consensus regarding purpose and need, with the
need to consider highway projects as more than features of the project developed to produce an
transportation. CSS recognizes that a overall solution that balances safety, mobility,
transportation facility, by the way it is and preservation of scenic, aesthetic, historic,
integrated within the community, can have far- and environmental resources.
reaching impacts (positive and negative) A national conference sponsored by the
beyond its traffic or transportation function. Maryland State Highway Administration and
The term CSS therefore refers to an approach FHWA in 1998 produced a definition of
or process as much as it does to an actual context-sensitive design that has been adopted
design or solution. by many:
The term Flexibility in Highway Design Context sensitive design asks questions
was adopted by the Federal Highway first about the need and purpose of the
Administration (FHWA) in their transportation project, and then equally
groundbreaking publication (issued in 1997) addresses safety, mobility, and the preservation
that demonstrated how agencies could of scenic, aesthetic, historic, environmental,
accomplish the objects of CSS within accepted and other community values. Context sensitive
design processes and criteria. The core theme design involves a collaborative,
of the FHWA publication was flexibility-in interdisciplinary approach in which citizens are
design approaches, use of criteria, execution of part of the design team.
design solutions, and incorporation of special CSS or flexibility in highway design
or “unique” features. therefore represents a comprehensive process
This Guide [Flexibility in Highway that attempts to bring all stakeholders together
Design] encourages highway designers to in a positive, proactive environment with the

23
objective being the completion of projects that may be jointly used by motorists, pedestrians,
meet transportation needs and are viewed as cyclists, and public transit vehicles. In addition
improvements or enhancements to the to the movement of people, CSS also considers
community through preservation efforts and the distribution of goods and the provision of
sensitivity to local values. CSS recognizes the essential services.
need to consider that transportation corridors

24
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How Urban Planners Cause Congestion and Death in Liberty by Randal O’Toole and Michael
Cunneen (Liberty Foundation, 1018 Water St., #201, Port Townsend, WA 98368; 360-379-0242)
(Feb 2005).

Highlights way streets, they produce less air pollution than


q one-way grids and one-way couplets are two-way streets.
superior to two-way streets for moving In Sacramento, there were 163% more
people and vehicles pedestrian accidents on two-way streets than on
q one-way streets are safer, for both auto one-way streets. In Portland, Ore., Hollywood,
users and pedestrians Fla., and Raleigh, N.C., the pedestrian accident
q yet, urban planners seek to replace one-way rate was double on two-way streets. One study
streets with two-way streets to “calm” called one-way streets “the most effective
traffic urban counter-measure” to pedestrian
accidents.
A few decades ago, engineers made In the 1960s, a flurry of books appeared
most urban transportation plans and decisions. that criticized automobiles and highways. This
Their first priority was safety and their second led to federal legislation requiring safer and
priority was efficient movement of traffic. The cleaner cars. The legislation proved successful.
engineers carefully studied the effects of any Fatality rates per million vehicle miles today
changes or improvements they made to see if are 75% lower than they were a half century
they were good or bad, and they published their ago. Total auto emissions have declined by
results for other engineers to see. more than 60% even though we drive 2.5 times
After World War II; Americans who as many miles as we did in 1970.
lived in cities began a rapid movement to the Despite these successes, animosity
suburbs, and they were followed by retail toward the automobile has increased. One
shopping malls. Downtown retailers worried reason for this is the inflation of the 1970s,
that this competition would have an advantage during which highway construction costs grew
over them because the suburbs were less dramatically, but were not matched by growth
congested. Traffic engineers offered a solution: in highway revenues. Though states and the
convert two-way streets to one-way. federal government raised gas tax rates, they
One-way streets with the same number lost the race to inflation and more fuel efficient
of lanes as two-way streets can move 20% to cars: after adjusting for inflation, auto drivers
50% more cars because of fewer turn delays. today pay only half as much gas tax for every
Traffic signals on a one-way grid can easily be mile they drive as they paid in 1960.
coordinated so drivers can proceed at a As a result, highway construction after
continuous speed without stopping frequently 1970 could not keep pace with demand. When
for red lights. One-way streets are safer, for roads became too congested, many people
both auto users and pedestrians. Finally, drove at different times, found different routes,
because traffic moves more smoothly on one- or used other modes of transportation. This
meant there was a large pent-up demand for

25
highways during peak periods, so when a new auto flows through various forms of so-called
highway did open, it was almost immediately traffic calming. This means putting barriers in
congested as people changed times, routes, or roads that force cars to slow down or turning
modes. This led to the myth that “building one-way streets back to two-way operation.
roads simply leads to more driving,” when in Planners argue that converting one-way
fact the increased driving was taking place to two-way streets will make them more
whether the new roads were built or not -- just pedestrian friendly and better for business. Not
not at times or on routes most convenient to surprisingly, they offer no evidence for these
drivers. claims, since they were disproved by engineers
One result of the increasing criticism of 50 years ago. But few people remembered the
the automobile was that transportation benefits gained from converting two-way to
engineers lost the favor of city officials. one-way streets, so many believed the planners.
Elected officials turned instead to urban Conversions are costly in terms of
planners, who promised a more holistic view of accidents, congestion, and pollution. Austin
transportation. planners admit that their plan of converting
Urban planners wanted to “revitalize” nine streets will increase traffic delays by 23%
downtowns by closing streets to auto traffic and and downtown air pollution by 10% to 13%.
turning them into pedestrian malls to compete On just about any ground imaginable --
with suburban shopping malls. Far from safety, congestion, pollution, and effects on
revitalizing retail districts, most of the most businesses -- one-way grids and one-way
pedestrian malls killed them. Vacancy rates couplets are superior to two-way streets for
soared. By 2002, more than three out of four moving people and vehicles. The idea that
pedestrian malls had been partly or entirely building pedestrian-deadly environments can
reopened to traffic. In most cases, this led to an create pedestrian-friendly neighborhoods is a
immediate and often dramatic decline in retail planning fantasy. Cities that want to create
vacancy rates. livable, safe environments for pedestrians and
Why did it take planners 15 years to businesses should return transportation
realize that pedestrian malls rarely worked? planning to the engineers, whose programs are
Why did it take another 20 years for most cities grounded in reality, not fantasy. In the long run,
to reopen their streets to autos? One answer is American cities need to rethink their support
that planners are resistant to reality. They told for urban planning. Why should cities employ
themselves and everyone else that their projects members of a profession that advocates policies
were successful no matter how badly they that reduce safety, increase pollution, and waste
turned out in reality. people’s time? It is time to return to the
Having failed in their efforts to close methods and vision of the engineer.
streets to autos, planners began trying to reduce

26
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Development of Guidelines for Identifying and Treating Locations with a Red-Light-Running


Problem by James Bonneson and Karl Zimmerman, Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A&M
University, College Station, Texas 77843-3135 (Texas Department of Transportation, Research and
Technology Implementation Office P. O. Box 5080, Austin, Texas 78763-5080; ph. 979-845-1713;
http://tti.tamu.edu/documents/0-4196-2.pdf) (Aug 2004)

Highlights countermeasures with the intent to reduce


q red-light-related crashes tend to be at a crashes below that of the typical approach
minimum value when the clearance time is represents “over treatment.” Over treatment is
about 2.5 s not likely to be cost-effective.
q heavy vehicle operators are more than twice In general, countermeasure selection to
as likely to run the red indication as address a problem location should be based on
passenger car drivers a comprehensive engineering study of traffic
q red-light violations are at their lowest level conditions, traffic control device visibility,
when the volume-to-capacity ratio is in the crash history, and intersection sight distance.
range of 0.6 to 0.7 The findings from the engineering analysis can
then be used with the procedure outlined in
The objective of a red-light-running Figure 5-6 to determine the most viable set of
treatment program should be the reduction of countermeasures.
red-light-related crashes (as opposed to red- The following specific conclusions are
light violations). Countermeasures that reduce reached as a result of the analysis of the data
red-light-related crashes will likely also reduce collected for this research:
violations. o Red-light-related crashes represent
The identification of intersections with about 30% of all crashes that occur at
the potential for safety improvement (i.e., signalized intersections in Texas.
“problem” locations) should be based on an
evaluation of individual intersection o Red-light-related crashes are influenced
approaches. The need for treatment at a specific by, or correlated with, several
approach should be based on the difference intersection factors. These relationships
between expected crash frequency for that were exploited in the development of a
approach and that for the “typical” approach. crash prediction model. This model can
Intersection approaches that have an expected be used to predict the expected crash
crash frequency that exceeds that of the typical frequency for an intersection approach
approach have the greatest potential for based on the following factors:
improvement. approach leg AADT, yellow interval
Any treatment of a problem intersection duration, speed limit, and clearance
approach should be intended to return the time.
approach’s expected crash frequency to a level o The calibrated crash prediction model
that is consistent with that of the typical indicates that red-light-related crashes
approach. The implementation of tend to be at a minimum value when the

27
clearance time is about 2.5 s. This time of ratios yields minimal violations,
corresponds to clearance path widths of regardless of speed, path length, yellow
110, 120, 150, and 165 ft for speed duration, heavy-vehicle percentage,
limits of 30, 35, 40, and 45 mph, cycle length, phase duration, or traffic
respectively. volume.
o Area-wide officer enforcement of o Enforcement efforts are likely to reduce
intersection traffic control devices will violations occurring primarily in the
reduce red-light-related crashes by 6.4% first few seconds of red and, therefore,
during the time of the enforcement should significantly reduce left-turn-
activity. opposed crashes. In an indirect manner,
these efforts should also reduce some
o Heavy vehicle operators are more than
right-angle crashes by encouraging
twice as likely to run the red indication
driver compliance with the signal. In
as passenger car drivers.
contrast, engineering countermeasures
o Red-light violations are influenced by, are most likely to reduce violations
or correlated with, several intersection throughout the red and, therefore,
factors. These relationships were reduce both right-angle and left-turn-
exploited in the development of a opposed crashes in somewhat equal
violation prediction model. This model proportion.
can be used to predict the expected
o Increasing the all-red interval is likely
violation frequency for an intersection
to reduce the portion of right-angle
approach based on the following
crashes that occur in the first few
factors: yellow interval duration, use of
seconds of red. However, right-angle
signal head back plates, 85th percentile
crashes are relatively infrequent in the
speed, clearance path length, heavy-
first few seconds of red, so increasing
vehicle percentage, and volume-to-
the all-red interval may not significantly
capacity ratio.
reduce the total number of right-angle
o Red-light violations are at their lowest crashes.
level when the volume-to-capacity ratio
is in the range of 0.6 to 0.7. This range

28
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Effective Practices in State Department of Transportation Security Planning by Rachel Winkeller


and Matthew Rabkin (Planning and Policy Analysis Division, US Department of
Transportation/Volpe Center 55 Broadway, DTS-46, Cambridge, MA 02142; Phone: 617-494-2764;
Email: winkeller@volpe.dot.gov; http://www.pooledfund.org/documents/TPF-
5_085/effective_practices.pdf) (Aug 2004)

Highlights The findings of this report are


q The research process generated summarized below.
approximately 30 key findings.
A. Overall Strategic Direction
This report documents key lessons A.1 Build a business case to explain the
learned by state DOTs as they have expanded importance of transportation.
their security responsibilities. Volpe Center A.2 Make sure the DOT plays an
staff interviewed security officials from seven integral role in state security planning efforts.
state DOTs, chosen because of their agencies’ A.3 Recognize that security is an
reputations for being advanced in the field of important ongoing priority.
security planning, as well as selected federal A.4 Integrate security into an “All
transportation and security officials involved in Hazards” emergency management approach.
security planning. Volpe Center staff also A.5 Actively seek out resources to
conducted a review of reports concerning state support the security effort.
transportation security planning efforts.
The research process generated B. Organizational Structure
approximately 30 key findings, detailed in this B.1 Establish a formal security and
report. For clarity, they have been organized emergency management program with a core
into nine broad themes relating to state group of dedicated staff.
transportation security planning: B.2 Provide the security function with
1. Overall strategic direction substantial organizational authority.
2. Organizational structure B.3 Tailor the security organization to
3. Roles and responsibilities the department’s internal organizational
4. Relationships with external agencies structure and the state’s security and
and transportation providers emergency response needs.
5. Plans and procedures B.4 Develop a multidisciplinary staff
6. Communications with the appropriate range of skills.
7. Intelligent Transportation Systems
8. Infrastructure protection C. Roles and Responsibilities
9. Training C.1 Ensure DOT staff people
understand their roles and are prepared to fulfill
their responsibilities regarding security and
emergency management.

29
C.2 Make sure to understand the needs F. Communications
and expectations of other agencies. F.1 Establish interoperable and
C.3 Play an active role in evacuation redundant communication systems.
planning, including cross-jurisdictional
evacuations. G. Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)
G.1 Use ITS as a key resource for
D. Relationships with External Agencies and security planning and incident response.
Transportation Providers G.2 Expand the role of TMCs/TCCs to
D.1 Establish good institutional and include 24/7 operations and/or serve as an
personal relationships at federal, state, regional, EOC.
and local levels.
D.2 Pay particular attention to fostering H. Infrastructure Protection
relationships at the regional/local level. H.1 Use the AASHTO methodology to
D.3 Do not limit relationships to those prioritize assets, assess vulnerabilities and
within the public sector. risks, and develop potential countermeasures.
H.2 Include staff from other agencies on
E. Plans and Procedures Threat and Vulnerability Assessment (TVA)
E.1 Develop plans and procedures for teams.
security and emergency management. H.3 Be cautious about large capital
E.2 Undertake periodic evaluations and investments in security.
updates of security and emergency H.4 Devote additional effort to highest
management plans. priority critical assets.
E.3 Include the protection of key
information as an essential component of a I. Training
security plan. I.1 Provide all DOT staff with, at
E.4 Develop plans to ensure continuity minimum, basic terrorism awareness training.
of operations during emergencies and/or I.2 Provide supplemental security
adverse conditions. training, based on job responsibilities.
E.5 Have a plan for communicating I.3 Perform exercises to test response.
with the public.

30
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The Impact of Driver Cell Phone Use on Accidents by Robert W. Hahn & James E. Prieger
(American Enterprise Institute, Client Distribution Services, 193 Edwards Drive, Jackson, TN
38301; 800-343-4499; http://www.aei.org/publications/pubID.21405,filter./pub_detail.asp) (July
2004)

Highlights driving. We cannot reject the hypothesis that a


q individuals who are more likely to use ban would have no effect on the number of
hands-free devices are more careful drivers accidents. The authors’ estimates of the
even without them reduction in accidents from a ban on cell phone
q there is no significant impact of a cell use while driving are both lower and less
phone ban or a hands-free requirement on certain than some previous studies indicate.
accidents The authors’ study has several policy
implications. First, policy makers should factor
The authors’ approach for estimating into their decisions that there is no significant
the relationship between cell phone use while impact of a cell phone ban or a hands-free
driving and accidents is the first to test for requirement on accidents. Furthermore,
selection effects and the first that allows direct because there is more uncertainty than
estimation of the impact of a cell phone ban previously suggested in the relationship
while driving. There are three key findings. between cell phone use while driving and
First, there is evidence of selection effects. The accidents, cost-benefit analyses of proposed
authors’ analysis suggests that individuals who bans should reflect this uncertainty. Including
are more likely to use hands-free devices are the uncertainty in the relationship between cell
more careful drivers even without them. Once phone use and accidents will make the decision
we correct for the endogeneity of hands-free to regulate more difficult. Finally, however, the
usage, the authors’ models predict no authors’ results do not imply that nothing
statistically significant reduction in accidents should be done to regulate drivers while using
from bans on hand-held usage, such as the bans cell phones. Rather, the authors’ study provides
enacted in New Jersey and New York. Second, additional evidence that policy makers should
the impact of cell phone use on accidents varies consider before regulating.
across the population. In particular, even after A natural question following from the
controlling for observed driver characteristics, authors’ study is how to get more precise
the authors’ random coefficient models show estimates of the impact of cell phone use while
there is additional variation in the cell phone driving on accidents. One is to do larger
impacts on accidents, particularly for female surveys of the type done here, recognizing that
drivers. Previous studies, which study accident such surveys have clear limitations. A second is
cases only, thus suffer from selection bias, and to consider real-world policy changes and look
previous estimates of the impact of cell phone for “natural experiments”. For example, there
usage on risk for the population may be are many jurisdictions that have implemented
overstated by 36%. Finally, the authors explore policy changes requiring hands-free devices.
the impact of a ban on cell phone use while

31
These policies could be evaluated using Because cell phone use while driving is
standard statistical methods. There are several likely to increase unless it is constrained by
problems that would need to be addressed in regulation, it poses interesting challenges for
such empirical studies, however. For example, researchers as well as policy makers. This
when compliance with a ban is low, then failure paper has shown that analyzing cell phone use
to find a lower accident rate after a ban may be while driving is more complicated than some
due to a low compliance rate, a lack of earlier studies would suggest. In essence, we
causality between cell phone usage and have shown that selection effects and
accidents, or both. Disentangling these two heterogeneity among drivers are likely to be
explanations would be complicated by the fact important, and should not be ignored in a
that the effects of a hand-held ban are likely to policy setting. Exactly how important is less
be small. Furthermore, it may be difficult to clear. What is clear is that more work will be
find individual-level data for such studies, and needed on various aspects of this problem to
the selection effects and varying impacts of cell develop policies that actually reduce accidents
phone use found in the authors’ study imply at a reasonable social cost.
that aggregated data may mask important parts
of the story.

32
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Impact of Left-Turn Phasing on Older and Younger Drivers at High-Speed Signalized


Intersections by Shauna L. Hallmark and Kim Mueller (Center for Transportation Research and
Education, Iowa State University, 2901 South Loop Drive, Suite 3100, Ames, IA 50010-8634;
http://www.ctre.iastate.edu/reports/protect_permit.pdf) (Aug 2004)

Highlights are less likely to understand the meaning of


q protected phasing is much safer than different types of left-turn displays.
protected/permitted and permitted phasing Younger drivers may also have
q older drivers had the highest left-turn crash problems with left turns. Lack of experience or
rates of all age groups for all types of risky driving behavior are often cited as reason
phasing for crash involvement among young drivers.
q middle-aged drivers had the lowest crash When younger drivers are involved in a crash,
rates under all types of phasing they are more likely to be cited for exceeding
q protected/permitted phasing had the highest the speed limit, following too closely, and
average severity index being inattentive. Young drivers are much more
q younger drivers had the highest severity per likely to be cited for failing to yield the right-
crash under all types of phasing of-way, disregarding the traffic signal, and
disregarding the stop or yield sign than other
Implementation of different types of age groups.
left-turn phasing is often based on operational This study evaluated the impact of
considerations. Several studies, however, have different types of left-turn phasing on older and
demonstrated differences in safety between younger drivers at high-speed signalized
different types of left-turn phasing. These intersections in Iowa. High-speed signalized
studies have shown that protected phasing intersections were of interest since oncoming
results in the lowest crash rate followed by speeds and appropriate gaps may be more
protected/permitted and then permitted phasing difficult to judge for older drivers and those
results. with less experience. A total of 101
Older drivers are more likely to have intersections from various urban locations in
problems with left turns than younger drivers. Iowa with at least one intersecting roadway
Studies have shown that they are more likely to with a posted speed limit of 45 mph or higher
be involved in angle crashes and in crashes at were evaluated. Left-turn related crashes from
intersections. Older drivers are also cited more 2001 to 2003 were evaluated. Left-turn crash
often than other age groups for failure to yield rate and severity for young drivers (14- to 24-
right-of-way and for illegal or improper turns. year-old), middle-age drivers (25- to 64-year-
Additionally, they have slower perception- old), and older drivers (65 years and older)
reaction times and exhibit more difficulty were calculated.
selecting safe gaps and judging speeds of The induced exposure method was used
oncoming vehicles than younger drivers. to estimate exposure. This method, as discussed
Existing evidence indicates that older drivers in the report, uses two-vehicle crashes and
assigns fault to one driver, based on whoever

33
was determined to have caused the accident. lowest at protected phasing for older drivers.
The other driver is assigned the designation of Middle-aged drivers had the lowest crash rates
“not-at-fault.” Drivers who are “not-at-fault” under all types of phasing among the three age
are assumed to approximate the general groups. Under the three different types of
population. Consequently, the percentage of phasing, young drivers had the highest crash
drivers in a particular age category can be used rate at protected/permitted phasing, followed
to estimate exposure by age group. by permitted phasing.
Poisson regression was used to analyze A severity index was also calculated for
left-turn crash rates by age group and type of each crash by assigning points to each of five
phasing. Three age groups were evaluated: 15 types of injuries. Protected/permitted phasing
to 24, 25 to 64, and 65+. Overall, left-turn crash had the highest average severity index. The
rates indicated that protected phasing is much severity index was the lowest for permitted.
safer than protected/permitted and permitted Younger drivers had the highest severity per
phasing. Protected/permitted phasing had the crash under all types of phasing. However, the
highest left-turn crash rates overall. However, it number of occupants per vehicle is not included
should be noted that left-turn crash rates were in the crash records and was not considered.
calculated as crashes per million entering Rear-end crashes by type of phasing
vehicles (MEV) of the approach in question was also evaluated. The total number of rear-
and not left-turn volume, which was not end crashes for each high-speed approach was
available and could not be collected with used to calculate a rear-end crash rate by type
project resources. Older drivers had the highest of left-turn phasing. The rear-end crash rate
left-turn crash rates of all age groups for all was the highest for approaches with protected
types of phasing. For older drivers, crash rates phasing. However, it should be noted that all
were the highest at protected/permitted rear-end crashes were used in the analysis since
phasing, followed by permitted phasing. Of the the crash data could not specifically relate rear-
three types of phasing, crash rates were the end crashes to left-turning vehicles.

34
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Median Crossover Accident Analyses and the Effectiveness of Median Barriers by Venky
Shankar, Songrit Chayanan, Sittipan Sittkariya, Ming-Bang Shyu, Gudmundur Ulfarsson, Naveen
Kumar Juvva, Washington State Transportation Center (TRAC), University of Washington, Box
354802, University District Building; 1107 NE 45th Street, Suite 535, Seattle, Washington 98105-
4631 (Research Office, Washington State Department of Transportation, Transportation Building,
MS 47370, Olympia, Washington 98504-7370; Kathy Lindquist, Project Manager, 360-705-7976)
(Aug 2004)

Highlights are less than or equal to 50 feet wide are


q barrier installation did not necessarily barriered.
uniformly increase overall crash counts on The objectives of this study were
the highway section threefold. The first was to develop a roadside
q injury profiles on sections with barriers data system that could be consistently and
were not significantly different from those systematically used in all six regions of
without barriers Washington State. Such a system could then be
used for data inputs in median crossover model
This research explores the use of count development and refinement. The second was
models to determine design and weather factors to develop a decision matrix comprising
correlated with median crossover crashes on geometric, environmental, and traffic factors so
Washington State highways. The Washington that WSDOT personnel could cross-check their
State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) subject locations within the matrix and estimate
currently relies on the relationship between cross-over probability ranges. The third
average daily traffic (ADT) and median width objective was to examine the impacts of
when examining median barrier requirements. barriering impacts could include less severe
Such techniques, while being somewhat outcomes from fixed-object collisions or multi-
effective, are limited by their simplicity. As a vehicle collisions caused by the redirection of
result of this, median barrier requirements do errant vehicles into the mainline. A before-and-
not take into account fully multi-variate effects after analysis would then allow WSDOT
of roadway geometries, traffic factors, and personnel to assess the cost effectiveness of
environmental conditions. Recently, the barriering.
WSDOT went one step further than the national A variety of statistical approaches were
standards. It examined the benefit/cost of employed to examine factors contributing to
median barrier installations to determine the the median crossover problem. Data that
optimal level of barrier placement. For provided correlation information to median
example, it determined through a focused crossovers included roadway geometrics,
benefit/cost study that cable barriers installed precipitation, traffic volumes, and roadside
on medians that are 50 feet wide or less would characteristics relating to shoulder and median
be optimal. A broader suggestion from this portions of the highway. Median characteristic
finding is that savings in crash related societal information included qualitative information on
costs would be maximized when medians that several features of medians, such as median

35
slopes, surface type and widths, In developing accident data for sections without median
the decision matrix on median barrier barriers were used as the “without median
installation, two types of statistical models barrier” data, and 1990-94 accident data for
were examined. The first model examined the sections containing barriers (and similar in
contribution of roadway geometries, median attributes to the sections without barriers) were
widths, weather, traffic volumes, and roadside used as ‘‘with median barrier” data. The
characteristics to annual median crossovers. median barrier sections were chosen so that
This type of model is referred to in this study as they were physically near the sections without
the “crossover frequency” model, i.e., a model median barriers and hence very closely
that forecasts the mean number of yearly represented the behavior of the median barrier-
median crossovers. less sections after median barriers were put in
A second type of statistical model them. A preliminary contingency analysis of
examined the contribution of roadway total crash counts determined that barrier
geometries, median widths, weather, traffic installation did not necessarily uniformly
volumes, and roadside characteristics to the increase overall crash counts on the highway
annual societal cost of median crossovers. The section. Some sections reported lowered crash
cost-level model in this study is referred to as counts with barrier installation, whereas others
the “median crossover societal cost” model, reported higher crash counts. To examine the
i.e., a model that forecasts the annual cost of characteristics of sections that exhibited this
median crossovers. The intent behind this difference in crash profiles, the researchers
model was to determine if the cost-level estimated a statistical model for all reported
examination and frequency-level examination crashes for sections with and without median
from the first model provided a common point barriers. In estimating the model, traffic
of decision-making for barrier installation volumes, precipitation, geometries, and the
policy. One might consider the following presence of median barriers were controlled
design policy in this case: for. The examination determined that as the
number of curves per mile increased in a
o Barrier all medians less than or equal to
section with barriers, the overall crash profile
50 feet wide.
on those sections increased in comparison to
o Do not barrier medians wider than 60 similar sections with no barriers. It was also
feet. found that a section with two to five grade
o Consider case-by-case assessments for changes per mile and median barriers
barriering medians in the 50-foot to 60- experienced fewer overall crashes than similar
foot range. sections without median barriers. Injury
profiles on sections with barriers were not
Finally, the effectiveness of the significantly different from those without
installation of median barriers on the selected barriers, but that finding could be an artifact of
road sections was also tested. The 1990-94 the dataset used.

36
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Supplemental Transportation Programs for Seniors (AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, 607 14th
Street, NW, Suite 201, Washington, DC 20005; 202 638-5944;
http://www.aaafoundation.org/pdf/STP2.pdf) (July 2004)

Highlights provided the impetus for the Supplemental


q thousands of supplemental transportation Transportation Program for Seniors project.
programs (STPs) are operating throughout The report Supplemental Transportation
the country Programs for Seniors, published in June 2001,
identified and documented more than 236
Many discussions of senior community-based organizations and groups
transportation problems and solutions begin throughout the United States that provided
with efforts to enable senior drivers to continue transportation services to older adults. The
driving as long as possible. Discussion of report, a product of the first Senior
supplemental transportation programs (STPs) Transportation Action Response (STAR)
for seniors, by contrast, begins with the Search survey, included discussion of the
assumption that seniors who do not drive need results of the survey along with extensive
transportation options to get where they need to information about the 11 winners of STAR
go and that family members may not be Awards for Excellence. It also included
available to provide necessary transportation program profiles, program reviews, and case
services. studies.
This report summarizes the purposes, This report is an update of the first. It
activities, and outcomes of the Supplemental uses data from the first study along with
Transportation Programs for Seniors project, an additional data from surveys conducted
effort to identify, document, and understand between 2001 and 2003 as part of the continued
STPs for seniors in the United States initiated partnership between the Beverly Foundation
in 2000 by the Beverly Foundation and the and the AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety.
AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety. The report begins with a brief section
A focus group study conducted in 1999 that summarizes the STPs approach, discussing
by the Beverly Foundation to investigate issues its features, advantages, and principles and
of transportation in an aging society identified providing key data from the report. Next is a
senior transportation problems and solicited section detailing results from the Senior
recommendations for solutions from seniors Transportation Action Response (STAR)
and their lay caregivers. The study identified Search effort. Information about the
difficulties seniors face when public, institutional and operational characteristics of
paratransit, and other transportation options do STPs were gathered from each organization
not meet their needs. It also identified criteria that responded to the annual STAR Search
for what could be considered “senior-friendly” survey. The resulting database contains a great
transportation and uncovered practical deal of data on STPs, such as location, program
solutions in the form of informal community- type, organization and service relationships,
based transportation programs. These findings specifics of services provided, budget and fund-

37
raising, management issues, and so on. All 50 The end result was a successful pilot
states are represented in the STPs database; the project (and PasRide was then placed in a
greatest concentrations are in New York, permanent home), a demonstrated approach
California, Michigan, and Washington. that could be adapted by others, and
Information on STPs in three special sectors informational and technical materials that
(Indian Country, institutional settings, and rural include all the necessary information for
areas) also has been introduced. planning and start-up activities.
A section on the concepts and practices Next the STAR Awards for Excellence
of STPs includes discussion of the insights are described. A brief overview of the award is
provided by an in-depth analysis of the data, provided, and then profiles and program
extensive discussions with program staff, reviews of the seven STAR Award Winners
researchers, and policy makers. Key topics from 2002 and 2003 are presented.
include the features of senior-friendly In the concluding section, an agenda for
transportation, the cost/maintenance action is described. The several hundred STPs
continuum, and the “volunteer friends” included in this study are just the tip of the
approach. iceberg: there are indications that thousands of
An 18-month “volunteer friends” pilot STPs are operating throughout the country,
project undertaken in Pasadena, California, is sponsored by hospitals, nursing homes,
described in the next section. In addition to churches and interfaith communities, volunteer
providing rides for seniors, “PasRide” was groups, health programs, senior centers,
designed to test a low-cost/low-maintenance nutrition programs, agencies on aging, and
service model that would complement existing even by transportation services. Whatever their
transportation services as well as to create an sponsorship, most STPs indicate that they face
adaptable process model that could be a variety of challenges, and these must be
implemented in communities throughout the addressed as STPs become an agenda for
country. action.

38
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Traffic Safety Facts: Pedestrians (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, National
Center for Statistics and Analysis, 400 Seventh St., S.W., Washington, D.C. 20590) (2004)

Highlights the people under age 16 who were injured in


q Pedestrian fatalities have decreased by 16% traffic crashes were pedestrians.
over the last decade. Pedestrian fatalities accounted for 86%
of all non-occupant fatalities in 2003. The 622
In 2003, 4,749 pedestrians were killed pedalcyclist fatalities accounted for 11%, and
in traffic crashes in the United States - a the remaining 3% were skateboard riders, roller
decrease of 16% from the 5,649 pedestrians skaters, etc.
killed in 1993. Forty-four percent of the 443 pedestrian
On average, a pedestrian is killed in a fatalities under 16 years of age were killed in
traffic crash every 111 minutes. crashes that occurred between 3:00 PM and
There were 70,000 pedestrians injured 7:00 PM.
in traffic crashes in 2003. On average, a Nearly one-half (48%) of all pedestrian
pedestrian is injured in a traffic crash every 8 fatalities occurred on Friday, Saturday, or
minutes. Sunday: 16%, 18%, and 13%, respectively.
Most pedestrian -fatalities in 2003
occurred in urban areas (72%), at non- Nonoccupant Traffic Fatalities, 1993-2003
intersection locations (79%), in normal weather Year Pedestrian Pedalcyclist Other Total
conditions (89%), and at night (65%).
1993 5,649 816 111 6,576
More than two-thirds (69%) of the 2003
pedestrian fatalities were males. In 2003, the 1994 5,489 802 107 6,398
male pedestrian fatality rate per 100,000 1995 5,584 833 109 6,526
population was 2.27 - more than double the rate 1996 5,449 765 154 6,368
for females (1.01 per100,000 population). The 1997 5,321 814 153 6,288
male pedestrian injury rate per 100,000
1998 5,228 760 131 6,119
population in 2003 was 30, compared with 19
1999 4,939 754 149 5,842
for females.
In 2003, almost one-fourth (22%) of all 2000 4,763 693 141 5,597
children between the ages of 5 and 9 years who 2001 4,901 732 123 5,756
were killed in traffic crashes were pedestrians. 2002 4,851 665 114 5,630
Nearly one-fifth (17%) of all traffic fatalities 2003 4,749 622 140 5,511
under age 16 were pedestrians, and 7% of all

39
Pedestrian Traffic Fatalities and Fatality Rates by State, 2003
Resident
Total Traffic Pedestrian Percent of Per 100,000
State Population
Fatalities Fatalities Total Population
(thousands)
Alabama 1,001 4,501 62 6.2 1.38
Alaska 95 649 8 8.4 1.23
Arizona 1,120 5,581 121 10.8 2.17
Arkansas 627 2,726 40 6.4 1.47
California 4,215 35,484 701 16.6 1.98
Colorado 632 4,551 56 8.9 1.23
Connecticut 294 3,483 34 11.6 0.98
Delaware 142 817 19 13.4 2.32
District of Columbia 67 563 18 26.9 3.19
Florida 3,169 17,019 500 15.8 2.94
Georgia 1,603 8,685 156 9.7 1.80
Hawaii 135 1,258 24 17.8 1.91
Idaho 293 1,366 13 4.4 0.95
Illinois 1,453 12,654 188 12.9 1.49
Indiana 834 6,196 62 7.4 1.00
Iowa 441 2,944 18 4.1 0.61
Kansas 471 2,724 25 5.3 0.92
Kentucky 928 4,118 61 6.6 1.48
Louisiana 894 4,496 87 9.7 1.93
Maine 207 1,306 13 6.3 1.00
Maryland 649 5,509 114 17.6 2.07
Massachusetts 462 6,433 86 18.6 1.34
Michigan 1,283 10,080 166 12.9 1.65
Minnesota. 657 5,059 53 8.1 1.05
Mississippi 871 2,881 40 4.6 1.39
Missouri 1,232 5,704 78 6.3 1.37
Montana 262 918 10 3.8 1.09
Nebraska 293 1,739 12 4.1 0.69
Nevada 368 2,241 65 17.7 2.90
New Hampshire 127 1,288 19 15.0 1.48
New Jersey 747 8,638 147 19.7 1.70
New Mexico 439 1,875 51 11.6 2.72
New York 1 ,491 19,190 334 22.4 1.74
North Carolina 1,531 8,407 150 9.8 1.78
North Dakota 105 634 7 6.7 1.10
Ohio 1,277 11 ,436 99 7.8 0.87
Oklahoma 668 3,512 36 5.4 1.03
Oregon 512 3,560 46 9.0 1.29
Pennsylvania 1,577 12,365 170 10.8 1.37
Rhode Island 104 1,076 13 12.5 1.21
South Carolina 968 4,147 80 8.3 1.93
South Dakota 203 764 10 4.9 1.31
Tennessee 1,193 5,842 96 8.0 1.64
Texas 3,675 22,119 382 10.4 1.73
Utah 309 2,351 28 9.1 1.19
Vermont 69 619 7 10.1 1.13
Virginia 943 7,386 86 9.1 1.16
Washington 600 6,131 75 12.5 1.22
West Virginia 394 1,810 22 5.6 1.22
Wisconsin 848 5,472 54 6.4 0.99
Wyoming 165 501 7 4.2 1.40
U.S. Total 42,643 290,810 4,749 11.1 1.63
Puerto Rico 493 3,879 150 30.4 3.87

40
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Eco Passes: An Evaluation of Employer-Based Transit Programs by Donald C. Shoup


(Department of Urban Planning, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
90095-1656; 310-825-5705; shoup@ucla.edu; http://www.uctc.net/papers/727.pdf) (Fall 2004)

Highlights from cars to transit, Eco Passes should reduce


q Eco Passes can yield benefits for parking demand, and free transit for all tenants
developers, property owners, employers, should increase the project’s marketability. Eco
commuters, transit agencies, and cities. Passes can also help a developer to meet traffic
mitigation requirements, reduce a project’s
Several transit agencies—in Dallas, environmental impacts, and perhaps lead to a
Denver, Salt Lake, and San Jose, for speedier approval process.
example—offer employers the option to buy Conventional in-lieu fees give
“Eco Passes,” which give all their employees developers no site-specific benefit beyond
the right to ride free on all local transit lines. permission to build without providing the
This arrangement reduces to zero the required parking. The public parking spaces
employees’ marginal cost of riding public financed by in-lieu fees benefit all developers
transit. Because many commuters won’t ride in the surrounding area, not just the developers
transit even when it is free, the transit agencies’ who pay for them. In contrast, Eco Passes
cost per Eco Pass holder is low, and the provide a site-specific benefit (free transit for
agencies can therefore sell the Eco Passes at a all employees in the development) to the
surprisingly low price. In California’s Silicon developers who buy them, and nothing to other
Valley, the Santa Clara Valley Transportation developers. For this reason, developers may be
Authority (SCVTA) charges between $5 and more willing to buy in-lieu Eco Passes than to
$80 a year per employee for Eco Passes, pay conventional in-lieu fees that finance
depending on the employer’s location and public parking structures everyone can use.
number of employees. The passes allow Fewer parking spaces also translate into
unlimited free rides on any bus or rail line, savings after a building is constructed. The
seven days a week. capital cost of parking is a heavy fixed burden
Providing Eco Passes in lieu of required for a new building that has yet to be leased. The
parking converts an up-front capital cost for annual cost of Eco Passes, in contrast, varies
parking spaces into an annual subsidy for with the number of workers in the building, so
transit, and many developers may want to make the cost is low if the building is half-empty.
this trade. The Eco Passes can yield benefits for Paying a variable cost for Eco Passes instead of
developers, property owners, employers, a fixed cost for parking spaces can therefore
commuters, transit agencies, and cities. reduce the developer’s risk.
Some developers may hesitate to Developers and building owners can
provide fewer parking spaces than the city offer the Eco Passes to all commuters in a
requires because they fear that it will make a building, and this added amenity should allow
project less desirable to tenants. Eco Passes can higher rents. Alternatively, they can transfer the
skirt this obstacle. By luring some commuters cost of the Eco Passes to employers by

41
requiring all tenants to offer Eco Passes to their the demand for transit will be higher where all
employees. Either way, Eco Passes can be more commuters can ride free. These service
profitable than free parking. improvement s will benefit all riders, not just
By shifting some commuters from cars Eco Pass holders, and they may attract
to transit, Eco Passes can save employers some additional riders who pay the full fare.
of the money they now spend to subsidize Parking requirements increase the
parking. The added fringe benefit of free transit supply of parking whereas Eco Passes increase
for all commuters may also help recruit the demand for public transportation. Providing
workers. Eco Passes are a tax-deductible Eco Passes in lieu of required parking will
expense for employers and a tax-free benefit therefore convert a supply-side subsidy for cars
for commuters. Employers will earn higher into a demand-side subsidy for transit. The
profits if they save more on reduced parking appropriate reduction in required parking
subsidies than they spend for Eco Passes. depends on how much Eco Passes reduce
Eco Passes clearly benefit commuters parking demand, and cities should specify the
who ride transit to work, and commuters who reduction they will grant for offering Eco
usually drive to work can consider the passes a Passes rather than oblige developers and
form of insurance for days when their cars landowners to seek a variance in the parking
aren’t available. Eco Passes offer commuters requirement. If cities specify the by-right
day-to-day flexibility in commuting; public reduction in parking requirements they will
transit is always an option, not a long-term give to developers who offer Eco Passes,
commitment. Commuters can also use their Eco parking demand management will become
Passes for nonwork trips. In the Silicon Valley more feasible and profitable. Seattle, for
survey, 60% of commuters reported using their example, reduces the parking requirement for a
Eco Passes for purposes other than commuting, development by up to 10% if transit passes are
with an average of four nonwork trips a month. provided to all employees and if transit service
Eco Passes are a demand-side transit is within 800 feet of the development.
subsidy paid for by the private sector. If cities Cities can offer bigger reductions in
allow developers to provide Eco Passes instead required parking in transit-oriented
of required parking spaces, Eco Pass sales will developments (TODs) because Eco Passes will
increase. The reduction in parking subsidies reduce parking demand more at sites with
will finance the Eco Passes and will provide a better transit service. In these areas,
reliable revenue source for transit agencies. substituting Eco Passes for parking spaces will
Transit planners can also increase service to allow higher density without more vehicle
sites where developers make long-term traffic.
commitments to purchase Eco Passes because

42
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Evaluating Public Transit Benefits and Costs by Todd Litman (Victoria Transport Policy Institute,
1250 Rudlin Street, Victoria, BC, V8V 3R7, CANADA; www.vtpLorg; info@vtpLorg; 250-360-
1560) (Oct 2004)

Highlights Portion of
I Use Public Transit Because...
q elasticity of transit ridership is low
Respondents
It is the most convenient way for me 82%
q a significant portion of users either cannot
Costs less than driving 78%
drive or lack access to an automobile Do not have access to a car 74%
q bus is the slowest transit mode Avoids stress of driving 74%
q light rail has the highest fatality rate of the Is better for the environment. 72%
transit modes Avoids buying a car. 65%
q buses are subsidized more than any other I don’t drive or don’t like to drive. 60%
road user It is faster than a private vehicle. 43%
I can do something else 41%

While this paper’s claim that transit


Mode Speed
yields more benefits than costs is suspect, it Bus 12.8 mph
still provides a lot of useful statistical data with Light Rail 15.4 mph
which to evaluate transit performance. Heavy Rail 20.3 mph
The overall average elasticity of transit Commuter Rail 31.6 mph
ridership with respect to fares is -0.4, meaning
that each 1.0% fare increase will reduce Fatalities/billion person-miles
ridership by 0.4%, although this varies Users Others Total
depending on various geographic, demographic Passenger Car 7.9 1.3 9.2
and service factors. Transit dependent riders Motorcycle 303 1.8 304.8
Trucks - Light 8.2 2.3 10.5
have a lower elasticity than discretionary riders. Trucks - Heavy 2.8 16.7 19.5
Large cities tend to have a lower elasticity than Transit Bus 0.6 4.4 5.0
small cities, and peak-hour travel is less elastic Heavy Rail 1.8 0.4 2.2
than off-peak. Commuter Rail 0.1 8.1 8.2
Light Rail 0.7 14.8 15.5
Factor Elasticity Pedestrians 198.0 - 198.0
Regional employment 0.25 Cyclists 82.2 - 82.2
Central city population 0.61
Service (transit vehicle mileage) 0.71 Roadway Cost Responsibility Per Mile
Fare price -0.32 Total User
Wait time -0.30 Vehicle Class Subsidy
Costs Payments
Travel time -0.60 Automobiles $0.035 $0.026 $0.009
Headways -0.20 Pickups and Vans $0.037 $0.034 $0.003
Single Unit Trucks $0.146 $0.112 $0.034
Combination Trucks $0.202 $0.157 $0.044
Buses $0.118 $0.046 $0.072
All Vehicles $0.047 $0.036 $0.010

43
Trolley Commuter Demand
Bus Heavy Rail Light Rail Other Totals
Bus Rail Response
Capital Expenses (m) $3,028 $188 $4,564 $2,371 $173 $1 ,723 $253 $12,301
Operating Expenses (m) $12,586 $187 $4,268 $2,995 $1,636 $778 $457 $22,905
Total Expenses (m) $15,613 $374 $8,832 $5,366 $1,809 $2,502 $710 $35,206
Average Fare Per Trip $0.71 $0.51 $0.93 $3.50 $2.34 $0.67 $1.14 $0.92
Fare Revenues (m) $3,731 $60 $2,493 $1,449 $185 $226 $132 $8,275
Subsidy (Total Exp. - Fares) $11,882 $315 $6,339 $3,917 $1,624 $2,276 $577 $26,931
Vehicle Revenue Miles (m) 1,864 13 604 259 525 60 102 3,427
Passenger Miles (m) 19,527 188 13,663 9,450 651 1,432 1,034 45,944
A vg. Veh. Occupancy 10.5 14.1 22.6 36.5 1.2 23.9 10.1 13.4
Avg. Trip Distance (miles) 2.8 8.7 4.5 1.6 0.2 5.6 1.1 2.6
Unlinked Trips (m) 5,268 116 2,688 414 79 337 116 9,017
Total Expend. Per Pass. Mile $0.80 $1.99 $0.65 $0.57 $2.78 $1.75 $0.69 $0.77
Fare Rev. Per Pass. Mile $0.19 $0.32 $0.18 $0.15 $0.28 $0.16 $0.13 $0.18
Subsidy Per Pass. Mile $0.61 $1.68 $0.46 $0.41 $2.50 $1.59 $0.56 $0.59
Percent Subsidy 76% 84% 72% 73% 90% 91% 81% 76%

44
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JULY 2005

Performance-Based Measures in Transit Fund Allocation, TCRP Synthesis 56, by Robert G.


Stanley and Patricia G. Hendren (Transportation Research Board, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20418; ph. 202-334-2934; http://www.national-academies.org/trb/bookstore)
(2004)

Highlights systems serving charter and school-related


q There appears to be a high level of stability markets limit revenue raising, thereby
and limited impetus for change in fund constraining resources, budgets, and service
allocation processes and the measures and levels, and restricting access to important
factors currently in place. segments of the travel market. Requirements to
serve elderly and disabled populations by using
A key issue in the examination of comparable services parallel to fixed-route
performance measures in funding allocation is services, a long-standing federal policy,
the definition of transit performance and the dramatically raise costs and the subsidy per trip
specification of transit performance measures. in such markets. When looked at systemwide,
Performance measurement can be viewed as these effects may diminish apparent agency
the assessment of an organization’s output as a performance measured in traditional ways.
product of the management of its internal The current study has not only inquired
resources (dollars, people, vehicles, facilities) about the use of traditional performance
and the environment in which it operates. This measures in funding allocation (ratio measures
definition generally implies ratios of outputs to of efficiency, effectiveness, and productivity),
resource inputs that measure economic but also about the use of other factors, typically
efficiency, operating effectiveness, or agency performance-related external factors and
productivity. service area characteristics (single data
Judgments about performance are elements that may measure aspects of goal
clouded because many typical agency and achievement and related community impacts).
community goals for transit are contradictory. Based on the limited sample of survey
For example, expanding coverage may increase responses, case studies, and a review of recent
ridership, but necessitate increased literature, a number of general findings and
expenditures, whereas budget adherence may conclusions can be drawn.
require reductions in service coverage and o Transit system performance continues
frequency, reducing ridership, and so forth. to be of considerable importance when
Performance is to a large degree a function of viewed across the full spectrum of
locally established goals and objectives and the processes, activities, and organizations
desired balance between them, whether stated involved in the design, funding,
or implied. operation, and oversight of transit
Further obscuring the picture are the services.
impacts of policy and regulation on the ability o The allocation of funds for transit takes
of a transit agency to “perform.” The place at several levels and a differing
restrictions on federally supported transit mix of performance measures and other

45
allocation factors is in evidence at each in fund allocation processes and the
level. measures and factors currently in place.
o Management and oversight of transit o The use of traditional performance
performance and the allocation of funds measures in fund allocation can conflict
to transit systems are being pursued with the desire for stable and reliable
increasingly as independent activities. funding needed to sustain basic levels
o Transit system performance of service.
measurement is broadening to include o Data quality and consistency, varied
progress against goals and objectives goals, and outside forces and influences
that extend beyond efficiency in the use were among the points that survey
of available resources. respondents mentioned.
o There has been no apparent increase in o There appears to be a lack of clarity
the use of traditional internal measures outside the transit industry in
of performance in fund allocation at differentiating traditional internal
either the state or regional level since measures of performance (ratio
the 1994 synthesis survey and report. measures of inputs and outputs
o There are a wide array of perspectives measuring efficiency, effectiveness, and
and approaches to achieving “equity” in organizational productivity) from other
fund allocation. factors measuring agency or community
o There appears to be a high level of goal achievement.
stability and limited impetus for change

46
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JULY 2005

Report Card for Sound Transit by Emory Bundy, ebundy@nwlink.com (The Coalition for
Effective Transportation Alternatives, P.O. Box 33045, Seattle WA 98133; 206 368-0814;
www.effectivetransportation.org (April 2005)

Highlights commitment to light rail, commuter rail, and


q The transit agency has ceased to make regional express bus service that must be met.
comparisons between ongoing performance Performance claims made in Sound
and the original commitments made to Move, however, are no longer described or
voters. discussed. On September 27, 2002, Sound
q Costs have gone up, ridership results are Transit’s chief legal counsel, Desmond Brown,
much lower than planned in 1996, and the announced in open court that the agency has no
schedule for completion has slipped. legal obligation to honor either the budget or
q The region is destined to spend more and the schedule it presented to voters when
more money for extravagant transit options, soliciting their approval. It can spend as much
higher per-trip costs, with diminished as it wants and take as long as it likes to
transit market share. implement Central Link, or some portion of it,
as it sees fit. Neither does it accept any
Sound Transit is a regional transit obligation for its ridership claims made in
agency serving King, Pierce, and Snohomish 1996.
counties. This Report Card, issued in year eight As reported below, Sound Transit has
of Sound Transit’s Ten-Year Plan, evaluates revised the Plan considerably since 1996.
the agency’s performance compared to that Without apology or explanation, the agency has
plan, which was approved by voters in 1996. ceased to make comparisons between ongoing
Four separate transit services are graded – three performance and the original commitments
rail services and the express bus service. Each made to voters. Costs have gone up, ridership
of the four services is described briefly, along results are much lower than planned in 1996,
with detailed justifications for each grade. The and the schedule for completion has slipped.
main elements of performance brought into the The authors of this report card believe
grading are adherence to schedule, capital cost that the 1996 commitments are still important,
of construction and equipment purchase, since they were the basis for voters approving
operating cost, and number of daily patrons. the plan and taxing themselves to pay for it.
The justification for measuring Sound Sound Transit will offer new, multi-year
Transit’s performance against the promises of commitments in the renewal vote coming in
1996 stems from the decision-making process 2006 or later. The validity of new commitments
that led to the four services listed above. A key should be assessed against the track record of
milestone in the process was the approval vote Sound Transit in meeting commitments made
in 1996 by the citizens of the Sound Transit to garner votes in 1996. Without consideration
service district on the Ten-Year Plan, called of planned performance, the region is doomed
“Sound Move.” Sound Transit ever since has to continue wasting precious resources on ill-
steadfastly held that Sound Move is a considered, counter-productive projects.

47
Absent accurate information, the region and operating in 2006, fully paid for with the
is destined to spend more and more money for initial tax increase. The agency is spending
extravagant transit options, higher per-trip $2.7 billion just for the easiest, cheapest, least
costs, with diminished transit market share. productive portion of Central Link, and will
This is contributing to the worst possible require upwards of $5 billion more for the
outcome, more intense congestion in tandem balance.
with higher taxes and subsidies. Taken in by the agency’s “strategic
With massive resources thus misrepresentations,” citizens voted $2.3 billion
squandered, the useful and effective things that for Central Link light rail in 1996, relying on
could be done, won’t be done. Now, Sound Sound Transit’s promise that it would complete
Transit is conspiring to obtain an enormous, it on budget, and on schedule, “for certain,” and
additional tax increase. A large portion of that premised on operating costs and ridership
is required for the completion of Central Link benefits that will prove as distorted and
light rail, which itself is merely “a starter rail.” manipulated as the capital cost estimates and
Sound Transit promised it would be completed construction schedule.

48
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH DIGEST
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JULY 2005

Effects of Increased U-Turns at Intersections on Divided Facilities and Median Divided Versus
Five-Lane Undivided Benefits by Stacie L. Phillips, Daniel L. Carter, Joseph E. Hummer, Robert S.
Foyle, North Carolina State University, Dept. of Civil, Construction, & Environmental Eng. &
ITRE, Campus Box 7908, Raleigh, NC 27695 (North Carolina Department of Transportation,
Research and Analysis Group, 1 South Wilmington Street, Raleigh, NC 27601) (Aug 2004)

Highlights that collisions were significantly related to


q for predominantly residential and industrial cross-section type, average daily traffic
land uses, the raised median design was (AADT), segment length, predominant land
associated with fewer collisions use, and approach density (two-way total). For
q for predominantly business and office land predominantly residential and industrial land
uses, the raised median design had a safety uses, the raised median design was always
advantage for low approach densities associated with fewer collisions than the
q for medium to high driveway densities (25- TWLTL design. For predominantly business
90 approaches per mile), the raised median and office land uses, the raised median design
was slightly safer at high traffic volumes had a safety advantage for low approach
and the TWLTL was slightly safer at lower densities (0-25 approaches per mile). For
traffic volumes medium to high driveway densities (25-90
q medians may increase U-turns at adjacent approaches per mile), the raised median was
intersections, but this was found to have slightly safer at high traffic volumes and the
minimal effects on safety and operational TWLTL was slightly safer at lower traffic
performance volumes.
The signalized intersection study dealt
Highway projects involving access with the effects of U-turns in exclusive left turn
management strategies are among the most lanes. This included analyses of the safety of
hotly debated transportation issues. In U-turns and the operational impacts of U- turns
particular, the choice of midblock left turn on saturation flow rate. The safety study
treatment is a controversial issue. The two main examined a set of 78 intersections in North
competitors for midblock left-turn treatment on Carolina, one-third of which were chosen
four lane arterials are raised medians and two- because they were known to be U-turn
way left-turn lanes (TWLTL). This research “problem sites”. Although the group of study
focused on determining the effects of median sites’ was purposely biased toward sites with
installation on midblock road segments and the high U-turn percentages, the study found that
adjacent signalized intersections. The areas of 65 of the 78 sites did not have any collisions
focus were vehicular safety and operational involving U-turns in the three-year study
impacts. period, and the U-turn collisions at the
For the segment safety study, predictive remaining 13 sites ranged from 0.33 to 3.0
collision models were calibrated using collisions per year.
geometric, volume, land use, and collision data The intersection operational analysis
for 143 midblock segments. Analysis showed involved measurements of vehicle headways in

49
exclusive left turn lanes at 14 intersections. Overall, this research found that many
Regression analysis relating U-turn percentage of the typically cited drawbacks to median
to saturation flow rate indicates a 1.8% oriented designs are not justified. Raised
saturation flow rate loss in the left turn lane for medians may increase U-turns at adjacent
every 10% increase in U-turn percentage and intersections, but this was found to have
an additional 1.5% loss for every 10% U-turns minimal effects on safety and operational
if the U-turning movement is opposed by performance. Additionally, raised medians are
protected right turn overlap from the cross generally safer than TWLTLs on midblock
street. segments.

50
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Performance Measures for Analyzing Real-Time Freeway Operations by Robert E. Brydia and
Kevin N. Balke, Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
77843-3135 (Texas Department of Transportation, Research and Technology Implementation
Office P. O. Box 5080, Austin, Texas 78763-5080; ph. 979-845-1713;
http://tti.tamu.edu/documents/0-4196-2.pdf) (Oct 2003)

Highlights At the transportation management


q The state-of-the-practice in current incident center (TMC), the monitoring systems utilize
management systems focuses on software to retrieve the information from the
identification of an incident and rapid roadway devices and alert operators to any
implementation of an established recovery significant changes about traffic conditions. In
plan. San Antonio, Texas, for example, the
q Performance measures have not been TransGuide TMC uses a 2-minute rolling
widely used to support real-time average of speed values from inductive
applications. pavement loops as the measure by which
freeway performance is analyzed. When the
Mitigating congestion and restoring the speed drops below a certain threshold, an alarm
roadway to normal operations is the driving is sounded, indicating a possible incident. The
force behind building an incident management threshold levels at which an alarm sounds can
system. The basis for incident management be set by roadways, times of day, or other
operations is monitoring the current conditions factors, by individual operators to help make
of the freeway system and reacting to changes distinctions between incidents and recurring
in those conditions. congestion.
The key to incident management is When an alarm sounds and visual
having knowledge of the current freeway verification of an incident occurs, the operators
conditions. This knowledge typically occurs of the TMC typically implement operational
through the monitoring of devices, such as strategies designed to mitigate the results of the
inductive pavement loops, that can measure incident. They generally base these operational
speed, volume, and lane occupancy. Other changes on the accumulated experience and
technologies, such as acoustic, Lidar, automatic knowledge of traffic engineers.
vehicle identification, and more, can also be The state-of-the-practice in current
used, with each having their corresponding incident management systems focuses on
advantages and disadvantages. A typical identification of an incident and rapid
system will also include cameras that can be implementation of an established recovery
moved and zoomed to view different areas. plan. Unfortunately, most response scenarios
These devices supplement electronic data end at the point of implementation. There are
collection and allow TMC personnel to gather no mechanisms in place to monitor the area,
visually as much information about an incident refine the plan, and continue to improve the
as possible. operational response to achieve better results.

51
Additionally, what qualifies as a better literature revealing hundreds of uses for
result is often not known. While past performance measures to analyze all aspects of
experiences from similar incidents are a vast transportation, including safety, efficiency,
resource for implementing a response, they are mobility, and many more.
of little use in determining the current roadway However, performance measures have
performance from that response. not been widely used to support real-time
Real-time performance measurement is applications. This lack of implementation is
an analysis technique used to answer such most likely due to the obstacles in establishing
questions. A real-time performance measure a comprehensive performance measurement
system provides feedback from the operational system that supports real-time applications.
response to incident conditions and provides a With real-time usage, baselines must be
quantitative methodology for assessing the obtained and stored for comparison against
impacts of various operational strategies. non-normal conditions. This leads to significant
The significance of this feedback data archiving needs. Repeatability is an issue,
system is that it offers the ability to enhance the as incidents are random events and data are
efficiency of freeway incident management. often quite limited in a real-world situation.
Even a small percent reduction in the length of However, marrying simulation with an
an incident accrues millions of dollars of time- advanced transportation management software
savings for the affected portion of the roadway. (ATMS) application will allow the
Constructing a framework for the real- investigation of real-time performance
time application of performance measure measures to examine freeway operations. This
analysis will allow operators to fine-tune their report has briefly described the history of
incident response methodologies and move performance measures in general, examined the
closer to the optimal mitigation strategy. Also, state-of-the-practice in performance measures
such systems can be applied to a multi-faceted usage in transportation, and proposed a
response scenario to examine the factors that framework, methodology, and experimental
influence additional responses and at what time design for a prototype system. This prototype
should those additional measures be will allow an operator to examine the benefits
implemented. of a particular response to an incident. This
The use of performance measures is system will help approach the optimal
increasing across virtually all disciplines. mitigation strategy for freeway incidents.
Transportation is no different, with the

52

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