Waves

Notes:
- Waves transfer energy
without transferring material.
- Waves have a wavelength
and amplitude.
- The movement of particles is
at right angles to the direction of
movement in a transverse wave.
- The movement of particles is
parallel to the direction of movement
in a longitudinal wave.
- Waves can be represented
graphically.
- Graphs of two waves can
show phase difference.
- Transverse waves can be
polarised, longitudinal waves cannot.
Terms:
Displacement x, unit: metre (m)
the distance any part of the wave
has moved from its rest position

Amplitude x
0,
unit: metre (m)
the maximum displacement, i.e.
the distance from a peak to rest
position.






Transverse
waves
12. (a) Transverse waves oscillate in any direction perpendicular to wave
direction (1)
66. (d) Explanation of transverse waves
variation in E or B-field /oscillations/vibrations/displacement
at right angles/perpendicular to direction of travel/propagation
[not just motion or movement for both 1
st
and 3
rd
part] (1) 1 [9]
104. (a) Transverse wave
(Line along which) particles/em field vectors oscillate/vibrate (1)
Perpendicular to (1)
Direction of travel or of propagation or of energy flow or velocity(1)
119. Explanation of why waves are transverse
Oscillation/vibration/displacement/disturbance at right angle (1)
to direction of propagation/travel of wave (1) 2
[Oscillation not in direction of wave (1)]
Longitudinal
Waves
Jan2011: 11(a) The vibrations/oscillations/movement of the molecules is
parallel to /along same line as energy/
wave travels /in the same direction as the wave travels (1)
12. (a)Longitudinal waves oscillate in one direction only OR parallel to wave
direction. (1)
52. (a) Describe propagation of longitudinal waves
Particles oscillate / compressions/rarefactions produced (1)
oscillation/vibration/displacement parallel to direction of
propagation (1) 2
Transverse vs.
Longitudinal
(iii) Differences between string wave and sound wave
Any TWO points from:
String wave is transverse, sound wave is longitudinal /
can be polarised, cant
String wave is stationary (OR standing), sound wave is travelling
(OR progressive) / has nodes and antinodes, doesnt /
doesnt transmit energy, does
The waves have different wavelengths
Sound wave is a vibration of the air, not the string (1)(1) 2
[Dont accept travel in different directions / can be seen, cant be
seen / cant be heard, can be heard / travel at different speeds
The first two marking points require statements about both waves,
e.g. not just sound waves are longitudinal]
Standing Waves
JAN2010: 18 (a) Standing wave: no (net) transfer of energy OR pattern of
nodes and antinodes OR points of maximum displacement and zero
displacement
53. (b) (i) Explanation of formation of standing wave
description of combination of incident and reflected waves/waves in
opposite directions (1)
described as superposition or interference (1)
where in phase, constructive interference / antinodes
OR where antiphase, destructive interference / nodes
OR causes points of constructive and destructive interference
OR causes nodes and antinodes (1) 3
81. Explanation of standing waves
Waves reflected (at the end) (1)
Superposition/interference of waves travelling in opposite directions (1)
Where in phase, constructive interference/superposition
OR where antiphase, destructive interference/superposition
OR causes points of constructive and destructive
interference/superposition [Do not penalise here if node/antinode
mixed up] (1) 3
203. Superposition:
Two or more waves adding (1)
to give a resultant wave [credit annotated diagrams] (1)
171. How stationary waves could be produced on a string
Diagram showing:
String and arrangement to apply tension (1)
Vibration generator and signal generator (1) 3
Vary f / tension / length until wave appears (1)
Determination of speed of travelling waves
QOWC (1)
Determine node-node spacing; double to obtain (1)
Read f off signal generator / cro / use a calibrated strobe (1)
Use u = f for u (1)
222. Explanation of words:
Standing wave
Any two points from:
Superposition/interference
Two (or more) wavetrains passing through each other
Having equal A, f,
+ system of nodes and antinodes
238. How has the stationary wave been produced?
by superposition/interference (1)
with a reflected wave/wave of same speed and wavelength in
opposite direction (1) (2 marks)
State how the stationary wave pattern changes when the frequency
of the signal generator is doubled. Explain your answer.
Maxima/nodes/equivalent are closer together (1)
since wavelength is halved (1) (2 marks)
Standing waves
vs progressive
waves
(b) Differences
Any two:
Standing waves Progressive waves
1. store energy 1. transfer energy (1)
2. only AN points have max 2. all have the max
ampl/displ (1) ampl/displ
3. constant (relative) phase 3. variable (relative) phase
relationship relationship (1) Max 2
Progressive and
standing wave
experiment
228. Circumstances under which two progressive waves produce a stationary
wave:
Both transverse/longitudinal/same type
Waves have same frequency/wavelength
and travel/act in opposite directions/reflected back. Max 2 marks
Experiment using microwaves to produce stationary waves:
Adjust distance of transmitter/plate
How it could be shown that a stationary
wave had been produced:
Note readings on probe/detector/receiver
form a series of maximum or minimum
readings or zero 3
Transmitter Metal or plate
backwards transmitter
Wavefront
158. Wavefront
Line/surface joining points in phase 1
Coherence JAN2010: 18(a) Coherent: Waves of constant phase relationship
79. Meaning of coherent
Remains in phase / constant phase relationship(1)
193. Explanation of coherent
In / constant phase (difference) (1) 1
222. Explanation of words:
Coherent
Same frequency and constant phase relationship (1) 1
Path difference - Path difference the difference in distance traveled by the two waves
from their respective sources to a given point
Superposition
53. (a) Meaning of superposition
When vibrations/disturbances/waves from 2 or more sources
coincide
at same position (1)
resultant displacement = sum of displacements due to individual
waves (1)
172. Explanation of superposition
When 2 (or more) waves meet / cross / coincide /interfere...(1)
Reference to combined effect of waves, e.g. add displacement /
amplitude may be a diagram [constructive/destructive interference
not sufficient without
implication of addition] (1)
187. Explanation of superposition
When 2 (or more) waves meet / cross / coincide (1)
Reference to combined effect of waves, e.g. add displacement /
amplitude may be a diagram [constructive/destructive interference
not sufficient without implication of addition] (1) 2
203. Superposition:
Two or more waves adding (1)
to give a resultant wave [credit annotated diagrams] (1)
- The principle of superposition of waves: When two or more waves of the
same type exist at the same place, the resultant wave will be found by
adding the displacements of each individual wave.
Cancelations
effect
Explanation of cancellation effect
Any 3 from the following:
- path/phase difference between direct and reflected waves
- destructive interference/superposition
- path difference is (n + ) / phase diff t/180
o
/ waves in antiphase /
out of phase
- crest from one wave cancels trough from other 3
Superposition
experiment on
microwaves
128. Description + diagram
Diagram to show:
Microwave source/transmitter and detector (not microphone) (1)
Transmitter pointing at metal plate/second transmitter from same
source (1)
Written work to include:
Move detector perpendicular to plate/to and fro between /accept
ruler on diagram (1)
Maxima and minima detected/nodes and antinodes detected (1) 4
[Experiments with sound or light or double slit 0/4]
Observation
In phase/constructive interference maximum/antinode (1)
Cancel out/out of phase/Antiphase/destructive interference
minimum /node (1) 2
How to measure wavelength of microwaves
Distance between adjacent maxima/antinodes = /2 (1)
Measure over a large number of antinodes or nodes (1) [8]
Phase - Phase difference , unit: (rad) the difference by which one wave leads or
lags behind another. Two points with the same pattern of oscillation are in
phase.
o In phase = phase difference of 0
o In antiphase = phase difference of (180)
Phase difference
vs path
difference
Sometimes we describe whether interference is likely to be constructive or destructive
by talking about the difference in the distance from our observation point back to each
source. This is called the path length difference.
When the path difference and the wavelength of the waves are known the phase
difference can be calculated.
For exampleA path difference equivalent to one half-wavelength will introduce a
phase difference of radians resulting in cancellation (a minimum), whereas a path
difference of any whole number of wavelengths results in the waves arriving in phase
(with a phase difference of 0) and adding together (a maximum).
Path and Phase difference equations
Path difference, x = difference in distance from each source to a particular point.
Phase difference, = difference in phase of the waves at a point.
path difference/wavelength=phase difference/2 [

]
Sound wave
27.(a) (iii) Measuring the speed of sound
Measure separation between (adjacent) nodes / antinodes and
double to get /this is [not between peaks and troughs] (1)
Frequency known from/produced by signal generator OR
measured on CRO / by digital frequency meter (1)
Detail on measurement of wavelength OR frequency
e.g. measure several [if a number is specified then 3] node
spacings and divide by the number [not one several times]
OR measure several (3) periods on CRO and divide by the number
OR adjust cro so only one full wave on screen (1)
Use v (allow c) = f 4
80. Description of sound
Particles/molecules/atoms oscillate/vibrate (1)
(Oscillations) parallel to/in direction of wave propagation / wave
travel / wave movement [Accept sound for wave] (1)
Rarefactions and compressions formed [Accept areas of high and
low pressure] (1) 3
112. How sound from speakers can reduce intensity of sound heard by
driver
Any 6 from:
- graphs of 2 waveforms, one the inverse of the other
- graph of sum showing reduced signal
- noise detected by microphone
- waveform inverted (electronically)
- and fed through speaker
- with (approximately) same amplitude as original noise
- causing cancellation/destructive superposition
- error microphone adjusts amplification 6 [6]
Jan2010: 12(c) Sound is a longitudinal wave OR sound is not a transverse
wave OR oscillations in one direction already OR only transverse waves can be
polarised.
Jan2010: 14(a) ANY THREE
Sound waves are longitudinal waves (1)
Air molecules vibrate (1)
Parallel to the direction of travel of the wave (1)
In a series of compressions and rarefactions (1) 3
Ampltitude
53. (b) (iii) Explain terms
amplitude maximum displacement (from mean position)
(can use diagram with labelled displacement axis) (1)
103. (a)Amplitude
Maximum distance/displacement
From the mean position / mid point / zero displacement line /
equilibrium point (1) 1
[If shown on a diagram, at least one full wavelength must be shown,
the displacement must be labelled a or amplitude and the zero
displacement line must be labelled with one of the terms above.]
Frequency (b) Frequency is the number of cycles/oscillations/waves per second/per unit time
OR number of cycles/oscillations/waves passing a point per second. 1
Period - Period T, unit: second (s) the time for one complete pattern of oscillation
to take place at any point.
Speed,
- Wave speed

Wavelength
147. Wavelength
Distance between two points in phase (1)
Distance between successive points in phase (1) 2
[May get both marks from suitable diagram]
186. Wavelength: [may be from diagram]
Distance between 2 points in phase/2 compressions/2 rarefactions (1)
Distance between successive points in phase etc. (1)
Node
(ii) Why nodes
String cannot move / no displacement / zero amplitude /
no oscillation / phase change of on reflection / two waves
cancel out / two waves are exactly out of phase (1)
(OR have phase difference of OR half a cycle) /
destructive interference 1
(b) Why waves with more nodes represent higher energies
More nodes means shorter wavelength (1)
Momentum will be larger (1)
[OR Allow 1 mark for More nodes means higher frequency and E = hf]
Antinode
31.(a) (ii)Mark place with largest amplitude of oscillation
antinode marked [allow clear indication near centre of wave other
than an X, allow correct antinode shown on diagrams B or C] (1) 1
53. (b) (iii) antinode position of maximum amplitude
OR position where waves (always) in phase (1)
Nodes and
antinodes
27. (a) (ii)How nodes and antinodes are produced
Superposition/combination/interference/overlapping/crossing
of emitted/incident/initial and reflected waves (1)
Antinodes: waves (always) in phase OR reference to coincidence
of two compressions/rarefactions/peaks/troughs /maxima/minima,
hence constructive interference/reinforcement (1)
Nodes: waves (always) in antiphase/exactly out of phase OR
compressions coincide with rarefactions etc, hence destructive
interference / cancellation (1) 3
Jan2012: 21(b) (i) Waves travel in both directions along wire
OR reference to being reflected (not bounce)
Waves superpose / interference effect / superposition occurs (not
superimpose)
Producing nodes and antinodes
OR node is produced where waves are 180 out of phase / antiphase
OR antinode is produced where waves are in phase
OR node produced at a point of destructive interference
OR antinode produced at a point of constructive interference
OR produces points/ positions of constructive interference and
points/positions of destructive interference
Refraction
39.(a) (ii) Explanation of refraction taking place
change in speed / density / wavelength (1)
135. Explanations
(i) Refraction:
e.g. bending of wave when travelling from one medium to
another [OR change of speed] (1)
Refractive index Refractive index of a material is a measure of the change in speed of light as it
passes from a vacuum (or air as an approximation) into the material.

Monochromatic
What is meant by monochromatic
Single colour / wavelength / frequency (1)1
Total internal
reflection
29.(a) (i)Condition for reflection
Angle of incidence greater than critical angle [accept i > c] (1) 1
151. Total internal reflection
Any two points from:
- from a more dense medium to a less dense medium/high to low
refractive index
- incident angle greater than the critical angle
- light is reflected not refracted/no light emerges Max 2
Critical angle
39.(b)(ii)Explain what is meant by critical angle
Identify the angle as that in the denser medium (1)
Indicate that this is max angle for refraction OR total internal
reflection occurs beyond this (1)
[angles may be described in terms of relevant media] 2
225. Explanation of term critical angle:
The angle in the more (1)
dense medium where the refracted angle in the less dense medium is 90 (1)
Plane polarised
light and
unpolarised light
Jan 2012: 13 (b)
A polarised wave is when the oscillations/vibrations are in one plane only which
includes direction of travel (of the wave).
Or A polarised wave is when the oscillations/vibrations are in one direction only
which is perpendicular to the direction of travel (of the wave).
Or Describes polarisation as a process where oscillations/vibrations in many
planes are reduced to oscillations/vibrations in one plane
[References to displacement are only acceptable in the context of varying
displacement]
Longitudinal waves oscillate/vibrate in one direction which is the direction of
travel of the wave / parallel to the direction of travel of the wave.
12(a) Unpolarised light oscillates/vibrates in many planes/ directions while
polarised oscillates/vibrates in one plane/direction only OR labelled diagram
Jan2011: 16(a) Oscillations/vibrations occur in any number of directions/every
direction (1)
which are perpendicular to the direction of wave travel /wave
propagation/energy transfer (do not accept direction of wave) (1)
OR Oscillations/vibrations may occur in more than one plane (2)
(references to particles loses 1st mark
marks can be scored from a labelled diagram)
12.(a)Polarisation reduces wave intensity by limiting oscillations and wave
direction to only one plane OR limiting oscillations to one direction only. (1)
(accept vibrations and answers in terms of an example such as a rope
passing through slits)
How to Polarise light48. (a) Experiment
[Marks may be earned on diagram or in text]
Named light source plus polaroid (OR polariser OR polarising filter)
/Laser / Named light source and suitable reflector (e.g. bench) (1)
2
nd
Polaroid plus means to detect the transmitted light (1)
(i.e. eye OR screen OR LDR OR light detector OR instruction to e.g. look
through polaroids)
Rotate one Polaroid [Only award if expt would work] (1)
Detected intensity varies / No light when polaroids are at 90 (1)
Maxima and minima 90 apart / changes from dark to light every 90 (1)
*Use of microwaves, slits or blockers: 0/5
Use of filters or diffraction gratings: lose first two marks
Use of sunglasses to observe: lose mark 2+ 5
(b) Why sound cant be polarised
They are longitudinal / They are not transverse / Only transverse
waves can be polarised / Longitudinal waves cannot be polarised /
Because the (*) is parallel to the (**) (1)
(*) = vibration OR displacement OR oscillation OR motion of particles
(**) = direction of travel OR direction of propagation OR motion of
the wave OR direction of energy transfer 1 [6]
56. (a) Plane polarised:
Vibrations / oscillations (1)
in one plane (1)
OR
double-headed arrow diagram (1)
with vibrations / oscillations labelled (1) 2
(b) Polarising filter:
Intensity goes from maximum to minimum (1)
Twice per rotation / after 90 (1)
As filter only lets through vibrations in a particular plane (1) 3
[marks may be gained from a clearly labelled diagram]
61. (a) Why transverse waves can be polarised but not longitudinal waves
[Marks can be earned in diagram or text]
Transverse waves have * perpendicular to direction of ** (1)
* = vibration/displacement/oscillation/motion of particles
** = travel/propagation/motion of wave/energy transfer/wave
In a transverse wave, * can be in different planes but polarisation
restricts it to one plane (1)
Longitudinal waves have * parallel to ** (1) 3
[Dont accept motion for **
Diagrams to earn marks must be clearly labelled, but dont insist
on a label looking along direction of travel in the usual diagrams
to illustrate polarised and unpolarised waves]

85. Meaning of plane polarised

Oscillations/vibrations/field variations (1)
Parallel to one direction, in one plane [allow line with arrow at both
ends] (1) 2
89. Plane polarised
(b)(i) Vibrations/oscillations (of electric field/vector) (1)
In one direction/plane (of oscillation) (1) 2
152. Polarisation
The (wave) oscillations (1)
occur only in one plane (1) 2
[OR shown with a suitable diagram]
190. Difference between unpolarised and plane polarised light
Unpolarised light consists of waves vibrating in all
planes(perpendicular to direction of propagation) (1)
Polarised light consists of waves vibrating in one plane only (1)
OR
Diagrams showing:
Waves / rays in 1 plane (1)
Waves / rays in many planes (1) Max 2

217. Light from sky:
Light is polarised (1) 1
Change in intensity:
Filter allows through polarised light in one direction only (1)
When polarised light from the sky is aligned with filter, light is let
through (1)
When polarised light is at right angles with polarising filter, less
light passes (1)
Turn filter so that polarised light from blue sky is not allowed through, so
sky is darker (1) Max 2
Clouds:
Light from clouds must be unpolarised (1) 1
Radio waves:
Radio waves can be polarised OR transverse (1) 1
Why radio waves should behave in same way as light:
Both are electromagnetic waves/transverse (1)
[Transverse only, credited for 1 answer] 1
Polarisation
experiment
182. Electromagnetic waves experiment
EITHER
Lamp, 1 polaroid // LASER (1)
2
nd
polaroid, suitable detector [e.g. eye, screen, LDR] (1)
Rotate one polaroid [ consequent on 2 polaroids] [one if LASER] (1)
Varies [consequent] (1)
OR
Microwave transmitter (and grille) [not polaroid or grating] (1)
Receiver (or and grille) (1)
Rotate ANY [if 2 grilles; must rotate a grille] (1)
Varies [consequent] (1) 4
Nature of waves
transverse (1)1
Diffraction

20. (a) Diffraction is the change in direction of wave or shape or wavefront (1)
when the wave passes an obstacle or gap (1) 2
41. (a) Diffraction diagram:
Waves spread out when passing through a gap / past an
obstacle(1)
stays constant (1)
135. Explanations
(ii) Diffraction:
e.g. spreading of wave when it goes through a gap (1)
203. Diffraction:
The spreading out of waves when they pass through a narrow slit or
around an object (1)
Interference
Jan 2011: 19(a)(iii) Destructive interference / superposition (1)
Amplitude/intensity of wave is zero/min OR binary value zero
OR there is min/no light OR the waves cancel/almost cancel each other
OR cancellation (1)
63. (a) Conditions for observable interference
Any THREE of:
Same type of wave / must overlap (OR superpose) / amplitude
large enough to detect / fringes sufficiently far apart to
distinguish [Only one of these points should be credited]
(Approximately) same amplitude (OR intensity)
Same frequency (OR wavelength)
Constant phase difference (OR coherent OR must come from
the same source) (1)(1)(1) 3
[Accept two or more points appearing on the same line
Dont accept
must be in phase
must be monochromatic
must have same speed
no other waves present
must have similar frequencies
answers specific to a particular experimental situation, e.g.
comments on slit width or separation]
o Interference the addition of two
or more waves (superposition)
that results in a new wave
pattern.
Constructive interference
where waves arrive in phase
and reinforce each other crest
on crest to result in a wave of
twice the amplitude of either
source.
Destructive interference
where waves arrive out of phase
and cancel each other out as
they arrive crest on trough to
result in a wave of zero
amplitude.

235. Description:
Either
Two connected dippers just
touching/above the water
Or
Dipping beam or single source (1)
reaches two slits (1)
Vibrated electrically (1)
Level tank/shallow water/sloping sides (1)
-Either
Illuminate
project on to screen
Or
Use stroboscope (1)
to freeze the pattern (1) Max 5
Diagram:
(i) Correct line A - centre line (1)
(ii) Correct line B (above or below A) (1)
(iii) Correct line C (between A and B) (1)
both B and C correct (1) 4 [Total 9 marks]
Wave nature of
electrons
= h/p or = h/mv
- Every particle with a momentum has an associated de Broglie
wavelength, even something as absurd as a car travelling at
20 m/s.
- is the de Broglie wavelength;
- Electrons can be shown to have wave properties by the simple
use of an electron diffraction tube. A slice of carbon is
placed in a beam of electrons so that the electrons diffract,
just like waves.
- The wave properties of electrons have led to the development
of the electron microscope, which allows magnifications
much bigger than was ever possible with the light
microscope. A good light microscope can magnify up to 1000
times. The electron microscope can magnify up to about 1
million times, and can reveal the existence of individual
atoms. The electron beams are focused by magnets just like
the lenses on a microscope.
Hubble Red shift Chemists and astronomers use diffraction gratings in spectroscopy,
which allows them to see the specific spectra given out by different
elements. Each element has its own individual spectrum. This allows
astronomers to:
- See what elements there are in stars.
- If the spectrum fingerprint is shifted at all, astronomers can tell
that a star is moving towards us (blue shift) or away from us (red
shift). This is due to the Doppler effect.
Wave
transmission
Is what occurs when waves refract across a boundary
Medium Any substance that can propagate waves or energy
Medium
interface
A surface forming a common boundary among two different media
Light properties
from air to glass
13. Frequency unaltered (1)
Wavelength decreases (1)
Speed decreases (1) 3
Electromagnetic
spectrum
Type of
ray:
Production: Uses: Hazards: Wavelength
(m):
Frequency
(Hz):
Gamma
rays:
Emitted
during
radioactive
decay
Medicine in
chemotherapy
Causes
cancer by
damaging
cells
10
-16
to
10
-9

3x10
24
to
x10
17

X-rays: Bombarding
electrons at a
metal target
CT scans, X-rays,
crystal structure
analysis
Causes
cancer by
damaging
cells
10
-12
to
10
-7

3x10
20
to
x10
15

Ultraviolet:
Emitted by
the Sun and
high-
temperature
solids and
gases
Tanning,
counterfeit
detergents,
disco lights
Can cause
skin
cancer
10
-9
to
3.7x10
-7

3x10
17
to
8x10
14

Visible High-
temperature
solids and
gases, lasers
Sight,
communication
High
intensity
light can
blind
3.7x10
-7
to
7.4x10
-7

8X10
14
to
4X10
14

Infra red: Emitted by
hot objects
Conventional
cooking
Can burn 10
-7
to 10
-3
4X10
14
to
3x10
11

Micro-
waves:
Produced by
changing
currents in a
conductor
Microwave
cooking and
communications
Can burn 10
-4
to 10
-2
3x10
12
to
x10
9

Radio-
waves:
Produced by
changing
currents in a
conductor
Communication
and media
Currently
not
considered
to be
hazardous
10
-1
to 10
-4
3x10
9
to
x10
4


UV and Visible
light
147.Sunburn more likely from UV
UV (photons) have more energy than visible light (photons) (1)
Since shorter wavelength / higher frequency (1)
150.UV and visible light
(i) UV has shorter wavelength/higher frequency/higher photon energy (1)
(ii) Both electromagnetic radiation/both transverse waves/same speed
(in vacuum) (1)
Pulses
175. Pulses
To prevent interference between transmitted and reflected signals (1) 1
OR allow time for reflection before next pulse transmitted
Pulse echo
technique,
limitations
Reason for low time interval
21. (a) (iii) Time for pulse to return greater than pulse interval (1)
All reflections need to reach transducer before next pulse sent. (1)
Will result in an inaccurate image. (1) (Max 2)
Need to decrease the frequency of the ultrasound. (1) (Max 3) Max 3
Pulse technique used
40. (b) (i) Pulses used:
to prevent interference between transmitted and reflected signals /
allow time for reflection before next pulse transmitted / to allow for
wave to travel to be determined (1)
High Pulse rate used
40. (b) (ii)High pulse rate:
Greater accuracy in detection of prey

s motion / position / continuous

monitoring / more frequent monitoring (1) 2
82. Why pulses are used:
Any two of the following:
- Allow time for pulse to return before next pulse sent
- To prevent interference/superposition
- A continuous signal cannot be used for timing
- Cant transmit / receive at the same time (2) max 2
2 (b) One pulse must return before the next one is sent
OR So that time interval between transmitted and received pulses can
be measured
OR No overlap between pulses
OR No interference between pulses
Ultrasound
40. (a) Ultrasound:
High frequency sound / sound above human hearing range / sound above
20 kHz / sound too high for humans to hear (1)
(b) (i) Pulses used:
to prevent interference between transmitted and reflected signals / allow time
for reflection before next pulse transmitted / to allow for wave to travel to be
determined (1) 1
137. Ultrasound
Ultrasound is very high frequency sound (1)
How ultrasound can be used
Any three from:
- gel between probe and body
- ultrasound reflects
- from boundaries between different density materials
- time taken to reflect gives depth of boundary
- probe moved around to give extended picture
- size of reflection gives information on density different
How reflected ultrasound provides information about heart
Any two from:
- Doppler effect
- frequency changes
- when reflected from a moving surface
- gives speed of heart wall
- gives heart rate
Ultrasound vs.
X-rays
21. (a)(iv) X-rays damage cells/tissue/foetus/baby but ultrasound does
not (need reference to both X-rays and ultrasound) (1)1
Jan2011: 13(b)(ii) Max 2
X rays transverse, US longitudinal OR X rays can be polarised, US cant (1)
X rays travel in vacuum, US doesnt (1)
X ray Electromagnetic, US mechanical (1)
X rays have (much) higher f /shorter / greater speed. (1)
Doppler Effect
21. (b) The answer must be clear, use an appropriate style and be organised
in a logical sequence (QWC)
Doppler shift is the change in frequency of a wave when the source
or the receiver is moving (1)
Requirement for a continuous set of waves (1)
Two transducers required (one to transmit and one to receive) (1)
Change in frequency is directly related to the speed of the blood (1) 4
51. (c) Why galaxy receding
Wavelength increased (OR stretched) / red shift / frequency decreased 1
Doppler shift:
Any three of the following
- Change in frequency/wavelength of the signal [allow specified
change, either increase or decrease]
- Caused by (relative) movement between source and observer
[accept movement of aircraft/observer]
- Size of change relates to the (relative) speed of the aircraft
[Allow frequency increasing; do not allow frequency
decreasing unless linked to aircraft moving away]
- Quote v/c = f/f (3) max 3 [7]
85. Doppler effect
- Doppler (1)
- If source/observer have (relative) movement [reflections off
vibrating/moving atoms] (1)
- Waves would be bunched/compressed/stretched or formula quoted
[accept diagram] (1)
- Thus frequency / wavelength changes [accept red /blue shift] (1) 4
What is meant by Doppler shift
Change in frequency/wavelength (1)
Caused by movement of a source (1) 2
93. Changes due to Doppler shift
Wavelength increases (1)
Frequency decreases (1)
[Allow e.c.f. from incorrect wavelength]

DC Electricity
Electric
Current
185. Explanation of amp hours
Charge = current time or Q = It (1)
Amp current and hour time (so amp hour charge) (1)2
Charge
123. Charge
Charge is the current time (1)1
13(a) A coulomb is an Amp sec or As (1)
Do not credit current time
Potential
Difference
11. PD is electrical energy(/coulomb) transferred between two
points/electrical energy transformed/converted to other forms (1)
EMF is the energy(/coulomb) supplied to a circuit/given to the
charge/energy output of the cell (1)
(full credit if wording implies emf as electrical energy source and pd
as electrical energy sink)
If neither mark scored but reference to energy/charge is made scores
1 mark only
72. (a)(i) Potential difference = work (done)/(unit) charge
OR Potential difference = Power/current (1) 1
(ii) J = kg m
2
s
2
(1)
C = A s or W = J s
1
(1)
V = kg m
2
A
1
s
3
(1) 3
164. Base units of p.d.
For V = IR method
Any three from:
- V = J C
l

- C = A s
- J = N m
- N = kg m s
2

[kg m
2
s
3
A
1
]
[See J = kg, m
2
s
2
]

OR
For P = VI method
- Watt is J s-1 / J/s
- V = J s
1
A
1

- J = Nm
- N = kg m
2
s
2

[See kg m
2
s
2
]

123. Potential difference
Work done per unit charge [flowing] (1) 1
211. Potential difference = OR
OR in words: work done in moving 1 coulomb of charge between two points. 1
Unit: volt OR J C
1
OR V (1) 1
Base units: kg m
2
A
1
s
3
(1)(1) 2
[2/2 possible even if final answers wrong for recognising that As = C J = Nm]
charge
y work/energ
current
power
Ohms Law
Jan2010: 11(a) Current (through a conductor) is (directly) proportional to the
potential difference/voltage (across it) providing the temperature of conductor
remains constant OR external conditions remain constant.
I-V Graphs
Jan2010: 11(b) Ohmic conductor; fixed resitor horizontal straight line
Filament lamp; graph showing increasing resistance (straight line or curve) from a
non zero resistance start (conditional on 2nd mark)
Filament lamp
26. (b)(i)Graph
+I, +V quadrant; curve through origin with decreasing gradient (1)
[do not give this mark if curve becomes flat and then starts going
down i.e. it has a hook]
I, V quadrant reasonably accurate rotation of +I,+V quadrant (1) 2
(ii) Shape of graph
As current/voltage increases, temperature of the lamp increases /
lamp heats up (1)
Leading to increase in resistance of lamp (1)
Rate of increase in current decreases OR equal increases in V
lead to smaller increases in I (1)
Qowc (1)
Ecf if a straight line graph is drawn max 3
R constant (1)
V I (1)
Qowc (1) 4
45. (a) Tungsten filament
Qowc (1)
I is not (directly) proportional to V
Temperature of filament increases/ filament heats up/ gets hotter as
current/pd increases
[accept bulb or lamp but not wire]
Links temperature increase to resistance increases
tungsten filament does not obey Ohms law/not an
Ohmic conductor or resistor.
Any THREE
58. (c) Explanation
Qowc (1)
Any THREE
Resistance due to collisions between electrons & ions/atoms/particles
(as T increases) ions/atoms/particles have more energy
(as T increases) ions/atoms/particles vibrate through larger
amplitude /vibrate faster OR amplitude if lattice vibration
increases.
more chance/increased frequency of collision/interaction
OR impedes the flow of electrons (1)(1)(1) 4[9]
91. Explanation increase of resistance with temperature
Temperature increase leads to increased lattice vibrations (1)
scattering flowing electrons / increased collisions of electrons. (1) 2

141. Graphs
Diode:
RH quadrant: any curve through origin (1)
Graph correct relative to labelled axes (1)
LH quadrant: any horizontal line close to
axes (1) 3


Filament lamp:
RH quadrant:
Any curve through origin (1)
Curve correct relative to axes (1)
LH quadrant:
Curve correct relative to RH quadrant (1) 3
[Ohmic conductor scores 0/3] [6]
Resistance
210. No, because V is not proportional to I OR not straight line through origin / (1)
only conducts above 0.5 V / resistance changes
b) Resistors in parallel have same p.d (1)
Identifies P = V2 /R OR P =VI and IA > IB (1)
Uses this equation to state PA.> P B .
OR bulb A brighter than bulb B. Consequent on 2nd marking point (1)
Kirchoffs 1st
Law and
Conservation
of Charge
This states that the total current flowing into a point is equal to the
current flowing out of that point. In other words, the charge does not
leak out or accumulate at that point. Charge that flows away must be
replaced. It is conserved.
Kirchoffs 2nd
Law and
Conservation
of energy
The potential differences around a circuit add up to zero.
A PD is supplied (EMF) and then transferred one by one to the components that
have different PDs across them.

I
V
Line on or close to
voltage axis
I
V
Series Circuit
In a series circuit, the electrons in the current have to pass through all the
components, which are arranged in a line.

There are two key points about a series circuit:
- The current throughout the circuit is the same
- The voltages add up to the battery voltage.
V
T
= V
1
+ V
2
+ V
3
R
T
= R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
Parallel
Circuits
Parallel circuits have their components in parallel branches so that an
individual electron can go through one of the branches, but not the others.

In this case, the current will split into three. For a parallel circuit we know
two things:
- The voltage across each branch is the same
- The currents in each branch add up to the total current.
I
tot
= I
1
+ I
2
+ I
3
.>>>
Energy
- Q = It
- E = QV
So if we substitute Q out of the second equation, we get: [E =ItV]
Power Power = energy So we can write: P = ItV
time t
The term t cancels out to leave us with: [P =I V]
Power is measured in watts (W). 1 watt = 1 joule per second
>Voltage, current and power are related
We know that:
- V = IR
- P = IV
So we can write: P = I IR
By substituting the second equation into the first, we get: [P =I
2
R]
>We can use a similar method to see how voltage, resistance and power are
related
We know that:
- I = V/R
- P = IV
So we can write: P = V V/R
By substituting the second equation into the first, we get: [P =V
2
/R]
Ohms Law
120. Discussion of whether LEDs obey Ohms law
No (1)
I not proportional to V
OR
R not constant / V/I not constant / R decreases (1)2
Resistivity
24. (a) Resistivity definition
Resistivity = resistance (1)
cross sectional area / length (1)
= RA/l with symbols defined scores 2/2
equation as above without symbols defined scores
equation given as R = l/A with symbols defined scores 1/2
(1st mark is for linking resistivity to resistance with some other terms)2
Potential
Divider
- Potential divider a type of circuit containing two components designed to
divide up the p.d. in proportion to the resistances of the components.
[

]
Ideal
Voltmeter
25. (c)Ideal voltmeter
Ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance OR extremely high resistance
OR highest possible R OR much larger resistance than that of
component it is connected across OR quotes value > 1 M (1)
Current through voltmeter is zero (negligible) OR doesnt reduce the
resistance of the circuit OR doesnt reduce the p.d. it is meant to
be measuring. (1)2
EMF
25. (a) Definition of E.M.F.
Energy (conversion) or work done (1)
Per unit charge (1)
[work done/coulomb 1/2, energy given to a charge 1/2, energy
given to a charge of a coulomb 2/2]
OR OR
E = W/Q (1) E = P/I
Symbols defined (1) Symbols
defined
(E = 1 J/C scores 1) (E = 1 W/A scores 1)
((Terminal) potential difference when no current is drawn 1/2) 2
47. (a) E.M.F. = work done / charge OR energy transferred / charge (1)
OR power / current
[There is only one mark here and this is consistent with
specification but it must not be Joules or coulombs] 1
88. (a)Definition of E.M.F.
Energy (conversion) or work done (1)
Per unit charge (1)
OR
E = W/Q (1)
Symbols defined (1)
[E = 1J/C scores 1]
OR
E = P/I (1)
Symbols defined (1)
[terminal pd when no current drawn or open circuit scores max 1] 2
157. Definition of e.m.f. of a cell
Work/energy (conversion) per unit charge 1
for the whole circuit / refer to total (energy) 1
OR
Work/energy per unit charge 1
converted from chemical to electrical (energy) 1
OR E = for whole circuit 1
All symbols defined 1
OR E = for whole circuit 1
All symbols defined 1
[Terminal p.d. when no current drawn scores 1 mark only]
Internal
Resistance
- Internal resistance resistance of a battery or cell.
How to determine r
157. Circuit diagram

R 1 R (can be variable) 1 2
A in series 1 A and V correct 1
V as shown
Or across R + A
Or across battery
[2
nd
mark is consequent on R(fixed, variable) or lamp]
Q
W
I
P
A A
R R
V
Sketch graph

Graph correctly drawn with axes appropriately labelled and
consistent with circuit drawn 1
Intercept on R axes Gradient ()r [Gradient mark consequent 1
()r on graph mark]
[Gradient may be indicated on graph] [6]
Terminal
Potential
Difference
the terminal potential difference is the potential difference across the
terminals of the supply when current is flowing and is the voltage left or
available to the components in the circuit (V<E)
EMF &
Internal
Resitance
experiment
226. (a) Mark the method before marking the circuit
Suitable
circuit

Short circuit option

What is
measured
Set of
readings of V
and I
V and I Two sets of
V and I
V and I
What is
then done
Plot V
against I
Record V for
open circuit
Substitute in
V = E Ir
Record V for open
circuit
Finding E
and r
E = intercept
r = gradient
E = open
circuit
voltage
r from
V = EIr
Solve
simultaneous
equations
E=open circuit
voltage r from
r=EIr
-
R V
1/I I
A
V
V
A
Suitable
circuit


Potentiometer

What is
measured
V for known R I for
known R
Two sets of I
and R
l for known R
What is
then
done
Record V for
open circuit
Record V
for open
circuit
Substitute in
E = I(R + r)
l for open circuit
Finding E
and r

E = open circuit
voltage r from
E/V = (R + r)/R
E = open
circuit
voltage
r from
E = I(R + r)
Solve
simultaneous
equations
E from l (calibrated)

Mark other procedures in a similar way 4
[Mark text, then tick for circuit if it does the job described.
Resistance &
Temperature
in terms of
lattice (atomic)
vibrations and
the number of
conduction
electrons (n)
19. The answer must be clear, use an appropriate style and be organised in
a logical sequence. (QWC)
Reference to I = nqvA (1)
For the lamp
Increased atomic vibrations reduce the movement of electrons (1)
Resistance of lamp increases with temperature (1)
For the thermistor
Increased atomic vibrations again reduce movement of electrons (1)
But increase in temperature leads to a large increase in n (1)
Overall the resistance of the thermistor decreased with increase in
temperature. (1) Max 5
44.(a) (As temperature of thermistor increases) its resistance decreases [Do
not credit the converse] (1)
any TWO
(slight) decrease in v (symbol, velocity or drift velocity)
Large increase in n increases [accept electrons/charge carriers for n]
A, Q and (pd) remain constant (1)(1)
[ignore any reference to v staying constant] 3
(n constant, cant score mark for 3,4)
Drift velocity,
I=nave
15(a) n; number of charge carriers per unit volume OR number of charge
carriers (m -3)
OR charge carrier density (1)
v; drift velocity (of charge carriers) OR average velocity OR drift
speed (1)
(accept free electrons or charge carriers throughout)
V R
A
R
To
Pot
R
r) (R
l
l +
=
'
b) Units of I and q A and A s OR C s -1 and C (1)
Units of n m -3 (1)
Units of v and A m s -1 and m 2 (1)
34. (a) n is (number of) charge carriers per unit volume or
number density or (number of) charge carriers m
3
or
charge carrier density(1)
[allow electrons]
v is drift speed or average velocity or drift velocity
(of the charge carriers) (1)
[just speed or velocity scores zero] 2
73. (a) n = number of charge carriers per unit volume OR
n = number of charge carriers m
3

OR
n = charge carrier density (1)
v = drift speed/average velocity/drift velocity (of the charge carriers) (1)2
(b) n is greater in conductors / n less in insulators. (1)
[There must be some comparison]
larger current flows in a conductor. Dependant on having
referred to n (1) 2
(statement that n large in conductor and so current large max1)
Drift velocity
Stretching causes R to increase (1)
Any two from:
- Current will decrease
- I = nAuQ
- Drift velocity u decreases
- nAe constant (1) (1) 3 [9]
[For R decreasing, max 1]
Any one from:
- I will increase
- I = nAuQ
- u will increase
- nAe constant]
Photon
79. Meaning of photon
Quantum/packet/particle of energy/radiation/light/electromagnetic
wave (1) 1
106. Description of photon
Packet/quantum/particle of energy [accept E = hf for energy] (1) (1)
[allow {packet/quantum/particle} of {light/e-m radiation/e-m wave} etc for
(1) X] 2
[zero marks if error of physics such as particle of light with negative charge]
Quantum
Quantum:
A discrete/indivisible quantity (1)
Particle
Particles:
Photon/electron (1)
Photoelectron electrons released by interaction with a photon. One photon releases
one electron
Photo-electric
emission
Jan2012: 20(a) (QWC Work must be clear and organised in a logical manner
using technical wording where appropriate)
Reference to photons (may be descriptive, e.g. quantum of energy / light
arrives in small packets / light particles )
Energy of photon greater than or equal to work function (of zinc) / hf
Results in electron being emitted
So (electroscope) loses charge / charge decreases (and leaf falls)
20. (b)The energy of the wave is concentrated into a photon (1)
One photon gives all its energy to one electron (1) 2
28. (b) (ii) How wave-particle duality explains immediate photoemission
QOWC (1)
Photon energy is hf / depends on frequency / depends on wavelength (1)
One/Each photon ejects one/an electron (1)
The (photo)electron is ejected at once/immediately (1)
[not just photoemission is immediate] 4
55. (b)How current produced:
Any 3 from:
Photon of light passes energy to an electron
If energy above the work function/frequency above threshold (1)(1)
Electron released as a photoelectron / photoelectron released /
surface electron released (1)
Moving electrons produce a current 3
Photoelectric
effect,
frequency and
intensity
55. (c)(i)Intensity of light increased:
More electrons released (1)
(ii) Frequency of light increased:
Electrons gain more (kinetic) energy (1)
170. Photoelectric effect
Any two features and explanation from the following:
Feature: Experiments show k.e
(max)
f, OR not intensity
[Accept depends upon] (1)
Explanation: Photon energy f (1)
[Consequent] k.e
(max)
intensity is a wave theory (1)

Feature: Emission of photoelectrons immediate (1)
Explanation: One photon releases one electron particle theory (1)
[Consequent] Wave theory allows energy to build up (1)

Feature: (Light) below a threshold frequency cannot release electrons(1)
Explanation: Particle theory-f too low as not enough energy is released
by photon to knock out an electron (1)
[Consequent] Wave theory- if leave a low frequency beam on long
enough, it will produce enough energy to release an
electron (1) 2
Photoelectric
effect and
instantaneous
emission
105. Photoelectric effect
(a) Explanation:
Particle theory: one photon (interacts with) one electron (1)
Wave theory allows energy to build up, i.e. time delay (1) 2
Photoelectric
effect and
threshold
frequency
105. Photoelectric effect
(b) Explanation:
Particle theory: f too low then not enough energy (is released by
photon to knock out an electron) (1)
Wave theory: Any frequency beam will produce enough energy (to
release an electron, i.e. should emit whatever the frequency) (1) 2 [4]
Jan2012: 20(d) No change
Photon energy doesnt change (with distance)
Or photon energy depends (only) on frequency/wavelength
Photoelectric
emission and
the particle
theory of light
Jan2010: 16 QOWC
Work must be clear and organised in a logical sequence
Particle theory
Reference to E=hf or quanta of energy /packets of energy/photons (1)
Increased f means more energy of photon (1)
Release of electron requires minimum energy /work function (1)
One photon releases one electron (1)
Greater energy of photon means greater KE of electrons (1)
More intense light means more photons, therefore more electrons (1)
Wave theory
Wave energy depends on intensity (1)
More intense light should give greater K.E of electrons (1)
Energy is spread over the whole wave (1)
If exposed for long enough photons eventually released, doesnt happen. (1)
Max 4 for particles and max 2 for waves.
90. (a) Explanation
QOWC (1)
UV/red photon (1) 2
E
UV
> E
R
/ f
uv
(1)
E
UV
> / f
uv
> f
TH
(so electron can break free) (1)
One photon absorbed by one electron (1)
Both metal plate and electron are negative or repel (each other) (1) max 2
(b)(i) Intensity red light increased
nothing / no discharge (1)
(ii) Intensity of UV increased
(Coulombmeter) discharges quicker (1) 2
(c) Max KE
Use of E = hc/ (1)
conversion of eV to J or vice versa i.e. appropriate use of 1.6 10
19
(1)
Subtraction hc/ [must use same units] or use of full equation (1)
max KE = 2.2 10
19
J (1) 4
[Candidates may convert photon energy to eV leading to max KE = 1.4 eV]
230. Explanation from electroscope experiment:
Photons/quanta
Photon releases / used electron
Energy/frequency of red < energy/frequency of ultra violet
Red insufficient energy to release electrons so foil stays 4
Ultraviolet of greater intensity: foil/leaf collapses quicker/faster
Red light of greater intensity: no change/nothing 2
Observations if zinc plate and electroscope were positively charged:
Foil rises or Foil stays same/nothing
as electrons released it becomes more Released electrons attracted back by
positive positive plate/more difficult to
release electrons
237. Experiments on the photoelectric effect show that
- the kinetic energy of photoelectrons released depends upon the
frequency of the incident light and not on its intensity,
- light below a certain threshold frequency cannot release
photoelectrons.
How do these conclusions support a particle theory but not a wave
theory of light?
- Particle theory: E = hf implied packets/photons (1)
- One photon releases one electron giving it k.e. (1)
- Increase f greater k.e. electrons (1)
- Lower f; finally ke = O ie no electrons released Waves (1)
- Energy depends on intensity / (amplitude)
2
(1)
- More intense light should give greater k.eNOT SEEN (1)
- More intense light gives more electrons but no change in
maximum kinetic energy (1)
- Waves continuous when enough are absorbed electrons
should be releasedNOT SEEN (1)
Threshold
frequency
95. Why threshold frequency is needed
- Electron requires certain amount of energy to escape from surface (1)
- This energy comes from one photon of light (1)
- E = hf (1) Max 2
Work function
Jan 2011: 18(a)(iii) (Work function) is the (minimum) amount of energy that
a surface electron needs to break free/be released (1)
(There must be some reference to surface.
Do not credit electrons plural or electron and photon)
50. (b) (i) Meaning of work function
Energya to remove an electron from the surface (OR metal OR substance) (1)
[Dont accept from the atom. Dont accept electrons.]
Minimum energy / Least energy / Energy to just/ without giving the
electron any kinetic energy (1) 2
55. (a) Work function:
Energy needed for an electron to escape the surface /
to be released (from the metal) (1) 1
23(a) Energy of the photon is less than the work function (of lithium)
OR frequency of photons is below the threshold frequency (of
lithium) (1)
Work function is the minimum energy for electrons to be released
OR No electrons are emitted
OR no (electron) emission occurs (1)
Reason why no photoelectrons are emitted when light is shone
Jan2012: 20(b) Photon energy (for visible light) is less than the work function OR
frequency (of visible light) less than threshold frequency (1)
Stopping
Potential
(b)(i) Meaning of stopping potential
Minimum potential difference between C and A / across the
photocell (1)
Which reduces current to zero OR stops electrons reaching A /
crossing the gap / crossing photocell (1) 2
55. (f) (i)Why current reduced:
Many / some electrons will not have enough (kinetic) energy
to reach the anode / only electrons with large (kinetic) energy
will reach the anode (1) 1
95. What eV
s
tells us
Maximum (1)
Kinetic energy of the electrons / mv
2
of electrons (1) 2
Electronvolt eV stands for electron volt that is, the amount of energy needed to move
one electron through a potential difference of one volt
Jan 2012: eV is very much smaller than Joule
kW h is very much bigger than Joule
in these units, answers more easily obtained from information
available OR answers can be found without conversion
Energy,
frequency,
Plancks
constant
20. (c) Energy of photon increases as frequency increases OR reference to E = hf (1)
Electrons require a certain amount of energy to break free and this
corresponds to a minimum frequency (1) 2
Energy Level

79. Meaning of energy level
Specific allowed energy/energies (of electron in an atom)(1) 1
Jan2012: 15 (QWC Work must be clear and organised in a logical manner using
technical wording where appropriate)MAX 6
Mention of energy levels (ignore electron shells)
Electrons in atoms can only occupy certain (discrete) energy levels
Ground state is the lowest energy/level electron(s)/atom can occupy
Energy is transferred in the collisions
Electrons/atoms move to higher level / become excited (when they gain energy)
These electrons return (later) to lower level/ground state
By emitting energy in the form of photons / reducing their energy by emitting
photons
Photons have a specific energy or frequency or reference to E= hf or E= E2 E1
excited
92. Explanation of excited
Electrons/atoms gain energy (1)
and electrons move to higher (energy) levels (1) 2
[Credit may be gained for diagrams in this and the next 3 parts]
Atomic line
spectra
223. Explanation of line spectra:
Specific frequencies or wavelengths (1)
Detail, e.g. absorption/emission (1)
OR within narrow band of wavelengths 2
Explanation how line spectra provide evidence for existence or energy
levels in atoms:
Photons (1)
Associated with particular energies (1)
Electron transitions (1)
Discrete levels (to provide line spectra) (1)
Light
Absorption
and emission,
Energy levels
(discrete),
Spectral line
66. (a) Explain how vapour emits light
electrons excited to higher energy levels (1)
as they fall they emit photons/electromagnetic radiation/waves/energy (1)2
(b) (i) Meaning of spectral line
(when the light is split up) each frequency/wavelength/photon energy is
seen as a separate/discrete line (of a different colour) (1)1
131. Explanation of emission of radiation by hydrogen atoms
Electrons excited to higher energy levels (1)
as they fall they emit photons / radiation (1) 2
[Accept 21 cm line arises from ground state electron changing spin
orientation (1) / relative to proton (1)]
Why radiation is at specific frequencies
Photon frequency related to energy / E = hf (1)
Energy of photon = energy difference between levels / hf = E
1
E
2
(1)
Energy levels discrete/quantised / only certain energy differences
possible (1) 3
Radiation flux
is the amount of power radiated through a given area, in the form of photons or
other elementary particles, typically measured in W/m
2

Efficiency

also



Wave and photon modelsthe nature of light Two excerpts are attached at the end
Solar Cells Science and society: I found a short article on line exploring this specification
http://esfsciencenew.wordpress.com/2013/03/02/decision-making-science-and-
society/and attached it at the end
Remote
sensing
Extra
14. (a) Use of sensor
Event happens very quickly OR cannot take readings fast enough (1)
Sampling rate: 50+ samples per second (1) 2
15. The answer must be clear and the answer must be organised in a logical
sequence (QWC
It was known that X penetrated (1)
It was not known that X rays were harmful (1)
Doctors died because of too much exposure (1)
Lack of shielding (1)
New treatments may have unknown side effects (1)
Treatments need to be tested / time allowed for side effects to appear (1) Max 4 [4]
44. (b) (iii) Assumption: ammeter; ideal/ has zero/negligible resistance (1)
(Reference to meters is zero mark) 4 [7]

60 (b) (ii) Assumption
The resistance of the ammeter is zero/negligible. (1) 1
92. Explanation of how radiation emitted by mercury atoms
Electrons (lose energy as they) drop to lower levels (1)
Emit photons / electromagnetic radiation (1) 2
Explanation of why only certain wavelengths are emitted
Wavelength (of photon) depends one energy (1)
Photon energy depends on difference in energy levels (1)
Levels discrete / only certain differences / photon energies possible (1) 3
(and therefore certain wavelengths)
Why phosphor emits different wavelengths to mercury
Different energy levels / different differences in energy levels (1) 1

93. Why microwaves are reflected
Wave is reflected when passing from one medium to another / when density
changes / when speed changes (1) 1
Varying amplitude
Any two of the following:
Varying differences in density of the two mediums produce different
intensities of signal (1)
Different distances travelled give different amplitudes (1)
Following a reflection there is less energy available (1) Max 2
Varying time
Different thicknesses of medium (1) 1
95. Example of light behaving as a wave
Any one of:
- diffraction
- refraction
- interference
- polarisation (1) 1
Sound energy losses
138. Where does the energy go?
Some places will have constructive interference (1)
More intense noise (1)
Some noise dissipated as heat in air / foam (1)
increased kinetic energy of air [OR foam] molecules (1) Max 2 [8]

Induced EMF
139. Explanation of processes involved
- induced / induction (e.m.f).
- Faradays law or E = () d (N|)/t
- I
0
is cutting flux
OR
- moving electrons (in I
0
)
- Force on them due to magnetic field / F Bqu
- Pushes them to one side (1) (1) (1)
- (Gases conduct current) if there are charged particles
- (Massive current) if low resistance/large e.m.f.
- E/V = IR (1) (1) (1)
- inelastic (collisions)
- electrons in atoms/molecules excited/change energy levels/diagram
- emit photons/hf
- different AE = different f/colour (1) (1) (1) (1) Max 7 [7]
161. Refraction of light
Velocity of light is lower in glass (1) 1
Velocity of light in hot air
Velocity is greater (1) 1
Property of air
(Optical) density / refractive index (1) 1 [6]
194.
Base unit Derived
unit
Base
quantity
Derived
quantity

Mass
Charge
Joule
Ampere
Volt












(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
224. Why warm surface water floats:
Cold water is denser than warm water (1) 1
Explanation of why ultrasound waves reflect thermocline:
This is surface separating layers of different density (1) 1
Explanation of why submarine is difficult to detect:
Ultrasound from ship partially reflects upwards from
thermocline so little is transmitted (1)
Any reflected sonar from submarine partially reflects
downwards from thermocline (1)
If red and violet light incident on an air/water interface
Both rays refracted towards the normal
Violet refracted more than red2
Jan2010: 14(d) Animals detect infrasound / lower frequencies than humans / vibrations through the
ground
Infrasound travels faster than the tidal wave
Decision Making. Science and Society using sunlight
Posted on March 2, 2013 by John Vagabond
There is an interesting last paragraph in the syllabus for Unit Two Nature of Light. How can
we use what we know to allow us as a scientific community to make decisions based on
scientific data, for example the use of solar cells as a replacement for other energy sources
and for remote sensing.
Lets look at these one at a time. All our energy comes ultimately from the Sun, so why
shouldnt we try to make direct use of some of it? Photovoltaic cells convert solar radiation
energy into electrical energy. This link explains how they work and the article will teach you
a bit about semiconductors as well materials like silicon and germanium whose resistivities
are much greater than metals but much less than insulators. Unfortunately, most solar cells
are only about 40% efficient at best, most a lot less than this. Now, how much energy is
received by the earth?
Solar radiation incident on the Earths disk = 1370 Wm
-2
,comparable to energy incident a
flat, horizontal surface when the sun is directly overhead on a clear day.
We need to multiply the incoming solar energy by the factor 0.25 which is the
ratio of the area of the earths disk (R
2
) to the Earths surface area (4R
2
) You can think of
this as spreading out the incident solar radiation uniformly over the earths surface (the
night side of the earth as well as the day side) 1370 / 4 = 342.5 Wm
-2

Then we need to multiply by the factor 0.70, which takes into account the fact that 30% of
the incident solar radiation is reflected back to space by clouds, snow and ice, the light
coloured sands of the deserts, and even just a bit from the flowers 342.5 x 0.7 = 239.7Wm
-2

Energy flux absorbed by the Earth = 1370 x (1-0.3) / 4 = 239.7Wm
-2
at the very best. In
practice, of course, its a lot less than this because a) the sun isnt always directly overhead,
b) we dont all live on the Equator, c) clouds get in the way and d) what about night-time? So,
best-guessing the fiddle factors, then, we might get about 80Wm
-2
if were really lucky. If
solar cells are 40% efficient this means that each square metre of solar cell delivers 32W. Not
very impressive for high power outputs. Solar panels can only be used in geographies with
high solar flux and even then they are very large.
Now, the second problem remote sensing. This is a bit more straightforward since we are
using the fact that a change in a measurable quantity such as temperature can be recorded
quickly, accurately and remotely, and results uploaded from inhospitable locations like the
Antarctic winter in real time. Solar power supplies are it might seem a useful alternative.
Some people, however, like to take their measurements on the ground take a look at this
a record of mans last great polar journey in temperatures approaching -90
0
C which will
test machines and equipment more than any other data collection experiments ever
attempted on Earth. Frostbite in less than 30 seconds.
Wave-Particle Duality: Light
Does light consist of particles or waves? When one focuses upon the different
types of phenomena observed with light (refraction, diffraction, interference, etc) a
strong case can be built for a wave picture.
By the turn of the 20th century, most physicists were convinced by phenomena
like the above that light could be fully described by a wave, with no necessity for
invoking a particle nature. But the story was not over.
Phenomenon Can be explained in terms of waves. Can be explained in terms of particles.
Reflection

Refraction

Interference


Diffraction


Polarization


Photoelectric effect


Most commonly observed phenomena with light can be explained by waves. But
the photoelectric effect suggested a particle nature for light. Then electrons too
were found to exhibit dual natures.
Particles and Waves
Physics experiments over the past hundred years or so have demonstrated that
light has a dual nature. In many instances, it is convenient to represent light as a
"particle" phenomenon, thinking of light as discrete "packets" of energy that we
call photons. Now in this way of thinking, not all photons are created equal, at
least in terms of how much energy they contain. Each photon of X-ray light
contains a lot of energy in comparison with, say, an optical or radio photon. It is
this "energy content per photon" that is one of the distinguishing characteristics
of the different ranges of light described above. Even though it is not strictly
correct, it is hard not to think of a beam of light as a collection of little "light
bullets" all strung together in a row.

The "wave" model of light.
The other way of representing light is as a wave phenomenon. This is somewhat
more difficult for most people to understand, but perhaps an analogy with sound
waves will be useful. When you play a high note and a low note on the piano, they
both produce sound, but the main thing that is different between the two notes is
the frequency of the vibrating string producing the sound waves--the faster the
vibration the higher the pitch of the note. If we now shift our focus to the sound
waves themselves instead of the vibrating string, we would find that the higher
pitched notes have shorter wavelengths, or distances between each successive
wave. Likewise (and restricting ourselves to optical light for the moment), blue
light and red light are both just light, but the blue light has a higher frequency of
vibration (or a shorter wavelength) than the red light.

The colors of the familiar "rainbow" of visible light correspond to
differing wavelengths of the light, here shown on a nanometer scale. The
wavelengths get successively larger as one moves from left to right.
Optical light runs from about 400 to 700 nanometers.
It's the same way as we move throughout the electromagnetic spectrum. Each
range of light we have defined above corresponds to a range of frequencies (or
wavelengths) of light vibrations. These wavelengths are one of the primary
indicators we use to describe light and spectra on a graph. Displaying a spectrum
as a graph instead of just a color bar allows us to measure the light.