NBPTS

Social Studies–History
STANDARDS

for teachers of students ages 7–18+

 T he National Board would like to express appreciation
to the U.S. Department of Education for its support of
the cost of developing this standards document.

T his project is funded in part with grants from the U.S.

Department of Education and the National Science
Foundation. Through September 2000, NBPTS has been
appropriated federal funds of $90.8 million, representing
approximately 55 percent of the National Board
Certification project. More than $75.5 million (45 percent)
of the project’s cost will be financed by nongovernmental
sources.

The contents of this document were developed under a grant from

the Department of Education. However, the contents do not neces-
sarily represent the policy of the Department of Education, and the
reader should not assume endorsement by the federal government.
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards™, National Board Certification®, National
Board Certified Teacher®, and the NBPTS logo™ are trademarks and service marks of
the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards.

© 1998 National Board for Professional Teaching Standards.

All rights reserved.

Third Printing 2001

Note: This third printing has been reformatted and reedited.
 Table of Contents
Social Studies–History
STANDARDS
(for teachers of students ages 7–18+)

Preface .............................................................................v
Introduction .....................................................................1
Overview ..........................................................................5
The Standards .................................................................7
Preparing for Student Learning
I. Knowledge of Students .........................7
II. Valuing Diversity..................................11
III. Knowledge of Subject Matter ..............15
Advancing Student Learning
IV. Advancing Disciplinary Knowledge
and Understanding ..............................27
V. Promoting Social Understanding.........33
VI. Developing Civic Competence ............37
Supporting Student Learning
VII. Instructional Resources........................41
VIII. Learning Environments .......................45
IX. Assessment.........................................49
X. Reflection ............................................53
XI. Family Partnerships .............................57
XII. Professional Contributions ..................61

Epilogue ........................................................................65
Standards Committees................................................67
Acknowledgments .......................................................71

iii
 Preface

T he world-class schools the United States requires cannot exist without a world-class
teaching force; the two go hand in hand. Many accomplished teachers already work in the
nation’s schools, but their knowledge and skills are often unacknowledged and underutilized.
Delineating outstanding practice and recognizing those who achieve it are important first
steps in shaping the kind of teaching profession the nation needs. This is the core challenge
embraced by the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards™ (NBPTS). Founded
in 1987 with a broad base of support from governors, teacher union and school board leaders,
school administrators, college and university officials, business executives, foundations, and
concerned citizens, NBPTS is a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization governed by a 63-member
board of directors, the majority of whom are teachers. Committed to basic reform in educa-
tion, NBPTS recognizes that teaching is at the heart of education and, further, that the single
most important action the nation can take to improve schools is to strengthen teaching.
The National Board’s mission is to advance the quality of teaching and learning by:

• maintaining high and rigorous standards for what accomplished teachers should
know and be able to do,

• providing a national voluntary system certifying teachers who meet these

standards, and

• advocating related education reforms to integrate National Board Certification® in

American education and to capitalize on the expertise of National Board Certified
Teachers®.

Dedication to this mission is elevating the teaching profession, educating the public about
the demands and complexity of accomplished teaching practice, and making teaching a more
attractive profession for talented college graduates with many other promising career options.
National Board Certification is more than a system for recognizing and rewarding accom-
plished teachers. It offers an opportunity to guide the continuing growth and development of
the teaching profession. Together with other reforms, National Board Certification is a cata-
lyst for significant change in the teaching profession and in education.

The Philosophical Context

The standards presented here lay the foundation for the Social Studies–History certificates.
They represent a professional consensus on the aspects of practice that distinguish accom-
plished teachers. Cast in terms of actions that teachers take to advance student achievement,
these standards also incorporate the essential knowledge, skills, dispositions, and commit-
ments that allow teachers to practice at a high level. Like all NBPTS Standards, this standards
document is grounded philosophically in the NBPTS policy statement What Teachers Should
Know and Be Able to Do. That statement identifies five core propositions.

v
 Preface

1) Teachers are committed to students and their learning.

Accomplished teachers are dedicated to making knowledge accessible to all students. They
act on the belief that all students can learn. They treat students equitably, recognizing the
individual differences that distinguish their students from one another and taking account of
these differences in their practice. They adjust their practice, as appropriate, on the basis of
observation and knowledge of their students’ interests, abilities, skills, knowledge, family
circumstances, and peer relationships.
Accomplished teachers understand how students develop and learn. They incorporate the
prevailing theories of cognition and intelligence in their practice. They are aware of the
influence of context and culture on behavior. They develop students’ cognitive capacity and
respect for learning. Equally important, they foster students’ self-esteem; motivation; char-
acter; sense of civic responsibility; and respect for individual, cultural, religious, and racial
differences.

2) Teachers know the subjects they teach and how to teach those
subjects to students.
Accomplished teachers have a rich understanding of the subject(s) they teach and appreciate
how knowledge in their subjects is created, organized, linked to other disciplines, and
applied to real-world settings. While faithfully representing the collective wisdom of our
culture and upholding the value of disciplinary knowledge, they also develop the critical and
analytical capacities of their students.
Accomplished teachers command specialized knowledge of how to convey subject
matter to students. They are aware of the preconceptions and background knowledge that
students typically bring to each subject and of strategies and instructional resources that can
be of assistance. Their instructional repertoire allows them to create multiple paths to learn-
ing the subjects they teach, and they are adept at teaching students how to pose and solve
challenging problems.

3) Teachers are responsible for managing and monitoring student

learning.
Accomplished teachers create, enrich, maintain, and alter instructional settings to capture and
sustain the interest of their students. They make the most effective use of time in their instruc-
tion. They are adept at engaging students and adults to assist their teaching and at making use
of their colleagues’ knowledge and expertise to complement their own.
Accomplished teachers command a range of instructional techniques and know when to
employ them. They are devoted to high-quality practice and know how to offer each student
the opportunity to succeed.
Accomplished teachers know how to engage groups of students to ensure a disciplined
learning environment and how to organize instruction so as to meet the schools’ goals for
students. They are adept at setting norms of social interaction among students and between
students and teachers. They understand how to motivate students to learn and how to maintain
their interest even in the face of temporary setbacks.
Accomplished teachers can assess the progress of individual students as well as the
progress of the class as a whole. They employ multiple methods for assessing student growth
and understanding and can clearly explain student performance to students, parents, and
administrators.

vi
 Preface

4) Teachers think systematically about their practice and learn from

experience.
Accomplished teachers are models of educated persons, exemplifying the virtues they
seek to inspire in students—curiosity, tolerance, honesty, fairness, respect for diversity,
and appreciation of cultural differences. They demonstrate capacities that are prerequi-
sites for intellectual growth—the ability to reason, take multiple perspectives, be creative
and take risks, and experiment and solve problems.
Accomplished teachers draw on their knowledge of human development, subject
matter, and instruction, and their understanding of their students, to make principled
judgments about sound practice. Their decisions are grounded not only in the literature of
their fields but also in their experience. They engage in lifelong learning, which they seek
to encourage in their students.
Striving to strengthen their teaching, accomplished teachers examine their practice
critically; expand their repertoire; deepen their knowledge; sharpen their judgment; and
adapt their teaching to new findings, ideas, and theories.

5) Teachers are members of learning communities.

Accomplished teachers contribute to the effectiveness of the school by working collabo-
ratively with other professionals on instructional policy, curriculum development, and
staff development. They can evaluate school progress and the allocation of school
resources in light of their understanding of state and local educational objectives. They
are knowledgeable about specialized school and community resources that can be
engaged for their students’ benefit and are skilled at employing such resources as needed.
Accomplished teachers find ways to work collaboratively and creatively with parents,
engaging them productively in the work of the school.

The Certification Framework

Using the Five Core Propositions as a springboard, NBPTS sets standards and offers National
Board Certification in nearly 30 fields. These fields are defined by the developmental level of
the students and the subject or subjects being taught. The first descriptor represents the four
overlapping student developmental levels:

• Early Childhood, ages 3–8;

• Middle Childhood, ages 7–12;
• Early Adolescence, ages 11–15;
• Adolescence and Young Adulthood, ages 14–18+.

The second descriptor indicates the substantive focus of a teacher’s practice. Teachers may
select either a subject-specific or a generalist certificate at a particular developmental level.
Subject-specific certificates are designed for teachers who emphasize a single subject area in

vii
 Preface

their teaching (e.g., Early Adolescence/English Language Arts, Adolescence and Young
Adulthood/Mathematics); generalist certificates are designed for teachers who develop
student skills and knowledge across the curriculum (e.g., Early Childhood/Generalist, Middle
Childhood/Generalist). For some subject-specific certificates, developmental levels are joined
together to recognize the commonalities in teaching students at those developmental levels
(e.g., Early and Middle Childhood/Art).

Standards and Assessment Development

Following a nationwide search for outstanding educators, a standards committee is appointed
for each field. The committees are generally made up of 15 members who are broadly repre-
sentative of accomplished professionals in their fields. A majority of committee members are
teachers regularly engaged in teaching students in the field in question; other members are
typically professors, experts in child development, teacher educators, and other professionals
in the relevant discipline. The standards committees develop the specific standards for each
field, which are then disseminated widely for public critique and comment and subsequently
revised as necessary before their adoption by the NBPTS Board of Directors. Periodically,
standards are updated so that they remain dynamic documents, responsive to changes in the
field.
Determining whether or not candidates meet the standards requires performance-based
assessment methods that are fair, valid, and reliable and that ask teachers to demonstrate prin-
cipled, professional judgments in a variety of situations. A testing contractor specializing in
assessment development works with standards committee members, teacher assessment
development teams, and members of the NBPTS staff to develop assessment exercises and
pilot test them with teachers active in each certificate field. The assessment process involves
two primary activities: (1) the compilation of a portfolio of teaching practice over a period of
time and (2) the demonstration of content knowledge through assessment center exercises.
Teachers prepare their portfolios by videotaping their teaching, gathering student learning
products and other teaching artifacts, and providing detailed analyses of their practice. At the
assessment center, teachers write answers to questions that relate primarily to content knowl-
edge specific to their fields.
The portfolio is designed to capture teaching in real-time, real-life settings, thus allowing
trained assessors from the field in question to examine how teachers translate knowledge and
theory into practice. It also yields the most valued evidence NBPTS collects—videos of prac-
tice and samples of student work. The videos and student work are accompanied by commen-
taries on the goals and purposes of instruction, the effectiveness of the practice, teachers’
reflections on what occurred, and their rationales for the professional judgments they made.
In addition, the portfolio allows candidates to document their accomplishments in contribut-
ing to the advancement of the profession and the improvement of schooling—whether at the
local, state, or national level—and to document their ability to work constructively with their
students’ families.
Teachers report that the portfolio is a professional development vehicle of considerable
power, in part because it challenges the historic isolation of teachers from their peers. It
accomplishes this by actively encouraging candidates to seek the advice and counsel of their

viii
 Preface

professional colleagues—whether across the hall or across the country—as they build their
portfolios. It also requires teachers to examine the underlying assumptions of their practice
and the results of their efforts in critical but healthy ways. This emphasis on reflection is
highly valued by teachers who go through the process of National Board Certification.
The assessment center exercises are designed to complement the portfolio. They validate
that the knowledge and skills exhibited in the portfolio are, in fact, accurate reflections of
what candidates know and can do, and they give candidates an opportunity to demonstrate
knowledge and skills not sampled in the portfolio because of the candidate’s specific teaching
assignment. For example, high school science teachers assigned to teach only physics in a
given year might have difficulty demonstrating in their portfolio a broad knowledge of biol-
ogy. Given that the NBPTS Standards for science teachers place a high value on such capa-
bilities, another strategy for data collection is necessary. The assessment center exercises fill
this gap and otherwise augment the portfolio. Each candidate’s work is examined by trained
assessors who teach in the certificate field.
The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards believes that a valid assessment
of accomplished practice must allow for the variety of forms sound practice takes. It must
also sample the range of content knowledge that teachers possess and must provide appropri-
ate contexts for assessments of teaching knowledge and skill. Teaching is not just about
knowing things; it is about the use of knowledge—knowledge of learners and of learning, of
schools and of subjects—in the service of helping students grow and develop. Consequently,
NBPTS believes that the most valid teacher assessment processes engage candidates in the
activities of teaching—activities that require the display and use of teaching knowledge and
skill and that allow teachers the opportunity to explain and justify their actions.
In its assessment development work, NBPTS uses technology for assessment when appro-
priate; ensures broad representation of the diversity that exists within the profession; engages
pertinent disciplinary and specialty associations at key points in the process; collaborates
closely with appropriate state agencies, academic institutions, and independent research and
education organizations; establishes procedures to detect and eliminate instances of external
and internal bias with respect to age, gender, and racial and ethnic background of teacher-
candidates; and selects the method exhibiting the least adverse impact when given a choice
among equally valid assessments.
Once an assessment has been thoroughly tested and found to meet NBPTS requirements
for validity, reliability, and fairness, eligible teachers may apply for National Board Certifica-
tion. To be eligible, a teacher must hold a baccalaureate degree from an accredited institution;
have a minimum of three years’ teaching experience at the early childhood, elementary
school, middle school, or high school level; and have held a valid state teaching license for
those three years or, where a license is not required, have taught in schools recognized and
approved to operate by the state.

ix
 Preface

Strengthening Teaching and Improving Learning

The National Board’s system of standards and certification is commanding the respect of the
profession and the public, thereby making a difference in how communities and policymakers
view teachers, how teachers view themselves, and how teachers improve their practice
throughout their careers. National Board Certification has yielded such results in part because
it has forged a national consensus on the characteristics of accomplished teaching practice in
each field. The traditional conversation about teacher competence has focused on beginning
teachers. The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards has helped broaden this
conversation to span the entire career of teachers.
Developing standards of accomplished practice helps to elevate the teaching profession as
the standards make public the knowledge, skills, and dispositions of accomplished teachers.
However, making such standards the basis for National Board Certification promises much
more. Since National Board Certification identifies accomplished teachers in a fair and trust-
worthy manner, it can offer career paths for teachers that will make use of their knowledge,
wisdom, and expertise; give accomplished practitioners the opportunity to achieve greater
status, authority, and compensation; and accelerate efforts to build more successful school
organizations and structures.
By holding accomplished teachers to high and rigorous standards, National Board Certifi-
cation encourages change along several key fronts:

• changing what it means to have a career in teaching by recognizing and rewarding

accomplished teachers and by making it possible for teachers to advance in responsibil-
ity, status, and compensation without having to leave the classroom;

• changing the culture of teaching by accelerating growth in the knowledge base of teach-
ing, by placing real value on professional judgment and accomplished practice in all its
various manifestations, and by encouraging teachers to search for new knowledge and
better practice through a steady regimen of collaboration and reflection with peers and
others;

• changing the way schools are organized and managed by creating a vehicle that facili-
tates the establishment of unique teacher positions, providing accomplished teachers
with greater authority and autonomy in making instructional decisions and greater
responsibility for sharing their expertise to strengthen the practice of others;

• changing the nature of teacher preparation and ongoing professional development by

laying a standards-based foundation for a fully articulated career development path that
begins with prospective teachers and leads to accomplished teachers;

• changing the way school districts think about hiring and compensating teachers by
encouraging administrators and school boards to reward excellence in teaching by seek-
ing to hire accomplished teachers.

x
 Preface

Although National Board Certification has been designed with the entire country in
mind, each state and locality decides for itself how best to encourage teachers to achieve
National Board Certification and how best to take advantage of the expertise of the
National Board Certified Teachers in their midst. Across the country, legislation has been
enacted that supports National Board Certification, including allocations of funds to pay
for the certification fee for teachers, release time for candidates to work on their portfo-
lios and prepare for the assessment center exercises, and salary supplements for teachers
who achieve National Board Certification. Incentives for National Board Certification
exist at the state or local level in all 50 states and in the District of Columbia.
As this support at the state and local levels suggests, National Board Certification is
recognized throughout the nation as a rich professional development experience. Because
National Board Certification provides states and localities with a way to structure teach-
ers’ roles and responsibilities more effectively and to allow schools to benefit from the
wisdom of their strongest teachers, National Board Certification is a strong component of
education reform in the United States.

xi
 Introduction

T he world and its people compose a consistent and ever-changing tableau. At this time,
globalization and technology have accelerated the process of change, causing many
people to reflect on where they have come from and where they are going. The dismantling of
the Berlin Wall brought live by satellite to our living rooms and the establishment of free and
open elections in South Africa are but two examples of such change. Across the United States
social studies and history teachers have the important job of helping students understand and
begin to build their own informed perspectives on the times in which they live. These teach-
ers, with their wide-ranging curiosity, passion for teaching and learning, and concern for
students’ intellectual growth and well-being, explore alongside their students the compelling
issues of the day. They use these issues and others as a springboard to the study of the broad
spectrum of ideas that can be found within the disciplines of social studies and history, recog-
nizing the unique way events from the distant and not so distant past can enrich students’
understanding and recognition of human possibilities.

The Challenge and Promise of

Social Studies–History Teaching
Some students face a nightmare of decay in their own communities, with violence and drug
abuse all too common. Some are fortunate to live in relatively secure environments. All need
to understand their role in society, their relationship to government at all levels, and how the
well-being of the entire nation affects their individual futures. Social studies and history teach-
ers see promise in the lives of all students. They meet directly the challenging task of helping
develop the skills, knowledge, and frames of reference that enable students to understand what
works well in this society; to imagine solutions to some of the pressing problems in their own
communities; and to see how they can become productive, active, and contributing members
of a democratic society.
To meet the needs of their students, social studies and history teachers must not only keep
abreast of new scholarship but must also consider the implications of current events and the
impact of cultural and technological change on what they ultimately will accomplish with
their students. For example, in the world of American business there has been a fundamental
shift from labor-intensive, low-skill manufacturing toward more capital-intensive, high-
process/high-skills technologies. The communication revolution has eroded the boundaries
between countries and cultures across the globe. Advancements in the fields of science and
medicine raise interesting and difficult questions about the uses and purposes of technology
as individuals confront, at the most personal level, their own anxieties and fears while they
make decisions about their own health or that of a family member. The legal system also
struggles to keep up with these changes, while being simultaneously overburdened with the
results of social malaise and the peculiarly litigious character of American society.
Accomplished teachers strive to incorporate these kinds of developments into their teaching
so they may better equip their students to meet the challenges of tomorrow.
This is not a trivial task. Many students see the study of history, geography, civics, and
economics as “talking about the olden days” or as boring and irrelevant to their lives. They are
burned out from memorizing facts and are disinclined to seek on their own the connections
between past events and their current realities. Or worse, when given decontextualized infor-
mation, they may create bizarre, ahistorical, or even dangerous interpretations that risk gain-
ing currency in an already pervasive culture of misinformation. Accomplished social studies

1
 Introduction
and history teachers work with these youngsters to build understandings from across the
disciplines that will help them develop their own ways of understanding the world and
themselves.
Clearly, in terms of subject matter, teachers in these fields have a large territory to
cover. Just think of the staggering amount of information that falls under the rubric of
United States history. Truthfully, the debate about whether teachers should honor facts as
opposed to understanding or theory as opposed to skills is a red herring. Accomplished
teachers know that a foundation of information is the key to disciplinary understanding,
and that it is equally important to help students make connections between what they learn
and the world in which they live. For instance, in working with their students to under-
stand the causes and consequences of racism in America, teachers help students appreci-
ate not only the social and historical background of racial conflict, but also its effects, both
subtle and overt, on their own lives. And as students build knowledge and concepts, they
also develop analytical skills.
Scholars have identified a number of essential analytical abilities, including the ability
to interpret and combine source materials; the ability to deal with diverse interpretations
of issues concerning society and culture; the ability to mount arguments directed at analyt-
ical questions; the capacity to test models applied to social and cultural phenomena; the
ability to assess causation and the impact of historical change; the capacity to assess the
impact of cultural factors in shaping human institutions and behaviors; and the ability to
compare societies and cultures in order to enhance understanding. Whereas this is one
attempt to put into words the complex analytical skills teachers are developing in their
students, and whereas other organizational schemes exist to categorize the important
purposes of social studies–history teachers, this framework embraces the kinds of serious,
purposeful, and rigorous challenges students need and deserve.
This report attempts to define the central aspects of practice that distinguish accom-
plished teachers of social studies and history. It has the difficult task of capturing in a
linear and abstract form what is known about the very sophisticated and complex behav-
ior of professionals practicing in a wide range of settings. We know that accomplished
social studies–history teachers:
• care for and understand their students; enjoy the diversity, energy, curiosity,
and kindness of young people; and appreciate their physical, cognitive, and
social development;
• are distinguished both by what they teach and the ways they teach it; rely on
accomplished teaching techniques so students may see the human enterprise in
its entirety; relate their teaching to the students in their classrooms and provide
young people with the opportunity to direct their own learning;
• have a vision of their field, knowing data and facts as well as having a conceptual
framework that guides their teaching; have a commitment to teaching and a love
of learning;
• understand that teaching is about more than just the presentation of large
amounts of seemingly unrelated information or the rote memorization of facts
and that a wide variety of teaching and learning strategies must be used—
particularly those that actively engage students of all abilities, promote collab-
oration as well as independent exploration, and provide for various levels of
concrete and abstract thought;

2
 Introduction

• are especially cognizant of their students’ individual differences, including their prior
learning experiences, varied approaches to learning, and cultural backgrounds; tailor
their instruction and evaluation procedures with these factors in mind, creating a
classroom environment of high standards, common goals, and mutual support;

• are dedicated to their students and their craft; are staunch advocates of the teaching of
social studies and history, eager and ready to engage others with their enthusiasm;
exemplify a high level of professionalism, constantly seeking to improve their prac-
tice, exercising sound, disciplined, and principled judgment, while acting in the best
interest of their students.

Developing High and Rigorous

Standards for Accomplished Practice
In 1992, committees of elementary, middle school, and secondary social studies–history teach-
ers and other social studies and history professionals began the process of developing
advanced professional standards for social studies and history teachers of students ages 7 to
18+. The committees were divided by student developmental level: Middle Childhood (ages
7–12); Early Adolescence (ages 11–15); and Adolescence and Young Adulthood (ages
14–18+). The three Social Studies–History Standards Committees were charged with translat-
ing the National Board’s Five Core Propositions into standards that define accomplished teach-
1. National Council for
ing of social studies and history. the Social Studies.
This NBPTS Standards document describes in observable form what accomplished teach- Expectations of
Excellence:
ers should know and be able to do. The standards are meant to reflect the professional consen- Curriculum Standards
for Social Studies
sus at this point about the essential aspects of accomplished practice. The deliberations of the (Washington, D.C.:
Social Studies–History Standards Committees were informed by various national and state Author, 1994).
Geography Standards
initiatives on student and teacher standards that have been operating concurrently with the Education Project.
development of NBPTS Standards.1 As the understanding of teaching and learning continues Geography for Life
(Washington, D.C.:
to evolve over the next several years, Social Studies–History Standards will be updated again. National Geographic
An essential tension of describing accomplished practice concerns the difference between Research &
Exploration, 1994).
the analysis and the practice of teaching. The former tends to fragment the profession into any Center for Civic
number of discrete duties, such as designing learning activities, providing quality explanation, Education. National
Standards for Civics
modeling, managing the classroom, and monitoring student progress. Teaching as it actually and Government
occurs, on the other hand, is a seamless activity. (Calabasas, Calif.:
Author, 1994).
Everything an accomplished teacher knows through study, research, and experience is National Center for
History in the Schools.
brought to bear daily in the classroom through innumerable decisions that shape learning. National Standards
Teaching frequently requires balancing the demands of several important educational goals. It for History K–4,
National Standards
depends on accurate observations of particular students and settings. And it is subject to revi- for United States
sion on the basis of continuing developments in the classroom. The professional judgments History, National
Standards for World
that accomplished teachers make also reflect a certain improvisational artistry. History (Los Angeles:
The paradox, then, is that any attempt to write standards that dissect what accomplished The Center, 1994).

teachers know and are able to do will, to a certain extent, misrepresent the holistic nature of
how teaching actually takes place. Nevertheless, the fact remains: Certain identifiable
commonalties characterize the accomplished practice of teachers. The 12 standards that follow
are designed to capture the craft, artistry, proficiency, and understandings—both deep and
broad—that contribute to the complex work that is accomplished teaching.

3
 Introduction
The Standards Format
Accomplished teaching appears in many different forms, and it should be acknowledged at
the outset that these specific standards are not the only way it could have been described. No
linearity, atomization, or hierarchy is implied in this vision of accomplished teaching, nor is
each standard of equal weight. Rather, the standards are presented as aspects of teaching that
are analytically separable for the purposes of this standards document but that are not discrete
when they appear in practice.
The document follows a two-part format for each of the 12 standards:

I. Standard Statement—This is a succinct statement of one vital aspect of the practice of

the accomplished social studies–history teacher. Each standard is expressed in terms of
observable teacher actions that have an impact on students.

II. Elaboration—This passage provides a context for the standard, along with an explana-
tion of what teachers need to know, value, and do if they are to fulfill the standard. The
elaboration includes descriptions of teachers’ dispositions toward students, their distinc-
tive roles and responsibilities, and their stances on a range of ethical and intellectual
issues that regularly confront them.

The National Board does not believe there is a single right way to teach; therefore, the
examples cited do not compose a prescriptive handbook of correct practice. Indeed, the exam-
ples presented here represent some of the many that could have been cited to describe accom-
plished social studies–history teaching.
Finally, a word about order of presentation. The 12 standards have been organized around
the critical nexus of education—student learning—and into three categories: (1) teacher
knowledge and actions that prepare the way for productive student learning; (2) teacher actions
that directly advance student learning in the classroom; and (3) teacher actions that support
student learning.

4
 Social Studies–History
STANDARDS
(for teachers of students ages 7–18+)
OVERVIEW
T he National Board for Professional Teaching
Standards has developed the following 12 stan-
dards of accomplished practice for social
studies–history teachers. The standards have been
ordered as they have to facilitate understanding, not to
Preparing for Student Learning
I. Knowledge of Students (p. 7)
Accomplished teachers understand the
cognitive, physical, and social development
of young people and the diversity among
them, observe them insightfully, and use this
information to guide their practice and to
form constructive relationships with the
students they teach.
II. Valuing Diversity (p. 11)
Accomplished teachers understand that
each student brings diverse perspectives to
any experience. These teachers encourage
all students to know and value themselves
and others.
III. Knowledge of Subject Matter (p. 15)
Accomplished teachers draw on a broad
knowledge of social studies and history to
establish important and challenging instruc-
tional goals that engage and empower
students, and they plan an integrated
curriculum based on the major concepts,
themes, principles, relationships, and
processes illuminated by history and social
studies.
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
assign priorities. They each describe an important
facet of accomplished teaching; they often occur
concurrently because of the seamless quality of teach-
ing. The standards serve as the basis for the National
Board Certification in this field.
Advancing Student Learning
IV. Advancing Disciplinary Knowledge and
Understanding (p. 27)
Accomplished teachers have a repertoire of
strategies and techniques that engage
student interest in and advance student
understanding of United States History,
World History, Economics, Political Science,
and Geography.
V. Promoting Social Understanding
(p. 33)
Accomplished teachers promote in their
students an understanding of how the social
aspects of the human condition have
evolved over time, the variations in societies
that occur in different physical environments
and cultural settings, and the emerging
trends that seem likely to shape the future.
VI. Developing Civic Competence (p. 37)
Accomplished teachers develop in their
students the knowledge, skills, and attitudes
necessary to be responsible citizens of a
constitutional democracy.
5
 Supporting Student Learning
VII. Instructional Resources (p. 41)
Accomplished teachers select, adapt,
and create rich and varied resources
for social studies and history and use
them productively.
VIII. Learning Environments (p. 45)
Accomplished teachers create and
foster for students dynamic learning
environments characterized by trust,
equity, risk taking, independence, and
collaboration.
IX. Assessment (p. 49)
Accomplished teachers employ a vari-
ety of assessment methods to obtain
useful information about student learn-
ing and development and assist
students in reflecting on their own
progress.
X. Reflection (p. 53)
Accomplished teachers reflect on their
practice, on students’ performance, and
on developments in their field to steadily
extend their knowledge, improve their
teaching, and refine their philosophy of
education.
XI. Family Partnerships (p. 57)
Accomplished teachers understand
and value the distinctive role of parents
and guardians, and they continually
seek opportunities to build strong part-
nerships with them.
XII. Professional Contributions (p. 61)
Accomplished teachers regularly work
with others to foster the growth and
development of their colleagues, their
school, and their field.

The pages that follow provide elaborations of each standard that discuss the knowledge, skills,
dispositions, and habits of mind that describe accomplished teaching in the field.

6 SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
Preparing for Student Learning
T he first three standards form the founda-
tion for the instructional decisions taken
by social studies–history teachers and are the
basis for all the other standards. Only by
knowing their students well can teachers
consistently make instructional decisions that
will further students’ learning. And only by
having deep and broad understandings of
social studies and history can teachers orga-
nize and deliver instruction that helps
students build their own broad and deep
understandings of these fields.

Standard I: Knowledge of
Students
Accomplished teachers understand the cognitive, physical, and social
development of young people and the diversity among them, observe them
Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/English Language Arts teachers
insightfully, and use this information to guide their practice and to form
systematically acquire knowledge of their students as individual language learners.
constructive relationships with the students they teach.

T o chart an educationally sound course,
teachers2 must know their students. This
begins with the knowledge of how young
people develop and grow into adulthood.
Accomplished middle childhood teachers
recognize that their students’ expanding inter-
est in the world beyond their neighborhoods
is fertile ground for developing lifelong inter-
est in geography. Teachers of young adoles-
cents know that their students’ concerns about
fairness—or lack of fairness—provide an
important entry point into the discussions of
the justice system. Capitalizing on the grow-
ing ability of young adults to comprehend
abstract ideas, teachers of adolescents and
young adults facilitate reasoned discussions
among their students about important contem-
porary and historical issues. In every part of
their day, teachers guide their practice on the
basis of what they know about human devel-
opment and their observation of the students
they teach.
Understanding the
Cognitive, Social, and
Physical Development of
Young People
2. All references to
teachers in this docu-
Teachers are knowledgeable about the forms ment, whether stated
and the pace that cognitive, social, and phys- explicitly or not, refer to
accomplished social
ical development takes in young people, and studies–history teachers.
they are aware that each individual grows
and develops at a different pace. They join
their knowledge of general development with
their knowledge of individual students to
design and provide appropriate instruction
for them as well as to choose the most effec-
tive classroom procedures that stretch and
challenge students at all levels of compe-
tence. Teachers of younger children know the
importance of working at a concrete level,
providing materials such as maps, timelines,
and tools for organizing and interpreting
data. They understand that their students may
have a developing temporal sense and recog-
nize how this might limit their ability to
comprehend fully such historical processes
as change over time. They know that as chil-
dren develop cognitively, so does their abil-
ity to consider multiple perspectives. As
students mature and their analytic- and
abstract-thinking abilities develop, teachers

SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY 7
 Social Studies–History Standards
also provide opportunities to stretch and
challenge them along those lines. They
understand that even the youngest student
has the capacity for evaluation and analysis.
They recognize that although children are
shortchanged if schooling is confined to rote
memorization, teaching facts and techniques
for locating information is important because
analytical thinking is ordinarily supported by
factual evidence.
Teachers understand that factors such as
language, socioeconomic condition, ethnicity,
and gender can influence learning. They see
student diversity as an asset that can facilitate
the pursuit of academic, social, and civic
aims. For example, immigrant children might
be invited to share their experiences of arrival
in the United States. Or students who have
learned English as their second language
might be invited to explain how a concept or
an idea is expressed differently in their native
tongue. Teachers make judgments about the
readiness of children to participate in such
sharing and the risk involved, establish safe
and tolerant environments where individual
experience is welcomed, and help all students
recognize the uniqueness of each individual
experience.
These teachers know that culture may
affect the interactions they have with
students, because children from various
cultural backgrounds might be accustomed to
differing authority structures or forms of
social interaction. They are aware of stereo-
types and use evidence, reason, and other
teaching strategies to counter their influence.
Their knowledge of the life challenges many
young people face—such as poverty, family
violence, divorce, and the social ills of many
communities—guides them as they design
curricula, teaching strategies, and evaluation
techniques.
Teachers take advantage of the inquisi-
tiveness, energy, and sense of fair play
students often manifest, and as students get
older, teachers challenge their cynicism and
skepticism. They use these characteristics as
8 SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
assets to enhance the learning community
and use the wide variety of knowledge, skills,
talents, and abilities students bring to their
classrooms as a basis for learning. Whereas
they acknowledge and make use of students’
differences, teachers also take advantage of
the similarities that serve as a common bond
for young people. For example, they know
that the interest shared by young people in
aspects of popular culture—such as music
and sports—can be employed as a bridge to
both classroom learning and cohesion.
Teachers are aware that not all young
people learn in the same way. Some are more
comfortable than others working in teams.
Some express themselves more easily through
writing or in group discussions. Others thrive
while conducting field work or when there are
abundant visual cues, and still others come
alive when challenged by the potential of
technological resources. Accomplished prac-
tice encompasses a range of techniques and a
variety of approaches that alternate as needed
in order to foster learning in all students and
to expand students’ repertoire of learning
techniques.
Forming Constructive
Relationships with
Students
Teachers form productive relationships with
students that allow better interpretation of
student behavior and performance and under-
standing of student needs. They make them-
selves available to advise students on a wide
range of issues, including academic progress,
peer relationships, and extracurricular activi-
ties. This interaction not only supports student
learning and development, but also provides
teachers with a window to see more sharply
aspects of student character, values, interests,
and talents they might have overlooked.
Teachers employ their knowledge of
human growth and development as a guide to
the formation of their relationships with

students. They understand the different stages
children go through as they begin to form
bonds outside the family, the importance of
peer acceptance, and the tensions between
autonomy and conformity. They also recog-
nize the need some students have to develop
a relationship with a concerned adult from
outside the family and are comfortable filling
this role.
Observing Students
Insightfully
Accomplished teachers develop a keen capac-
ity for listening to and observing students.
They listen willingly and actively in whatever
setting students express themselves, be it a
formal classroom discussion, an individual
Reflections on Standard I:
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
Knowledge of Students
conference, or an informal gathering. They
observe students working in groups and indi-
vidually, noting their strengths and work
styles. They further enhance their understand-
ing through discussions with parents,
guardians, or other caregivers (see Standard
XI—Family Partnerships), and colleagues,
and by making note of individual students’
interactions with the larger student body.
They use the information they gather,
including their identification of students with
special talents, unusual needs, or educational
or physical disabilities, to ensure that they are
equitably meeting every student’s unique
needs and that all students have access to a
rich and rigorous curriculum.
9
 Social Studies–History Standards

10 SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
Standard II: Valuing Diversity
Accomplished teachers understand that each student brings diverse
Accomplished
perspectives Adolescence and Young
to any experience. These Adulthood/English
teachers encourageLanguage
systematically
know and valueacquire knowledgeand
themselves of their students as individual language learners.
others.
A ccomplished social studies–history
teachers are committed to the cognitive,
social, emotional, physical, and ethical devel-
opment of all of their students. They under-
stand that each of their students is an
individual learner and that the sum of the
learning backgrounds of the students in a
single classroom invariably includes a tremen-
dous wealth and diversity of human experi-
ence. These teachers view the many forms of
diversity manifest in their students—language
background, culture, ethnicity, gender, house-
hold income, religious affiliation, physical or
mental condition, literacy experience, and
others—as opportunities for creating a richer
social and learning environment for all. They
are committed to providing all their students
the help they need to progress as language
learners and as inquisitive, informed, responsi-
ble human beings. The development of each
student’s individual voice is encouraged by
teachers, in part through the emphasis and
modeling of democratic values. Teachers
further understand that this growth is best
supported by full membership in a collabora-
tive learning community (see Standard VIII—
Learning Environments) and full participation
in an ambitious, meaning-centered curriculum.
Supporting the
Development of All
Students
Teachers have a welcoming attitude and are
eager to work with each of their students, and
they create a classroom culture in which all
students feel safe and respected and are there-
fore willing to take risks. They understand
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
Arts teachers
all students to
the many dimensions on which students will
distinguish themselves from their peers, and
they respond appropriately with strategies
that will not only advance each student’s
learning but also help teachers and students
better understand themselves and each other.
Teachers are sensitive to their students as
cultural beings. For example, they are aware
of the impact culture has on how students
learn, what they expect of themselves, how
they use language, and how they view their
community and the world. Teachers under-
stand the importance of respecting the cultural
norms students bring with them from home.
Teachers are also conscious of their own
cultural views and how these affect the inter-
pretation of texts and their interactions with
students. They choose texts for whole-class
consideration that draw from a variety of liter-
ary traditions and that promote accurate, unbi-
ased, and objective images of different races,
cultures, languages, and genders. (See
Standard VII—Instructional Resources.) In
interpreting materials, they often help
students become aware of the particular
cultural view presented in the text, call atten-
tion to the use of dialect or to varying social
conventions, and promote a discussion of the
social and ethical issues involved.
Teachers are also aware of and attuned to
the special needs of particular students—
from those who may be classified as learning
disabled or as gifted and talented to those
who have particular cognitive, social,
emotional, linguistic, or physical needs. They
accept and support all their students.
Teachers regard students who have been
raised speaking a language other than English
as assets to the entire learning community, as
11
 Social Studies–History Standards
resources the whole class can consult with
and benefit from in ways that are directly and
indirectly related to social studies and
history. In working with students for whom
English is a new language, as with all
students, teachers keep the focus on using
both oral and written language as tools for
making and exchanging meaning. They
engage in a great deal of conversational assis-
tance, supplying the child, when asked, with
appropriate English words that bear on what
he or she has just experienced or is trying to
express. They understand that children learn
a language in part by using it to exchange
ideas with others, and they encourage the use
of a student’s home language as an asset to be
developed in its own right and as a tool for
making sense of English.
These teachers teach to each student’s
strengths, building on what he or she can do
as the foundation for further progress. They
create a learning environment in which the
ideas of each student—whatever his or her
academic skill level—are solicited and taken
seriously and in which the identity of each
student as a learner is respected.
Creating Environments
Where Equity is Modeled,
Taught, and Practiced
Teachers place a high value on fostering
equity in their classrooms. They encourage
all students to participate in class activities in
ways that are instructionally sound for them
12
as individual learners. They frequently
arrange students in heterogeneous small
groups to bring pupils from different back-
grounds into contact with one another. They
allocate instructional resources, including
one-on-one attention, fairly. At the same time
they recognize that students’ needs differ
dramatically and that the most equitable
distribution is not necessarily the arithmeti-
cally equal one. They are aware of biases that
result from using assessment practices that
limit opportunities for students to express
their understanding; they avoid these biases
by providing a variety of assessment prac-
tices that allow for a range of response
modes. They retain an absolute sense of
responsibility for the learning progress of
each of their students and work collabora-
tively with other school professionals to
ensure that all of their students are engaged in
pursuing the same high-quality curriculum.
By showing respect for all members of their
communities, and by maintaining the expec-
tation that their students treat each other
fairly and with dignity, social studies–history
teachers model and promote the behavior
essential to an equitable multicultural society.
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
 Valuing Diversity

Reflections on Standard II:

SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY 13
 Social Studies–History Standards

14 SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
 Standard III: Knowledge of
Subject Matter
Accomplished teachers draw on a broad knowledge of social studies and
history to establish important and challenging instructional goals that
Accomplished
engage and Adolescence and Young
empower students, andAdulthood/English
they plan an integrated
systematically
based on the acquire knowledge
major of theirthemes,
concepts, students principles,
processes illuminated by history and social studies.
H aving a sound foundation in the disci-
plines that are comprised in social
studies–history is essential to each aspect of a
teacher’s practice. If teachers are to select and
create powerful tasks for students, if they are
to choose topics and materials that use
students’ time wisely, and if they are to
recognize when a shift in focus might help
develop opportunities that emerge during
instruction, they must possess a solid base of
subject-matter knowledge.
Accomplished teachers are well grounded
in subject matter. They keep up on the litera-
ture and research in their fields, know the large
controversies and debates that are under way
in the scholarly community, and appreciate
the impact these might have on their work
with students. They understand the recent
history of their field and how thinking in this
area has developed over time. They know the
ways of thinking, talking, and writing about
their field and have enough experience with
these conventions to share them with their
students. They teach students processes such
as how to follow the rules of evidence, the
way researchers document their findings, and
how to collect and tabulate various economic
information. These teachers know their field
well enough to understand the challenges
associated with establishing the body of
knowledge that constitutes the field. They can
manipulate with some degree of comfort the
symbols of the discipline in order to create a
variety of analogies, metaphors, and similes
that make the problems of the field more
comprehensible to students.
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
Languagecurriculum
Arts teachers
as individual relationships,
language learners.
and
Knowing Subject Matter
Accomplished teachers have a broad and rich
understanding of the knowledge base that
informs the social studies and history curricu-
lum: in particular, United States History,
World History, Economics, Geography, and
Political Science.3 Within these areas, teachers
are able to call upon their disciplinary knowl- 3. Because the
behavioral sciences
edge—the facts, topics, generalizations, (Anthropology,
concepts, and themes—from each discipline. Psychology, Sociology,
etc.) are less frequently
They use this knowledge alongside their part of school curricula,
these standards do not
command of disciplinary thinking—abilities, identify specific subject
skills, and dispositions about the disciplines— matter knowledge for
these disciplines.
to conceptualize powerful learning experi- Accomplished teachers,
ences for students. Even if they have particular however, often draw on
knowledge and under-
strength in one area, they know the impor- standings from these
tance of having a knowledge base that fields to inform their
teaching and guide
stretches across the other areas as well. For student learning.
example, they understand the role of geogra-
phy in the development of modern industrial
and economic centers such as New York,
London, and Hong Kong. They know that,
when debating issues of government policy in
contemporary society with their students, it is
helpful to have an understanding of the
economic challenges the nation faces.
Teachers are also aware of the role the social
sciences can play in advancing student learn-
ing (e.g., they might take advantage of cultural
anthropology in explaining an important idea
in geography or social psychology to examine
the nation’s political culture). Consequently,
these teachers demonstrate breadth as well as
depth of knowledge to support their teaching.
They integrate concepts and ideas both within
15
 Social Studies–History Standards
and beyond the traditional boundaries of
social studies–history.
All social studies–history teachers have a
breadth of knowledge across these disciplines.
In making curricular choices, they select
significant topics and themes that are most
appropriate for their students’ developmental
levels and align tasks and materials accord-
ingly. Because Adolescence and Young
Adulthood (AYA) teachers often specialize in
a single discipline or content area, the National
Board’s expectation is that AYA/Social
Studies–History teachers command a depth of
knowledge in one of these five disciplines or
areas, along with an understanding of how this
one discipline relates to the others.
History
Accomplished teachers know that history is
an interpretive enterprise, that there are better
and worse analyses of every event or time
period, and that understanding of such analy-
ses may change over time. They also view
history as stories well told. They help their
students begin to understand some of the
ways of telling the stories and to realize that
within the realm of history each person can
be simultaneously a reader, an interpreter,
and a participant. They know that there are
compelling and important reasons for teach-
ing history to students, including the way the
study of history helps broaden perspectives
and helps prepare students to make informed
judgments about the direction of their
communities and country.
These teachers develop in their students a
sense of historical perspective, helping them
enter the patterns of the past and see them
through the eyes of the people who were
there. They understand that events and social
processes have causes and consequences and
that neither the reasons nor the results are
16
always clear or definitive. Therefore, they
work with students to review evidence about
the event or idea in question in order to under-
stand how the descriptions and interpretations
were created. They recognize that history is
part of a nation’s identity and that differences
in the interpretation of history often arise
from—and can lead to—political and interna-
tional disputes. They also understand the
importance of belief systems in explaining
why certain events happened or did not
happen.
Teachers use history to help students
analyze the ways societies change over time.
They organize their teaching in ways that
provide students experience assessing the
nature and causes of change; at the same
time, they understand that even in the face of
great political, social, or economic upheaval,
there can be substantial continuity when
factors such as ideology and religion remain
the same.
Teachers have a strong base of disci-
plinary knowledge that informs their teach-
ing of history. These include the facts,
topics, generalizations, concepts, and major
themes of history, particularly as detailed in
the following sections on United States and
world history. In addition to this knowledge
base, they are also disciplinary thinkers, able
to bring to their teaching the abilities, skills,
and dispositions that mark the work of histo-
rians. For example, they see the past on its
own terms, understanding the inappropriate-
ness of bringing contemporary interpreta-
tions to past events. They draw on a
repertoire of procedural knowledge of the
kind historians use in their work, including
the ability to use primary and secondary
sources, to analyze other people’s interpreta-
tions of history, to assess the merits of argu-
ments, and to determine the frame of
reference of the interpreter and the ways of
constructing historical arguments.
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY

On a regular basis, teachers make choices
among the compelling stories to be told and
the perspectives to which they expose their
students. In order to ground curricular and
instructional decisions, they draw on a broad
and deep base of historical knowledge. The
knowledge base of history for the three
certificates described in these pages has been
captured on two matrices—one for United
States history and one for world history. On
one dimension of each matrix are major
themes teachers often use to organize their
teaching and to help students think about
history. On the other dimension, United
States history and world history are divided
into key chronological periods. Teachers
know how the themes described below play
themselves out in each period; they know the
key events, movements, and developments in
each period; and they can discuss why histo-
rians have defined the beginnings and endings
of periods as they have.
History teachers bring to their practice an
understanding of the following:
• the evolution of the nation-state from
political forms that preceded or accom-
panied it, including families, clans, and
multinational empires;
• the ways in which independent and
interdependent systems of trade and
production developed;
• the changes that have occurred over
time in the nature and impact of war and
peace;
• the impact that religion and other belief
systems have on historical processes, as
well as the ways in which the arts, popu-
lar culture, and technology have both
influenced and affected the interpreta-
tion of history; and
• the evolution of social inequality and
the quest for equality that underlies
many human endeavors.
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
Knowledge of Subject Matter
Teachers employ these themes in different
ways. Some organizational schemes might
involve clustering stories that illuminate a
common thread. Others might look cross-
culturally at different societies in search of
similarities and differences. The matrices are
designed to serve as a convenient way to
organize the large and dynamic study of
history by recognizing that across time there
have been significant shifts in the functioning
of human societies.
United States History
In dealing with the major themes and periods
in United States history, teachers help students
understand the unique features of the national
experience, including the distinctive aspects of
United States democracy and its origins. They
emphasize in their practice central national
values, such as justice, individual rights,
responsibility, freedom, privacy, and human
dignity, while acknowledging that inequality,
intolerance, and conflict have also played a
role in the nation’s history. They recognize
that America is now and has always been a
pluralistic society and that, at the same time,
the country’s story involves many people with
broad interpretations of widely shared ideals.
They understand that the American story is
unfinished and that many of its ideals and aspi-
rations are not yet fully realized.
To provide such instruction, teachers have
command of the key events, social move-
ments, and individuals that mark the follow-
ing periods:
• First Americans (early history to 1756)
• Formation of the Nation (1756–1861)
• Civil War and Reconstruction
(1850–1877)
17
 Social Studies–History Standards
• Development of the Industrial United
States (1860–1939)
• Emergence of the Modern United States
(1939–Present).
The period of the first Americans, from
early history through 1756 C.E., covers a wide
range of time from the first human habitation
of the North American continent through the
establishment of permanent European settle-
ments and the early attempts of Europeans to
establish independent nations. Using the
themes described above and other organizing
frameworks, teachers explore the central
historical events, topics, and issues of this
period and others. For example, in applying
the theme of the emergence of the nation state
from early political forms, teachers might
depend on their knowledge of how explorers
from Spain, in establishing missions and other
settlements throughout the American West,
contributed to the development of a culture
that was distinctly different from what devel-
oped in the eastern colonies. On the issue of
dependent and interdependent systems of
trade, these teachers would know the ways in
which the economies of various American
Indian nations worked and the effect that
contact with European explorers and settlers
had on those systems. To explore the theme of
social inequality, teachers might draw on their
knowledge of the beginnings of the Atlantic
slave trade. On the nature and impact of war
and peace, the causes and consequences of the
French and Indian wars would allow teachers
to highlight the cooperation and conflict
among indigenous people, colonial Amer-
icans, and larger international forces. They
might compare these wars to later conflicts
such as the Revolutionary War. And, in
examining the impact of religion and other
belief systems, teachers might employ their
knowledge of the ways in which religious
oppression in Europe contributed to the
migration of large numbers of people to the
18
American continent. This crossing of themes
and chronology has a reciprocal property that
deserves attention. Just as each of the themes
elucidated above helps students understand
the distinguishing character of a particular
period, so does the distinctive nature of each
period help illuminate the character of the
central theme.
The Formation of the Nation (1756–1861)
is the second period in United States history,
and it includes many critical events, such as
the struggles for independence from Europe;
the development of a Constitution; the estab-
lishment of a new form of government; the
central roles played by Jefferson, Washington,
and Madison in these events; and the initial
westward expansion of the new nation.
Teachers might explore the development of
dependent and interdependent systems of
trade during this period by utilizing their
knowledge of ways the expanding market
economy fostered feelings of independence
among European colonists and new social
class divisions after the Revolution.
Period three, the Civil War and Recon-
struction (1850–1877), features the nation’s
pivotal military conflict with all its concomi-
tant political, economic, and social ramifica-
tions. This is the period of the Dred Scott
Decision, of Abraham Lincoln and his
Gettysburg and Second Inaugural Addresses,
of Harriet Tubman and Walt Whitman. In
considering the theme of social equity, teach-
ers might build on their understanding of
contemporary hate groups and the parallel
emergence of the Ku Klux Klan during the
period of Reconstruction, as well as their
knowledge of African American aspirations
and accomplishments during and after slavery.
The fourth period describes the develop-
ment of the industrial United States from
1860 to 1939—a rich and dynamic time in
the nation’s history, encompassing the
continued westward expansion of the coun-
try’s boundaries and the clashes with the
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY

nations that already existed in those areas.
Thousands of migrants arrived from Europe,
Asia, and Latin America or moved from
South to North, populating America’s cities
and interior regions, irrevocably changing the
character of the places they left and the
United States. It was also the age of powerful
industrialists, such as Andrew Carnegie, and
the rise of industries that made the nation
economically powerful. It was the time of
Frances Willard, Woodrow Wilson, the First
World War, the League of Nations, race riots,
Eugene Debs, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and
women’s suffrage, the Great Depression, the
founding of the CIO, and the advent of Social
Security. When considering the impact of the
arts on society at this time, teachers might
call on their knowledge of how the develop-
ment of northern industrial cities led to the
migration of large numbers of African
Americans from the South and, consequently,
to a period of vital creative expression in
New York City known as the Harlem
Renaissance. In developing the social
inequality and quest for equality theme,
teachers might draw upon their knowledge of
the background and impact of feminism.
The final period is the emergence of the
modern United States (1939–Present), which
finds the United States developing into a
world power involved in international
conflicts, including World War II, and learn-
ing to deal with its increasingly complex
domestic social structure. It is the period of
the Cold War, Martin Luther King Jr., and
Cesar Chavez. In considering the nature and
impact of war and peace in this period, teach-
ers might utilize their knowledge of the
Vietnam War era to explore the many ways it
affected American diplomatic and military
policy.
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
Knowledge of Subject Matter
World History
In addressing the leading themes and peri-
ods of world history, accomplished teachers
help students compare major civilizations
while addressing the evolution of interac-
tions among people from many different
points of the globe. They maintain a healthy
balance between specific attention to major
civilizations and the forces of change that
accompanied new forms of commercial and
cultural contacts among them.
The world history dimension line for the
matrix discussed above is subdivided into the
following periods:
• Rise of Civilization (to 1000 B.C.E.)
• Creation of Regional Empires
(1000 B.C.E.–500 C.E.)
• Development of Interregional Contacts
(500–1450)
• Rise of the West and Transformation of
World Trade (1450–1918)
• Emergence of the Contemporary World
(1918–Present).
The first segment on the world history
periodization, Rise of Civilization, covers the
time from humans’ earliest existence through
approximately 1000 B.C.E., including the
establishment of civilizations in the river
valleys of Africa and Asia and the rise of
other major cultures. When considering the
development of dependent and interdepen-
dent systems of trade during this period,
accomplished teachers would know, for
example, the ways in which early river valley
civilizations, such as those of the Indus, Nile,
Tigris, and Euphrates, began trading relation-
ships with others and the effect those rela-
tionships had on culture.
The Creation of Regional Empires is the
second period of world history (1000 B.C.E. to
500 C.E.). Among other important events, this
19
 Social Studies–History Standards
historical period includes the development of
democratic institutions in the Aegean city
states, the rise and decline of the Chinese and
Roman imperial systems, the influence in
world trade and culture of important soci-
eties in the Near East, the existence and
disappearance of cultures on the American
continents, and the beginning of the
Christian era. It is the period of Jesus and
Confucius. In examining the nature and
impact of war and peace during this time,
teachers might draw on their knowledge of
the transition in China from the warlike
Ch’in dynasty to the 400 years of relative
peace under the Han rulers, as well as the
influences of competing philosophies on
both leaders and populace.
The next period, the Development of
Interregional Contacts (500–1450), is the
period of Mohammed and includes the rise of
Islam and its influence in Asia and Africa; the
establishment of feudal monarchies in Africa,
Asia, and Europe; the writing of the Magna
Carta; the flowering of the Renaissance; and
the development of world trade. To illustrate
the theme of social equality at this time,
teachers would know how land ownership in
Europe and in parts of Asia led to the estab-
lishment of rigid class structures. To illustrate
the impact of religion, teachers might
compare the effects of Christianity and Islam
on the political forms of this period.
The Rise of the West and Transformation
of World Trade (1450–1918) includes the
European exploration and subsequent colo-
nization of much of the rest of the world; the
French Revolution; the establishment of new
empires in the Middle East and Asia; the rise
and decline of the Atlantic slave trade; the
scientific and industrial revolutions, includ-
ing the influence of Arab and Asian innova-
tions; and the first major worldwide military
conflict. Societies experimented with differ-
ent political forms. Some flourished and
some failed. In examining the theme of
20
dependent and interdependent systems of
trade, teachers might draw on their knowl-
edge of how the demand for spices and other
goods from Asia and gold from Africa drove
European countries toward global explo-
ration and led to the colonization of large
parts of the world.
The last period is Emergence of the
Contemporary World (1918–Present), a
period that includes a second major world-
wide military conflict. It is the period of
Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin, Hitler, and Mao
and the proliferation of political philosophies
such as fascism and communism, the results
of embracing such systems, widespread
decolonization, and the emergence of East
Asia as an economic power. When examining
the impact of technology on historical
processes, teachers might employ their
knowledge of the effect of nuclear power on
war and diplomacy.
Whereas the examples given above are
intended to be neither inclusive nor prescrip-
tive, they represent the kinds of knowledge,
understandings, perspectives, and disposi-
tions accomplished teachers bring to the
endeavor of studying history. These teachers
not only have specific in-depth knowledge of
events, people, and important ideas, they are
also able to employ that knowledge to
address substantive questions about their field
as well as to participate in the ongoing telling
of the human story.
Economics
Accomplished teachers have an understand-
ing of basic economic concepts. They know
the characteristics of the market system. They
can explain the relationship between supply
and demand and the effect on prices of the
interaction between buyers and sellers in the
market prices. They can describe the role
incentives such as the profit motive have
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY

within a market, helping to foster efficiencies
in the functioning of markets and maintaining
a competitive framework within an economy.
They can articulate the difference between a
purely competitive market and one that is
purely monopolistic and the effect each has
on consumer activities. They can accurately
point out trends in consumer behaviors that
result from a society’s use of scarce
resources. These teachers also recognize and
can explain the importance of a measurement
device such as the Consumer Price Index and
its effect on wages.
Teachers understand and communicate
the interrelationship of each of the four
factors of production (land, labor, capital,
and entrepreneurial techniques). They can
also identify those governmental policies
that either stimulate or retard economic
activity within a society.
Teachers understand the role businesses
have in an economy. They are familiar with
the different types of financial institutions
and their purposes and know the various
ways central banks and fluctuations in inter-
est rates influence an economy. They under-
stand the business cycle and can articulate the
difference between an inflationary and reces-
sionary gap during the business cycle.
Teachers understand the role of a govern-
ment in the economy, including the important
role of the United States Federal Reserve
System in setting monetary policy and the
various tools the Federal Reserve Bank has at
its disposal to control the money supply.
They understand how governments obtain
and spend money and can analyze the impact
of deficit spending and the resultant national
debt on the economy.
In addition to understanding a free market
economy, teachers are familiar with other
basic economic models, such as command
economies and traditional economies. They
understand the basic ideas of Marxist
economics and can compare those ideas with
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
Knowledge of Subject Matter
what actually takes place in communist
countries. They understand the concept of
socialism and can explain the way it is mani-
fest in different nations. They know about
the necessity, benefits, and costs of world
trade and the various treaties and covenants
that regulate it, and they understand the
effects the balance of trade has on the U.S.
economy and businesses.
Along with this knowledge base of
economics, accomplished teachers demon-
strate the abilities, skills, and dispositions that
are the hallmarks of disciplinary thinking in
economics. They understand that competing
economic theories often prevail and that the
reality of the marketplace often is at odds with
those theories. Teachers bring a variety of
tools of the trade to their practice, such as the
ability to employ graphic representations (e.g.,
tables; charts; and bar, circle, or line graphs) to
illustrate economic trends and the ability to
manipulate and interpret various kinds of
economic data. They also recognize the
opportunity that the study of economics
provides to extend learning across disciplinary
boundaries, particularly mathematics.
Geography
Accomplished teachers of geography are well
grounded in the disciplinary knowledge and
the disciplinary thinking that are at the core
of their field. They know the five themes of
geography: location, place, human/environ-
ment interactions, movement, and region.
They know that location refers to the absolute
location of places on Earth as well as the rela-
tive location of places to one another. They
know that place refers to the describable
physical and human characteristics of places.
They understand that human/environment
interactions refers to how people alter the
physical environment and how it shapes their
culture; movement refers to ways that people,
21
 Social Studies–History Standards
products, and ideas travel on Earth; and,
finally, that regions are areas that share some
common characteristic such as governmental
unit, language group, or landform type.
Teachers use these five themes to organize
the geographical ideas they teach their
students.
Teachers see the world in spatial terms.
They understand how to use maps, globes,
and other graphic tools and technologies to
acquire, process, and report information
from a spatial perspective. They create
mental maps to put people, places, and envi-
ronments into perspective, and employ maps
and other spatial concepts in solving prob-
lems such as the factors a community should
consider before deciding the best location for
a school or hospital. These teachers under-
stand that places have physical and cultural
characteristics that can be described. They
know that people help define regions and use
those definitions to understand the way the
world is organized. They understand that
culture influences people’s perceptions of
places and regions.
Teachers understand the physical processes
that shape Earth’s climate and topography,
and they understand the characteristics and
distributions of ecosystems on Earth’s surface.
They also know the characteristics and the
distribution of human populations across
Earth’s surface, as well as the nature and
complexity of their cultures and the ways that
the populations have evolved through migra-
tion and continue to do so. They understand
how geography shapes patterns of economic
interdependence. They know the physical and
political divisions of the United States and the
world and the role those divisions have played
in the cooperation and competition between
various nations.
They know that the physical and human
systems that compose the world are connected
and interact, and they understand the conse-
quences of those interactions. They under-
stand the workings of ecosystems and the
22
patterns of ecoregions on Earth’s surface.
They know the processes, patterns, and func-
tion of human settlements, as well as the
conflicts and decisions that shape the political
divisions of Earth’s surface.
Accomplished teachers understand changes
in the value, distribution, and importance of
resources. They apply geography to interpret
the past and the present and to plan for the
future.
Political Science
Accomplished teachers understand the
importance of government in our lives. They
understand the ways in which it organizes
people and provides for the needs of the
larger community. They know the competing
ideas about the sources of political author-
ity—such as divine right or the consent of the
governed—as well as the different and
competing ideas about the purposes of
government, from the protection of individ-
ual rights to the promotion of the common
good. These teachers also know the impor-
tance of the role of law in the American
justice system: how it is designed to protect
individuals from arbitrary actions on the part
of the state and to promote fairness for all.
Teachers also understand the various
forms of government and the relative
strengths and weaknesses of each. They
know about limited forms of government,
such as constitutional monarchies and consti-
tutional democracies, and unlimited forms,
such as dictatorships and totalitarian states.
They understand the costs and benefits of
government, including the ways in which all
governments restrict freedom to a greater or
lesser extent. They know how constitutions
serve as descriptions and organizing princi-
ples for governments. They understand the
alternative ways governments can be orga-
nized (e.g., federal systems, confederate
systems, and unified systems), and the
strengths of each, as well as how the powers
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY

are balanced—whether through a system of
shared power, such as in the United States, or
through parliamentary systems. Additionally,
teachers know that governments are influ-
enced by nongovernmental phenomena such
as mass movements (e.g., universal suffrage
in the United States, the nonviolent quest for
independence in India led by Gandhi) and
effective lobbying by grassroots organiza-
tions. They also understand how activities
such as political patronage and gerrymander-
ing affect the functioning of governments.
Teachers are well-grounded in the history
and workings of the American political
system. They understand the historical foun-
dations of the United States Constitution and
of the major ideas that eventually found a
home there. They know the essential ideas
and purposes of the Constitution as stated in
its preamble and can explain how the docu-
ment gives government the power to fulfill the
purposes for which it was established. They
also know how the Constitution limits powers
through a system of checks and balances and
protects the rights of individuals through the
early amendments known as the Bill of
Rights. In addition, these teachers understand
the principles that are embedded in and gave
rise to the Constitution, such as equality
before the law and a belief in pluralism and
the common good, and the difficulty in defin-
ing them. They can trace the ways these
values have evolved throughout the nation’s
history and how they have been reflected in
the amendments to the Constitution. They
know that although people can agree on the
importance of these values in the abstract,
individuals and communities continue to chal-
lenge the ways in which the Constitution is
applied and interpreted. They recognize the
discrepancies between the ideals most
Americans espouse and the realities of politi-
cal and social life and how ideals have led the
nation to confront such discrepancies (e.g.,
the Civil Rights movement).
Teachers are aware of distinctive and
unique aspects of American culture that
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
Knowledge of Subject Matter
provide opportunities and challenges to our
system of government. They know the
ambivalence Americans have toward power,
as well as the value placed on individuality.
They know the antipathy toward a rigid class
system, the importance placed on equal
opportunity, and the way in which both have
interacted with the history of civil rights.
They are also aware of other salient qualities
of American life, such as the importance of
education and the work ethic, the emphasis
on volunteerism, the pivotal role of religious
belief, and the pride Americans have in their
country, and how these characteristics have
contributed to the nature of society. They
understand the importance of the nation’s
diverse cultural traits and the opportunities
and difficulties faced by a multicultural
nation. They are also aware of the ways that
such important characteristics as individual
responsibility, civility, and civic-mindedness
work to preserve and improve the American
constitutional democracy.
Teachers understand the organization of
the federal government, including the roles it
has in domestic and foreign affairs and how
its work is financed through a system of
taxes. They also know the ways state and
local governments are organized, their func-
tions, and the changing relationships between
the federal government and state and local
government.
These teachers know the ways that the
United States relates to the other nations of
the world. They know the mechanisms of
international relations, including diplomacy
and treaties, and the ways that economic and
military power and the threat of force support
and complicate those relationships. They
understand the purposes and functions of
major international organizations, both
governmental and nongovernmental, and the
powers and responsibilities that the United
States government and its leaders have to
establish and maintain a foreign policy.
Teachers understand the rights and
responsibilities of citizens in the American
23
 Social Studies–History Standards
political system and how citizens access
those rights and participate in the system.
They know that the rights of citizens as estab-
lished in the Constitution are varied and
broad, but carry with them important
responsibilities. They know that participation
in the system is key to maintaining these
rights and that there are many ways in which
citizens can and do contribute to society.
They understand how citizens access the
political process, the ways in which political
parties and other organizations facilitate
access and participation, and the role of the
media in promoting political discourse. This
kind of disciplinary thinking—including, for
example, understanding the basic tools of
political scientists, such as opinion polling—
composes the core of accomplished political
science teaching.
Integrating Curriculum
Complex and challenging ideas are never
fully understood through the tools and knowl-
edge of a single discipline. Consequently,
teachers accept the special challenge of help-
ing students understand that some ideas cut
across the disciplinary lines of social studies
and history—including the behavioral
sciences—as well as across other subject
areas, such as science and language arts. For
example, when helping students to under-
stand the Spanish and Mexican influence in
the Southwestern United States, they are sure
to include a discussion of how the geography
of North America contributed to the develop-
ment of a distinctly different culture in the
American West. Or, when inquiring with
students into the social and ethical issues
surrounding the public policy debate on
genetic engineering, they help students make
use of pertinent scientific information. They
are aware of the special qualities of the arts
and literature that are particularly useful in
helping young people understand important
24
concepts in social studies and history. If
studying the Iroquois nation, for example,
they might incorporate examples of the vari-
ous ways the nation and individuals have
been portrayed in novels and in painting.
These teachers create their own cross-
disciplinary studies and collaborate with
colleagues in areas where their own knowl-
edge base is limited. At the same time they
avoid the pitfalls of superficial linkages or
forced connections between disciplines.
Establishing Important
and Challenging Goals
As they design curriculum, accomplished
teachers draw on broad understanding of
social studies and history, special strengths in
particular disciplines, and knowledge of the
lively and compelling issues that can be
found at the intersection of various disci-
plines to set important and challenging goals
for their students. They take account of the
large state and national objectives that have
been elucidated for this field. They also
consider their students’ interests, levels of
development, and the particulars of the
communities in which they live. However,
without regard to the mix of students in the
classroom, their standards and expectations
remain high for all students; they know that
through careful planning and imaginative
assignments students can be engaged produc-
tively in the big ideas that characterize these
fields. Though open to new perspectives and
ideas, these teachers do not sway with the
ideological winds, nor do they get carried
away with the latest fad. They are clear about
their purposes and have the good judgment to
sort through the many, and often conflicting,
demands and requests involved in educating
students.
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
 Knowledge of Subject Matter

Reflections on Standard III:

SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY 25
 Social Studies–History Standards

26 SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
Advancing Student Learning
T he way teachers make decisions and
implement their curriculum in a flexible,
appropriate, and creative manner provides the
most visible and, arguably, the most impor-
tant demonstration of excellence in teaching.
Standard IV: Advancing
Disciplinary Knowledge and
Understanding
Accomplished teachers have a repertoire of strategies and techniques that
Accomplished
engage student Adolescence
interest inand Young
and Adulthood/English
advance
systematically acquire knowledge of their students as individual language learners.
States History, World History, Economics, Political Science, and Geography.
T eaching is more than just the dissemina-
tion of facts. Accomplished teachers of
social studies and history use disciplinary and
subject-matter knowledge as a springboard
for presenting a world of questions and ideas
to their students. They employ powerful
strategies to motivate and stimulate their
students, always keeping in mind the main
goals for student learning. They know how to
teach their subjects to students and can justify
their decisions about what is essential for
students to learn.
Helping Students
Understand the Disciplines
and Subject Matter
An understanding of the field is the basis for
learning in any area. Accomplished teachers
have a repertoire of strategies to help students
come to grips with the key concepts, issues,
principles, facts, people, and movements that
they need to understand within the social
studies and history curricula. Teachers know
the particular demands associated with the
development of these concepts and skills and
help students understand the ways of know-
ing and inquiring in each discipline. For
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
The next three standards describe the ways
teachers advance knowledge and understand-
ing in their students and the important goals
and purposes that guide teachers in their plan-
ning and instructional decision making.
Language of
student understanding Arts teachers
United
example, they might provide students with a
set of differing interpretations of the due
process clause of the Constitution in order to
help them understand the principle of habeas
corpus. This activity would also give students
the opportunity to see the way individuals
participate over time in the interpretation and
creation of law and policy. Or, when working
with students to examine the needs of their
community in a unit about local governance,
a teacher might invite an urban planner to
tour the neighborhood with students and
discuss the factors that go into zoning deci-
sions and the kind of development the area
would like to have. Teachers help students
learn the way historians form questions,
garner evidence to support their hypothesis,
and then present their evidence in the form of
the stories that make up history. They provide
students with the opportunity to pursue their
own historical inquiry and present their own
hypotheses and conclusions. These examples
of classroom activities illustrate the ways
teachers bring students into the work of the
fields of social studies–history.
Recognizing that a solid foundation of
information is key to disciplinary and subject-
matter understanding, teachers teach students
how to find, organize, and evaluate a wide
27
 Social Studies–History Standards
variety of data, including information accessi-
ble through new technologies and data emerg-
ing from original student research. They work
with students to employ data in various learn-
ing contexts, such as to support or refute a
claim for the need for more prison space or to
argue for or against intervention in an interna-
tional dispute. Teachers also show students
how to create their own data, giving them
opportunities, for example, to map their own
communities in order to identify the availabil-
ity of services for older citizens or to gather
information on the spending habits of class-
mates as part of a study of the effectiveness of
advertising aimed at young people. While
students are doing such work, teachers help
them understand the importance and limita-
tions of scholarship, teaching them that there
are standards against which such work is
measured and that despite safeguards, bias
can creep into the writings of well-established
scholars as well as students.
Teachers assist students in developing
critical habits of mind that allow them to
make sense of their learning. They help
students to find patterns, make generaliza-
tions, marshall evidence, and formulate argu-
ments and opinions. They encourage students
to apply theoretical constructs to ideas,
events, and information uncovered in their
studies and to test theories against the avail-
able evidence.
In addition to developing disciplinary and
subject-matter knowledge, teachers work with
students to develop skills in speaking and
writing and give students the opportunity to
put their skills into practice through letter,
essay, and report writing; public speaking and
debate; discussions and presentations; and the
writing of history. They model appropriate
use of Standard English in their own speaking
and writing. They call on their background in
disciplines outside social studies–history,
developing and extending students’ knowl-
edge and skills in those areas as well. For
example, they help students sharpen mathe-
matical skills in working through a stock
28
market simulation or develop their capacities
for aesthetic interpretation while using a
painting as an artifact in a history lesson.
Teachers anticipate the misconceptions and
confusion students are likely to have about
different topics and act to avoid them, clarify-
ing them when they occur, or taking advan-
tage of their potential to illuminate an
important concept. For example, in economics
students often have a difficult time under-
standing the difference between deficit and
debt, giving teachers the opportunity not only
to clarify the terminology, but also to examine
one of the overarching public issues of the
day. Teachers take special care to correct
geographical misconceptions arising from the
preponderance of Mercator projection maps in
printed materials and on television.
Teachers also understand that scant
substantive learning occurs when students are
presented large amounts of seemingly unre-
lated information or when students memorize
facts divorced from major themes, concepts,
or principles. Consequently, they ground
their teaching in themes especially relevant to
young people, such as freedom, justice, and
the individual’s responsibility to the country.
Selecting Worthwhile
Topics for Study and
Providing Students
Opportunities to Decide
Which Topics Are Worth
Exploring
Teachers establish challenging goals for
student learning and performance geared to
the needs and interests of their students. They
develop activities that are inviting to students
and that model some of the ways that profes-
sionals in these fields work, such as the ways
in which historians analyze original source
material to interpret the meaning of a particu-
lar society’s written laws or the methods a
marketing consultant might use when advising
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
 Advancing Disciplinary Knowledge and Understanding
a restaurant owner on selecting the location for
a new franchise.
They also select topics and questions that
have special relevance for their particular
student population. A middle school teacher
in an exurban area might choose to focus on
issues of urban sprawl when putting together
a unit in geography. A high school teacher
with a large number of new immigrants might
develop lessons around the students’ coun-
tries of origin and the specific issues that
prompted their migration. These teachers take
care that their curriculum honestly reflects the
diversity of groups that are part of the
American experience.
Teachers value student involvement in
designing instructional activities. They know
the importance of connecting learning to
students’ heritages and cultures, and they
work with their students to accomplish this
goal and to achieve a broader understanding
and appreciation of other societies. As teach-
ers listen to, interpret, and assess student
responses, they consistently give students
opportunities to frame the work of the class or
shape independent studies in which students
are free to explore their own questions and
interests and focus attention on defining their
purpose and audience. They do so to foster
student engagement and self-confidence,
while constructing a curriculum that remains
attentive to the larger goals they hold for
students.
As accomplished teachers, they are not
constrained by the prescribed curriculum,
though they do not overlook it either. Instead,
as students’ needs dictate and as their partic-
ular circumstances present opportunities for
learning, they incorporate related topics and
problems that stretch students’ minds, extend
their knowledge and understanding of the
world, and ultimately enrich their education.
They pose realistic and compelling dilem-
mas with which students can struggle, and
help them frame, pose, and explore their own
questions surrounding these dilemmas. They
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
design activities that, wherever possible, have
some real-world application. Students might,
for example, prepare a household budget for a
week, making decisions about how limited
resources should be allocated in light of the
needs of each family member. Teachers
might ask students to defend a position that
they are inclined to oppose. Along with intro-
ducing students to the historical interpreta-
tions of others, they encourage students to
weigh the evidence, form their own hypothe-
ses, and create interpretations of their own.
These teachers also make a constant effort not
to force their views on others; while working
with students to evaluate the relative merits of
their theories and interpretations, their goal is
to promote the free exchange of ideas. At the
same time, they speak out against antidemo-
cratic values if they are accorded legitimacy
by students.
Teachers encourage students to combine
ideas, themes, and knowledge from social
studies and history and from other disciplines
in order to explore important issues and
address problems. They might have their
students research the sources of nuclear waste
and the hazards involved in its disposal and
use that information to inform a discussion of
potential disposal sites. Or they might have
students examine a hospital bill and spend time
interviewing doctors, insurance company
representatives, and politicians to begin to
understand the complicated issues surrounding
health care reform. When students observe
how seemingly disparate ideas interrelate, they
are more likely to develop their own connec-
tions between and among concepts and theo-
ries and appreciate the world’s complexities.
Teachers guide students in promising
directions without taking over their work.
They help them use what they already know
to address new problems. Encouraging such
independence helps students gain confidence
that they can solve problems they have never
before encountered. Such teachers develop
students who challenge assumptions, initiate
29
 Social Studies–History Standards
projects and activities, take risks, share
insights, persist in their exploration of diffi-
cult material, and demonstrate a commitment
to build meaningful understanding about the
topics under consideration.
Teachers also know the difference
between shallow and substantive learning
and have myriad ways of engaging students
in the latter. In some instances these teach-
ers deliberately create tasks that allow them
to work alongside their students and model
how to proceed when encountering unfamil-
iar ground. This may include joining
students in gathering, processing, and
synthesizing information.
Interdisciplinary Teaching
Some teachers and some topics lend them-
selves to a disciplinary focus. Many teachers,
particularly those who work with middle
grades children and young adolescent
students, work across the disciplines within
and beyond social studies and history to orga-
nize their curriculum. A common approach
for such teachers would be to use literature
that has a historical theme—Mildred Taylor’s
Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry, for exam-
ple—as a touchstone for inquiry. Such teach-
ers call upon a repertoire of strategies to
arrange concepts and skills in ways that are
compelling to students and to meet the objec-
tives they have established for learning.
Some teachers pose questions such as “How
might it be different to be the first African
American student to attend a newly inte-
grated school?” Others might ask students to
work together to identify pressing issues in
their community and then use these questions
to explore the social and economic history of
a region. Still others may use an event from
history such as the establishment of the
Nineteenth Amendment as a starting point for
a broader study of the political and social
forces that shaped the destiny of American
women. Middle-school teachers might have
30
students create a database of statistical infor-
mation to compare regions of the United
States or the world. These and other cross-
disciplinary organizing techniques allow
teachers to help students understand that what
they are learning has both depth and breadth.
Teachers of students at all levels under-
stand the importance of developing strong
discussion skills in their students, and those
who work with the youngest students recog-
nize their special role in starting students
down the road to this important mode of learn-
ing. Although all accomplished teachers
involve students in projects that require active
learning, teachers of younger students recog-
nize that it may be particularly difficult for
them to understand some of the more abstract
concepts of social studies–history, and there-
fore make use of more simulations, games,
project work, and other hands-on activities.
Whereas older students may be able to explore
the idea of supply and demand through discus-
sion or by considering the effect of a natural
disaster on a particular commodity, younger
students may better understand this concept by
having the opportunity to participate in a trad-
ing card game or by running their own store.
And, though younger students might not be
able to understand the nuances of the First
Amendment, teachers can help them address
free speech issues by, for example, carrying
on discussions about how their families make
decisions about what TV programs may be
watched in their homes. When dealing with
historical understandings, teachers are espe-
cially sensitive to issues of time, knowing that
even with visual aids, understanding the rela-
tive distance of events is difficult for many
young children. By anchoring instruction to
things with which children are familiar—such
as making a map of the classroom or school
neighborhood—they effectively communicate
abstract concepts to younger students.
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
 Advancing Disciplinary Knowledge and Understanding

Reflections on Standard IV:

SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY 31
 Social Studies–History Standards

32 SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
Standard V: Promoting Social
Understanding
Accomplished teachers promote in their students an understanding of how
the social aspects of the human condition have evolved over time, the vari-
Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/English Language Arts teachers
ations in societies that occur in different physical environments and cultural
systematically acquire knowledge of their students as individual language learners.
settings, and the emerging trends that seem likely to shape the future.

systems of their local communities and use

A ccomplished social studies–history
teachers situate learning in a social and
cultural context that goes beyond mere facts
and information. They recognize that the
ideas and skills students are learning through
individual study and in discussion with class-
mates are an important part of how young
people will come to understand their society
and the way it operates. They take advantage
of the particular opportunities provided by
their field to give students a rich and wide
understanding of how societies operate and
affect the individuals who live within them.
Their classrooms are places where students
begin to see the connections between the past
and the communities they live in today.
this information as a starting place as their
students begin to put learning into a larger
context.
Teachers use their knowledge of how soci-
eties function to contextualize their students’
social studies and history learning and to help
their students begin to understand that what
they are learning can have immediate appli-
cability. They provide students with the
opportunity to use the knowledge they are
building as a tool for understanding their own
communities and others. Such understanding
is a critical part of the development of civic
competence.

Appreciating the Variety of

Understanding How
Societies Function
Teachers have a solid grounding in how
communities functioned in the ancient world,
in recently extinct cultures, and in cultures
that exist today. In each case they are knowl-
edgeable about how families are structured;
how the legal system functions; how work is
organized; the place of religion and rituals;
the importance of class and race; the state of
gender relations; and the roles of education
and the military. They understand how soci-
eties behave economically and how people
govern their communities and nations. They
know the ways in which values, ethics and
ideals can help guide societies and their
people. They also understand the social
Cultures and Integrating
and Applying Learning
Teachers understand that societies vary,
depending on the cultural backgrounds and
experiences of their members and on the
physical environments that surround them.
They are aware that the way a community
views an institution, such as a school or the
role of women in society, is affected by the
community’s cultural values and history.
They also recognize the importance that
physical environment has in shaping culture.
They understand that because societies and
cultures evolve, their characteristics are often
different today from what they were in the
past and will be different in the future. They
work with students to analyze the various

SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY 33
 Social Studies–History Standards
economic, social, and cultural trends that
have potential for shaping the future. They
help students integrate and apply knowledge
from a variety of disciplines to understand,
analyze, and address problems surrounding
societies and their people. The behavioral
sciences, especially anthropology, sociology,
and psychology, have particular usefulness in
promoting the social understanding of
students. Thus, teachers make use of these
disciplines as they develop their curriculum.
For example, many students are fascinated
Reflections on Standard V:
34
with the kinds of discoveries cultural anthro-
pologists have added to the understanding of
ancient civilizations. As teachers help
students come to understand the ways soci-
eties function, teachers seek to broaden the
horizons of their students, moving them from
concern about themselves to an awareness of
the needs, views, and rights of others.
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
 Promoting Social Understanding

SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY 35
 Social Studies–History Standards

36 SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
 Standard VI:
Developing Civic Competence
AccomplishedAdolescence
Accomplished teachers develop in their
and Young
Adulthood/English
attitudes necessary
systematically to be responsible
acquire knowledge citizensas
of their students ofindividual
A ccomplished teachers work to develop
involved, knowledgeable, and commit-
ted citizens. At the deepest level, these teach-
ers are aware of the importance of the
still-evolving democratic experiment in
which Americans are engaged, of the fragility
of that experiment, and of the critical role
each citizen has in maintaining and nurturing
the nation’s democratic institutions. The
skills and expertise of these teachers are crit-
ical to the development of the active and
responsible citizenry the country needs.
Therefore, one of their preeminent goals is
developing civic competence in the students
they teach.
Such teachers know that the democratic
traditions in the country are maintained
through a commitment by the people to fulfill-
ing civic responsibility, participating in civil
discourse, and monitoring the health of civic
institutions. They help students understand
the historical and cultural roots of the ideals
that support the best interests of all, and they
develop in students the dispositions needed to
promote the healthy functioning of a democ-
racy, such as civility, civic-mindedness, and
acceptance of diversity.
Developing Civic
Knowledge
Teachers develop in their students the neces-
sary knowledge, values, skills, and habits of
mind to enable them to become effective citi-
zens. They help students understand the demo-
cratic principles and purposes that undergird
government institutions in the United States,
emphasizing the way representative govern-
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
students the knowledge,
Language skills, and
Arts teachers
a constitutional
languagedemocracy.
learners.
ment works at the local, state, and national
level.
Teachers help students understand the
history of democratic institutions and how
they have evolved from, for example, a
system that largely recognized the rights of
white, male land owners to one that guaran-
teed all citizens access to the vote. They work
with students to build their understanding of
how governments in the United States are
organized and structured and to teach them
about the changes that have occurred in the
relationship among the branches of the
federal government and between the federal
government and state and local governments.
These teachers help students understand
the processes of government and how they as
citizens are part of the process: how laws
originate, are passed, and are enforced; how
decisions are made at various levels; and how
the process responds to external influences.
Their students come to understand the role of
political parties, opinion polls, interest
groups, and the media in the creation of
public policy.
They also help students understand the
rights granted under the Constitution, the Bill
of Rights, and state and local laws, as well as
under international laws such as the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights and the Geneva
Convention. Their students learn how citizens
secure and protect these rights, and they begin
to appreciate the significance of the right to
vote and understand the workings and dynam-
ics of the electoral process, including the ever-
growing importance of the media in the
nation’s public life. In the classes of these
teachers, students also examine the judicial
37
 Social Studies–History Standards
system and how it interprets laws in order to
protect the minority from the majority, the
responsibility citizens have to respect legiti-
mate authority, and the individual’s right to
dissent from wrongful laws and arbitrary
authority.
Developing Civic Virtue
and Civic Participation
Teachers work with students to become
effective participants in their communities.
They understand that although activities such
as voting are important responsibilities,
effective engagement in one’s community
also involves other kinds of decision making
and participation. Therefore, urging students
to pull the lever on election day is necessary,
but insufficient. Teachers model and practice
with students the kinds of reasoned decision
making that conscientious citizens are called
upon to do, encouraging students to consider
their own beliefs, insights, and knowledge
base to guide their thinking. Teachers help
students see that the kinds of judgments they
are called upon to make—such as whether to
support an anti-tax referendum—do not take
place in isolation from other persistent public
policy issues, nor do they exist in an ethical
vacuum. They place before students real
cases in which two or more legitimate social
goals are in conflict so that students can begin
to appreciate that multiple parties in many
debates may each be arguing responsible and
principled positions. By doing so, teachers
seek to ensure that when students cast ballots
or raise their hands to be counted, they do so
from an informed base or stance and that they
have considered well the issues at stake,
rather than acted out of blind passion or as a
result of simple calculation or manipulation.
Teachers also recognize the critical
importance of civil public discourse in the
civic life of the nation and work with
students to practice and model the skills
necessary to be effective participants in such
38
public conversations. They know the impor-
tance of debate and conversation in adding
ideas to the discussion as well as in enhanc-
ing those ideas and suggesting alternative
perspectives. They encourage students to
consult a variety of sources for information
about the topic at hand. They teach students
to construct informed positions on public
issues, to express their positions orally and in
writing, and to justify their positions with
reasoned arguments. They value and model
listening to other points of view, model
strong interpersonal skills, and provide
students with ample opportunities to work
collaboratively and to debate issues with
their peers and others. They allow students to
see that even impassioned public discourse
need not be acrimonious or mean-spirited
and that each individual’s say is as important
as the changing of anyone’s mind.
Not all citizens agree with their govern-
ments, nor do the public or private institu-
tions of a country or community always act in
the best interest of everyone. Teachers help
students understand the role of dissent and
civil disobedience in the life of the commu-
nity. They allow students to see the variety of
ways people have expressed dissent and
dissatisfaction, as well as the consequences
of such actions on the individual protestor,
how individuals and groups have made an
impact on law and policy through their
protests (e.g., the 1960s antiwar movement);
and the ongoing presence of dissent in public
discourse.
Teachers know that there are many ways
to be involved in one’s community and work
with students to broaden their definition of
community beyond politics per se to include
social clubs, religious groups, community
action organizations, and any of the many
other groups that are part of the nation’s civic
fabric. Their examples of community partici-
pation include activities such as volunteer
work, door-to-door canvassing, writing letters
to the editor, and serving on or testifying
before advisory boards and committees. In
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY

addition to seeing the broader community in
action and actively participating where possi-
ble, students are involved in the governance
of these teachers’ classrooms, helping to
develop rules and expectations. Such teachers
also find ways for their students to become
involved in the governance of the school
community. Their teaching presents for
students a variety of opportunities for leader-
ship and participation.
Accomplished teachers know that it is
important for people to feel a sense of
personal responsibility toward their communi-
ties and that apathy and neglect are among the
greatest enemies of any democratic society.
They know that they confront in their students
a fair amount of cynicism and resentment
Reflections on Standard VI:
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
Developing Civic Competence
against what students perceive as irrelevance,
unfairness, or abuse on the part of the govern-
ment and its representatives. Therefore, they
work hard to counter such cynicism and to
help students understand that individuals do
make a difference in their schools and their
communities, that they have opinions that will
be listened to and matter, and, finally, that the
government of a democratic society is of their
making. Their ultimate goal is for students to
see that they can make a difference in their
schools, their communities, their nation, and
the world.
39
 Social Studies–History Standards

40 SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
Supporting Student Learning
T he most able teachers with the best inten-
tions can be foiled by a poor classroom
environment or the selection of weak or inap-
propriate materials. The standards that follow
describe the other important decisions,
actions, activities, and frames of mind that
support and contribute to the practice of
Standard VII: Instructional
Resources
Accomplished teachers select, adapt, and create rich and varied resources
Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/English Language Arts teachers
for social studies and history and use them productively.
systematically acquire knowledge of their students as individual language learners.
A ccomplished teachers of social studies
and history understand the difference
quality instructional resources can make in
their teaching and are constantly seeking to
build a rich array of resources that will enable
them to improve student learning. These
teachers know that resources mean more than
just printed matter and look beyond the avail-
able textbooks to consider how a variety of
people and materials—including electronic
media—might be enlisted to their benefit.
They are aware of how just the right docu-
ment, artifact, or illustration can powerfully
illuminate an important idea for students.
Developing a Diverse
Resource Base
Teachers select, adapt, and create materials
to meet the differing needs and abilities of
their students, including those with excep-
tional needs. They are resourceful and
creative in locating or developing alternative
resources. They often blend materials from a
variety of sources to serve their broad curric-
ular objectives.
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
accomplished teachers. These include the
ways these teachers assess the progress of
their students and reflect on their own profes-
sionalism, as well as the way they work with
others, including parents and colleagues, to
create intellectually lively and spirited class-
rooms that support their learning goals.
Teachers develop a deep and rich base of
resources, choosing from written materials,
electronic media, artifacts, and other visual
aids. They are aware that technological
resources are important sources of information
as well as work management tools for their
students. Technology also promotes active
learning and can facilitate student discussions
in peer groups. Teachers seek to expose their
students to the broad assortment of resources,
including primary and secondary sources, arti-
facts, video presentations, on-line services,
CD-ROMs, and community resources, among
others. Such resources serve to make their
students more capable and independent learn-
ers. Unfortunately, some teachers find them-
selves in situations where resources are
meager and funds are limited. Such teachers
distinguish themselves by making the most of
what they have and using their resourcefulness
to locate additional resources.
41
 Social Studies–History Standards
Choosing Instructional
Resources Wisely
To meet their instructional goals and to equip
students better for a rapidly changing world,
teachers are adept at selecting high-quality
materials. They use these materials appropri-
ately and creatively, employing them as neces-
sary to present information or provide a useful
experience. They are careful to choose from
materials that are academically sound, reject-
ing flashy and facile items of little substance.
They judiciously evaluate materials for quality
and suitability, choosing those most appropri-
ate to their student population and to the
particular needs of individual students. They
vary their resources in order to give students
broad exposure to different types of informa-
tion sources, as well as to capture different
ways that students learn. They locate resources
that are diverse along several dimensions,
including form, style, theme, gender appeal
and awareness, cultural background, level of
difficulty, and intergenerational perspective.
They also help students learn to locate and
select high-quality materials for their own
learning.
Reflections on Standard VII:
42
Viewing Colleagues
and the Community as
Important Resources
To enrich the learning experience, teachers
enlist the knowledge and expertise of their
colleagues. They appreciate their fellow
faculty members’ skills and know where they
best complement their own. Their colleagues
may share resources, serve as special consul-
tants in specific areas of expertise, or work
with them in planning and conducting inter-
disciplinary studies. They also encourage
their students to view their peers and parents
as valuable resources.
These teachers extend their classroom
beyond the school. They see their local
community as an important resource and urge
their students to do the same. They actively
recruit families, community members, agen-
cies, and businesses to become involved in
their program, and seek meaningful ways for
them to contribute to student learning and the
overall goals of the school.
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
 Instructional Resources

SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY 43
 Social Studies–History Standards

44 SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
 Standard VIII:
Learning Environments
Accomplished teachers create and foster for students dynamic learning envi-
Accomplished Adolescence by
ronments characterized andtrust,
Young Adulthood/English
equity,
systematically
collaboration.acquire knowledge of their students as individual language learners.
S upportive, congenial, and purposeful
learning environments, where students
are intellectually challenged and encouraged
to learn and grow, rest on the ability of teach-
ers to create an atmosphere in which students
feel welcomed, valued, and respected.
Accomplished social studies–history teach-
ers create such environments by demonstrat-
ing an interest in their students’ ideas,
activities, lives, and work, and by creating a
physically, emotionally, and intellectually
safe environment where students feel
empowered, where intellectual adventurous-
ness is encouraged, and where students make
decisions, knowing they belong and that
their ideas matter. Students know that the
classroom is a place where their participation
is welcomed and that the teacher cares about
them as individuals. They know that their
investigations will sometimes reach dead
ends, that promising hypotheses will some-
times prove false, and that testing new ideas
and alternative theories is critical to gaining
knowledge and building understanding. In
such environments, students become part-
ners with their teachers in establishing and
maintaining a community of learners.
Providing an Orderly,
Open, and Democratic
Learning Environment
Teachers value persistence, inquisitiveness,
and good humor. They model these behav-
iors, refuse to accept complacency, and
share their passion for social studies and
history with their students. They foster in
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
Language Arts teachers
risk-taking, independence, and
their students a love of learning and demon-
strate, through their responses to student
accomplishment and through the genuine
interest and excitement they have about
seeing students achieve, the joy of learning
for learning’s sake.
They establish a productive, open, and
enriching learning environment character-
ized by secure and active students who func-
tion smoothly and confidently as they interact
and respond to information and each other.
They enlist a repertoire of strategies, skills,
and procedures to develop and maintain such
an environment. They combine knowledge
and careful preparation to keep students
engaged in productive activities, and they use
democratic processes to create classroom
rules and expectations for behavior. By gain-
ing students’ trust and confidence, they
increase the odds that the students in their
classroom will take responsibility for their
behavior and accept the rules of the class-
room community. This allows teachers to
direct their attention and effort to positive
interactions and learning rather than dealing
with discord and disruption.
Lessons are marked by such smoothness,
clarity, and coherence that necessary shifts in
emphasis or approach occur with such
elegance that they are barely noticed.
Classroom management seems almost effort-
less, transitions flow easily, few disruptions
mar the focus on learning, and children and
teacher work together harmoniously. At the
same time, these teachers know that very
often what looks like chaos is really the
excitement of significant learning. They
manage such environments, maintaining
45
 Social Studies–History Standards
control without squelching the enthusiasm.
They notice most classroom events, quickly
interpret their instructional or social impor-
tance, and respond efficiently when the
potential for or when actual disruption
occurs.
Teachers use principled judgment when
confronted with ethical dilemmas in their
relationships with students. For example,
when approached by a student for help in
preparing an essay for a competition or for a
college application, they carefully avoid
overcoaching, making sure that all work is
the student’s own. They demonstrate virtues
that students might emulate, such as honesty,
responsibility, trust, respect, fairness, and
compassion.
Involving All Students in
Classroom Activities
Teachers involve all students in active class-
room participation by finding ways to engage
each student and by permitting no one to
disappear. Student voices predominate in
their classrooms: These teachers have a
strong interest in fostering student initiative
and independence but are careful that no one
monopolizes class time. They provide
students choices among learning and perfor-
mance options, accommodating as wide a
variety of expression and response as possi-
ble and recognizing a range of accomplish-
ments and positive behaviors.
An instructional climate that upholds the
dignity of students requires skill, planning,
flexibility, judgment, and discretion. These
teachers have such attributes and use them in
ways that demonstrate both self-confidence
and respect for their students. They involve
students in setting clear expectations for
classroom behavior and uphold these expec-
tations consistently. Their respect for their
students’ thoughts and judgments, both in
and out of the classroom, fosters self-worth
and individual dignity and thus instills in
46
students the idea that the work in which they
are engaged is important and significant.
When students with exceptional needs are
part of the student body, teachers adapt their
practice and classroom routines as needed
and work collaboratively with specialists,
when available and appropriate, to integrate
such students fully into the life of the class. If
specialized teaching techniques, equipment,
materials, or interpreters are necessary, teach-
ers work within their school communities to
locate such resources and see that they are
used effectively and, if necessary, insist that
they be provided.
Facilitating Social
Development and
Encouraging the
Understanding of
Different Points of View
Teachers are concerned with their students’
self-esteem and aspirations, with the develop-
ment of character, and with the ability of their
students to function well as part of a group.
Consequently, they address the needs for
their students to develop as socially compe-
tent individuals in both the content of their
teaching and in the methods they use.
Teachers exploit opportunities to guide
students as they begin to make decisions
about their own lives. The study of history,
for example, provides numerous and frequent
opportunities for teachers to identify role
models for students. As teachers choose
curriculum and develop materials for use in
their classes, they seek opportunities to
address such virtues as personal responsibil-
ity, compassion, and tolerance. They provide
students with opportunities to think about and
apply these traits to their own lives.
In establishing the classroom climate,
teachers take into consideration the develop-
mental levels of their students and take
advantage of the characteristics of students at
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY

each level to create a congenial and produc-
tive workplace. Middle childhood teachers
build on the openness of their students to
nurture group working skills and to encour-
age intellectual risk taking. Teachers of early
adolescents find opportunities to make
constructive use of newly formed student
peer relationships in discussions and other
classroom activities. Teachers of adolescents
and young adults utilize the multiple perspec-
tives developing at this age level to broaden
and deepen the understanding of the topics
under consideration.
Teachers develop in students the skills
needed to work efficiently as part of a team.
They model and teach the skills necessary to
participate in group processes and provide
ample opportunities for students to practice
these skills in the course of their learning. In
their teaching and in all classroom activities,
they value and reward sportsmanship, shar-
ing, and fair play. They provide and encour-
age a variety of perspectives on all issues and
work hard to model and reward appropriate
social behavior.
Teachers have a repertoire of activities and
teaching strategies to encourage the virtues of
tolerance and open-mindedness. They raise
questions that help students recognize their
individual prejudices and stereotypes and that
serve to neutralize polarizing and acrimonious
disputes. A healthy, stimulating, and support-
ive learning environment encourages the open
expression of ideas and the search for greater
understanding and knowledge. At the same
time, teachers recognize that some views are
morally repugnant and work against demo-
cratic principles. They also understand that
young people sometimes find themselves in
settings where abusive language, put downs,
and bigotry are accepted and where prejudice
and disrespect exist. These teachers actively
counter such views, often drawing analogies to
events from history or the news to develop
their ideas and make students aware of the
damage they can cause to the social fabric of
the school and the larger society.
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
Learning Environments
Teachers also foster the social develop-
ment of their students by encouraging inter-
actions that show concern for others, by
dealing constructively with inappropriate
behavior, and by appreciating humor and
using it appropriately. They create for all
students, including those with special needs,
a community that ensures their physical
safety and is secure socially as well as intel-
lectually. In these and other ways, they foster
democratic values in the classroom.
Encouraging
Inquisitiveness and
Persistence in Learning
While working to develop a habit of inquisi-
tiveness in their students, teachers also
understand that sometimes students face
frustrations and dead ends. They instill in
their students the idea that learning can be
difficult; that experimentation is essential;
that people learn from false starts and fail-
ures; that recognizing mistakes is as impor-
tant as noticing successes; and that grasping
a subject fully requires recognizing its
complexity. They are aware that there are
better and worse ways to offer encourage-
ment and constructive criticism. They also
understand that progress and accomplish-
ment are key components to their students’
feelings of self-worth.
These characteristics contribute to learn-
ing environments that engage students,
recognize individual differences, encourage
choice and expression, and foster inquiry and
hard work. The classrooms of accomplished
teachers are environments where students are
provided opportunities to acquire firsthand
knowledge, gather information, present find-
ings or products, and enhance the learning
experiences of their classmates.
47
 Social Studies–History Standards

Reflections on Standard VIII:

48 SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
 Standard IX: Assessment
Accomplished teachers employ a variety of assessment methods to obtain
Accomplished Adolescence
useful information about and Young
student
learning
systematically acquire knowledge
students in reflecting on their of
owntheir students as individual language learners.
progress.
G auging student progress and understand-
ing lies at the heart of student-centered
teaching. Consequently, regular observation
and assessment of students are essential
guides to short-term and long-term decision
making. Teachers assess students on an ongo-
ing basis and are adept at using multiple eval-
uation methods to read and interpret student
performance and work. The information they
gather on the progress of individuals and on
the class as a whole allows them to evaluate
the relative success of their instructional
strategies and serves as a guide for improving
practice in order to improve student learning.
Employing a Variety of
Assessment
Methodologies
Teachers establish clear criteria, which they
use to assess student achievement. They
understand the advantages and limitations of
various assessment techniques, both formal
and informal, and seek good matches among
methods of assessment, instructional goals,
and students’ abilities, considering the rela-
tive strengths and weaknesses of the proce-
dures, as well as the timing, focus, and
purpose of the evaluation. Because they
know that students have skills that will not
emerge in certain settings or during the
course of a single assessment, they do not
rely on only one method of evaluation. Their
knowledge extends to creating their own
tools for assessment, such as portfolios,
videotapes, demonstrations, performances,
and exhibitions.
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
Adulthood/English
Language
and development andArtsassist
teachers
Teachers ask incisive questions during
group discussion to assess how well students
understand the central ideas being consid-
ered, and they talk individually with students
who are working independently. They
observe students working in small groups and
in the field. They use such evidence as a part
of their evaluation of students’ growth and
development.
Assessing for a
Variety of Purposes
Assessments are used to gain perspective on
each student’s ability to apply knowledge to
real situations and to make connections
among various forms of knowledge. Teachers
monitor each student’s ability to evaluate
evidence; readiness to grasp new ideas, theo-
ries, and concepts; ability to connect and
accept various forms of knowledge; and
awareness of the complexities of the world.
These teachers use assessment that
enhances learning, requiring, for example,
students to synthesize or analyze disparate
ideas or apply familiar skills to unfamiliar
materials. They gauge each student’s ability
to ask good questions, challenge assump-
tions, take risks, and initiate projects and
activities. They also assess the depth of each
student’s interest in and engagement with the
material and the student’s willingness and
ability to share insights.
They assess classroom climate by monitor-
ing interactions of various kinds or through
observation, discussion, and the use of such
tools as surveys or inventories. They examine
49
 Social Studies–History Standards
the affective and expressive qualities of each
student’s work in order to assess both its qual-
ity and the student’s social and emotional
growth, noting how the work reflects peer
interactions and personal development.
Helping Students Become
Adept at Self-Assessment
Teachers help students assess their own
progress. They clearly communicate their
expectations for student learning so that each
student can judge how personal work and
effort meet those expectations. These teachers
recognize the long-term importance of young
people assuming responsibility for their own
learning; therefore, they encourage all
students to set high personal goals for them-
selves and teach them how to evaluate their
own personal progress toward these goals.
They also engage students in assessing the
work of their peers, which can provide them
with fresh perspectives on their own work.
Reflections on Standard IX:
50
Providing Substantive
Feedback to Each Student
Teachers provide constructive feedback to
each student. They know that well-stated and
appropriate praise can boost a student’s self-
esteem and confidence, so they look for ways
to celebrate each student’s accomplishments.
When providing correction, they do so in a
manner that does not diminish the student’s
sense of self-worth. They make sure that each
student realizes that a failure to understand
need only be temporary and that the remedy
may be a different approach, not resignation
or acceptance of low performance. They help
students learn to recognize their own accom-
plishments. These teachers draw on their
knowledge of the subject to determine where
misconceptions and gaps in a student’s
knowledge may have occurred, and they
work with each student to determine a course
of action for improvement that focuses on a
manageable number of areas. They use the
results of informal and formal assessments to
help students understand their strengths and
weaknesses and to encourage each student’s
continual commitment to learning.
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
 Assessment

SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY 51
 Social Studies–History Standards

52 SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
 Standard X: Reflection
Accomplished teachers reflect on their practice, on students’ performance,
Accomplished Adolescence
and on developments in and
theirYoung
field Adulthood/English
to steadily extendLanguage
systematically acquire knowledge of their students as individual
improve their teaching, and refine their philosophy of education.language learners.
A ccomplished teachers consider reflec-
tion on their practice central to their
responsibilities as professionals. They contin-
ually extend their knowledge, improve their
technique, and refine their philosophy of
education. They regularly examine their
strengths and weaknesses and employ that
knowledge in their planning. They analyze
the relative merits of both older and newer
pedagogical approaches and judge their
appropriateness for their own particular
circumstances.
Teachers regularly engage in the process
of professional growth. They are motivated
by the rapid change they see around them in
their students, their academic disciplines, and
educational research literature and by their
desire to equip students for an evolving
future. They know that teachers who stand
still are, in fact, moving rapidly backward.
Thus, in their quest for self-renewal, accom-
plished teachers interact with other profes-
sionals, explore new resources, study the
professional literature, or participate in
advanced education programs. Such teachers
distinguish themselves by their capacity for
ongoing, dispassionate self-examination,
their openness to innovation, their willing-
ness to experiment with new pedagogical
approaches, and their readiness to change in
order to strengthen their teaching.
Evaluating Results and
Seeking Input
Systematically from a
Variety of Sources
Teachers seek information, assistance, and
ideas about their practice from a variety of
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
Arts teachers
their knowledge,
sources in their quest to improve their prac-
tice. Conversations with students about the
quality, climate, and interactions in class
provide them with insight and direction. They
carefully analyze input received from formal
and informal conferences with parents,
guardians, students, and others. These obser-
vations and discussions influence teachers as
they reflect on their planning, monitoring,
assessment, and instructional techniques.
For accomplished teachers, every class
and every activity provide opportunities for
reflection and improvement. When things go
well, they think about why the class
succeeded and how to adapt the lessons
learned to other classes. When things go
poorly, they reflect on how to avoid such
mishaps in the future. As they assess the work
in progress and the final products of their
students, these teachers assess themselves as
well.
On a regular basis, teachers seek advice
from colleagues. These interactions occur
through discussions, in-class observation of
their own teaching, and personal observation
of others’ practice. These observations and
discussions shape their decisions about if,
when, and how their practice should change,
and create a predisposition to abandon less
effective practices and replace them with
more promising approaches.
Reflecting On One’s Own
Point of View
Accomplished teachers consider the effects of
their own cultural background, biases, values,
and personal experiences on their teaching.
They are alert to their own philosophical
53
 Social Studies–History Standards
filters and take these into account when deal-
ing with students whose background, beliefs,
or values may differ significantly from their
own. They work carefully through such
conflicts and treat each student fairly.
Continually Refining
Practice through Study
and Self-Examination
Teachers stay abreast of current research,
trends, and information through activities
such as reading professional journals,
actively participating in related professional
organizations, doing graduate coursework,
observing master teachers, and collaborating
with colleagues and other professionals.
They keep abreast of significant develop-
ments, new findings, and debates in their
field. They know that such efforts are essen-
tial in the continually shifting worlds of
social studies and history, professions that
steadily rethink, reinvent, and debate the
many pedagogical and disciplinary issues that
have curricular implications. These teachers
consider the prevailing research findings
about learning and intelligence and are aware
of their limitations. They select from theories,
emerging practices, current debates, and
promising research findings those that could
improve their teaching. They understand the
major controversies in their field and know
where they stand on the issues. Such teachers
have cogent reasons for what they do, reasons
that can be explained clearly to students,
54
parents, guardians, colleagues, administra-
tors, and school board members.
Teachers take responsibility for their own
professional growth. They explore topics in
which they may have limited expertise and
experiment with alternative materials,
approaches, and instructional strategies. This
personal study provides support for the
instructional decisions they make and for their
ability to articulate cogently a rationale for
their actions. It also contributes to their consis-
tent ability to be aggressive in seeking solu-
tions to issues and problems in their practice.
Accomplished teachers participate in a
wide range of reflective practices. They
might keep a journal of how their own
personal biases affect their teaching or
conduct action or ethnographic research in
their classrooms. They might collaborate
with education researchers to examine their
practice critically. Such reflection reinforces
their creativity, stimulates their personal
growth, and enhances their professionalism.
They are models of the educated individual,
regularly sharpening their judgment, expand-
ing their repertoire of teaching methods, and
deepening their knowledge base. They exem-
plify high ethical ideals and embrace the
highest professional standards in assessing
their practice. Ultimately, self-reflection
contributes to teachers’ depth of knowledge
and skill and adds dignity to their practice.
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
 Reflection

Reflections on Standard X:

SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY 55
 Social Studies–History Standards

56 SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
 Standard XI: Family
Partnerships
Accomplished teachers understand and value the distinctive role of parents
Accomplished
and guardians, Adolescence and Youngseek
and they continually Adulthood/English
opportunities toLanguage
systematically
nerships with acquire
them.knowledge of their students as individual language learners.
F amilies can be teachers’ strongest allies
in the education of young people.
Accomplished teachers understand and value
the distinctive role of parents and guardians,
and continually seek opportunities to build
strong partnerships with them. They welcome
family participation in school activities and
take the initiative in inviting parents to
become a part of the life of the school.
Teachers know their role with families is
more than just providing information.
Consequently, they clearly signal through
word and deed the importance of families as
partners with the school in their children’s
education. They do so by working to create a
sense of community between the school and
students’ homes and by making clear the
mutual interest they share with families in
seeing the young people in their charge
succeed.
Gaining Support through
Active Family Involvement
Regular interaction with parents helps accom-
plished teachers establish an invaluable
rapport with families. It also holds the promise
of stimulating family support for and involve-
ment in their children’s education. Teachers
actively and creatively seek to involve parents
and guardians in every aspect of the educa-
tional process. They encourage parents to
attend conferences and invite them to special
events, and in their curriculum planning they
include ways for families to be involved in
their children’s learning. They help establish
avenues for family input and involvement in
the development of school improvement
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
Arts part-
build strong teachers
plans, keep parents informed of these avenues,
and encourage them to participate.
Capitalizing On Parents’
and Guardians’ Insight
Teachers recognize that parents and guardians
have experiences and insights that can enrich
the quality of education for their students, and
they seek ways to take advantage of these
experiences and insights. They listen actively
to the stories parents share about their chil-
dren’s home lives, taking special note of
talents, strengths, and abilities that might not
have appeared in the school setting and that
could help further the educational process.
They see collaboration with parents as an
essential tool in providing students with the
support and motivation they need.
Learning about a family’s background and
culture helps teachers gain insight into
parents’ expectations and aspirations for their
children. Such understanding of children’s
lives outside of school is vital in tailoring
curriculum and instruction within the school.
Facilitating the Access
of All Families
Teachers are aware that not all families are
able or willing to get closely involved with
their children’s schooling. Some parents have
had difficult previous relationships with
schools, either through their children or in
their own upbringing. Still others embrace
belief systems or hold values that may
conflict with those of the teacher or the
57
 Social Studies–History Standards
community as a whole. The accomplished
teacher seeks common ground with such
parents, attempting to build a relationship
that will best serve students’ interests. Other
families are in crisis or flux. There may be
economic or health problems, or the family
may be in the process of reconfiguring itself
through divorce, marriage, death, or the addi-
tion of new members. Teachers seek to
accommodate the needs of these parents as
well, scheduling conferences at convenient
times or sometimes conducting home visits to
discuss a child’s progress. Also, because
school may be the place where children in
such families seek refuge and assistance,
teachers work with other school personnel,
such as counselors, administrators, and other
teachers, to bridge the gap between the child
and the family and provide the support that is
needed.
Teachers extend the definition of family to
cover all those who have an interest in and
support the child. They are aware that many
children are cared for and supported by indi-
viduals who are not their biological or legal
parents; therefore, their goal is to make sure
that pertinent information about the student’s
performance at school reaches the appropriate
people. They also know which of their fami-
lies need special assistance overcoming
language or cultural barriers in communicat-
ing with the school, and seek the resources to
bridge such barriers in the form of interpreters,
translated reports, and other adaptations.
Reflections on Standard XI:
58
Cultivating Families’
Interest in Supporting
Their Children’s Education
Teachers regularly communicate with fami-
lies about their children’s accomplishments,
successes, and needs for improvement,
including the means for achieving higher
goals, and they attempt to respond thought-
fully to families’ concerns. They interpret
and discuss students’ work, report cards, and
test scores clearly and provide parents with
an accurate portrait of their children’s pro-
gress. They search for ways to share the
school’s objectives and expectations for its
students, as well as the reasons for group or
individual assignments.
Teachers offer parents suggestions on how
to help their children develop good learning
habits and study skills, complete homework,
set goals, and improve performance. They
assist parents by serving as advocates for
students within the school, discussing course
selection and consequences, including the
importance of planning for the student’s next
level of education.
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
 Family Partnerships

SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY 59
 Social Studies–History Standards

60 SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
 Standard XII:
Professional Contributions
Accomplished teachers regularly work with others to foster the growth and
Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/English Language Arts teachers
development of their colleagues, their school, and their field.
systematically acquire knowledge of their students as individual language learners.
T eachers define their responsibilities as
professionals to include a commitment to
the continuing growth and development of
their colleagues, their school, and their field.
They see themselves as members of a larger
learning community with responsibilities that
extend beyond the classroom, including a
responsibility to shape a healthy, professional
culture in their school. Consequently, they
can be found serving as peer coaches to expe-
rienced colleagues and mentors to student
teachers or new teachers; working with
colleagues to design, improve, and evaluate
programs or staff-development plans; or
providing leadership information to other
teachers on ways to involve parents in their
children’s education. Or they might make
presentations at professional meetings; serve
on education policy committees or councils;
or collaborate with educators from colleges,
universities, or other institutions on pilot
programs or action research projects.
Accomplished teachers collaborate in a wide
range of creative and professionally stimulat-
ing ways.
Contributing to the
Advancement of the
Profession
Teachers regularly contribute to the improve-
ment of social studies and history education.
Some present at professional conferences and
advocate for social studies and history before
noneducational groups. Others write articles
for journals, newspapers, or professional
publications. To benefit their programs and
SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
the field, they may acquire grants or initiate
professional development activities. Some
choose to serve on task forces and commit-
tees at state, regional, and national levels,
while others work with university faculty and
students to improve social studies and history
education.
Involving Themselves in
Curricular Decisions
Teachers challenge ideas, requirements,
curricular assumptions, and other factors that
may limit teaching effectiveness, school
quality, and student learning. They do so in
ways that have a positive impact on the learn-
ing community. They know how and when to
question convention, tradition, and innova-
tion in the search for practices that will help
all children succeed. When participating in
decision making that concerns students, they
serve as strong advocates for what is best for
the children. They also actively influence
professional norms in the school, encourag-
ing an attitude of experimentation, collabora-
tion, and professionalism among their
colleagues, as they work to establish and
sustain a community of learners.
Collaborating with
Colleagues
Accomplished teachers value collaboration
with colleagues as a means of contributing to
the intellectual life of the school, strengthen-
ing instructional strategies and practices, and
61
 Social Studies–History Standards

designing and implementing new programs. involvement with peers is a means of improv-
Skilled at working harmoniously and effec- ing their own effectiveness as teachers,
tively with professional colleagues, they initi- expanding their knowledge of young people,
ate informal discussions with them, observe deepening their understanding of how their
them at work, and, in turn, invite colleagues to field relates to others, and contributing to the
observe them in class. They may also serve as knowledge and skills of other teachers and the
a collaborative team member—either as part improvement of education.
of an instructional group or as part of a plan-
ning and decision-making unit. Some may
choose to take on the role of mentor to a new
or preservice teacher. They take this responsi-
bility seriously because they understand that

Reflections on Standard XII:

62 SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
 Professional Contributions

SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY 63
 Epilogue

T he 12 standards in this report represent a professional consensus on the characteristics of

accomplished practice and provide a profile of the accomplished social studies–history
teacher. Although the standards are challenging, they are upheld every day by teachers like the
ones described in these pages, who inspire and instruct the nation’s youth and lead their
profession. By publishing this document and offering National Board Certification to social
studies–history educators, NBPTS aims to affirm the practice of the many teachers who meet
these standards and challenge others to strive to meet them. Moreover, NBPTS hopes to bring
increased attention to the professionalism and expertise of accomplished social
studies–history educators and in so doing, pave the way for greater professional respect and
opportunity for these essential members of the teaching community.
In addition to being a stimulus for self-reflection on the part of teachers at all levels of
performance, Social Studies–History Standards is intended to be a catalyst for discussion
among administrators, staff developers, and others in the education community about accom-
plished practice in this field. If these standards can advance the conversation about accom-
plished teaching, they will provide an important step toward the NBPTS goal of improving
student learning in our nation’s schools.

SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY 65
 Middle Childhood/
Social Studies–History Standards Committee

Jeanne L. Jusaitis—Chair Doris Morris

Sixth-Grade Teacher Fifth-Grade Teacher
Cherry Valley School Warner School
Petaluma, California Wilmington, Delaware

Jesus Garcia—Vice Chair Carol L. Pancho-Ash

Professor Second–Third-Grade Teacher
Department of Curriculum and Instruction Peralta Year Round School
University of Illinois Oakland, California
Champaign, Illinois
Robert S. Stern
Rebecca S. Anderson Third-Grade Teacher
Fourth-Grade Teacher Piney Grove Elementary School
Forest Glen Elementary School Kernersville, North Carolina
Glen Ellyn, Illinois
Suzanne Wilson
Joy Hakim Associate Professor
Author, A History of Us College of Education
Virginia Beach, Virginia Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
Mary Ann Jackson
Lead Teacher George H. Wood
Central Fairmont Elementary School Principal
Cincinnati, Ohio Federal Hocking High School
Stewart, Ohio
Kerry Jon Juntunen
Sixth-Grade Teacher
Wrenshall Elementary School
Wrenshall, Minnesota

SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY 67
 Early Adolescence/
Social Studies–History Standards Committee

Peggy Allan—Chair Roberta A. Logan

Social Studies/Language Arts Gifted Teacher Social Studies Teacher
Greenville Junior High School Martin Luther King, Jr., Middle School
Greenville, Illinois Boston, Massachusetts

David E. Harris—Vice Chair Jody Smothers Marcello

Consultant for Social Studies Education Social Studies Teacher
Oakland Schools Blatchley Middle School
Waterford, Michigan Sitka, Alaska

Linda Biemer Richard G. Moulden

Dean Social Studies and Language Arts Teacher
School of Education and Human Development Chinook Middle School
Binghamton University Bellevue, Washington
Binghamton, New York
Michael C. Scullion
Patrick L. Daly Social Studies Teacher
American History Professor Bret Harte Middle School
Henry Ford Community College San Jose, California
Dearborn, Michigan
Judith Torney-Purta
James R. Giese Professor and Director of Graduate Studies
Executive Director Department of Human Development
Social Science Education Consortium University of Maryland
Boulder, Colorado College Park, Maryland

Robert L. Harris, Jr. Ann F. Wiener

Associate Professor Teacher and Director
Afro-American History Crossroads School
Africana Studies & Research Center New York, New York
Cornell University
Ithaca, New York

Rita Duarte Herrera

Teacher and Consultant for California International
Studies Project and Chapter I Resource Teacher
for Alum Rock Union School District
School of Education
Stanford University
Stanford, California

68 SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY
 Adolescence and Young Adulthood/
Social Studies–History Standards Committee

Earl P. Bell—Chair Phillip Osuna (deceased)

Chair, History Department History Teacher and Social Studies
University of Chicago Laboratory Schools Department Chair
Chicago, Illinois West Mesa High School
Albuquerque, New Mexico
Joseph J. Onosko—Vice Chair
Assistant Professor Peter N. Stearns
Department of Education Dean, College of Humanities and Social
University of New Hampshire Studies and the Heinz Professor of History
Durham, New Hampshire Carnegie Mellon University
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Marjorie Wall Bingham (retired)
History Teacher Paul K. Stuewe
St. Louis Park High School Social Studies Teacher and Department Chair
St. Louis Park, Minnesota Lawrence High School
Lawrence, Kansas
Ann Cook
History Teacher and Co-Director Mary Jo Thomas
Urban Academy History Teacher
New York, New York South Eugene High School
Eugene, Oregon
Howard Dodson
Executive Director Ruben Zepeda II
Schomburg Center for Research in Advisor
Black Culture Office of Language Acquisition and
New York, New York Bilingual Development
Los Angeles Unified School District
Carl F. Kaestle Los Angeles, California
Professor of Education, History and Policy
Department of Education
Brown University
Providence, Rhode Island

Stanley W. Murphy
History Teacher and Social Studies
Department Chair
San Diego High School
San Diego, California

SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY 69
 Acknowledgments

T he development of these standards for National Board Certification of social

studies–history teachers represents a singular achievement, marking the first time educa-
tors from history and the social sciences have come together to forge a professional consensus
about the critical aspects of accomplished practice in this field. The standards are the product
of invention by the Social Studies–History Standards Committees and the many people who
worked with the committees to craft them, including the NBPTS Board of Directors and its
Certification Standards Working Group (later the Standards and Professional Development
Working Group), which provided the process with careful guidance, helpful criticism, and
much encouragement. The committee members succeeded in creating advanced teaching stan-
dards that will speak clearly and powerfully to prospective candidates for National Board
Certification, to the social studies–history community, to the larger education community, and
to the public. The National Board is most appreciative of the committee’s work.
Many individuals and institutions contributed to this effort. Teachers and other scholars,
administrators, state and local officials, education association leaders, and others from across
the country critically reviewed draft standards, provided sound advice about how to strengthen
the standards, and helped position the standards so that they might complement other initia-
tives designed to advance practice in this field. A variety of people provided the National
Board with caring, intelligent, and imaginative counsel, and several deserve special thanks.
The members of the three Social Studies–History Standards Committees, a group of excep-
tionally dedicated, creative, and industrious professionals, explored their deep experiences to
yield this new vision of accomplished practice. They were ably led by Jeanne Jusaitis, Peggy
Allan, Earl Bell, Jesus Garcia, David Harris, and Joseph Onosko, who kept the teacher’s
perspective in the forefront and helped forge a consensus around large principles when lesser
solutions were also available. Joseph Hieu, Susan Lloyd, Robert Lynch, Norma Silva-Quinn,
Joseph Gotchy, and Martin Gary Blumenstein, the Board’s liaisons to these committees, made
important contributions to advancing and uplifting the debate across a range of critical issues.
Judith White energetically worked at organizing and facilitating the discussion early in the life
of the committees and was ably assisted by Donna Fowler, who employed her sharp pen and
good ear to craft the initial draft standards. David Haynes served as the lead staff and princi-
pal scribe during the latter part of this project, uncovering difficult issues and developing solu-
tions when the committees reached an impasse and providing elegant prose to capture the
committees’ distinct perspective. Adrian Davis contributed her extensive knowledge of the
field and her skills as a facilitator to help resolve difficult issues. The committees’ deliberations
also benefited from the work of the Assessment Development Laboratory led by Joan Herman,
Lynn Winters, and Eugene Flores that was established at UCLA’s National Center for
Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing.
In the end, the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards takes full responsibility
for these standards, but they would not have received as positive a reception as they have with-
out the wisdom, intelligence, and care of those who have willingly given their time and energy
to this landmark effort to improve education in the United States.

SOCIAL STUDIES–HISTORY 71
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er
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is O
gl es
En ag
an gu
th an
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ld
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The core propositions of the

National Board for Professional Teaching Standards

1) Teachers are committed to students

and their learning.

2) Teachers know the subjects they teach

and how to teach those subjects
to students.

3) Teachers are responsible for managing

and monitoring student learning.

4) Teachers think systematically about

their practice and learn from
experience.

5) Teachers are members of learning

communities.

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