AREMA Communictaions and Signals

AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING AND
MAINTENANCE OF WAY ASSOCIATION

COMMUNICATIONS & SIGNALS MANUAL
VOLUME 5
SECTION 18 INSIDE PLANT
SECTION 19 ELECTRICAL PROTECTION
SECTION 20 INDUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
SECTION 21 DATA TRANSMISSION
SECTION 22 RADIO

2002

AREMA Committees Developing C&S Manual Parts

AREMA Committee 36- Highway-Rail Grade Crossing Warning Systems
Subcommittee 36-1 Warning System Controls
Subcommittee 36-2 Warning System Installation & Maintenance
Subcommittee 36-3 Warning System Equipment
Subcommittee 36-4 Intelligent Transportation Systems

AREMA Committee 37- Signal Systems
Subcommittee 37-1 Signal Systems
Subcommittee 37-2 Signal Equipment
Subcommittee 37-3 Signal Control & Applications

AREMA Committee 38- Information, Defect Detection & Energy Systems
Subcommittee 38-1 Equipment Applications
Subcommittee 38-2 Electromagnetic Compatibility
Subcommittee 38-3 Energy Systems
Subcommittee 38-4 Radio/Wireless
This page intentionally left blank
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING AND MAINTENANCE OF WAY ASSOCIATION

COMMUNICATIONS & SIGNALS MANUAL OF RECOMMENDED PRACTICE

(2002) VOLUME 5

A recommended practice is a design, plan, instruction, information or any
proposition of importance recommended in the interest of establishing uniformity,
promoting safety or efficiency and economy.

A recommended practice does not in any way imply or otherwise suggest
inadequacy of practices that may not conform thereto. In addition, it is recognized that
federal, state, provincial, or municipal laws and regulations may, where applicable, be at
variance with the recommended practice.

Each Manual Part will have any one of the following dates:

New - Date the Part was first approved for inclusion
in the Manual.

Revised - Year in which the Part was revised.

Reaffirmed - Date on which the Part was reviewed and found
to be technically correct. Therefore it is
still a recommended practice.

Extended - Date indicates that the Part is under review
and that further action will be taken.

Your comments about the Communications & Signals Manual and the
information it contains are most welcome. Comments and questions of interpretation or
application should be addressed to Executive Director, American Railway Engineering
and Maintenance of Way Association, 8201 Corporate Drive, Suite 1125, Landover, MD
20785-2230.

Printed in U.S.A.

COPYRIGHT 2002: ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. THIS MANUAL, OR PARTS THEREOF,
MAY NOT BE REPRODUCED IN ANY FORM WITHOUT PERMISSION OF THE AMERICAN
RAILWAY ENGINEERING AND MAINTENANCE OF WAY ASSOCIATION.

SPECIAL NOTE: THE AREMA COMMUNICATIONS AND SIGNALS MANUAL OF RECOMMENDED PRACTICE WILL UPDATE
THE LOOK OF ITS MANUAL PARTS OVER THE NEXT FIVE YEARS, STARTING IN 2002. NOT ALL MANUAL PARTS WILL
HAVE THE SAME STYLE DURING THIS PROCESS.

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Subj ec t I ndex
-1-
Subject Index for Manual Parts
Revised 2002 (24 Pages)

AC relays 6.1.21, 6.1.35, 6.1.40
Instructions 6.4.5
Adapter clamp for signs 3.2.80
Adjacent track interconnected highway-rail grade crossing warning systems 3.1.11
Adjustable lock rod 12.2.15, 12.2.16
Adjustment bracket
Vertical switch lock rod
Bolt fastening 12.1.18
Parts 12.1.19, 12.1.20
Stud fastening 12.1.16
Vertical switch throw rod
Bolt fastening 12.1.17
Parts 12.1.19, 12.1.20
Stud fastening 12.1.15
Administration Section 1
Advance operating times
Calculate for highway-rail grade crossing warning devices 3.3.10
Air depreciated primary battery 9.1.25
Aligning flashing-light signals 3.3.5
Alloys, non-ferrous 15.1.5
Aluminum conductors steel reinforced 10.3.11
Analog data transmission 21.1.2
Approach lighting, vital circuits 16.4.2
Arm, gate 3.2.15, 3.2.20
Gate, wood 3.2.25, 3.2.26, 3.2.30A through 3.2.30C
Light unit 3.2.40
Armored signal cable 10.3.17
Arresters, lightning, see Electrical Surge Protection
Aspects, flashing (not crossing signals) 2.1.5
Assembly of insulated track fittings 8.5.1
Audio frequency track circuits 8.2.1, 8.6.10
Automatic block
End of sign 2.1.50B
Automatic block signaling 2.2.1
Instructions 2.4.3
Automatic block signaling circuits 2.2.1
Automatic Equipment Identification (AEI) site configuration 5.3.2
Automatic speed control with continuous cab signaling 16.4.50

Ball socket screw jaw for switch circuit controller 12.1.7
Ball studs for switch circuit controller 12.1.2

Bases 7.2.35, 7.2.36A, 7.2.36B, 7.2.40, 7.2.41A, 7.2.41B, 7.2.45A, 7.2.45B, 7.2.46A,
AREMA C& S Manual
Subj ec t I ndex 2002
-2-
7.2.46B
Batteries
Air alkaline 9.1.26
Air depreciated primary 9.1.25
Applications 9.1.30
Chargers 9.2.1, 9.2.5
Disposal and recycling 9.5.5
Lead-acid storage 9.1.1, 9.1.2, 9.1.3, 9.5.3, 9.5.4
Nickel-cadmium 9.1.15, 9.5.2
Standby requirements for highway-rail grade crossing warning systems 3.1.28
Storage, instructions 9.5.1
Valve regulated 9.1.4, 9.1.16
Begin CTC sign 2.1.50C
Begin TCS sign 2.1.50F
Bell, highway-rail grade crossing warning devices 3.2.60, 3.2.61
Binding posts 14.1.10, 14.1.11, 14.1.12
Block, end of (sign) 2.1.50A
Block, end of automatic (sign) 2.1.50B
Blocks, terminal
Molded 14.1.5, 14.1.8
Multiple unit 14.1.6
Screw clamp type 14.1.2
Short type 14.1.7
Boilerplate in Manual Parts 1.4.1, 6.5.1, 7.5.1
Bolts 14.1.1, 14.6.20
For highway-rail grade crossing signs 3.2.96A through 3.2.96C
Bond compound, impedance 8.4.6
Bond, impedance 8.4.5
Fire-resistant dielectric 8.4.8
Instructions 8.6.30
Bonding, track circuit 8.1.20
Bond oil, impedance 8.4.7
Bonds, See Rail Head/Web Bonds
Bond Strand 10.3.12
Brackets, extension for crossing signs 3.2.85
Breakaway gate arm adapter 3.2.21
Bridge circuit coupler 2.2.36

Cable Section 10 - See also listings under Wire
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene and neoprene jacketing 10.3.20
Cross-linked polyethylene insulation and jacketing 10.3.22
Ethylene propane rubber insulation 10.3.19
Instructions 10.4.1
Low smoke halogen free 10.3.13
Polyvinyl chloride insulation and jacketing 10.3.23
Purpose & meaning of terms used in Manual Parts 10.3.40
AREMA C& S Manual
-3-
Polyethylene insulation and jacketing 10.3.21
Signal
Armored 10.3.17
Non-armored 10.3.16
Synthetic rubber insulation 10.3.18
Calculations
Approach warning time for highway-rail grade crossings 3.3.10
Minimum allowable resistance between track battery and track 8.1.5
Time release applied to signal apparatus 2.4.20
Track circuit readings 8.1.10
Train shunt resistance 8.1.11
Canadian Electrical Code 11.1.5
Cantilevers for highway-rail grade crossing warning devices 3.2.5, 3.2.10
Cap for junction box base 7.2.50
Car detector 5.1.45, 5.1.47
Car retarders
Distributive 4.2.13
Electric 4.2.10
Electro-hydraulic 4.2.12
Electro-Pneumatic 4.2.11
Carriers, pipe 13.1.57
Case platform 14.4.25
Castings
Gray iron 15.1.1
Malleable iron 15.1.2
Cathodic protection 8.6.15
Centralized traffic control 2.2.11, 2.2.15
Charger, battery
Constant current 9.2.5
Constant voltage 9.2.1
Chromaticity 7.1.10
Circuit protection Section 11
Circuits
Design guidelines Section 16
Nomenclature 16.1.1
Non-vital relays 6.3.1, 6.3.5
Vital circuit design guidelines Sections 16.3, 16.4, 16.5, 16.6, 16.9, 16.30
Circuits, track Section 8
Instructions 8.6.1
Minimize lightning, see Electrical Surge Protection
Circuit, end of (sign) 2.1.50D
Circuit coupler for movable bridge 2.2.30
Circuit controller, switch 12.1.1
Ball socket screw jaw 12.1.7
Ball studs 12.1.2
AREMA C& S Manual
-4-
Insulated rod 12.1.6
Rods 12.1.5
Clamp, adapter for signs 3.2.80
Classification yard
Computer to control 4.1.10
Control console 4.2.1
Distribute retarder 4.2.13
Inspection and test 4.3.1
Installation 4.1.1
Insulated joint location 4.1.5
Signaling 4.1.15
Clean cab locomotive radio 22.2.1, 22.1.1
Clearances, overhead cable, 2.4.1
Climbing step 7.2.30
Coatings, metallic 15.3.1
Coded track circuit unit
Non-resonant 8.3.1
Phase-Selective 8.4.1
Resonant 8.4.1, 8.4.2
Codes NESC, NEC, CEC 11.1.5
Color light signal, doublet lens 7.1.1
Color light signal searchlight type 7.1.14
Color light switch position indicator 7.3.1
Color position light signal 7.1.3
Colors, signal paint for signs, targets, etc. 15.3.10
Commercial communication facilities 20.1.4
Communication facilities 19.1.14, 20.1.8
Compensator
Cranks 13.1.46
Link 13.1.47
Pipe 13.1.45
Component placement 11.2.2
Compound, impregnation of electrical windings 15.2.1
Compound
Filling recesses & sealing 15.2.15
Insulating 15.2.3
Computer to control a classification yard 4.1.10
Concrete foundations, precast 14.4.lA through 14.4.11
Concrete pier for instrument housings 14.4.11
Condensation, minimize
Instructions 1.5.5

Conduit
Steel pipe 14.6.31
Cones, signal 7.1.10
Connectors
AREMA C& S Manual
-5-
Ground rod 11.3.4, 11.4.1
Terminal 14.1.15
Track circuit 8.1.25
Consoles, classification yard 4.2.1
Constant current battery charger 9.2.5
Constant voltage battery charger 9.2.1
Constant warning time device for highway-rail grade crossing warning systems 3.1.26
Control of highway-rail grade crossing warning devices 3.1.15
Constant warning time devices 3.1.26
Controllers 3.1.25
Motion sensors 3.1.20
Controller, switch circuit 12.1.1
Ball studs 12.1.2
Rods 12.1.5
Cotters 14.6.22
Coupling, 1 in. pipe 13.1.6
Crank 13.1.38
Pins 13.1.50
Pipe compensator 13.1.46
Crank stand 13.1.35, 13.1.36
Crossarm for flashing-light signal 3.2.50, 3.2.51
Crossbuck sign 3.2.70, 3.2.71, 3.2.90
Cross-linked polyethylene insulation & jacketing for wire & cable 10.3.22
Crossovers, fouling protection 2.1.15
Current, foreign
Minimize on dc track circuit 8.6.15
CTC, Begin (sign), End (sign) 2.1.50C

DC relays 6.1.1, 6.1.2, 6.1.5, 6.1.10, 6.1.15, 6.1.20, 6.1.21, 6.1.25, 6.1.30, 6.1.45, 6.2.1,
6.3.1, 6.3.5
Instructions 6.4.1
DC track circuit
Minimize foreign current 8.6.15
Test record 8.1.10
Decoding transformer 8.3.10
Decoding unit 8.3.5
Definitions and Terms
Definitions for technical terms in signaling 1.1.1
Wire and cable 10.3.40
Surge protection 11.3.10
Design guidelines - vital circuits Section 16
Designation plate, relay contact post 6.1.50
Detectors
Car 5.1.45
AREMA C& S Manual
-6-
Dragging equipment 5.1.1, 2.4.1
Falling rock 2.4.1, 5.1.12
Flat wheel 5.1.25
High, wide load 5.1.20
Hot bearing 5.1.30
Hot wheel 5.1.35
Inspection and testing 5.3.6
Rock slide 2.4.1, 5.1.12,
Wheel 5.1.50
Wheel crack 5.1.40
Dielectric requirements for signal equipment 11.5.1
Dielectric, impedance bond fire-resistant 8.4.8
Discs
Signal 7.1.10
Distribute retarder 4.2.13
Dragging equipment detector 5.1.1
Drill rail bond holes, instructions 8.6.25

Electric car retarders 4.2.10
Electric lamps, incandescent 14.2.1, 14.7.1
Electric light unit
Flashing-light signals 3.2.35
Gate arm 3.2.40, 3.2.45
Indicators & signs 7.3.6
Electric locks 2.1.25
Electric locking
Instructions for testing 2.4.5
Electric motor switch operating mechanism 12.2.1
Electric switch locks 12.4.5
Electrical crossings 20.1.1
Electrical protection Section 11
Electrical safety 11.1.1
Electrical supply facilities 20.1.4
Electrical supply lines 20.1.1
Electrical surge protection, 11.2.1, 11.3.1, 11.3.2, 11.3.3, 11.3.4, 11.3.10, 11.4.1, 11.4.2,
19.1.10
Electrical windings
Insulating compound 15.2.1
Varnish 15.2.2
Electronic track circuits 8.1.2
Electro-pneumatic car retarder 4.2.11
Electrostatic discharge control program 19.1.20
End of automatic block sign 2.1.50B
End of block sign 2.1.50A
End of CTC sign 2.1.50C
End of circuit sign 2.1.50D
AREMA C& S Manual
-7-
End TCS sign 2.1.50F
End of train device (TIS) 22.3.1
Environmental criteria, electrical and electronic signal equipment 11.5.1
Equipment, solid state
Installation, maintenance and test 1.5.1
Extension bracket for crossing signs 3.2.85
Exothermic welded bonds 8.1.32, 8.1.33, 8.1.34

Facility, joint signal agreement 1.3.1
Falling rock detector 5.1.12
Faraday shielding 11.3.10, 11.4.2
Fire-resistant dielectric, impedance bond 8.4.8
Flasher
DC relay 6.1.45
Rate for crossing signal 3.1.1
Solid state for crossing signals 3.2.55
Flashing aspects (not crossing signals) 2.1.5
Flashing-light signal
Alignment 3.3.5
Application 3.1.5
Cantilever mounting 3.2.5, 3.2.10
Crossarm 3.2.50, 3.2.51
Electric light unit 3.2.35
Flat wheel detector 5.1.25
FM transeiver (radio) 22.2.3
Foreign current, minimize on dc track circuit 8.6.15
Fouling protection on turnouts & crossovers 2.1.15
Foundations, galvanized steel 14.4.17, 14.4.19,
14.4.21, 14.4.21A. 14.4.23
Foundations, pour-in-place 14.4.30, 14.4.31, 14.4.32, 14.4.33, 14.4.34, 14.4.35, 14.4.36
Foundations, precast concrete 14.4.lA, 14.4.8A through 14.4.11
Foundations, ladders 7.2.55
Frequencies, radio, allocated 22.1.2
Frequencies, radio, channels 22.1.1
Friction tape 14.6.35
Frost conditions, instructions to minimize 1.5.5

Gasket material 15.2.10
Gate (highway-rail grade crossing)
Application 3.1.5
Arm 3.2.20
Four quadrant (exit) 3.1.5, 3.2.15
Light unit for arm 3.2.40
Limited clearance combination 3.2.10
Operating mechanism 3.2.15
Wind Support 3.2.22
AREMA C& S Manual
-8-
With flashing-light signal 3.2.12
Wood arm 3.2.25, 3.2.26, 3.2.30A through 3.2.30C
Gate arm (breakaway) adapter 3.2.21
Gauge, switch obstruction 12.4.10
Grade crossings - see Highway-Rail Grade Crossing Warning System
Grade signal marker 2.1.41
Graphical symbols 16.2.l through 16.2.l9
Gray iron castings 15.1.1
Grease, pressure gun
Identical Criteria 15.5.1
Lime soap base 15.4.6
Lithium soap base 15.4.5
Ground rods (electrodes)
Copper clad 11.3.4
Chemically enhanced 11.3.5
Made ground 11.4.1
Grounds
Communication facilities 19.1.14
Installation, see Electrical Surge Protection
Instructions 11.4.2

Hand-operated switches 2.1.25
Highway-rail grade crossing warning systems Sec. 3
Adjacent track 3.1.11
Application guidelines 3.1.5
Audio frequency track circuit 8.2.1, 8.6.10
Battery requirements 3.1.28
Bell 3.2.60, 3.2.61
Bolts for signs 3.2.96A through 3.2.96C
Breakaway gatearm 3.2.21
Calculating advance operating times 3.3.10
Cantilever
combinations 3.2.10
Location Plan 3.1.35
Mounting of flashing light signals 3.2.2, 3.2.5
Circuits: design guidelines, Manual Part Section 16
Clamp for signs 3.2.80
Complete assembly, gate, flashers, cantilever span 3.2.2
Constant warning time control 3.1.26, 3.3.20
Control 3.1.15
Controllers 3.1.25
Crossarm for flashing-light signals 3.2.50, 3.2.51
Extension bracket for signs 3.2.85
Flashing-light signal applications 3.1.5
Flashing-light signal assembly drawings 3.2.2
AREMA C& S Manual
-9-
Flashing light rate 3.1.1
Gate arm
Break away 3.2.21
Four quadrant (exit) 3.1.5, 3.2.15
Self restoring 3.2.23
Tubular/telescopic 3.2.20, 3.2.24
Wood 3.2.25, 3.2.26
Wood anticulated 3.2.30A, 3.2.30B, 3.2.30C
Gate mechanism 3.1.5, 3.2.10, 3.2.15
Installation center turn lane 3.1.37
Insulated joint locations 3.1.30
Interconnected 3.1.11
Interconnection with highway traffic signals 3.1.10
Interrupt 3.1.10
Light for gate arm 3.2.40
Light unit for flashing-light signal
Incandescent 3.2.35
Light emitting diodes 3.2.35
Location plans 3.1.35, 3.1.36, 3.1.36A through 3.1.36L
Locomotive, clean cab radio 22.2.1
Maintenance, testing, inspection and instructions 2.4.1, 3.3.1
Mast (See cantilever)
Monitoring 3.1.29, 3.1.29A
Motion sensor control 3.1.20, 3.3.15
Preemption 3.1.10
Signs 3.2.65, 3.2.70, 3.2.71, 3.2.75, 3.2.90
Solid-state flasher 3.2.55
Standby battery requirements 3.1.28
Symbols, graphical 3.1.31
Warning devices operating guidelines 3.1.1
Warning devices functional guidelines 3.1.36
Warning time, determining 3.3.10
High, wide load detector 5.1.20
Horizontal crank stand 13.1.35, 13.1.39
Hot bearing detector 5.1.30
Site selection 5.3.1
Hot wheel detector 5.1.35

Identical items ("Boilerplate") for all Manual Parts 1.4.1
Illuminated indicators and signs 7.3.5, 7.3.7, 7.3.8
Roundels 7.3.9
Impedance bond 8.4.5
Compound 8.4.6
Fire-resistant dielectric 8.4.8
AREMA C& S Manual
-10-
Instructions 8.6.30
Oil 8.4.7
Impulse transformer 14.2.25
Incandescent electric lamps 14.2.1, 14.7.1
Indicator
Illuminated 7.3.5, 7.3.7, 7.3.8
Switch position 7.3.1
Take or leave siding 2.1.45
Inductive Coordination 20.1.4, 20.1.6, 20.1.7
Inductive Effects 20.1.8
Inspection and test
Classification yards 4.3.1
Defect detectors 5.3.6
Highway-rail grade crossing warning systems 3.3.30
Signal Systems 2.4.1
Installation
AC relays 6.4.5
Computer control of a classification yard 4.1.10
DC relays 6.4.1
Drill rail holes for plug bonds 8.6.25
Impedance bonds 8.6.30
Insulated rail joints 8.6.35
Incandescent electric lamps 14.7.1
Interlockings 2.4.10
Lead-Acid Storage Batteries 18.1.36
Light signals 7.4.1
Made grounds 11.4.1
Minimize foreign current in dc track circuits 8.6.15
Movable bridge signals 2.4.15
Rail head/web bonds 8.6.25, 8.6.40
Solid state equipment 1.5.1
Storage batteries 9.5.1
Time releases 2.4.20
Track circuits 8.6.1
Wire and cable 10.4.1, 10.4.40
Yard systems 4.1.1
Instructions
AC relays 6.4.5
Audio frequency track circuits 8.6.10
Batteries 9.5.1, 9.5.2, 9.5.3, 9.5.4, 9.5.5
Cable 10.4.1
AREMA C& S Manual
-11-
Calculating advance operating times for highway-rail grade crossing warning
systems 3.3.10
Classification yards 4.3.1
Constant warning time devices 3.3.20
DC relays 6.4.1
Defect detectors 5.3.6
Drill rail bond holes for plug bonds 8.6.25
Electric locking 2.4.5
Electric switch locks 12.5.5, 2.4.1
Facing point locks 12.5.15
Highway-rail grade crossing warning systems 3.3.1, 3.3.30
Hot bearing detector site selection 5.3.1
Insulation resistance testing 10.4.30
Interlockings 2.4.10, 2.4.1
Light signals 7.4.1, 2.4.1
LP gas winter switch protection devices 12.5.20
Made grounds 11.4.1
Minimize frost and condensation 1.5.5
Oil burning winter switch protection devices 12.5.21
Painting 1.5.10
Signal installations 2.4.1
Spring switches 12.5.10, 12.5.15, 2.4.1
Storage batteries 9.5.1, 9.5.2, 9.5.3, 9.5.4, 9.5.5
Switches, derails 2.4.1
Switch circuit controller 12.5.1, 2.4.1
Track circuits 3.3.25, 8.6.1, 2.4.1
Wire 10.4.1, 10.4.40
Insulated joint location 2.1.20A, 2.1.20B, 2.1.20C, 2.1.20D
Fouling protection 2.1.15
Grade crossing 2.1.20E
Island circuit 3.1.30
Insulated rail joints
At highway-rail grade crossings 3.1.30
Car retarder locations 4.1.5
Instructions 8.6.35
Locations 2.1.20A through 2.1.20E
Insulated signal wire 10.3.15
AREMA C& S Manual
-12-
Insulated terminals 14.1.15
Insulated track fittings 8.5.1, 8.5.2, 8.5.3
Insulating compound
Filling recesses 15.2.3
Impregnation of electrical windings 15.2.1
Insulation
Cross-linked polyethylene for wire & cable 10.3.22
Ethylene propane rubber for wire & cable 10.3.19
Polyethylene for wire and cable 10.3.21
Polyvinyl chloride for wire and cable 10.3.23
Synthetic rubber for wire and cable 10.3.18
Insulation, pipe line, 1 in. 13.1.25
Insulation resistance testing 10.4.30
Interlocking 2.2.10, 2.2.11
Microprocessor 2.2.12
Movable bridge 2.4.10
Interlockings
Traffic control 2.2.2
Microprocessor based 2.2.12
Iron castings
Gray iron 15.1.1
Malleable 15.1.2
Isolation of power supplies 16.3.2

Jacketing
Cross-linked polyethylene for wire and cable 10.3.22
Neoprene and chlorosulfonated polyethylene for wire and cable 10.3.20
Polyethylene for wire and cable 10.3.21
Polyvinyl chloride for wire and cable 10.3.23
Jaws
Ends, tang and plain 13.1.21
Links 13.1.21
Pins 13.1.50
Screw ball socket for switch circuit controller 12.1.7
Screw with tang end 13.1.30, 13.1.15
Solid with tang ends 13.1.20, 13.1.15
Joints, rail insulated, instructions 8.6.35
Joints, rail insulated, location 2.1.20A through 2.1.20E
Car retarder location 4.1.5
At highway-rail crossings, railroad crossings 3.1.30
Joint signal facility agreement 1.3.1
Junction box base for signals 7.2.36A, 7.2.36B, 7.2.41A, 7.2.41B, 7.2.46A, 7.2.46B,
7.2.50

Ladder foundations 7.2.55
Lamps, electric incandescent 14.2.1, 14.7.1
AREMA C& S Manual
-13-
Lamps, semaphore, lens hood 7.1.30
Lamps, switch, lens hood 7.1.30
Lead-acid storage batteries 9.1.1, 9.1.2, 9.1.3, 18.1.36
Leave siding indicator 2.1.45
Lens hoods for switch and semaphore lamps 7.1.30
Lens Doublet 7.1.1
Lenses, signals 7.1.10
Letters and numerals 14.6.2A, 14.6.3
Light, electric
Gate arm 3.2.40
Highway-rail grade crossing warning signals 3.2.35
Indicators and signs 7.3.6
Light emitting diode (LED) 3.2.35
Light out detection, vital circuit design guidelines 16.4.30
Light signals, See Section 7
Application of light units to mast 7.2.1
Chromaticity 7.1.10
Color light 7.1.1
Color position light 7.1.3
Electronic Control 2.1.10
Fixed 2.1.1
Flashing Aspect 2.1.5
Identical items 7.5.1
Instruction 7.4.1
Position light 7.1.2
Search light 7.1.4
Lightning
Arresters, see Electrical Surge Protection
Lime soap base, pressure gun grease 15.4.6
Line circuit reactor 14.2.20
Line circuits, double feed 16.5.1
Line circuits TCS 16.50.2
Line wire 10.3.10
Lithium soap base, pressure gun grease 15.4.5
Lock, electric 2.1.25
Lock rod, adjustable 12.2.15, 12.2.16
Locking, electric, instructions for testing 2.4.5
Locking, time, vital circuits 16.4.1
Locks, switch, electric 12.4.5
Loss of shunt, circuits 16.4.8
Lubricant, electro-pneumatic valves and cylinders 15.4.10
Lubrication oil 15.4.1
Lug
Point 12.1.10, 12.1.11
Tang end 13.1.47
AREMA C& S Manual
-14-

Maintain light signals 7.4.1
Maintenance
AC relays 6.4.5
DC relays 6.4.1
Interlockings 2.4.10
Lead-Acid Storage Batteries 18.1.36
Light signals 7.4.1
Made grounds 11.4.1
Minimizing foreign current in dc track circuits 8.6.15
Spring switches 12.5.10, 12.5.15
Storage batteries 9.5.1
Switch circuit controller 12.5.1
Track circuits 8.6.1
Malleable iron castings 15.1.2
Manual Parts "Boilerplate", identical sections 1.4.1

Marker
Grade signal 2.1.41
Spring switch 12.3.15
Masts
Base and Junction Boxes 7.2.35 - 7.2.50
Light signals 7.2.1
Signals 7.2.20
Materials Section 15
Insulating filling recesses 15.2.3
Gasket 15.2.10
Retroreflective sheet 15.2.20
Mechanical Section 13
Metallic coatings 15.3.1
Metals, non-ferrous 15.1.5
Microprocessor interlocking 2.2.12
AREMA C& S Manual
-15-
Quality assurance software based equipment 17.1.1
Molded terminal blocks 14.1.5
Motor, electric (switch mechanism) 12.2.1
Movable bridge
Circuit coupler 2.2.30
Instructions 2.4.15

National Electrical Code 11.1.5
National Electrical Safety Code 11.1.5
Nickel-cadmium storage battery 9.1.15
Nomemclature 16.1.1
Non-armored signal cable 10.3.16
Non-ferrous metals & alloys 15.1.5
Non-resonant coded track circuit unit 8.3.1
Number of tracks sign 3.2.75
Numerals and letters 14.6.2B, 14.6.3
Nuts 14.1.11, 14.6.20
Nuts Insulated 14.1.15

Obstruction gage, switch 12.4.10
Oil
Identical criteria 15.5.1
Impedance bond 8.4.7
Lubricating 15.4.1
Outlet for junction box base for signals 7.2.50
Overlay track circuit 3.1.23, 3.1.26

Paint: colors for signs, switch targets, etc. 15.3.10
Painting instructions 1.5.10
Phase-selective coded track circuit 8.4.1
Pier, concrete for instrument housings 14.4.11
Pinnacles for masts 7.2.60
Pins, crank, jaw 13.1.50
Pipe
Adjusting screws 13.1.10
Carriers 13.1.57
Compensator 13.1.45
Steel Conduit 14.6.31
Welded steel 1 in. 13.1.5, 13.1.6
Pipe-line insulation 1 in. pipe 13.1.25
Plain washers 14.6.21
Plate, relay contact post designation 6.1.50
Plug boards for plug-in relays 6.2.2
AREMA C& S Manual
-16-
Plug-in dc relay 6.2.1, 6.3.1
Point lug 12.1.10, 12.1.11
Portable radio for remote control of engine 22.2.2
Position light signal 7.1.2
Posts
Binding 14.1.10, 14.1.11, 14.1.12
Power operated switch mechanism
Electric 4.2.5, 12.2.1
Electro-pneumatic 4.2.5, 12.2.10
Test requirements 12.2.5
Power supplies used in vital signal systems, isolation 16.3.2
Power supply Section 9
Battery applications 9.1.30
Solar 9.4.1, 9.4.2
Standby battery for highway-rail grade crossing warning systems 3.1.28
Precast concrete foundations 14.4.lA through 14.4.11
Pre-emption of highway traffic signals 3.1.10
Preliminary section sign 2.1.50E
Pressure gun grease
Lime soap base 15.4.6
Lithium soap base 15.4.5
Primary battery, air depreciated 9.1.25
Protection cathodic 8.6.15
Protection, electrical Section 11

Quality Assurance and Principles - software based equipment and systems Section 17

Radio equipment 22.2.1, 22.2.2, 22.2.3
Radio frequencies 22.1.1, 22.1.2
Radio frequency requirements for train information systems 22.3.1
Rail head/web bonds
Application-instructions 8.6.40
Design Criteria 8.1.20, 8.1.31, 8.1.34
Drilling 3/8-inch web 8.6.25
Plug-type rail web 8.1.25
Welded type 8.1.30
Rail joints, insulated, instructions 8.6.35
Railway signal systems Section 2
Reactor for line & track circuits 14.2.20
Relays Section 6
AC induction 6.1.35
AC instructions 6.4.5
AC power transfer 6.1.40
Contact post designation 6.1.50
DC biased neutral 6.1.5
AREMA C& S Manual
-17-
DC code following 6.1.30
DC code transmitter 6.1.25
DC flasher 6.1.45
DC instructions 6.4.1
DC neutral 6.1.1, 6.1.2
DC neutral for non-vital circuits 6.3.1, 6.3.5
DC neutral, plug-in type 6.2.1
DC polarized 6.1.10
Plugboard for plug-in relays 6.2.2
Retained neutral polarized 6.1.15
Time element 6.1.20, 6.1.21
Relay based systems, vital circuit design guidelines 16.3.1
Relay interlocking 16.5.1
Remote control of engine by portable radio 22.2.2
Resistance
Insulation testing 10.4.30
Track and battery circuit calculations 8.1.5
Train shunt test record 8.1.10
Resistor 14.2.15
Resonant coded track circuit unit 8.4.1
Resonant two element tuned unit 8.4.2
Retarder
Distributive 4.2.13
Electric 4.2.10
Electro-pneumatic 4.2.11

Retarder yard
Installation 4.1.1
Insulated joint location 4.1.5
Retroreflective sheet material 15.2.20
Rock slide detector 5.1.12
Rods
Double tang ends 13.1.31
Ground 11.3.4, 11.4.1
Lock 12.2.15, 12.2.16
Roundels, signal 7.1.10, 7.1.11
Illuminated indicators and signs 7.3.9
Route checks, vital circuits 16.4.4
Route locking, vital circuit design guidelines 16.4.2
Rubber
Ethylene propane insulation for wire & cable 10.3.19
Insulating tape 14.6.36
Synthetic insulation for wire & cable 10.3.18
AREMA C& S Manual
-18-

Safety codes: NESC, NEC, CEC 11.1.5
Safety, electrical 11.1.1
Screw clamp terminal blocks 14.1.2
Screw and solid jaws 13.1.15
Screws, pipe adjusting 13.1.10
Sealing compound 15.2.15
Searchlight signal 7.1.4
Section, preliminary (sign) 2.1.50E
Semaphore lamps, lens hoods 7.1.30
Shunt resistance test procedures 8.1.11
Siding, take or leave indicator 2.1.45
Signal
Apparatus, time releases 2.4.20
Application of light units to masts 7.2.1
Cable- armored 10.3.17; non-armored 10.3.16
Color light 7.1.1
Color position light 7.1.3
Colors (excluding signal glass) 15.3.10
Dielectric requirements 11.5.1
Electronic control 2.1.10
Enclosure layout 11.2.2
Environmental Requirements 11.5.1
Facility, joint agreement 1.3.1
Fixed 2.1.1
Flashing Aspect 2.1.5
Grade marker 2.1.41
Ladders 7.2.25
Roundels 7.1.11
Roundels, lenses, discs & cones 7.1.10
Masts (See Highway-Rail Grade Crossing Warning Systems-Cantilever)
Position light 7.1.2
Searchlight 7.1.4
Searchlight, stuck mechanism 16.4.10, 16.5.10
Railroad systems Section 2
Units 1.3.2
Wiring strategies for surge damage 11.2.2
Signaling
Automatic block 2.2.1, 2.2.11
Automatic block circuits 2.2.3
Instructions, movable bridge 2.4.15
Technical terms 1.1.1
Yards, classification 4.1.15
Signs
AREMA C& S Manual
-19-
Adapter clamp 3.2.80
Begin CTC, end CTC 2.1.50C
Begin TCS, end TCS 2.1.50F
Bolts for highway-rail grade crossing warning devices 3.2.96A through 3.2.96C
End of automatic block 2.1.50B
End of block 2.1.50A
End of circuit 2.1.50D
Extension brackets 3.2.85
Highway-rail grade crossing warning devices 3.2.65, 3.2.70, 3.2.71
Illuminated 7.3.5, 7.3.7, 7.3.8
Mounting 3.2.90
Number of tracks 3.2.75
Preliminary section 2.1.50E
Other than highway-rail grade crossings 14.6.1
Roundels 7.3.9
Site selection, hot bearing detector 5.3.1
Snow melters (see Winter Switch Protection Devices)
Software base equipment and systems quality assurance 17.1.1
Solar power systems 9.4.1, 9.4.2
Solderless wire terminals 14.1.1
Solid jaws with tang ends 13.1.20
Solid state
Equipment, installation, maintenance and test 5.3.5
Flasher 3.2.55
Speed control with continuous cab signaling, automatic 16.4.50
Spring lock washers 14.6.21
Facing point lock 12.5.15
Marker 12.3.15
Oil 12.3.10
Vital circuits 16.6.4
Stand, crank 13.1.35, 13.1.36
Steel 15.1.4
Steel pipe conduit 14.6.31
Steel wire strand, zinc coated 10.3.25
Step, climbing 7.2.30
Storage batteries - instructions 9.5.1
Lead-acid 9.1.1, 9.1.2, 9.1.3
Nickel cadmium 9.1.15
Stuck mechanism-detection vital circuit design guidelines
Automatic signals 16.5.10
Controlled signals 16.4.10
Studs, ball for switch circuit controller 12.1.2
Surge damage prevention 11.2.2
Surge protection, see Electrical surge protection
AREMA C& S Manual
-20-
Switch
Hand-operated 2.1.25
Heaters (see Winter switch protection devices)
Lamp, lens hoods 7.1.30
Locks, electric 12.4.5
Lock rod adjustment bracket
Parts 2.1.19, 12.1.20
Vertical 12.1.16, 12.1.18
Mechanism
Electric motor, lockable 12.2.1
Electro-pneumatic, lockable 12.2.10
Test requirements for power operation 12.2.5
Obstruction gage 12.4.10
Position indicator 7.3.1
Self-restoring 16.6.3A, 16.6.3B, 16.6.3C
Spring 12.3.5
Marker 12.3.15
Oil 12.3.10
Protection 2.2.5
Vital circuits 16.6.4
Throw rod adjustment bracket
Parts 12.1.19, 12.1.20
Vertical 12.1.15, 12.1.17
Winter switch protection devices 12.5.20, 12.5.21, 12.5.23, 12.6.1, 12.6.10
Switch circuit controller 12.1.1
Ball studs 12.1.2
Rods 12.1.5
Switches Section 12
Yard 4.2.5, 4.1.25
Symbols, graphical
Highway-rail grade crossings 3.1.31
Signal circuits 16.1.1, 16.2.1 through 16.2.19

Take siding indicator 2.1.45
Tang end
Double 13.1.31
Lug 13.1.47
With screw jaws 13.1.30
Tape
Friction 15.2.35
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 15.2.37
TCS, Begin sign 2.1.50E, End sign 2.1.50F
Telephone transmission 21.1.1
Terminal blocks
AREMA C& S Manual
-21-
Arrester 14.1.9
Molded 14.1.5, 14.1.8
Multiple unit 14.1.6
Screw clamp 14.1.2
Short type 14.1.7
Terminal connectors 14.1.15
Insulated 14.1.15
Terminals, wire, solderless 14.1.1
Terminology used in
Railway signaling 1.1.1
Surge Protection 11.3.10
Test
AC relays 6.4.5
Automatic block signaling 2.4.3, 2.4.1
Classification yard 2.4.1
DC relays 6.4.1
Detectors 2.4.1
Electric locking 2.4.5, 2.4.1
Facing point locks 12.5.15
Highway-rail grade crossing warning systems 3.3.1, 2.4.1
Insulated track fittings 8.5.1, 8.5.2, 8.5.3
Insulation resistance 10.4.30
Interlockings 2.4.10, 2.4.1
Light signals 7.4.1, 2.4.1
Load requirements for power operated switch mechanism 12.2.5
LP gas winter switch protection device 12.5.20
Made grounds 11.4.1
Oil burning winter switch protection device 12.5.21
Record
DC track circuit 8.1.10
Train shunt resistance 8.1.11
Signal installations 2.4.1
Spring switches 2.4.1, 12.5.10, 12.5.15
Switches, derail 2.4.1
Track circuits 2.4.1, 8.6.1
Wheel to rail contact resistance 8.1.11
AREMA C& S Manual
-22-
Threads 14.6.20
Time, calculating approach warning time for highway grade
crossing warning devices 3.3.10
Time element relays 6.1.20, 6.1.21
Time releases, instructions 2.4.20
Time locking, vital circuits design guidelines 16.4.1
Track circuits Section 6, 8.6.1
Audio frequency 8.2.1, 8.6.10
Automatic block 2.2.1
Bonding 8.1.20
Calculations voltage current resistance 8.1.5
Connectors 8.1.25, 8.1.26, 8.1.27
Decoding transformer 8.3.10
Decoding unit 8.3.5
Design guidelines Section 16
DC test record 8.1.10
Electronic 8.1.2
Instructions 8.6.1
Minimize foreign current in dc circuits 8.6.15
Minimize lightning, see Electrical Surge Protection
Non-Resonant coded unit 8.3.1
Overlay 3.1.23, 3.1.26
Phase selective 8.4.1
Reactor 14.2.20
Resonant coded unit 8.4.1
Tracks, number of, sign 3.2.75, 3.2.76
Traffic control systems 2.2.11, 2.2.15
Train information system 22.3.1
Train shunt resistance test record 8.1.11
Transformer 14.2.10
Decoding 8.3.10
Impulse 14.2.25
Turnouts, fouling protection 2.1.15

Units, Table of signals, interlocking and interpretation 1.3.2

Varnish for electrical windings 15.2.2
Vital circuit design guidelines Section 16
Approach lighting controlled signal 16.4.2
Double feed line circuits 16.5.1
Light out detection color light signals 16.4.30
Line Circuits in TCS 16.50.2
Loss of shunt 16.4.8
Relay based systems 16.3.1
Relay based typical interlocking 16.50.1
AREMA C& S Manual
-23-
Route checks 16.4.4
Route locking 16.4.2
Self restoring switch 16.6.3A, 16.6.3B, 16.6.3C
Spring switches 16.6.4
Stuck mechanism detection 16.4.10, 16.5.10
Time lockings 16.4.1
Vital signal systems, isolation of power supplies 16.3.2
Voice channels 21.1.2

Washers 14.1.11
Cast iron 14.6.27
Plain 14.6.21
Spring lock 14.6.21
Web bonds - See Rail Head/Web Bonds
Welded steel pipe, 1 in. 13.1.5, 13.1.6
Wheel detector 5.1.50
Crack 5.1.40
Flat 5.1.25
Wheel to rail contact resistance calculations 8.1.11
Wide load detector 5.1.20
Winding, electrical
Insulating compound 15.2.1
Varnish 15.2.2
Winter switch protection devices 12.6.10
Safety instructions
Electric 12.5.23
LP gas 12.5.20
Natural gas 12.5.22
Oil burning 12.5.21
Selection 12.6.1
Wire and cable (See Section 10)
Aluminum conductor steel reinforced 10.3.11
Cross-linked polyethylene insulation and jacketing 10.3.22
Ethylene propane rubber insulation 10.3.19
Ethylene tetraflouroethylene copolymer insulation 10.3.14, 10.3.24
High Temperature 10.3.14
Instructions 10.4.1
Insulated signal wire 10.3.15
Line 10.3.10
Low smoke halogen 10.3.13
Neoprene and chlorosulfonated polyethylene jacketing 10.3.19
Polyethylene insulation and jacketing 10.3.21
Polyvinyl chloride insulation and jacketing 10.3.23
Purpose & meaning of terms used in recommendations 10.3.40
Synthetic rubber insulation 10.3.18
Terminals
AREMA C& S Manual
-24-
Screw clamp type 14.1.2
Solderless 14.1.1
Zinc coated steel strand 10.3.25
Wiring instructions 10.4.1
Wiring strategies for surge damage prevention 11.2.2

Yards Section 4
Computer control 4.1.10
Control consoles 4.2.1
Installation 4.1.1
Retarders 4.2.10, 4.2.11, 4.2.12, 4.2.13
Signaling 4.1.15
Switches 4.1.25, 4.2.5

Zinc coated steel wire strand 10.3.25



Section 18 Inside Plant
18.1 - Installation and Maintenance

2002
AREMA C& S Manual
2002 (I nc l udes 2002 Revi si ons) Vol ume 5 I ndex

SECTION 18 - INSIDE PLANT

Part C Type & Subject Pages Status

______________________________________________________________
- 1 -

Note: C = Committee responsible for Manual Part.

18.1.36 35-3 Recommended Instructions for
Installation and Maintenance
of Stationary Lead-Acid
Storage Batteries 11 Reaffirmed 2002


AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 18.1.36
________________________________________________________________
- 1
Recommended Instructions for Installation and
Maintenance of Stationary Lead-Acid Storage Batteries
Reaffirmed 2002 (11 Pages)

A. Purpose

These recommended instructions apply to the installation, maintenance and test of
stationary lead-acid storage batteries. They set forth general requirements representing
recommended practice.

B. Safety

1. Keep open flames and spark-producing sources away from storage
batteries. During the charging period oxygen and hydrogen gas is
produced. Hydrogen may be entrapped in the battery. A flame or spark
can cause an explosion. Some batteries may be equipped with flame
arresters to reduce this hazard.

2. Shut off and disconnect both the input and the output of the charging
equipment before making any repairs. The possibility of damage to the
equipment and electrical shock to the individual will be reduced.

3. Never lay metal tools or material on top of a battery. Sparking or short
circuits may occur.

4. Wear protective clothing and goggles when handling, checking filling,
charging, or repairing batteries for protection against spillage of
electrolyte. Sulfuric acid can cause painful burns.

5. Have water available in case electrolyte is splashed on skin or eyes.
Volumes of water applied quickly and continuously can prevent serious
injury and possibly avert permanent eye damage.

6. Apply a neutralizing solution to acid spills on floors. Alkali will neutralize
acid and make it safe to clean. A mixture of one pound of baking soda to
one gallon of water is recommended.

7. When mixing electrolyte, always add acid carefully to water and stir
constantly. If water is added to acid, a violent reaction can occur and
splash the handler.

8. Make sure all battery connections are tight. Loose connections may
cause sparks.

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 18.1.36 2002
________________________________________________________________
- 2

9. Remove all metal jewelry such as rings, watches, and bracelets before
working with batteries or power leads, to remove the possibility of injury to
the individual.

C. Receiving

1. Lead-acid storage cells are ordinarily shipped assembled and charged.
Electrolyte may be in the cells or it may be shipped separately. As soon
as the battery is received, check the packing material for damage. If there
is evidence of damage or spillage of electrolyte, make a notation on the
bill of lading before signing.

2. Remove packing material carefully. Always lift cells by the container,
never by the cell posts. A lifting sling and spreader block may be provided
by the battery manufacturer.

3. Check the electrolyte in each cell. If the level is more than 1/2 in. below
the top of the plates order a new cell and file a claim against the carrier. If
the electrolyte is low but higher than 1/2 in. below the top of the plates,
add electrolyte of appropriate specific gravity.

D. Storage

1. Batteries should be stored in an area that is weatherproof and preferably
cool and dry. Do not allow electrolyte to freeze. See Table 18136-1.

2. Charged and wet batteries must be placed in service within three months
if lead-antimony or six months if lead-calcium, from the date of shipment
from the factory. If extended storage is required monitor battery at
monthly intervals. The battery should be given an equalizing charge every
three months or when the specific gravity drops 0.025 from nominal.

3. Charged and dry batteries should be stored no longer than twelve months
from date of shipment. If extended storage is required contact the supplier
representative for instruction. Do not remove vent seals until cells are to
be filled with electrolyte.

E. Installation

1. Lead-acid storage batteries should be installed in a clean, dry, and well-
ventilated area so that no cells are affected by radiant heat from the sun,
radiators, heaters, or pipes. Temperature variations of more than 5F
(-15C) can cause cells to become unequal. Good ventilation is required
to dispose of gas generated by the battery.

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 18.1.36
________________________________________________________________
- 3
2. Supporting racks should be arranged so that each cell will be accessible
for adding water, cleaning, etc. Most battery manufacturers will supply
recommended racks and assembly details. The racks and all associated
metal parts should be painted with two or more coats of acid resistant
paint.

3. Arrange the cells, starting at the center of the bottom row, so that the
positive terminal of each cell connects to the negative terminal of the next
cell. The positive lead of the charger will connect to the positive terminal
of the battery and the negative lead of the charger will connect to the
negative terminal of the battery. Number cells starting from the negative
terminal.

Table 18136-1: Freezing Point of Aqueous Solutions of Sulfuric Acid

Care must be taken to avoid freezing the electrolyte either in operation or storage. If it
does freeze, irreparable damage may result.

Specific
Gravity
at 15
o
C
Freezing Points

Centigrade Fahrenheit
1.000 0 +32
1.050 - 3.3 +26
1.100 - 7.7 +18
1.150 -15 +5
1.200 -27 -17
1.250 -52 -61
1.300 -70 -95
1.350 -49 -56
1.400 -36 -33

4. Connectors and battery posts should be bright and clean, then coated with
a thin film of NO-OX-ID, or equal, grease. Wire brushes, steel wool, or
emery cloth should not be used to clean connectors or cell posts that have
copper inserts.

5. Cell interconnections should be made with connectors and bolts supplied
by the battery manufacturer. Tighten connections using two wrenches. A
torque wrench is recommended using torque values supplied by the
manufacturer.

6. All storage batteries should be given an initial charge when installed. The
constant voltage per cell is determined by dividing the maximum allowable
buss voltage by the number of cells. Lead-calcium battery will receive the
required charge when nominal float voltages are maintained and the
charge is started less than six months after shipment. All lead-antimony
battery or lead-calcium battery that has been stored for more than six
months will require an initial/equalizing charge.

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 18.1.36 2002
________________________________________________________________
- 4

7. Dry charged batteries should be installed, filled with electrolyte and
receive the initial charge before a load is connected. The higher voltages
required for the initial charge may damage equipment if it is connected
during the charging period. Remove and discard the vent plug seals
before starting the charge.

8. The objective of the initial charge of a dry charged lead-calcium battery is
to establish a charge rate that produces 2.60 to 2.70 volts per cell without
exceeding 120F (49C) cell temperature. If the constant voltage method
is used, connect the charger to a reduced number of cells and charge until
the required cell voltage is reached.

The charger connections must then be changed to include the uncharged
cells and exclude some of the charged cells. Charging time for each step
should be 12 to 16 hr. If a constant current charger is used, the complete
battery may be charged at one time. Adjust the charger to the finish rate
and charge 12 to 16 hr. Do not exceed 120F (49C) or 2.72 volts per cell
during either method of charging.

9. Dry charged lead-antimony batteries may be given an initial charge with
either the constant voltage or the constant current method. The charge
may be applied to the entire battery at one time. If the constant voltage
method is used, the charge time will be slightly longer for a given volts per
cell than the initial charge of wet charged battery. If the constant current
method is used, adjust the charger to the finish rate and charge for 12 to
16 hr. If cell temperatures reach 120F (49C), decrease the charge and
increase the time proportionally.

10. When the initial charge of a new battery is completed, record the voltage
and specific gravity of each cell. This information should be kept as part of
the permanent record. Specific gravity (corrected to 77F (25C)) of all
cells should be between 1.200 and 1.220 for nominal 1.210 specific
gravity battery.

F. Operation

1. Lead-acid storage batteries are normally operated by float charging or a
combination of float charging and equalizing charges.

2. In float charging the battery is continuously connected in parallel with the
charger and the load. The charger supplies current for the equipment load
and in addition supplies enough current to keep the battery fully charged.
The voltage at which this occurs is normally called the float voltage. Refer
to Tables 18136-2 and 18136-3 for recommended voltages.

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 18.1.36
________________________________________________________________
- 5
3. Equalizing charges are given, at a higher voltage than the float charge, for
a definite period of time. Its purpose is to compensate for any
irregularities that occur in the battery or individual cells. Refer to Tables
18136-2 and 18136-3 for recommended voltages and time.

4. Lead-antimony batteries require an equalizing charge at least once every
three months.

5. Lead-calcium batteries floated below the nominal volts per cell should be
given an equalizing charge whenever the lowest cell in a string drops to
the critical voltage in Table 18136-3. Lead-calcium batteries floated at the
nominal volts per cell should not require equalizing charges.

6. Panel voltmeters used during float charging should be kept in accurate
calibration. Check with a known standard at least every twelve months.

7. Any lead-acid storage battery should be recharged as quickly as possible
following an emergency discharge. This can be done by charging the
battery at the equalizing voltage until all cells are fully charged.

Table 18136-2: Lead Antimony Cells Charge Voltage Per Cell (VPC)
(1.210 Specific Gravity)

Initial Float Equalize
VPC Hours VPC VPC

2.39 40 2.15 to 2.17 2.33
for 8 to
2.36 60 24 hr.

2.33 110

2.30 168

2.24 210

Table 18136-3: Lead Calcium Cells Charge Voltage Per Cell (VPC)

Specific
Gravity of
Cells
Float VPC Initial/Equalize (VPC)

Minimum Nominal Critical Cell Voltage Nominal VPC
1.210 2.17 2.20-2.25 2.13 2.33-2.38
1.225 2.18 2.22-2.27 2.15 2.36-2.40
1.250 2.20 2.25-2.30 2.18 2.38-2.43
1.275 2.23 2.29-2.34 2.20 2.40-2.46
1.300 2.27 2.33-2.38 2.23 2.45-2.50

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 18.1.36 2002
________________________________________________________________
- 6

8. Total discharge of a battery should be avoided if possible. The load
should be disconnected when the buss voltage drops below the minimum
equipment requirement. If a battery is to be taken out of operation for a
period of time, rules for storage should be observed.

9. Connecting loads to only a part of the battery is not recommended. If this
is a requirement, an additional load should be added to the balance of the
battery to equalize the cell voltages.

10. The normal battery operating temperature is between
60F (15C) and 90F (32C) averaging about 75F (24C). Higher than
normal temperature will:

a. Increase capacity (see Figure 18136-1);

b. Increase internal discharge or local action losses;

c. Raise charging current for a fixed charge voltage; and

d. Shorten battery life.

Lower than normal temperatures will have the opposite effect and decrease the
maintenance required.

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 18.1.36
________________________________________________________________
- 7

Figure 18136-1: Battery Capacity vs. Operating Temperature

G. Maintenance

1. Lead-acid storage battery will remain in good condition for many years if
the following rules are observed:

a. Maintain the battery fully charged.

b. Keep the water level within the recommended limits.

c. Keep the battery clean.

d. Maintain a record of battery condition and maintenance activity.

2. The state of charge of a battery can be measured by the specific gravity of
the electrolyte. Specific gravity lowers with discharge and rises with
charge. The normal reading for a fully charged cell is 1.210 at 77F
(25C). Some batteries are designed to use electrolyte with specific

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 18.1.36 2002
________________________________________________________________
- 8

gravity other than 1.210. Refer to the manufacturers specification or
marking on the cells.

Figure 18136-2: Water Consumed Per Cell Per Year

3. Specific gravity is measured by floating a hydrometer in electrolyte. A
hand held bulb type hydrometer is generally used but some cells may be
equipped with internal hydrometers or charge indicators. One cell in a
battery is usually selected as a pilot cell for recording readings. Because
a slight amount of electrolyte is lost in taking readings with a portable
hydrometer, a different pilot cell should be selected after about 30
readings.

4. Specific gravity varies with temperature and the electrolyte level. Normal
readings will increase 0.001 for each 3F 1 (.65C) increase in
temperature and conversely the readings will decrease at the same rate.
Specific gravity will increase approximately 0.015 for each 1/2-in.
decrease in electrolyte level below the full mark.

5. Specific gravity readings may be in error if taken after adding water or
when a cell is charging. The electrolyte must be evenly mixed for

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 18.1.36
________________________________________________________________
- 9
accurate readings. After adding water thorough mixing may take several
days for lead-antimony cells and up to several weeks for lead-calcium
cells. During charge strong acid is released from the plates and falls
toward the bottom of the cell where it gradually diffuses through the
solution.

6. Water additions are required at various intervals depending upon the type
of battery and the charging rates. Electrolyte should be maintained
between the high and low level markings on the cell. Never permit the
level of the electrolyte to fall below the top of plate separators. Excessive
use of water may indicate over charging. Refer to Figure 18136-2 for
normal rates of use.

7. Water used in electrolyte should be distilled or approved water. Battery
manufacturers can provide information or assistance in determining the
quality of local water.

8. In temperatures below 0F (-18C) water should be added just before an
equalizing charge to insure thorough mixing and prevent freezing. Refer
to Table 18136-1.

9. Clean the outside of the cells with a water-moistened cloth to remove dust
and dirt. If electrolyte is spilled on the covers, neutralize it with a cloth
moistened with a soda solution, then wipe with a water-moistened cloth.
Never use solvents, detergents, cleaning compounds, oils, waxes or
polishes on plastic containers.

10. Keep connectors and posts corrosion-free and coated with NO-OX-ID, or
equal, grease.

11. A record of battery operation is a valuable tool in determining equipment
faults, checking maintenance procedures, and indicating when corrective
action is necessary. The interval for recording information will vary with
location and system routines. A permanent record should start with the
initial charge and continue through the life of the battery. A form should
be provided to record all the necessary battery readings taken during each
recording interval. Refer to Figure 18136-3.

H. Battery Record

1. The following information should be recorded:

a. Date and description of last equalizing charge (if battery is lead-
antimony).

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 18.1.36 2002
________________________________________________________________
- 10

b. Battery floating voltage; pilot cell hydrometer reading and
temperature, once weekly or as often as an unattended site is
visited.

c. Individual cell voltages to the nearest hundredth of a volt, once a
month.

d. Individual cell specific gravities and temperature of the highest and
lowest cell, once every three months.

e. Water additions when required.

These intervals are typical. The battery manufacturer may recommend
other intervals according to the type of battery or service.

2. Call voltages should be read while the normal charging current is being
maintained. Specific gravity readings should not be taken while a battery
is on a high rate of charge.

3. A continuing decline in specific gravity of the pilot cell indicates insufficient
charge caused by low float voltage. When floating charge is correct the
hydrometer reading will stay close to the maximum value for the cell.

4. If a particular cell or group of cells shows lower than normal readings the
cause may be uneven temperatures or internal cell troubles.
Contamination of electrolyte can cause cell troubles.

I. Spent Batteries

1. Spent batteries shall be handled in accordance with Manual Part 9.5.5
(Recommended Instructions for Disposal and Recycling of Batteries).

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 18.1.36
________________________________________________________________
- 11

Figure 18136-3: Stationary Battery Report

20



Section 19 Electrical Protection

2002
AREMA C& S Manual

SECTION 19 - ELECTRICAL PROTECTION


______________________________________________________________
- 1 -


19.1.10 35-1 Recommended Functional/
Operating Guidelines for Surge
Protectors That Operate to
Ground 2 Reaffirmed 1989

19.1.14 35-1 Recommended Practices for
Installation and Maintenance of
Grounds for Communication
Facilities 9 Revised 1995

19.1.20 35-2 Recommendations for an
Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)
Control Program 16 New 1994

- 1
AREMA C&S Manual
1989 Part 19.1.10
Recommended Functional/Operating Guidelines
for Surge Protectors That Operate to Ground

A. These recommended functional/operating guidelines are for
surge protectors that operate to ground. They set forth
specific detail requirements representing modern
communication practice recommended for new installations and
for replacement of existing installations when general
renewal or replacement is to be made.

B. The protector shall match the characteristics of the
equipment being protected insofar as:
(1) Breakdown voltage rating

(2) Time-current capacity limits

C. It shall be capable of withstanding a large number of
repetitive surges and be self-restoring except when
subjected to direct lightning strikes and power line
contacts.

D. It shall retain its electrical characteristics after
repeated operations within limits as may be specified. The
minimum values of these limits must not be less than those
required by Section B above.

E. Below its breakdown point, the protector shall have a
minimum initial resistance of 10,000 megohms across its
terminals. This resistance shall not go below 1,000 megohms
during the anticipated life of the protector.

F. When the breakdown surge is removed, the protector shall
immediately restore to normal.

G. If the protector shall fail, it shall fail safe, permanently
short-circuiting its terminals to ground.

H. It shall not introduce capacity, resistance or inductance
that would adversely affect the operation of the circuits it
is protecting.

I. It shall not cause any undue hazard to personnel either in
its idle state or under operating conditions.

J. The protector shall be capable of normal operation under
such environmental conditions as may be encountered.

K. Except for special cases when large heat dissipation must be
considered, it should be capable of fitting into existing
types of arrester mountings, when provided.

- 2
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 19.1.10 1989
L. It shall be easily installed and readily replaceable.

M. It shall be capable of simple nondestructive testing with
readily available test equipment.

N. It shall be so constructed that it will not create a fire,
toxicity or radiation hazard.

O. It shall be so constructed that it will withstand
anticipated handling and shipping abuse without damage.

P. The protector holder shall be designed to permit connection
of an adequate ground conductor as defined in governing
electrical codes. There shall be a firm electrical
connection between this holder and the ground electrode of
the protector.

- 1
AREMA C&S Manual
1995 Part 19.1.14
Recommended Practices for Installation and Maintenance
of Grounds for Communication Facilities

A-General
A-1 Function: The function of a grounding system is to provide
a path to ground for currents resulting from lightning,
induction and crosses with foreign circuits.

A-2 General Requirements: A good grounding system is of great
importance and should be designed and installed in a manner
that ensures optimum conductivity to ground in order to
safeguard employees and the general public from injury and
to protect equipment from damage that may otherwise be
caused by electrical potentials.

B-Definitions
B-1 Approved: Acceptable to the authority having jurisdiction.
Equipment is normally considered acceptable if it is
accepted, or certified, or listed, or labeled, or otherwise
determined to be safe by a nationally recognized testing
laboratory, such as, but not limited to, Underwriters
Laboratories, Inc., Factory Mutual Engineering Corp. and the
Canadian Standards Association.

B-2 Arrester: A device designed to limit transient voltages on
equipment or conductors. The normal arrester condition is
in the open circuit mode, until its breakdown voltage is
exceeded. After breakdown, the arrester discharges current
to ground across its GAP. The arrester again assumes the
open circuit condition after the passage of the surge.

B-3 Bond: A conductor providing a low impedance path between
metallic parts required to be electrically connected.

B-4 Earth: The earth's potential is normally considered to be
the reference electrical potential. Due to the relatively
high resistivity of soil, it is not possible to make a zero
impedance connection to the reference earth potential.

B-5 Electrode: A metallic object used as a terminal to connect
to the reference earth potential.

B-6 Existing Electrode: Direct buried metallic piping systems,
metal building frameworks, well casings, steel piling, and
other underground metal structures installed for purposes
other than grounding and having suitably low impedance to
the reference earth potential, are classified as existing
electrodes.

B-7 Exothermic Weld: A process in which a permanent electrical
connection of copper to copper or copper to steel is made.
- 2
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 19.1.14 1995
An exothermic chemical reaction is utilized to produce
molten copper that welds the desired metal components
together. During the welding process, a ceramic or graphite
mold is used to contain the molten copper around the objects
being welded together.

B-8 Ground Conductor: The conductor that connects the protector
or the communication equipment ground point to the ground
electrode.

B-9 Grounded Conductor: The conductor of the utility electrical
service that is intentionally connected to a ground
electrode (neutral conductor).

B-10 Grounding System: The grounding system consists of the
ground conductor, electrode connection and the electrode.
The purpose is to maintain the same impedance from any point
connected to that system to ground.

B-11 Made Electrode: Metallic objects such as rods, pipes,
plates, etc., specifically installed to obtain a
sufficiently low impedance connection to the reference earth
potential.

B-12 Multi-Grounded Neutral: The neutral conductor of the
utility electrical service where the neutral conductor is
connected to a made electrode at each transformer location
and at a sufficient number of additional points to total not
less than four electrode connections in each mile of line,
not including electrode connections at the individual
services.

B-13 Patina: A green or greenish-blue crust or film on bronze or
copper formed by oxidation.

B-14 Protector: Similar to any arrestor, except it can fail in
an open or closed circuit condition as defined by its
construction.

B-15 Sectional Rods: Sectional rods are ground rods that are
threaded at both ends and can be joined together with
threaded couplings to achieve whatever driven depth is
required. Any sectional rod may be used as a top,
intermediate, or bottom section.

B-16 Sphere of Influence: An electrode in soil of uniform
resistivity radiates current in all directs. The electrode
can be considered to be surrounded by shells of soil, all of
equal thickness. The shell nearest the electrode has the
smallest surface area and so offers the greatest resistance.
The next shell is somewhat larger in area and offers less
resistance; and so on out. Finally, a distance from the
- 3
AREMA C&S Manual
1995 Part 19.1.14
electrode is reached where an additional shell of soil will
not add significantly to the total resistance. This is the
dimension of the sphere of influence of the electrode. For
a ground rod or pipe, the radius of the sphere of influence
can usually be considered to be equal to the driven depth of
the rod or pipe.

C-Choice of Electrodes
C-1 Existing Electrodes: An extensive direct buried metallic
cold water piping system is the preferred electrode where it
is readily accessible. Such systems normally have a
resistance to earth within the maximum values given in Table
II and have been used extensively in the past.

C-2 A direct buried cold water piping system with nonmetallic
pipe, corrosion protected metallic pipe, or metallic pipe
with insulated joints is not suitable for use as a grounding
electrode.

C-3 Insulated or non-insulated underground cold water piping
connected to a well that has a measured resistance to earth
within the maximum values given in Table 2, may be used as a
grounding electrode. Care must be exercised to assure that
all parts of the piping system that may be disconnected at
some time in the future are effectively bonded together.

C-4 Direct buried metallic piping systems other than for cold
water (steam pipes, gas pipes, sprinkler systems, air lines,
etc.) shall not be used as a grounding electrode.

C-5 Made Electrodes: Where a suitable existing electrode is not
available or where it is desired to have a supplemental
electrode, a made electrode must be installed.

C-6 Made electrodes shall be of metal or combinations of metals
that do not corrode excessively under the existing
conditions for the expected service life of the
communication installation. All outer surfaces of a made
electrode shall be conductive, that is, not having paint,
enamel, or other insulating type covering.

C-7 Made electrodes shall, as far as practical, penetrate below
the frost line and into permanent moisture level. Failure
to reach permanent moisture may not only result in high
resistance to earth, but may also result in large variations
in resistance during changes of the seasons.

C-8 Made electrodes may consist of driven rods, driven pipes,
buried wire, buried plates, or buried strips of metal.
Driven rods are the most generally used and are the
recommended type of made electrode.

- 4
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 19.1.14 1995
C-9 Driven Rods: Driven rods shall have a minimum
cross-sectional dimension of 1/2 in., a total length of not
less than 5 ft., and shall have a driven depth of not less
than 5 ft. Where a rock bottom is encountered, the driven
depth may be less than 5 ft., or a different type of
electrode employed.

C-10 Copper, copper-clad steel, galvanized steel, and stainless
steel rods are the most popular.

C-11 In order to achieve a resistance to earth within the maximum
values given in Table 2, multiple rods connected in parallel
or sectional rods coupled together (to achieve a greater
driven depth), or a combination of the two may be used.

C-12 Multiple rods should be spaced a distance apart at least
equal to the driven depth of the rods and preferably twice
the driven depth but in no case less than 6 ft. This will
minimize the effect of overlapping of the spheres of
influence of the rods. In general, sectional rods coupled
together to achieve a driven depth down to the permanent
moisture level of the soil is more efficient that the same
total length of multiple single-length rods connected in
parallel.

C-13 Electrical Service Grounding Electrods: Where the grounded
conductor of the electrical service to the building is
grounded to an acceptable water pipe electrode, the
communication ground connection may be made to either the
metallic service conduit, the service-equipment enclosure,
or to the service grounding conductor.

C-14 Where an acceptable cold water pipe electrode is not
available and the electrical service to the building has a
multi-grounded neutral, the communication ground connection
may be made to either the metallic service conduit, the
service-equipment enclosure, or to the service-grounding
conductor.

D-Ground Conductor
D-1 Material: Grounding conductors shall be copper, solid or
stranded and shall be insulated in accordance with section
800 of the latest edition of the National Electrical Code.

D-2 Sizes: Grounding conductors shall not be smaller than the
sizes listed in Table 1.

- 5
AREMA C&S Manual
1995 Part 19.1.14
Table 1

Number of Arresters Size of Copper Ground Wire
1 to 10 No. 14 AWG
11 to 20 No. 12 AWG
21 to 40 No. 10 AWG
41 to 80 No. 6 AWG
Over 80 No. 4 AWG

D-3 Splices: A grounding conductor shall be installed in one
continuous length without a splice or joint. Where the
grounding conductor is used for connections to other
apparatus in addition to the protectors, those connections
shall be made by extending the ground wire rather than
making taps or T-splices. See Paragraph E-3 for exception
on splices.

D-4 Self Impedance: It is very important that the ground
conductor is kept as short as practical and with a minimum
number of bends in order to keep the self-impedance of the
ground conductor as low as possible. For the same reason, a
ground conductor should not contain bends exceeding 60
degrees or coils.

E-Electrode Connection
E-1 The connection of a ground or bond wire to an electrode
shall be as accessible as practical and shall withstand
vibration and exposure to the elements while maintaining a
permanently low resistance connection. Wherever possible
exothermic weld, silver soldering or brazing is recommended.

E-2 To Water Pipes: For connection to a water pipe, an approved
pipe grounding clamp or an exothermic type weld shall be
used. Before connection is made check that path to ground
is uninterrupted by plastic, rubber or other types of non-
conducting materials.

E-3 To Driven Rod: For connection to a driven rod electrode, an
approved ground rod clamp or an exothermic type weld shall
be used. If the rod electrode is equipped with a tail wire,
the connection shall be made by means of a compression
sleeve to the tail wire.

E-4 To Other Electrodes: For connection to a steel member, an
approved lug or an exothermic type weld shall be used.

E-5 Contact Surfaces: If any coating of non-conducting
material, such as enamel, rust, or scale, is present on the
- 6
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 19.1.14 1995
electrode contact surface at the point of connection, the
coating shall be thoroughly removed to obtain a good
connection and conductive paste used between dissimilar
materials. Special approved fittings designed to make the
removal of a non-conducting coating unnecessary may also be
used.

F-Installation
F-1 Existing Electrodes: As previously stated, an extensive
direct buried cold water metallic piping system forms the
most satisfactory ground electrode and shall be used
whenever practical. Connection of the ground wire shall be
made on the street side of all fittings such as valves,
meters, etc. when possible. When this is not possible, it
is necessary to install bond wires around meters, valves or
other fittings.

F-2 Made Electrodes: The preferable location for a made
electrode is where the surrounding earth will be moist
throughout most of the year. Abundant vegetation usually
indicates underlying moisture and favorable conditions;
however, if the soil is such that the surface water readily
seeps away, the natural salts in the earth are dissolved and
carried off, leaving the earth a relatively poor conducting
medium. For this reason filled-in ground, gravelly or sandy
soil and, in some cases, fresh water streams, are not
desirable locations for made grounds.

F-3 Bonding of Electrodes: A bond shall be of copper and shall
not be smaller than No. 6 AWG or its equivalent. A bond
shall be installed between the communication grounding
electrode and the electrical power-grounding electrode where
separate made electrodes are used in or on the same building
or structure. Bonding together of all separate electrodes
will limit the potential differences between them and
between their associated wiring systems.

F-4 Run In Straight Line: The grounding conductor shall be run
to the grounding electrode in as straight a line as
practical without any sharp bends, coils or kinks.
Sufficient slack shall be left in the grounding conductor at
the grounding electrode to insure against possible breakage
of the conductor due to vibration (i.e., water pipe) or
settlement (i.e. driven rod), etc. Under no circumstances
shall the slack be taken up in the form of a coil.

F-5 Physical Damage: Where necessary, the grounding conductor
shall be guarded from physical damage with molding, etc.
The protection from physical damage shall extend at least 8
ft. above ground.

F-6 Through Metallic Duct Or Conduit: If the grounding
- 7
AREMA C&S Manual
1995 Part 19.1.14
conductor is run through a metallic duct or conduit it must
be bonded to each end of the duct or conduit.

F-7 Splices: See Paragraph D-3.

G-Resistance to Earth
G-1 The grounding electrode system may consist of one or more
electrodes bonded together. The resistance to earth of the
grounding electrode system shall not exceed the values given
in Table II under ordinary conditions. If a particular
situation dictates, a lower resistance may be required.

Table 2

Plant for Which Ground is Provided Maximum Allowable Resistance
Offices with power facilities or with suitable
water pipe ground.

10 ohms
Offices with made ground and with protectors
for over 10 wires.

25 ohms
All other offices. 50 ohms
Booths and shelter boxes. 75 ohms
Cable terminals (except where cable sheath
ground is used) and grounds for messages.

100 ohms

H-Measurement of Electrode Resistance
H-1 In general, experience in any given location will enable an
installer to determine whether or not an existing electrode
will have a resistance within the limits given in Table II
or what type and configuration of made electrode will be
required. It is recommended, however, that the resistance
of an existing electrode, as well as a made electrode,
should be measured before it is placed in service.

H-2 The resistance to earth of a made electrode may vary
considerably from time to time due to the amount of moisture
contained in the earth. Therefore, measurements of
electrode resistance to ground should not be made during
those times when the moisture content of the earth is
greater than normal.

H-3 The resistance of an electrode to earth may be easily
measured by using a direct reading instrument specifically
designed for this purpose. This type of instrument permits
the resistance to be measured with a minimum amount of time
and effort. It is strongly recommended that an instrument
specifically designed for measurement of electrode
resistance to earth should be used rather than using
instruments designed for other purposes.
- 8
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 19.1.14 1995
H-4 The electrode under test should be isolated from the
grounded equipment during the measurement procedure in order
to obtain an accurate resistance measurement. Preferably,
the ground conductor should be disconnected from the
electrode. This temporary disconnection of the ground
conductor shall be permitted only under competent
supervision and for testing purposes only.

H-5 There are two methods generally used to measure the
electrode resistance to earth. The two terminal method,
also known as the direct method, and the three terminal
method, also known as the fall-of-potential method.

H-6 Two Terminal Method: This is the simplest method but it can
be used only if certain requirements are met. First, an
existing electrode of known low resistance to earth (such as
an extensive direct buried metallic cold water piping
system) must be available. Second, the electrode under test
must not be in the sphere of influence of the existing
reference electrode. The instrument is connected to each
electrode and measures the sum of the resistances to earth
of the two electrodes. The resistance to ground of the
electrode under test is obtained by subtracting the
resistance to ground of the known electrode from the
measured resistance.

H-7 Three Terminal Method: In the three terminal method, two
small test probes, which are part of the test instrument,
are used in conjunction with the electrode under test. A
reference electrode is, therefore, not required. Consult
the instructions with the particular test instrument being
used for information on performing this measurement.

H-8 When using either the two terminal method or the three
terminal method, care should be exercised to avoid influence
of the test readings by any stray ground currents or buried
metallic pipes, etc.

J-Reducing Resistance of Made Electrodes
J-1 Chemical Soil Treatment: When deep driven rods are not
possible due to hard underlying rock, etc., and the number
of multiple paralleled rods required make this approach
impractical, then chemical treatment may be required.
Chemical treatment of the soil around a ground rod reduces
the resistivity of the soil and, therefore, the resistance
of the ground rod to earth. Chemical treatment is also
beneficial in reducing seasonal variations in resistance due
to periodic wetting and drying out of the soil.

J-2 There are several methods used in chemical soil treatment
including the trench method and the basin method.

- 9
AREMA C&S Manual
1995 Part 19.1.14
J-3 Trench Method: In the trench method, a donut shaped trench
is dug around the ground rod with a depth of about 12 in.
The chemical is poured into the trench and covered with a
layer of soil. This method eliminates direct contact of the
chemical with the rod.

J-4 Container Method: In the container method, a tile pipe
about 16 in. long and 8 in. in diameter (or other suitable
open ended container) is buried 4 to 6 in. from the ground
rod. The container is filled with a chemical and covered.
The chemical slowly washes into the soil near the electrode.
This method does not treat the soil as fast as the trench
method but is has a longer interval between treatments.

J-5 Chemicals: The most generally used chemicals are magnesium
sulfate, copper sulfate and ordinary rock salt.

J-6 Treatment Intervals: Chemical treatment is not permanent
because the chemical is gradually washed away by rainfall
and natural drainage through the soil. Depending on local
conditions, the interval between treatments varies but may
be up to several years long.

K-Maintenance
K-1 Inspection and Tests: Inspections and tests should be made
at regular intervals, as determined by past experience with
grounding systems in a particular area, to insure that the
grounding system meets the requirements of this
specification. Records should be kept so that a general
trend of increased ground resistance will be evident.

K-2 All joints and connections should be periodically inspected.
If found faulty, repairs shall be made as required.

K-3 A green film called a patina may form on copper ground
conductors and electrodes due to the unavoidable corrosion
process. This patina should not be cleaned off because it
slows down the process of corrosion, even though it was
originally caused by corrosion.

L-References
L-1 Reference was made to the following codes and standards in
the preparation of this recommend practice.

American National Standard Institute

National Electrical Safety Code, ANSI C2-1981

National Electrical Code, NFPA 70-1981

Canadian Electrical Code, C22.1-1982
- 1
AREMA C&S Manual
1994 Part 19.1.20
Recommendations for an Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)
Control Program
New 1994 (16 Pages)

A. Purpose
The purpose of an ESD control program is to provide
electronic assemblies and components with continuous
protection from ESD.

B. General
1. Static damage can result in destruction or catastrophic
failure when high voltage and instantaneous current
flow cause the melting of metallic oxide and other
components.

2. Static damage can cause life degradation or latent
defects.

3. Intermittent failures can occur when transient induced
current and polarization cause a device to fail
intermittently. This type of damage is very difficult
to detect.

4. In order to prevent static damage to electronic parts
and assemblies, a railroad should establish and enforce
an ESD control policy that includes the following six
steps:

(a) Insure that vendors provide ESD protection during
manufacture and shipment.

(b) Insure that all ESD sensitive items are marked
with an ESD caution label.

(c) Provide appropriate instructions for personnel who
will be handling ESD sensitive items.

(d) Transport ESD sensitive items only in appropriate
packaging.

(e) Open ESD protective packaging only in ESD
protected conditions

(f) Insure that the ESD protection is functioning
properly.

5. Definition of Terms

ESD: Electrostatic Discharge, a sudden redistribution
of static charge that is damaging to sensitive
components.

- 2
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 19.1.20 1994
ESD-Sensitive (ESDS): A part, assembly or product that
can be degraded or damaged by ESD. There are ESDS parts
in nearly every family of electronic components
containing thin films or insulators, including
resistors, capacitors and semiconductor devices. All
unmarked components or assemblies and all Class 0,
Class 1, and Class 2 devices should be considered as
ESDS parts. See Part Classification Table 1.

ESD Controlled Area: A specifically designated area
that has been properly marked and equipped for handling
ESD-Sensitive assemblies and components. ESDS parts
should only be removed from ESD packaging in an ESD
Controlled Area.

Triboelectricity: The transfer of charge by contact and
separation of two surfaces. This charging by "rubbing
or separating" is a common source of static charges.

Antistatic: A material that resists triboelectric
charging and produces a static voltage of less than 100
volts when rubbed against itself or another material. A
material's antistatic property is not necessarily
correlated with its resistivity, and can be degraded by
factors such as age, wear, contamination, solvents and
climate.

Conductive: A material with surface resistivity less
than 100,000 ohms per square and volume resistivity
less than 10,000 ohm-cm (Per mil HDBK-263A), generally
achieved by means of coating or impregnating with
carbon or metal. Conductive materials are not
necessarily antistatic. A static-shielding enclosure
("Faraday Cage") requires conductive materials.

Dissipative: A material with surface resistivity from
100,000 ohms to 1,000,000,000,000 ohms per square and
volume resistivity between 10,000 ohm-cm and
100,000,000,000 ohm-cm (Per mil HDBK-263A).

Static Shield: A conductive surface that terminates all
the static field lines that intersect it. A Faraday
Cage is a static shield formed into a closed container.
This is the best form of protection for ESDS items that
may be transported or stored in static-unsafe areas.

Reuse: To use a product more than one time without
altering its physical construction. Inspecting, and
relabeling are permitted within the definition of
reuse.

- 3
AREMA C&S Manual
1994 Part 19.1.20
C. Part Classification (ESD)

The part supplier shall establish, and furnish upon
request, the level of susceptibility to ESD for each
individual part, family or assembly per the following
classes (per MIL-STD-1686) based on Human Body Model:

Table 1
CLASS 0 0 - 200 V
CLASS 1 0 - 1999 V
CLASS 2 2000 - 3999 V
CLASS 3 4000 - 15,999 V

Unless otherwise stated all ESDS Parts should be
treated as Class 1 for the level of susceptibility to
ESD damage.

D. Responsibility
1. An individual should be designated who is responsible
for the implementation and administration of the ESD
control program. ESD coordinators should be designated
in each work area where the guidelines are to be
enforced. The ESD coordinator is responsible for
yearly and monthly ESD Audits. Appendix A provides a
sample ESD Audit Form.

2. All employees should join in the enforcement of these
policies by bringing any deficiencies to the attention
of their manager or the ESD coordinator.

3. Employees are responsible for escorting and assuring
that ALL VISITORS adhere to the ESD guidelines, and
should report when visitors are coming into ESD
protected areas to the ESD Coordinator.

E. Training
All personnel who come in contact, or may come in contact
with static sensitive parts, shall have instruction in the
safe handling of those items. These instructions should
enable personnel to meet the requirements of this policy.
Approved ESD protection instructions will be provided by the
ESD coordinator.

F. Labeling Recommendations
1. ESD Symbols

(a) Recommended Symbol: The recommended symbol for
ESDS devices is defined by EIA-471 (Figure 1). It
consists of a triangle enclosing a hand, crossed
by a diagonal slash, and the words "ATTENTION,
OBSERVE PRECAUTIONS FOR HANDLING ELECTROSTATIC
SENSITIVE DEVICES". The colors are not specified,
- 4
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 19.1.20 1994
but a black symbol on a yellow background is
recommended.

(b) Acceptable Symbol: The MIL-STD-1285 is acceptable
for use but must be accompanied by the EIA symbol
when used for ESD control. All packages
containing Class 1 or 2 ESDS items shall display
an approved static attention label on the outside
of the static container.

(c) Yellow or fluorescent orange-red are the preferred
colors for caution signs and labels. Thus, ESD
control labels and signs should preferably be
black on yellow, in triangular or rectangular
shapes.

Figure 1 Figure 2
EIA-471 MIL-STD-1285
RECOMMENDED LABEL ACCEPTABLE LABEL

- 5
AREMA C&S Manual
1994 Part 19.1.20
G. Handling Requirements
1. Packaging
(a) All electrostatic sensitive parts shall be
protected from electrostatic discharge by
protective packaging.

- All electrostatic packages containing
electrostatic sensitive parts must be labeled
with an appropriate ESD Caution label.

- Circuit assemblies and components are only
protected when completely enclosed inside an
antistatic protective environment such
translucent static shielded bag, pink or blue
poly antistatic bag, or black conductive
container.

(b) Sensitive parts shall be shipped from the
manufacturer in electrostatic protective packaging
and labeled with an ESD label. These parts shall
remain in that packaging continuously except when
actually at a static free workstation.

(c) Circuit assemblies shall be placed in static
shielded bags or conductive containers for
transportation or storage.

2. Workstations
(a) Workstations used for handling sensitive parts
must be equipped with static free work surfaces
and floor mats. These surfaces and mats must be
static dissipative and grounded to a true earth
ground.

(b) All electrical equipment used at static free
workstations must be grounded. Soldering irons
shall be of an approved ESD protected design.

(c) Workstation chairs or stools must be grounded in
one of two ways: carbon filled conductive casters
or brass drag chains attached to the center of the
chair base. These chairs or stools must be used
in conjunction with static free floor mats.

(d) No plastic materials shall be allowed within three
feet of static free workstations. This includes
candy wrappers, tape, cigarette packages,
cellophane wrappers, foam cups, foam packaging
(peanuts), bubble wrap, plastic bins, plastic
folders, etc.

- 6
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 19.1.20 1994

EDS Figure 1

- 7
AREMA C&S Manual
1994 Part 19.1.20
(e) Temperature and humidity monitors should be
installed in ESD safe areas and are to be
monitored by personnel in each area for humidity
levels. Humidity levels that reach 25% or less
should be reported to the ESD coordinator, as
these levels present possible ESD problems.

3. Personnel

(a) The wrist strap must be worn in direct contact
with the bare skin. Personnel shall not be
attached directly to an earth ground. There must
be a safety 250k Ohm to 1 Meg Ohm resistance
between the operator and the ground (these
resistors have been molded into the ground cords
of some ESD mats).

(b) All personnel within three feet of a static free
work station must be grounded with a wrist strap
and ground cord attached to the grounded work
surface.

(c) The wrist strap shall be functionally checked by
the user daily. Testers should be placed in all
ESD protected areas for this purpose. Equipment
is also available to continuously monitor the
wrist strap.

(d) Improperly grounded or ungrounded personnel shall
never touch static sensitive parts, assemblies, or
other operators at a static free work station.

4. Equipment locations

(a) A railroad may elect to place properly grounded
floor mats on floors where access is made to any
system using plug in cards with ESDS components.
This should include microwave equipment,
electronic switchboards, packet switches, rack
mounted data modems or multiplexers, radio base
stations, and other electronic equipment.

(b) A properly grounded wrist strap should be attached
to the equipment rack.

(c) Alternatively, a portable service kit containing
ESD mat and wrist strap can be used when servicing
installed equipment.

H. Maintenance of Static Protective Equipment
1. Workstation Mats
The surface of mats must be cleaned with an antistatic
- 8
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 19.1.20 1994
cleaner, monthly, or more often as required, to prevent
contamination from dirt, grime, solder, body oils, dust
particles, etc.

2. Wrist Bands
Wrist bands may be laundered, using a mild detergent -
no bleach, as required to prevent body oils from
compromising the electrical functionality of the
material. Care must be taken to place the band in a
pocket to keep it from becoming entangled in the
agitator of the washing machine.

3. Smocks (Lab Coats)

(a) All personnel are to wear conductive smocks while
working on Static Sensitive components or
assemblies.

(b) All other personnel including visitors are to wear
conductive smocks while working in or touring the
ESD Protected Area.

(c) Smocks may be laundered, using a mild detergent -
no bleach, by the user at home, or by an approved
garment laundering agency.

I. Maintenance Shop Area, Warehouse, and Staging Areas

1. The ESD Protected Area floor should have an anti-static
surface applied to it. Facility maintenance will
maintain the floor on the following schedule:

- weekly - anti-static wax to be applied to
surfaces where required.

- yearly - floor to be stripped and retreated.

2. Areas designated as a Static Safeguarded Work Area are
marked by ESD signs informing personnel of the ESD
Policy and by a yellow band on the floor defining the
perimeter of the area.

J. Electrical Tests
1. Specialized test equipment can be used to routinely
verify proper electrical performance of the wrist
strap. Follow the manufacturer's instructions to verify
wrist strap performance.

2. Equipment is available to continuously monitor the
performance of the wrist strap and grounding. Follow
the manufacturer's instructions to continuously verify
wrist strap performance.
- 9
AREMA C&S Manual
1994 Part 19.1.20
3. The bench/table and floor mats should be tested by a
qualified ESD auditor.

K. Frequency of Testing
Wrist Straps - Daily - (personnel not required to
use wrist straps daily, must test
them before each use)

Table/Floor Mats - Monthly by ESD Coordinator, Yearly
by Quality Assurance

Mat Ground Cords - Daily by Operators, Monthly by ESD
Coordinator, Yearly by Quality
Assurance

Ground/Connection - Daily by Operators

Static Shielded - As Required. At the minimum
Bags Yearly

Ionizers - Yearly or as determined by the
Calibration Dept.

L. ESD Program Supplies
This section provides a listing of items that may be needed
for a successful ESD control program.

Antistatic Cleaner
Antistatic Storage Cabinet
Conductive Storage Drawers
Conductive Smock (Lab Coat)
Conductive Tool Box
ESD Floor Mat
ESD Video Tapes
ESD Packaging
ESD Heel Strap
Field Service Ground Kit
Ground Cords
Ionizer
Outlet Tester
Portable Static Meter
Static Shielding Work Surfaces
Static Shielding Work Surface Tester
Static Shielding Floor Finish (Antistatic Wax)
Static Shielding Floor Surfaces
Warning Labels
Wrist Strap
Wrist Strap Tester

M. Sources
This section provides a partial listing of possible sources
for the ESD program supplies identified in Section J.
- 10
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 19.1.20 1994
Atrix, Inc., 14301 Ewing South, Burnsville, MN. 55337.
Phone (800) 222-6154.

Baxter Healthcare Corp., Scientific Products Division, 1210
Waukegan Road, McGraw Park, IL. 60085. Phone (708) 689-8410

Charles Walters, 93 Border Street, West Newton, MA. 02165.
Phone (617) 964-8370.

Contact East, 335 Willow Street South, North Andover, MA.
01845-5995. Phone (508) 682-2000.

HYMAR Meters, 6647 Blossom Acres Drive, San Jose, CA. 95124.
Phone (408) 358-6280.

JULIE Associates, P.O. Box 141, Billerica, MA. 01821. Phone
(508) 667-1958.

Motorola C&E Inc., Communications Parts Division, 1313 E.
Algonquin Road, Schaumburg, IL. 60196. Phone (708) 576-
6485.

Static Control Components, Inc., P.O. Box 152, Stanford, NC.
27331. Phone (800) 356-2728.

Static Control Systems Division/3M, P.O. Box 2963, Austin,
TX. 78769-6154. Phone (800) 222-6154.

Westcorp, 144 S. Whisman Road, Mountain View, CA. 94041.
Phone (800) 537-7828.

N. References
1. MIL-STD-1686A - Electrostatic Discharge Control Program
for Protection of Electrical and Electronic Parts,
Assemblies and Equipment

2. MIL-HDBK-263, Electrostatic Discharge Control Handbook.

3. AMCI Electrostatic Discharge Control Policy, M07093,
Revision C, October 14, 1993, Automated Monitoring and
Control International, 11819 Miami, Omaha, NE 68164.

4. A sample of a more detailed Packaging and Handling
Specification, ESD control policy is available from 3M
Company, Electrical Specialties Division, P.O. Box
33211, St. Paul, MN 55133-3211

5. A videotape (F.A.S.T. #5) on electrostatic discharge is
available from Motorola National Service Training.

- 11
AREMA C&S Manual
1994 Part 19.1.20
APPENDIX A

ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE CONTROL STANDARDS AUDIT CHECKLIST

A. PURCHASING

Audit for:

1. Appropriate ESD requirements on purchase orders.
2. Procurement only buys ESDS parts from suppliers that
have been ESD-approved by the Purchasing Department or
Engineering Department.
3. Procurement maintains a list of ESD-approved suppliers.
4. Restrictions on packaging, labeling, and proper
invoices/packing slips are imposed on vendors.
5. Procurement maintains a list of approved suppliers, the
list need not be segregated into ESD and Non-ESD
suppliers, but if ESD approval is needed for a new
supplier, the vendor is audited for ESD.

B. RECEIVING

Audit for:

1. ESDS devices are identifiable by their outside
packaging and/or invoices.
2. ESDS devices are checked for proper packaging and
marking.
3. Areas where ESDS packages are opened are equipped with
proper ESD control measures, (i.e., mats, wrist straps,
proper grounding).

C. INCOMING INSPECTION

Audit for:

1. Packages containing ESDS devices are opened only is ESD
areas by trained, grounded personnel.
2. ESDS items are stored in protective packaging for
transfer to storage and work areas.
3. Incoming Inspection personnel write trouble tickets on
any improperly marked or packaged devices and report
deficiencies to the proper ESD Coordinator, Purchasing,
and Engineering.

D. SHIPPING

Audit for:

1. ESDS items are only handled at ESD protective
workstations by trained, grounded ESD Certified
- 12
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 19.1.20 1994
personnel.
2. Items are labeled and packaged using appropriate labels
and protective packaging.

E. STOCKROOMS, STORAGE AREAS, KITTING AND STAGING AREAS

Audit for:

1. ESDS items are maintained and issued in ESD-protective
packaging.
2. Bin boxes or shelves storing ESDS devices are so
labeled.
3. ESD procedures are implemented during kitting and in
staging areas.

F. ENGINEERING

Audit for:

1. ESD procedures are implemented in all engineering
laboratories.
2. Engineering Assembly drawings involving ESDS components
contain references to ESD Policies and Procedures.

G. PRODUCT INTEGRATION AND MANUFACTURING AREAS

Audit for:

1. ESD designated areas and workstations are established
throughout these areas.
2. Personnel in these areas are properly trained in the
use of ESD workstations and implementation of
precautionary handling procedures for ESDS devices.
3. All processing equipment is properly grounded.
4. ESD protective materials (i.e., bags, foams, totes) are
available at every workstation and ESDS devices are
transferred between areas in protective containers or
packaging.
5. Special ESD control measures that are necessary (e.g.,
conductive flooring, personnel apparel, humidity
control, ionization) are implemented as appropriate.
6. ESD areas are clearly identified by
signs/placards/caution warnings and personnel entering
these areas are alerted to ESDS handing and visitor
requirements.

H. PRODUCTION TEST AND ENGINEERING TEST

Audit for:

1. ESD workstation implemented in test and burn-in areas.
2. There is an absence of prime sources of static in test
- 13
AREMA C&S Manual
1994 Part 19.1.20
areas.
3. ESD control measures are implemented.
4. ESDS items are transferred to the next work area in
protective containers.
5. Operators are not grounded while operating voltages are
applied.

I. QUALITY ASSURANCE

Audit for:

1. Compliance to ESD control procedures.
2. Suppliers' and Vendors' ESD compliance.
3. Workstations ESD certification.
4. ESD training programs.
5. Engineering drawings containing references to ESD
Policies and Procedures.

- 14
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 19.1.20 1994
10 STEP DAILY SELF-CHECK PROCEDURES

[ ] 1. Visually check your work area to see that there are no
Static-Generating materials in or around your area,
(such as carpet or plastic or other insulating
materials), check to see that there are no static-
generating tools being used such as plastic solder
suckers.

[ ] 2. Visually check to see that all ground wiring to your
work station has not been disconnected or damaged. Be
especially suspicious if equipment or furniture has
been moved. If you have a Continuous Monitor at your
station, test it to see if it is working before using.

[ ] 3. If you are using an air ionizer, turn it on and aim it
properly.

[ ] 4. Clear your work area of static charge generators, such
as untreated plastic bags, boxes, foam, tape, paper, or
personal items, for a distance of at least one meter (3
feet).

[ ] 5. Visually check that all ESD-sensitive parts, assemblies
or products are completely inside their static-
shielding bags or conductive containers, with nothing
sticking out. Both at the beginning and end of your
shift.

[ ] 6. Make sure that there are no static generators inside
the static-shielding bags or conductive containers with
or without ESD sensitive parts or assemblies.

[ ] 7. Make sure that all static-shielding bags and conductive
containers have the correct static attention label on
the outside of the container. Visually check static-
shielding bags for tears or excessive wear.

[ ] 8. All cleaners, solvents, coatings, sprays used at your
work station must be the types approved by your ESD
control static coordinator.

[ ] 9. Never allow anyone who is not grounded closer than one
meter (3 feet) to your static-safe work area. Ask them
to comply with grounding and garment requirements of
your area before coming into the area, touching
anything, or coming closer to your work. Report all
violators that fail to comply.

[ ] 10. Put on your wrist strap and any special garments
required to do your job in your area, such as smocks
and conductive footwear. Test your wrist strap
- 15
AREMA C&S Manual
1994 Part 19.1.20
according to manufacturer's instructions and sign the
check-off sheet as demonstrated by your ESD
coordinator. Check your smocks to see that there are
no holes, rips or tears, and that they are clean.
Wrist straps are required to be checked once a day at
the beginning of your shift, but should be checked
after each break and before beginning work after lunch
or supper.
- 16
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 19.1.20 1994
ESD AUDIT FORM
Area Audited: Responsibility: _________________
1. Table Mats, Qty _______
Grounds:
Pass Fail/Problem
____________________________________________________________
Aesthetics (surface is clean, no static-generating
materials)
Pass Fail/Problem
_______________________________________________________
2. Floor Mats, Qty _______
Grounds:
Pass Fail/Problem
____________________________________________________________
Aesthetics (surface is clean, no static-generating
materials)
Pass Fail/Problem
_______________________________________________________
3. Personal (Wrist Straps, Ground Cords, Smocks, etc.)
Comments:___________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
4. Handing/Storage of Static Sensitive Components and
Assemblies
Pass Fail/Problem ___________________________
_______________________________________________________
Additional Comments:
____________________________________________________________
Auditor: Audit Date: _____________
CORRECTIVE ACTION
Corrective Action Required:______________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Corrective Action Completed:
Approved: Date: __________________



Section 20 Inductive Interference

2002
AREMA C& S Manual

SECTION 20 - INDUCTIVE INTERFERENCE


______________________________________________________________
- 1 -


Crossing of Electrical Supply
Lines and Facilities of
Railroads 9 Reaffirmed 1993

20.1.4 38-2 Recommended Principles and
Practices for Inductive
Coordination of Railway
Electrical Supply Facilities
and the Commercial
Communication Facilities 30 Extended 2001

20.1.6 38-2 Recommended Principles and
Practices for Inductive
Coordination of Electrical
Supply and Communication
Systems Report of the Joint
Engineering Subcommittee of
the Association of American
Railroads and the Edison
Electric Institute; and the
Association of American
Railroads & Electric Power
Research Institute 18 Revised 1994

20.1.7 38-2 Discussion of Fundamental
Factors Involved in Inductive
Coordination and of Remedial
Measures Applicable Under
Various Conditions 82 Revised 1996

Investigating Inductive
Effects on Communication
Facilities 50 Revised 1997

- 1
AREMA C&S Manual
1993 Part 20.1.1
Recommended Practices for Crossings of Electrical
Supply Lines and Facilities of Railroads

The following is a report of the Joint Engineering Committee
of the Association of American Railroads and the Edison
Electric Institute.

A-Forward
A-1 After a number of years of cooperative study of the problem
of mechanical coordination at crossings of electrical supply
lines and facilities of railroads, the AAR-EEI Joint
Engineering Committee issued in August 1946 a report
presenting principles and practices together with a set of
specifications. These specifications were based on the
Fifth Edition of the National Electrical Safety Code. In
the light of the subsequent cooperative handling of crossing
problems by the electric utility companies and the railroads
it appears that a detailed set of specifications
supplementary to the National Electrical Safety Code no
longer is necessary and, further, that continuance of
AAR-EEI specifications periodically revised to reflect
revisions in the National Electrical Safety Code would
require wasteful duplication of efforts. Accordingly, the
practices have been revised to refer to the latest revision
of the National Electrical Safety Code as the guide for
construction at crossings.

A-2 The following Principles and Practices for Crossings of
Electrical Supply Lines and Facilities of Railroads are
recommended for use in the handling of mutual problems at
crossings, in the interest of safety, uniformity, and
economy. They have been approved as recommended practice by
the Association of American Railroads and the Edison
Electric Institute.

A-3 A typical crossing drawing (Figure 2011-1) and instructions
for its preparation are included in this report.

B-Introductory
B-1 The proper solution of any engineering problem involving
more than one individual or group can best be obtained
through cooperation and a mutual determination of the best
engineering methods for arriving at the desired result.

B-2 Both railroad and electrical supply utilities render service
demanded by the public. The facilities of each exist in the
same territory, and crossings of these facilities are
unavoidable if service conditions of both utilities are to
be met. These crossings should be made with due regard to
safety of the public, the protection of the employees and
facilities of both utilities, and to the quality of the
- 2
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.1 1993
service of each. The burden of expense that will be
necessarily imposed on the service of each, because of the
common occupancy of the same territory, should be as light
as is consistent with the necessary conditions of safety.
The proper establishment of these crossings is, therefore, a
mutual duty on the part of these utilities to the public.

B-3 Cooperative consideration to the coordination of the
facilities of each should be given:

a. When new facilities of either character are to be
constructed.

b. When existing facilities are to be modified, relocated,
or reconstructed.

B-4 These crossing problems involve mutual duties on the part of
each utility to the other and a common duty to the public.
Close cooperation is required if the best results, measured
in service to the public, are to be secured. These problems
may be grouped as follows:

a. Inductive Coordination: These involve inductive
relations between electrical circuits of all kinds when
they occupy positions of proximity to each other.
Inductive coordination problems are considered in the
report on "The Inductive Coordination of Electrical
Supply and Communication Systems" issued October 7,
1936, by the Joint General Committee of the Association
of American Railroads and Edison Electric Institute.

b. Mechanical Coordination: Mechanical coordination
problems relate mainly to clearances and strength of
construction and arise in connection with crossings,
since a physical contact between the facilities of the
utilities may constitute a hazard or impair service.
These problems must be treated only in the light of
such physical relations.

B-5 It is recommended that the following principles and
practices be used as a guide in connection with mechanical
coordination problems.

B-6 Nothing in these principles and practices should be
construed as superseding state, municipal, or other legal
requirements.

C-Principles
C-1 It should be the duty of each utility to expedite, insofar
as practicable, all work incident to necessary crossings
between the facilities of the two utilities.

- 3
AREMA C&S Manual
1993 Part 20.1.1
C-2 Each utility should be the judge of the quality and
requirements of its own service, including the general
character and design of its own facilities subject to these
principles and practices.

C-3 Each utility should provide and maintain facilities adequate
to meet the service requirements, including such reasonable
future modifications in these facilities as changing
conditions indicate to be necessary and proper.

C-4 Each utility should cooperate with the other utility so
that, in carrying out the foregoing duties, proper
consideration will be given to the mutual problems that may
arise and so that the utilities can jointly determine the
best engineering solution in situations where the facilities
of both are involved.

C-5 Joint consideration by both utilities of safety, service,
convenience, and economy, and the trend of development of
both utilities, should determine:

a. The general character of construction of all crossings.

b. The best engineering solution for the coordinated
arrangement and design of facilities at crossings.

c. The administrative methods for establishing,
maintaining, altering, or removing crossings.

C-6 The utilities at interest in a locality should maintain
close cooperation and each notify the others of any intent
to build new or extend existing facilities which might tend
to contribute to the creation or modification of a crossing.

C-7 When new crossings are contemplated, they should be so
located and planned as to minimize interference with
existing facilities.

C-8 When crossings are to be modified, the allocation of costs
between the parties at interest should be reasonable and
equitable, taking into account all factors involved.

C-9 Construction and inductive coordination measures employed at
crossings should be in accordance with mutually acceptable
practices.

C-10 Contracts, whether general or specific covering the
crossings, should define conditions for the establishment,
construction, maintenance, operation, modification,
relocation, or elimination of the crossing. Provision
should be made for review and revision of all contracts from
time to time.
- 4
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.1 1993
D-Practices
D-1 Agreements: Agreements may be arranged to cover specific
crossings, all crossings in a given territory, groups of
crossings in a given territory, or in any other suitable
manner satisfactory to the utilities at interest.

D-2 Notification: When a crossing is to be established, the
utility initiating the crossing should notify the other
utility as early in advance of the time of construction as
practicable. Such notice should show the proposed location
and character of the crossing. The parties should then
cooperate and decide as to the fitness of the proposed
location and see that construction is in accordance with the
latest revision of the National Electrical Safety Code -
Part 2, "Safety Rules for the Installation and Maintenance
of Electric Supply and Communication Lines."

D-3 Procedure When Crossing is to be Modified: When either
utility finds it necessary to change the character of its
facilities at a crossing, it shall so notify the other and
both shall cooperate to determine the most satisfactory way
to make the modification. The utility whose facilities are
to be modified shall promptly carry out the necessary work
and the utilities shall cooperate to determine the equitable
apportionment of the expense involved in such modification.

D-4 The expense to be apportioned should be the net expense from
which shall be excluded any increased cost on account of the
substitution for the existing facilities of other facilities
of a greater life or of improved type or of increased
capacity.

D-5 Joint Planning: An effective way of handling situations in
a given territory is through the full application of the
principles of cooperation, including advance notice, advance
planning, and the interchange of information.

D-6 Contracts: In either general or specific contracts, any
provisions treating of the character of the facilities
involved should be so worded as not to restrict changes in
the character of the facilities of either utility, except
that it should be recognized that such changes may involve
the modification, relocation, or the elimination of the
crossing.

D-7 Legal questions, including the sufficiency of right-of-way
grants held by the respective utilities and the protection
of title or property of both utilities, in the case of
mortgages, sales, mergers, or consolidations entered into by
either, should be given due consideration in the preparation
of contracts.

- 5
AREMA C&S Manual
1993 Part 20.1.1
D-8 Liability: In any terms of a crossing contract dealing with
liability for personal or property damage, care should be
taken that such terms are reasonable and just.

E-Instruction for Filling out Typical Crossing Drawing
Figure 2011-1 covering power line crossings, was primarily
designed to cover proposed crossings but can be used for
existing crossings. It should show all the information
necessary for the complete checking of the crossings from
the standpoint of construction as well as clearances.

E-1 Heading:
A. Fill in the correct corporate name of the company or
individual owning the crossing.

B. Show the correct location of the proposed or existing
crossing in terms of the exact distance in feet from
the nearest milepost.

C. Either plus or minus should be marked out.

D. The nearest milepost should be shown.

E. Whether located at a public road or street, or not;
either "within" or "not within" should be marked out.

F. Show the name of the division.

G. Show the name of the subdivision.

H. Show the name of the county in which located.

I. Show the State in which the crossing is or is to be
installed so that the crossing may be definitely
located.

E-2 Elevation and Plan Views:
a. The elevation and plan views should be considered
relatively, and the correct mile post shown under j so
that pole B in the plan view will be in the same
relative location as in the elevation view.

b. The dimensions J, K, K', J', N, O, P, N', O', N", and
P' are for the purpose of checking the construction of
the crossing.

c. J, K, K, and J should be measured parallel with the
supply line.
- 6
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.1 1993
Figure 2011-1: - Typical Crossing Drawing

d. J and J' represent the length of the two spans adjacent
to the crossing span, while the sum of K and K'
represents the length of the crossing span.
Measurements K and K' should be made from the center
line of the track or tracks.

e. N and N' represent the lead of the head guys on poles B
and C, respectively, while O, P, O', and P' represent
the lead of the side guys. N" represents the lead of
the head guys on poles A and D where it is not possible
to install head guys on poles B and C.

f. M or M' represents the angle the crossing span makes
with the track. (To aid in filling out the data sheet,
the railway company's signal, communication, or
catenary line has been indicated on both sides of the
track.) After the direction of the elevation view has
been determined, one of the lines should be crossed out
unless in the section in question the railway company
has a separate pole line for its signal, communication,
- 7
AREMA C&S Manual
1993 Part 20.1.1
or catenary wires. This line should be labeled what it
is (i.e., signal, communication and/or catenary).

g. Measurements Q and R or Q' and R' represent the
distance from the center line of the supply wires to
the two adjacent poles in the railway company's signal,
communication, or catenary lines.

h. The remaining measurements represented by L, L', U, T,
S, S', T', and U' in the plan view are for the purpose
of checking clearances and should all be measured at
right angles to the track.

i. L and L' are the distances from poles B and C,
respectively, to the nearest rail.

j. S or S', as the case may be, is the distance from the
center line of the track or tracks to the center line
of the railway company's line.

k. T and T' is the distance from the center line of the
railway company's line to its right-of-way line. (On
the side opposite to the line the distance from center
line of track to the right-of-way line should be
indicated under S or S' and T or T' crossed out.)

l. U and U' represent the distance from the right-of-way
line to the crossing poles B and C, respectively.

m. Since the distances K and K' are measured parallel with
the supply line and the distances U, T, S, and U', T',
S' are measured at right angles to the track, the sum
of U, T, and S is a function of the angle, M times the
distance K, and the sum of U', T', S', the distance K'.

n. Under V should be filled in the number of supply wires
on the top crossarm: W represents the size of the
wires, X the kind of material, such as hard-drawn
copper, etc., Y the voltage, and Z the tension in the
wires with a temperature of 0F, and with a loading of
1/2 in. of ice and a 4-lb. wind (standard heavy
loading).

o. If the supply line is not a straight line from pole A
to pole D, the approximate relative position should be
plotted on the plan view to indicate which poles are
corner poles and the approximate pull on the pole.

p. In the elevation view the view of the railway company's
line corresponding to the one in the plan view should
be crossed out. The horizontal distance from the
crossing pole to the nearest wire in the line g or g'
- 8
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.1 1993
and the vertical clearance of the supply wires over or
under the wires h or h' should be indicated, as well as
the clearance of the supply wires above top of rail at
60F. The height above ground, a, plus the depth of
setting, b, for each of the four poles, shows the total
length of these poles; c represents the height of the
guy attachments, where attached to the pole, above
ground; d is the circumference of the pole in inches at
the top and e the circumference 6 ft. from butt; f
represents the normal sag at 60F of the supply wires in
the three spans respectively; i represents clearance of
lowest conductor above top of rail.

E-3 Crossarms and Pin Spacing: n and n' show the spacing of the
pole pin wires from the center of the pole and o the spacing
between wires other than the pole pair; k is the length and
l the width of the crossarms used; m represents the spacing
between the attachment of the two braces to the crossarm.

E-4 Vertical Profile:
p represents the distance between the conductors on pole.

q represents the type and make of the vertical strain
clamp.

r represents the type and make of the strain insulator.

s represents the type and make of the neutral bracket or
bracket clevis.

E-5 Data:
1 represents the type pin insulators used.

2 represents the type strain insulators used.

3 represents the type pins used.

4 represents the type crossarms: their size and material.

5 represents the type strain hardware.

6 represents the type neutral bracket or bracket clevis.

7 and 8 represent the poles: their timber, class and
depth set.

9 and 10 represent the guys: their kind, size, and
strength.

11 represents the anchors: their kind, size, and depth
set.
- 9
AREMA C&S Manual
1993 Part 20.1.1
12 and 13 represent the guy clamps: their kind, size, and
the number used.
- 1
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 20.1.4
Recommended Principles and Practices for Inductive
Coordination of Railway Electrical Supply Facilities and
the Commercial Communication Facilities
Extended 2001 (30 Pages)
A. Explanation of Terms
For the purpose of these Principles and Practices, the
following terms are used with the meanings as given below:
1. Abnormal Operating Conditions: Electrical operating
conditions resulting when operating arrangements other
than normal are established on railway electrical
supply circuits.
2. Ampere-Miles: The product of the current in any
section of a circuit in which the current is the same
throughout the section, multiplied by the length of the
section.
a. The ampere-miles of a section of circuit in which
the current is not the same throughout, is the
summation of the ampere-miles for successive
lengths within each of which the current is the
same throughout, and which together make up the
section.
b. For rail-return circuits, the ampere-miles in a
specified section are based upon currents in the
contact conductor system, except in the case of
three-wire single-phase electrifications, where
the vector sum of currents in the contact
conductor system and the distribution feeders is
used as a basis.
3. Communication Circuits: Circuits used for the
electrical transmission of intelligence by wire or
cable.
4. Communication Facilities: Communication circuits and
their associated apparatus.
5. Configuration: The geometrical arrangement in
transverse section of any assemblage of generally
parallel conductors including their sizes and their
relative positions with respect to other conductors and
to the earth.
6. Contact Conductor: A conductor, other than traffic
rails, with which devices on railway cars or
locomotives make contact to collect electric current
for the operation of motors and other apparatus on
trains. A contact conductor may be either a wire or a
- 2
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.4 2001
rail.
7. Contact Conductor System: The system of contact
conductors together with any supporting wires
metallically connected thereto and including contact
conductor feeders.
8. Contact Conductor Feeder: A conductor that connects
the contact conductors to the substation buses. In
some instances contact conductor feeders may be carried
along the railway and connected to the contact
conductors at one or more points.
9. Coordinated Transpositions: Transpositions which are
installed, either in railway electrical supply circuits
or in communication circuits or in both, for the
purpose of recuding coupling; and which are located
effectively with respect to the discontinuities of the
exposure and are so arranged that those in each circuit
are located with due regard to those in the other
circuit.
10. Coupling: The inter-relation of neighboring circuits
by electric or magnetic induction or both, or by
conduction through a common earth path, or by
combinations thereof.
11. Discontinuity: A point at which there is an abrupt
change in the physical relations of railway electrical
supply circuits and communication circuits or in the
electrical characteristics of either circuit.
Transpositions, however, are not considered as
discontinuities.
12. Distribution Feeder: A conductor used in the
three-wire system of railway electrification that, in
combination with the contact conductor system, forms
the primary circuit for the substation
auto-transformers.
13. Fault Conditions: Conditions resulting when a fault to
ground or a short circuit occurs on a railway
electrical supply circuit.
14. General Coordinated Methods: Those methods reasonably
available for general application to communication
facilities or railway electrical supply facilities that
contribute to inductive coordination without specific
consideration of the requirements of individual
inductive exposures.
15. Inductive Coordination: The location, design,
- 3
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 20.1.4
construction, operation and maintenance of
communication facilities and railway electrical supply
facilities in conformity with harmoniously adjusted
methods which will prevent inductive interference.
Note: Inductive interference is an effect arising
from the characteristics and inductive
relations of communication facilities and
railway electrical supply facilities of such
character and magnitude as would prevent the
satisfactory and economical operation of the
communication facilities if methods of
inductive coordination were not applied.
16. Inductive Exposure: A situation of proximity between
railway electrical supply facilities and communication
facilities under such conditions that inductive
coordination should be considered.
17. Inductive Influence: Those characteristics of railway
electrical supply facilities that determine the
character and intensity of the inductive field that
they produce.
18. Inductive Susceptiveness: Those characteristics of
communication facilities which determine, so far as
such characteristics can determine, the extent to which
such facilities are capable of being adversely affected
in giving service, by a given inductive field.
19. Overhead Ground Wires: Wires installed on aerial lines
and grounded at intervals, which are intended primarily
to provide lightning protection for the electrical
supply circuits, or to limit potential rise of
structures in case of fault, or both. Such wires also
provide a certain amount of shielding to communication
circuits involved in inductive exposures.
20. Phase Conductor: An insulated conductor belonging to a
transmission or distribution circuit and connected to
an energized terminal at a point of power supply. If
two or more such conductors of a circuit are connected
to a single terminal at the power source and at the
load, the group of such conductors so operated in
parallel is considered as one phase conductor. In a
two-phase, three-wire system in which two phases have a
common terminal, the conductor connected to this
terminal is regarded as a phase conductor.
21. Potential-Neutralizing Conductor: A conductor upon
which is impressed a voltage substantially equal and
opposite to the potential of a disturbing conductor and
- 4
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.4 2001
which is suitably installed near the disturbing
conductor so as to neutralize electric induction.
22. Railway Electrical Supply Circuits: Railway circuits
(including electric transmission, distribution,
propulsion, and associated circuits), used to supply
electric power either for the operation of a railway,
or for devices or machinery used by a railway, such as
signals, lights, motors, etc. (Does not include
communication circuits.)
23. Railway Electrical Supply Facilities: Railway
electrical supply circuits, equipment or other railway
plant associated with such circuits. (Does not include
communication facilities.)
24. Rail-Return Circuits: Railway electrical supply
circuits which are so arranged that the traffic rails
form part of the circuit for current carrying purposes.
Such circuits may carry alternating current or direct
current or both and include such feeders and auxiliary
conductors as may be connected thereto, either through
direct metallic connection or through
auto-transformers.
25. Residual Current: The vector sum of the currents in
the phase conductors of a transmission or distribution
circuit.
26. Residual Voltage: The vector sum of the voltages to
ground of the phase conductors of a transmission or
distribution circuit.
27. Return Feeder: A conductor used to supplement the
current carrying capacity of the traffic rails.
28. Shielding: An effect, due to the presence of grounded
conductors or grounded conducting structures, which in
general is a reduction in coupling between neighboring
circuits.
29. Shield Wires: Wires that are installed primarily to
provide reduction in coupling by shielding.
30. Specific Coordinated Methods: Those additional methods
applicable to specific situations, where general
coordinated methods are inadequate.
31. Substation: Transformation, conversion, or switching
equipment, together with buses, circuit breakers,
control equipment, etc., from which energy is supplied
directly to the contact conductor system.
- 5
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 20.1.4
32. Stub-End Feed: A substation section, or a part
thereof, in which energy is supplied in only one
direction to loads in that substation section.
33. Substation Section: Where the contact conductor system
is not sectionalized or is sectionalized only at
substations, a section between successive substations
is a substation section. Where energy for a given
length of the contact conductor system is supplied
entirely from a single substation, either at the
substation or by means of contact conductor feeders
that extend from the substation, the section supplied
from the single substation is a substation section.
34. Transmission and Distribution Circuits: Railway
electrical supply circuits in which current normally is
substantially confined to metallic conductors,
insulated from ground, having substantially balanced
voltages to ground and carried on the same or
immediately adjacent supporting structures or in the
same or immediately adjacent duct runs. Such
transmission and distribution circuits generally carry
alternating current and may be single-phase or
multi-phase. When grounded, such circuits are grounded
only at neutral or substantially balanced points as
regards voltage to ground.
Transmission and distribution circuits are generally
distinguished from each other by the manner in which
they are used. Transmission circuits are generally
used to transmit power in bulk to suitable locations
from which it can be distributed to points of actual
utilization over the distribution circuits. While
rail-return circuits may fall under this classification
of distribution circuits, the treatment of inductive
coordination problems involving rail-return circuits
differs in many respects from that usually given to
other types of circuits, and therefore rail-return
circuits have been considered separately in these
practices.
35. Transposition: An interchange of position of
conductors of a circuit between successive lengths.
B. Principles
1. Scope: Railway electrical supply facilities and
commercial communication facilities supply essential
public services and these facilities frequently require
inductive coordination. The Principles herein are
intended to form a basis for the cooperative handling
of matters in connection with the inductive
coordination of these facilities.
- 6
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.4 2001
Where coordination between railway communication
facilities and commercial communication facilities is
necessary, such of these Principles as apply should be
followed.
2. Duty of Coordination: Railway electrical supply
facilities and commercial communication facilities
should be located, designed, constructed, operated and
maintained in conformity with general coordinated
methods. These methods should include limiting, as far
as practicable, the inductive influence of the railway
electrical supply facilities, the inductive
susceptiveness of commercial communication facilities,
and the coupling between these facilities.
Where general coordinated methods will be insufficient,
such specific coordinated methods suited to the
situation should be applied to the facilities of either
or both kinds as will most conveniently and
economically prevent interference, the methods to be
based on the then existing knowledge of the art.
3. Cooperation: In order that full benefit may be derived
from these Principles and in order to facilitate their
proper application, railway and communication companies
between whose facilities inductive coordination may now
or later be necessary, should adequately cooperate
along the following lines:
a. Railway and communication companies operating in
the same general territory should each give to the
other advance notice of any construction,
reconstruction, or change in operating conditions
of its facilities that are concerned or likely to
be concerned in situations requiring inductive
coordination.
b. If it appears to either company that problems of
inductive coordination requiring joint
consideration are involved, the companies should
confer and cooperate to secure inductive
coordination in accordance with the Principles set
forth herein.
c. To assist in promoting conformity with these
Principles, an arrangement should be set up
between the railway and the communication
companies whose facilities occupy the same general
territory, for the interchange of pertinent data
and information, including that relative to
proposed and existing construction and changes in
operating conditions of facilities concerned or
- 7
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 20.1.4
likely to be concerned in situations which require
inductive coordination.
4. Choice of Specific Coordinated Methods: When specific
coordinated methods are necessary and there is a choice
of such methods, those that provide the best
engineering solution should be adopted.
a. The specific methods selected should be such as to
meet the service requirements of both systems in
the most convenient and economical manner without
regard to whether they apply to the railway
electrical supply facilities or to the
communication facilities, or to both.
b. In determining which specific methods are most
convenient and economical in any situation, all
factors for all facilities concerned should be
taken into consideration, including present
factors and those which can be reasonably
foreseen.
c. Neither party should assume to be the judge of the
service requirements of the other system, or of
what constitutes good practice in that system.
5. Inductive Coordination for Existing Situations:
Railway and communication companies should exercise due
diligence in applying coordinated methods to existing
situations in accordance with these Principles.
When railway electrical supply facilities or
communication facilities are generally reconstructed,
rearranged, or extended, the new or changed parts
should be brought into conformity with these
Principles.
6. Coordinated Locations for Lines: Railway electrical
supply circuits are, as a rule, located along railway
rights-of-way as it is usually impracticable to locate
these circuits elsewhere. In order to provide adequate
service communication lines are located along streets,
highways and on private rights-of-way, and these routes
are often adjacent to railway rights-of-way. Moreover,
it is impracticable to change certain main
communication routes when these are established either
by extensive existing construction or by service
requirements. However, where alternative routes for
either class of circuit are available, these should be
considered, together with other possible methods of
coordination.
- 8
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.4 2001
7. Deferred General Coordination: While railway
electrical supply facilities or communication
facilities not concerned or likely to be concerned in
the near future in situations requiring inductive
coordination should usually conform to general
coordinated methods, either of these facilities,
pending the incoming or development of the other, may,
if deemed economically advantageous, occupy locations
or use types of construction and operating methods
other than those conforming to general coordinated
methods. However, non-coordinated facilities should be
altered when and as necessary to conform to such
methods upon the incoming or development of the other
facilities conforming to general coordinated methods.
Where, however, all things considered, specific
coordinated methods will be sufficient and more
economical than general coordinated methods in any
particular case, specific coordinated methods may be
applied.
8. Special Methods of Coordination: Where the inductive
coordination of railway electrical supply facilities
and communication facilities cannot be technically or
economically established under the methods of
coordination covered by these Principles, cooperative
consideration should be given to determine what special
methods should be employed.
C. Practices - Introductory
1. These recommended Practices supplement and are in
accord with the Principles. They are based on
experience and cooperative investigation and are
intended to indicate methods that should be considered
in the inductive coordination of railway electrical
supply facilities and communication facilities.
Quantitative discussions are not included since the
application of the Practices in specific cases will
depend upon the particular circumstances in each case
and the existing state of the art.
2. It is recognized that in the growth and development of
the railways and communications and as the art
progresses, other mutually satisfactory methods of
coordination will doubtless be devised. The fact that
such other methods are not included herein does not
preclude their use, nor their later incorporation in
these Practices as they may be agreed upon.
3. Electrified railways generally use the traffic rails to
carry power current and, since these rails are not
effectively insulated from ground, a portion of this
current flows in the ground. The treatment of the
- 9
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 20.1.4
problem of inductive coordination involving such
electrified railways differs in many respects from that
usually given to supply circuits in which normally the
power current is substantially confined to conductors
that are insulated from ground. It has been found
advisable, therefore, to divide the subject matter on
railway electrical supply facilities into two sections,
namely, "Practices Applicable to Transmission and
Distribution Circuits and Associated Equipment"
(Section F) and "Practices Applicable to Rail-Return
Circuits and Associated Equipment" (Section G).
4. In order that the intent of the Principles may be
carried out, the Practices herein designated as
"General Coordinated Methods" should be applied to all
railway electrical supply facilities and commercial
communication facilities except as deviations may be
made under the principle of "Deferred General
Coordination" (Paragraph B-7 of Principles). In cases
of inductive exposure where these general coordinated
methods are insufficient, such of the Practices herein
designated, as "Specific Coordinated Methods"
(Paragraphs E-2, F-2 and G-2) should also be applied,
as they will provide the best engineering solution. In
determining what specific coordinated methods should be
applied in such cases, consideration of the railway
communication facilities should be included.
D. Mutually Applicable Practices
1. Notice and Cooperation: Arrangements should be set up
between railway and communication companies operating
in the same general territory providing for notice, as
far in advance as practicable, of any construction,
changes in construction or changes in operating
conditions of their facilities, which are concerned or
are likely to be concerned in situations requiring
inductive coordination. These arrangements should
include a list of items regarding which each company
will give advance notice to the other company and
should specify the territory included in each such
arrangement. For each such territory each company
should designate an official to receive and send
advance notices and should adopt such routines within
their respective organizations as will provide for the
proper forwarding of advance notices and the prompt
handling of notices that are received. An illustrative
arrangement between a railway company and a commercial
communication company is shown in Appendix A.
Where situations arise which in the opinion of either
company require inductive coordination, the railway and
communication companies should cooperate in determining
- 10
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.4 2001
and carrying out those methods which provide the best
engineering solution in each case and to this end there
should be complete interchange of pertinent
information.
2. Operating Instructions: Railway companies should adopt
operating instructions that outline the procedure to be
followed when abnormal operating or fault conditions
exist. Communication companies should adopt operating
instructions specifically outlining the procedure for
notification of Railways when inductive disturbances
arise on their communication circuits that appear to be
due to the influence of Railway electrical supply
facilities.
If abnormal operating conditions on railway electrical
supply facilities should temporarily prevent the use of
certain communication facilities, and these effects can
be avoided only by rerouting the traffic or rearranging
the facilities of one or both companies, joint
consideration should be given to such arrangements as
will give the best overall results.
3. Records: Railway companies should keep operating
records of their electrical supply facilities and
communication companies should keep a record of
disturbances on their communication facilities so that
a study of such disturbances as appear to be due to
conditions on the railway will be facilitated.
4. Limitation of Influence and Susceptiveness: In
designing, specifying or otherwise determining the
character, location, construction, and arrangement of
railway electrical supply facilities or commercial
communication facilities, or the character, quality,
arrangement, and suitability of materials or apparatus
making up these facilities, and in operating and
maintaining these facilities, all factors which would
contribute to inductive influence or inductive
susceptiveness should be limited as far as necessary
and practicable.
The mechanical and electrical design and construction
of railway electrical supply facilities and commercial
communication facilities should conform to good modern
practice.
5. Coupling: Efforts should be made to arrange railway
electrical supply facilities and commercial
communication facilities so as to minimize the coupling
between them.
- 11
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 20.1.4
a. While coupling may be reduced by increasing the
separation in sections of the exposure, other
methods of coordination should be considered along
with this method and those arrangements adopted
which, in combination, will give the best
engineering solution. In the consideration of
separation as a means of reducing coupling, future
service requirements and premanency of location
should be included.
b. Where communication facilities and railway
electrical supply facilities are located in
proximity to each other, cooperative consideration
should be given to the relative locations of
grounds with a view to limiting coupling.
6. Changes in Systems or Methods of Operation: In
changing systems or methods of operation, precaution
should be taken to avoid increasing, and an effort made
to decrease the inductive influence or inductive
susceptiveness. If any condition develops which
increases these factors, an effort should be made
promptly to remedy such condition.
7. Maintenance: Railway electrical supply facilities and
communication facilities should be maintained in good
condition. Repairs and renewals should be made
promptly.
E. Practices Applicable to Communication Facilities
1. General Coordinated Methods: The following practices
should be applied to all commercial communication
facilities except as deviations may be made under the
principle of "Deferred General Coordination" (Paragraph
B-7 of Principles).
a. Protection: Protective devices should be so
designed, constructed, installed and maintained as
not to cause unavoidable unbalances or
interruptions of communication circuits.
b. Inspection: Routine inspections and tests should
be made with a view to maintaining electrical
balance and efficiency of communication
facilities.
c. Discontinuities: Discontinuities should be
limited to the number required by the conditions
to be met.
d. Lines: In order to minimize line unbalances, the
resistance, inductance, capacitance and leakage
- 12
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.4 2001
conductance of one side of a circuit in each
section thereof, should be as nearly equal
respectively to the corresponding quantities in
the other side of the same section of the circuit
as is necessary and practicable. Some of the
methods that should be followed for the purpose of
limiting the unbalance in lines are as follows:
1) Transpositions: The capacitances to earth of
the two sides of a metallic circuit on an
open-wire line should be suitably balanced by
transpositions. Before a metallic circuit is
placed in service, a check should be made to
insure that the transpositions are correctly
located and properly installed.
2) Derived Circuits: In the creation of
circuits from one or more circuits without
adding line conductors, due regard should be
given to avoiding unnecessary increases in
inductive susceptivness.
a) Phantom circuits should be created only
from similar adjacent pairs. Branches
connected to one side only of a phantom
circuit should be avoided unless
connected through repeating coils.
b) If one side circuit of a phantom group
is loaded for voice frequencies, the
other side circuit should be similarly
loaded at the same loading points, such
loading to have closely the same
electrical characteristics.
c) In general, phantom circuits should be
used only for toll or trunk circuits,
except in cases of long rural circuits.
3) Connections: Efforts should be made to
prevent the introduction of unbalance by
contact resistance.
a) In toll cable conductors, all joints
should be made in accordance with good
practice for the conditions concerned.
In open-wire toll conductors, all joints
should be made with sleeves or should be
well soldered or welded.
b) All wires should be properly cleaned
before the joints are made to insure
- 13
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 20.1.4
good contact.
c) All test connections, terminal boxes and
associated wiring should be designed,
constructed, installed and maintained so
as to avoid circuit unbalances as far as
practicable.
4) Use of Cable: Consideration should be given
to fiber optics or placing circuits in cable
at the time of rebuilding open wire lines.
e. Apparatus: All apparatus connected to a
communication circuit should be so designed,
constructed, installed and maintained as to
minimize, within practical limits, the unbalances
of the series impedance and admittance to ground
of the two sides of the circuit.
2. Specific Coordinated Methods: The specific practices
which follow are to be used in addition to the general
practices to supplement the latter, in so far as may be
necessary and practicable, in cases where railway
electrical supply facilities and commercial
communication facilities are involved or are about to
be involved in situations requiring inductive
coordination.
a. It is not intended that all of these practices
should be applied in any specific case, but in
each instance that practice or those practices
should be selected which, in combination with the
methods that are to be applied to the railway
electrical supply facilities, will afford the best
engineering solution.
b. Special Devices: Consideration should be given to
the use of special devices, such as neutralizing
transformers, sectionalizing transformers,
filters, resonant shunts, drainage, special
protective devices, acoustic shock reducers, etc.,
in any case where they may offer benefit, and
where service requirements permit.
c. Lines
1) Configuration: Where service requirements
permit a choice of configuration of a
communication circuit or a group of
communication circuits, consideration should
be given to the selection of a configuration
such as to limit inductive susceptiveness.
- 14
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.4 2001
2) Shielding: Where an open-wire line is
involved in an inductive exposure,
consideration should be given to the use of
methods of shielding in order to reduce
inductive effects. This should include
consideration of replacement of the open-wire
line by aerial or underground cable or fiber
within the exposure.
Where communication circuits are carried in
cable, consideration should be given to the
use of properly arranged and installed
grounds on cable sheaths, or other methods of
shielding.
3) Coordinated Transpositions: Consideration
should be given to the use of arrangements of
transpositions in open-wire lines involved in
inductive exposures, to reduce coupling.
Such transpositions should be located at
suitable intervals consistent with the
discontinuities of the exposure and the
locations of transpositions in the
paralleling Railway electrical supply lines.
d. Apparatus
1) Party Line Stations: Consideration should be
given to improving the electrical balance of
party line stations where noise frequency
effects are involved.
Where low frequency effects are involved,
consideration should be given to biasing
ringers, the use of relay sets, or other
available methods.
2) Central Office Equipment: Where a toll
circuit may be switched to another toll
circuit or to a subscriber's circuit,
repeating coils or other apparatus which will
adequately limit the inductive
susceptiveness.
Where series apparatus is applied to local
communication circuits, consideration should
be given to arranging it so that equal
impedances are inserted in each side of the
circuit where necessary and practicable.
3) Ground Connections: Ground connections, if
employed on equipment connected to
- 15
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 20.1.4
communication circuits, should, when
practicable, be at neutral or balanced
points.
e. Records: A detailed record should be kept of
disturbances in communication circuits involved in
inductive exposures where a study is advisable.
Such records should as fully as practicable
include date, time, duration, circuit designation,
location, nature, effects and probable cause of
the disturbances, and the method and time of
clearing the circuits.
All of the above records, or a convenient summary
thereof, should be available for the purpose of
analyzing causes and effects of disturbances.
F. Practices Applicable to Transmission and Distribution
Circuits and Associated Equipment
should be applied to all transmission and distribution
circuits and associated equipment except as deviation
may be made under the principle of "Deferred General
Coordination" (Paragraph B-7 of Principles).
a. Residual Voltages and Currents: Residual currents
returning by remote paths, and residual voltages,
should be limited as far as practicable.
b. Unsymmetrical loads between phases, which would
give rise to residual currents returning by remote
paths, or to residual voltages, should be avoided
as far as practicable.
c. Discontinuities: Discontinuities should be
limited to the number required by the conditions.
d. Switching: In all switching operations care
should be taken to limit the production of
transient disturbances.
Care should be taken to avoid repeatedly
energizing, at normal voltage, a transmission or
distribution circuit in order to locate or clear a
fault.
e. Connections: Care should be taken to avoid
contact resistance that might increase inductive
influence.
f. Lines: In order to limit the residual currents
and voltages arising from line unbalances, the
- 16
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.4 2001
resistance, inductance, capacitance and leakage
conductance of each side in any section of a
circuit should be as nearly equal as practicable
to the respective corresponding quantities in any
other side of the same section of the circuit.
Some of the methods and means for limiting
unbalance in lines are described below:
1) Configuration: Where there is a choice
between two or more configurations of
open-wire lines, consideration should be
given to the use of such configuration of a
circuit or a group of circuits as will
provide the superior balance.
2) Transpositions: The capacitances to earth of
the phase conductors of a circuit should be
suitably balanced by transpositions, as far
as necessary and practicable.
3) Branch Circuits: Where branches employing
less than the total number of phases are to
be used, they should be so planned as not to
give rise to excessive residual current
returning by remote paths or to excessive
residual voltages. This can be accomplished
by limiting the length of such branch
circuits and distributing them among the
phases of the main circuit.
4) Three-Phase Four-Wire Circuits with
Multi-Grounded Neutral: On three-phase
four-wire circuits with multi-grounded
neutral, single-phase and open-wye loads
should be limited in size and so distributed
among the phases as to limit the unbalanced
load current.
Where energy is supplied to three-phase
four-wire circuits with multi-grounded
neutral from a delta-wye-connected
transformer bank, consideration should be
given to connecting the neutral of
three-phase wye-delta-connected load
transformer banks to the neutral wire.
5) Overhead Ground Wires: Where overhead ground
wires are to be installed on transmission or
distribution lines, consideration should be
given to such kind and size of wire as will,
through shielding, reduce coupling as far as
practicable.
- 17
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 20.1.4
g. Apparatus:
1) Rotating Machinery: Synchronous machines
should be specified and selected so as to
have a waveform in which the harmonic
components are limited as far as practicable.
a) Where three-phase generators having
grounded neutrals are to be connected
either directly or through
wye-wye-connected transformer banks to
three-phase transmission or distribution
circuits, means should be used to
suppress triple harmonics as far as
necessary and practicable. This may be
accomplished in the design of the
generators, or by the use of auxiliary
equipment, or, where wye-wye transformer
banks are used, by delta-connected
tertiary windings on the transformers.
b) Induction motors and generators should
be specified and selected, the harmonic
voltages and currents of which, as far
as practicable, will not increase the
inductive influence of the system to
which they are connected.
2) Transformers: In order that the waveform of
voltage and current may be affected as little
as practicable by transformers, such
apparatus should be so designed as not to
require operation at excessive magnetic
densities. In the installation, connection,
and operation of transformers, care should be
taken to avoid normal voltages in excess of
rating, and excessive magnetizing currents.
a) Where a three-phase transmission or
distribution circuit is connected
directly to the wye-connected windings
of transformers with grounded neutral,
or to wye-connected auto-transformers
with grounded neutral, low impedance
closely coupled delta-connected
windings, or other suitable means for
adequately limiting the triple harmonic
components of residual currents and
voltages, should be employed.
b) Care should be taken that the individual
units in each bank of transformers,
operated with a grounded neutral and
- 18
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.4 2001
connected to a three-phase transmission
or distribution circuit, are
substantially alike as to electrical
characteristics and that they are
similarly connected.
3) Circuit Breakers: Each circuit breaker
controlling the supply of energy to
transmission or distribution circuits should
have all of its poles arranged for gang
operation. These circuit breakers should be
automatic for short circuits between phases
and from phase to ground, and should be of a
type that will disconnect the faulty circuit
in as short a time as practicable.
4) Protective Apparatus: Protective apparatus
should be such that it will not unnecessarily
add to transient disturbances and should, as
far as practicable, avoid or limit such
a) Lightning arresters should be so
adjusted as not to operate at small
over-voltages.
b) Lightning arresters that have been
temporarily withdrawn from service
should not be replaced in service until
they are in proper operating condition.
c) Where lightning arresters requiring
periodic charging are used on a
transmission or distribution circuit
involved in an inductive exposure, they
should be equipped with auxiliary
resistances and contacts.
d) Routine inspections and tests should be
made to insure that adjustments in all
protective apparatus are properly
maintained.
5) Ground Connections: Ground connections, if
employed on apparatus connected to
transmission or distribution circuits, should
be made at balanced or neutral points. This
precludes the use of grounded single-phase
loads and grounded open-wye transformer
connections on three-phase systems.
Consideration should be given to the use of
- 19
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 20.1.4
current limiting impedance in
neutral-to-ground connections of apparatus
electrically connected to transmission or
distribution circuits.
necessary and practicable, in cases where transmission
and distribution circuits and communication facilities
are involved or are about to be involved in situations
requiring inductive coordination.
methods that are to be applied to the
communication facilities, will afford the best
b. Lines:
1) Configuration: Where physical and economic
conditions permit a choice of configuration
of transmission or distribution circuits
within inductive exposures, the configuration
selected should be such as to limit the
inductive influence most effectively.
2) Branch Circuits: Consideration should be
given to the isolation of branch circuits
consisting of less than the total number of
phases of the main circuit, by means of
transformers, when such main or branch
circuits are involved in inductive exposures.
3) Coordinated Transpositions: Consideration
should be given to the use of transpositions
in transmission and distribution circuits,
within inductive exposures, for the purpose
of reducing coupling. Such transpositions
should be located at suitable intervals,
consistent with the discontinuities of the
exposure and the locations of transpositions
in the communication lines.
4) Shielding: Consideration should be given to
the installation of shield wires in inductive
exposures. In order to obtain the full
benefit of such shield wires they should be
effectively grounded at the ends of the
exposures and at intervals within the
- 20
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.4 2001
exposures.
Where overhead ground wires are to be
employed on transmission or distribution
lines, consideration should be given to the
use of such kind and size of wire as will,
through shielding, reduce coupling as far as
practicable; also to the effective grounding
of these wires within and adjacent to the
exposure and to the connection of these wires
to the station grounds at power supply points
where the neutrals of the transmission or
distribution circuits concerned are grounded.
c. Apparatus
1) Wave Shape: Where service conditions permit,
consideration should be given to special
means and devices for reducing the amplitude
of harmonics on systems involved in inductive
exposures.
a) Where a ground connection on the
armature winding of an alternating
current generator or motor, directly
connected to a transmission or
distribution circuit, results in triple
harmonics on circuits involved in
inductive exposure, means should be
employed to reduce the triple harmonics
as far as necessary and practicable.
b) Where rectifiers, arc furnaces or other
apparatus, distort the voltage or
current waveform of a transmission or
distribution circuit involved in an
inductive exposure, consideration should
be given to the use of suitable
auxiliary apparatus or other means to
limit such distortion.
2) Lightning Arresters: Where disturbances
arise at times of charging lightning
arresters, notwithstanding compliance with
Section F-1-7-d, every effort should be made
to do the charging at times of minimum
traffic load on the communication facilities
concerned.
3) Circuit Breakers: Consideration should be
given to the installation of automatic
circuit breakers or their equivalent to
control the supply of energy to transmission
- 21
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 20.1.4
or distribution circuits involved in
inductive exposures.
4) Current Limiting Devices: Consideration
should be given to the use of current
limiting devices in either the line wires or
the neutral-to-ground connection of
transmission and distribution circuits, as
far as necessary and practicable.
d. Records: Railway companies should keep detailed
operating records of their transmission and
distribution circuits which are involved in
inductive exposures where a study of disturbances
in the communication facilities concerned is
advisable. Such records should, as fully as
practicable, include date, time, duration, circuit
designation, location, nature and cause of
trouble, method and time of clearing the trouble
and any special or abnormal operating conditions.
analyzing cause and effect of disturbances on
communication circuits.
G. Practices Applicable to Rail-Return Circuits and Associated
Equipment
should be applied to all rail-return circuits and
associated equipment except as deviation may be made
under the principle of "Deferred General Coordination"
(Paragraph B-7 of Principles).
a. General Considerations: In the design,
construction and maintenance of rail-return
circuits and associated equipment, consideration
should be given to facilities and methods of
operation which will limit, as far as practicable,
the inductive effects on neighboring communication
facilities.
b. Electrified Railways: Single-Phase and Direct
Current.
1) Design of Network including Distribution of
Current: In the design and arrangement of
electrified railway circuits, consideration
should be given to means of limiting the
total ampere-miles in rail-return circuits on
either side of any load or short circuit, and
to equalizing the total ampere-miles on the
- 22
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.4 2001
two sides.
Means for obtaining benefit in these respects
exist, in the case of alternating current
electrifications, in the proper proportioning
of impedances among the transmission circuits
(including the distribution feeder - contact
conductor circuits of three-wire systems),
the system of rail-return circuits and the
substation transformers, and in the spacing
of substations. Similar methods exist in the
case of direct current electrifications.
2) Limitation of Short Circuit Current: In the
design and arrangement of alternating current
electrified railway circuits, including the
associated transmission and distribution
system and the facilities which supply energy
thereto, consideration should be given to
means of limiting short circuit currents in
rail-return circuits. On branch lines having
a power demand that is light compared to that
of the main system, it is often practicable
to design the network so as to limit short
circuit currents to a greater extent that can
be done on the main system.
On direct current electrifications,
means of controlling the rate of change of
short circuit currents on contact conductor
systems.
3) Contact Conductor Systems: Contact
conductors should be so arranged that they
can be sectionalized either normally or at
times of abnormal conditions.
a) Contact conductor systems not normally
sectionalized, should be so arranged
that they will be sectionalized
automatically at times of fault or short
circuit.
b) Consideration should be given to the use
of separate contact conductor feeders
for connecting the contact conductor
system associated with yard tracks to
substation buses.
c) Stub-end feed as a condition of normal
operation should be avoided as far as
- 23
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 20.1.4
practicable. Where this cannot be
avoided its length should be limited.
4) Return Current: Consideration should be
given to arrangements that will limit the
amount of current that returns through the
ground or remote metallic paths.
a) Rails should be bonded and cross-bonded
in accordance with good modern practice.
b) Where return feeders are to be employed,
consideration should be given to
locating them, with respect to
paralleling electrical supply
conductors, so as to minimize inductive
influence as far as practicable.
c) The method of connecting return feeders
to rails and the spacing of such
connections should be in conformity with
good modern practice.
d) Where conditions are such that return
current may follow remote metallic
paths, consideration should be given to
methods of limiting the flow of the
return current through such paths.
5) Rotating Machinery: Generators, frequency
converters and motors used in alternating
current railway electrifications should be
designed so as to have a waveform in which
harmonic components are limited.
a) Generators, motor-generator sets,
synchronous converters and motors used
in direct current railway
electrifications should be designed so
as to have a waveform in which
alternating current ripples are limited.
b) Where direct current generators, or the
direct current sides of motor-generator
sets or synchronous converters, are
operated in series, those operated in
each such series arrangement should be
alike in capacity and design, and
arranging them so that in their
operation the alternating current
ripples will oppose each other.
- 24
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.4 2001
c) Where synchronous machines are used on
the locomotives or cars operating on
alternating current railway
electrifications, consideration should
be given to placing such machines in
operation in a manner which will not
cause excessive current surges over the
contact conductor system.
6) Mercury Arc Rectifiers: Where mercury arc
rectifiers are to be employed on direct
current railway electrifications,
rectifiers having as large a number of phases
as practicable.
Consideration should be given to the use of
filters on the direct current side of mercury
arc rectifiers to suppress harmonics.
7) Transformers: In order that the waveform of
voltage and current may be affected as little
as possible by transformers, such apparatus
should not be designed for operation at
excessive magnetic densities. In the
installation, connection and operation of
transformers, care should be taken to avoid
normal voltages in excess of rating, and
excessive magnetizing currents.
8) Circuit Breakers: Circuit breakers
controlling the supply of energy to contact
conductor systems should be automatic.
a) Consideration should be given to
arranging circuit breakers controlling
the energy supplied to any section of
the contact conductor system so that,
under fault conditions, they will
operate as nearly simultaneously as
practicable.
b) High-speed circuit breakers should be
considered for use in positions
controlling the energy supplied to
contact conductor systems.
9) Protective Apparatus: Protective apparatus
should be such that it will not unnecessarily
add to transient disturbances and will, as
far as practicable, avoid or limit such
- 25
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 20.1.4
a) Lightning arresters should be so
adjusted as not to operate at small
over-voltages.
b) Lightning arresters that have been
temporarily withdrawn from service
should not be replaced in service until
they are in proper operating condition.
c) Where lightning arresters requiring
periodic charging are used on
rail-return circuits involved in an
inductive exposure, they should be
equipped with auxiliary resistances and
contacts.
d) Routine inspections and tests should be
made to ensure that adjustments on all
protective apparatus are properly
maintained.
10) Overhead Ground Wires: Where overhead ground
wires are associated with railway electrical
supply circuits carried on or near an
electrified railway, consideration should be
given to connecting such ground wires to the
traffic rails so that they may serve as part
of the return feeder system. In connecting
such ground wires to the traffic rails, due
consideration should be given to the
requirements of the signal system within the
territory involved.
c. Other Rail-Return Circuits: Where rail-return
circuits or associated equipment, other than for
single-phase and direct current electrified
railways, require inductive coordination with
commercial communication facilities, those of the
above methods that apply, should be followed in
the design, construction and maintenance of the
facilities concerned.
necessary and practicable, in cases where rail-return
circuits and commercial communication facilities are
involved, or are about to be involved, in situations
- 26
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.4 2001
methods that are to be applied to the commercial
communication facilities, will afford the best
b. Electrified Railways including Single-Phase and
Direct Current
1) Contact Conductor Systems: Consideration
should be given to specific arrangements of
contact conductor systems so as to reduce
inductive influence.
a) Where, because of local conditions,
certain locations and spacings of
substations will materially reduce
inductive influence, consideration
should be given to such locations and
spacings.
b) Where operation with contact conductors
sectionalized at substations, or at
other points, will materially reduce
inductive influence, consideration
should be given to such method of
operation.
c) Where, because of local conditions,
stub-end feeds are used, consideration
should be given to means of limiting
currents to short circuits on such
stub-end feeds.
2) Return Current: Consideration should be
given to the use of return feeders or
additional return feeders where a reduction
in the amount of current returning through
ground or remote metallic paths is desirable.
a) Where leakage to earth from the
conductors that connect traffic rails to
return feeders and negative buses
contributes to inductive influence,
insulating these conductors from ground.
b) Where material reduction of inductive
influence can be obtained by the use of
contact conductor feeders combined with
closely coupled return feeders, the use
of such arrangements should be
considered.
- 27
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 20.1.4
c) Consideration should be given to the use
of booster transformers in alternating
current railway electrifications.
c. Circuit Breakers: Consideration should be given
to the use of high-speed circuit breakers for
controlling the energy supplied to each substation
section of the contact conductor system. In cases
of multi-track installations, this should include
consideration of individual breakers in each
contact conductor feeder, as well as the
alternative in which a single circuit breaker may
control the energy supplied to a group of contact
conductors.
d. Lightning Arresters: Where disturbances arise at
times of charging lightning arresters,
notwithstanding compliance with Section G-1-2-i,
every effort should be made to do the charging at
times of minimum traffic load on the communication
facilities affected.
e. Potential-Neutralizing Conductors: Where
potential-neutralizing conductors would contribute
to the reduction of inductive influence, their use
should be considered.
f. Special Devices: Filters, resonant shunts or
other devices to suppress alternating current
ripples from rectifiers, generators,
motor-generator sets, synchronous converters or
motors used in direct current railway
electrifications, should be employed as far as
necessary and practicable.
Where mercury arc rectifiers are to be used in
direct current railway electrifications,
special means or devices to prevent or limit wave
shape distortion on the alternating current supply
system, as far as necessary and practicable.
g. Overhead Ground Wires: Where overhead ground
wires are to be used in connection with railway
electrical supply circuits carried alongside or
near the railway, consideration should be given to
making them of low resistance and connecting them
to the traffic rails so that they will serve as
part of the return feeder system. In connecting
such ground wires to the traffic rails, due
consideration should be given to the requirements
of the signal system within the territory
- 28
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.4 2001
involved.
h. Records: Railway companies should keep detailed
records of their electrical supply facilities
involved in inductive exposures, where a study of
disturbances in the communication facilities
concerned is advisable. Such records should, as
fully as practicable, include date, time,
duration, circuit designation, location, nature
and cause of trouble, method and time of clearing
the trouble, and any abnormal operating
conditions.
analyzing cause and effect of disturbances on the
i. Other Rail-Return Circuits: Where rail-return
circuits or associated equipment, other than for
single-phase or direct current electrified
railways, require inductive coordination with
commercial communication facilities, such of the
above specific methods as apply should be followed
in the design, construction and maintenance of the
facilities concerned.
Appendix A
Cooperation and Notice
Illustrative Arrangement Between a Railway
Company and a Communication Company
The purpose of this Appendix is to illustrate an arrangement for
cooperation and advance notice, in accordance with the Principles
and Practices, between a Railway Company and Communication
Companies operating in the same territory. In any specific case
the details may differ from the illustration, although the items
covered should ordinarily be included.
Cooperative Arrangements - Inductive Coordination
The Railway Company
The Communication Company
1. General: This memorandum covers arrangements for
cooperation and advance notice between the________________
Railway and the Communication Company
where inductive coordination is involved.
2. Cooperation: All situations requiring inductive
coordination will be handled in accordance with the
- 29
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 20.1.4
Principles and Practices for the inductive coordination of
railway electrical supply facilities and commercial
communication facilities.
3. Exchange of Advance Notice:
A. Territory and Representation
1. For the area traversed by the __________________
Railway in the States of ,
advance notice of any construction and other
information connected with the coordination of the
Railway electrical supply facilities and the
communication facilities of will
be forwarded by the Railway Company to Mr.
, General Plant Manager* of the
Communication Company and by the
Communication Company to Mr. ,
Superintendent of Communication* of the
Railway Company.
(*This will vary with the organization of the
company concerned.)
B. Advance Notice:
1. Items to be Reported:
Whenever any of the following items of work are
planned, a notice will be sent to the designated
representative of the other company as far in
advance as practicable of actual construction or
the making of commitments:
a. Construction of new facilities that will be
or are likely to be concerned in situations
b. Relocation or rearrangement of facilities
that will change the separation or length of
existing inductive exposures.
c. Reconstruction or rearrangement of
facilities, located on or near railway
rights-of-way, which will require or may
require inductive coordination.
d. Changes in facilities or methods of operation
that will appreciably affect inductive
susceptiveness or inductive influence, where
such facilities are involved in situations in
which consideration must be given to
2. Form of Advance Notice:
Advance notices will be sent by letter and will
- 30
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.4 2001
include the following:
a. Location and brief description of proposed
work.
b. Estimated starting and completion dates.
c. With whom the inductive coordination matters
involved should be taken up in the company in
whose plant the work is proposed.
4. Action to be Taken Upon Receipt of Advance Notice: The
representative of the company receiving advance notice will
proceed as follows:
a. See that the notice is promptly brought to the
attention of the people who are concerned in his
company and associated companies.
b. Ascertain if his company, or associated companies, plan
any work which may be affected by the proposed work.
c. Write to the representative of the company sending the
notice, advising as to his views with regard to the
desirability of further joint study, and as to who will
represent his company and associated companies in
connection with these matters.
d. Arrange for representatives of his company or
associated companies to get in touch with the proper
representatives of the other company.
5. Coordination for Existing Situations: Where the
circumstances are such as to make it advisable to give joint
consideration to coordination for existing situations, the
designated representatives of the railway and telephone
companies will make such arrangements for action or further
study as may be required by the facts in each specific case.
6. Special Arrangements: This section should include any
further and detailed arrangements that the railway and
communication companies desire to make.
- 1
AREMA C&S Manual
1994 Part 20.1.6
Recommended Principles and Practices for Inductive Coordination
of Electrical Supply and Communication Systems
Report of the Joint Engineering Subcommittee of the
Association of American Railroads and the
Edison Electric Institute; and the Association of American
Railroads & Electrical Power Research Institute

A-Introduction
A-1 Member companies of the Association of American Railroads
and member companies of the Edison Electric Institute have
found that their respective wire systems frequently require
inductive coordination. Railroad companies operate
communication circuits in connection with the movement of
trains and the general conduct of their business. In some
instances they also operate supply circuits for electrical
propulsion of trains and for supplying energy to signals,
shops and stations along the rights-of-way. Electric light
and power companies operate supply circuits for the
transmission and distribution of electrical energy to
consumers both large and small throughout the territory they
serve. In some instances they also operate communication
circuits in connection with their supply systems and in the
general conduct of their business. The characteristics of
the systems, as well as their physical relations introduce
problems of a character that make apparent that cooperative
study and the adoption of specific arrangements would make
possible the most satisfactory solution of these problems as
they may arise.

A-2 The Engineering Subcommittee has, therefore, prepared the
following:
1. Principles for the inductive coordination of railroad
and electric light and power supply and communication
facilities to provide for the best engineering solution
in each situation.

2. Practices for the inductive coordination of railroad
and electric light and power supply and communication
facilities covering the general and specific methods of
coordination that may be employed, based on the present
state of the art.

A-3 In accordance with its understanding of the desires of the
Joint General Committee, the Engineering Subcommittee has
approached this problem in the broadest possible spirit of
cooperation, recognizing that the orderly working out of
mutual problems in accordance with the best engineering
solution, by the organizations concerned, is to their best
interest and in the best public interest.

- 2
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.6 1994
A-4 It should be pointed out that the Principles and Practices
do not deal with the allocation of costs or with the
physical coordination of the respective systems except in so
far as the physical relations effect inductive coordination.

A-5 These Principles and Practices are intended to apply to all
new installations, extensions and reconstructions and to the
maintenance, operation and changes of all railroad or
electric light and power wire systems where inductive
coordination may be required now or later to prevent
interference with the rendering or providing the railroad or
electric light and power services.

A-6 The major problem is the coordination of electric supply
facilities, and telephone and telegraph facilities. It is
recognized, however, that some coordination of supply
facilities and signal facilities may be required. All the
Principles and many of the Practices apply to all types of
communication facilities. It is to be understood,
therefore, that wherever the term "communication facilities"
is used, it includes signal facilities in so far as the
Principles are concerned, and in such of the Practices as
may be applicable.

B-Principles
B-1 Duty of Coordination: In order to meet the reasonable
service needs of the public, all railroad and electric light
and power wire systems with their associated apparatus
should be designed, located, constructed, operated and
maintained in conformity with general coordinative methods.
Where the general coordinative methods are insufficient,
such specific coordinative methods as are suited to the
situation should be applied to one or more of the facilities
so as to provide the best engineering solution. The methods
of inductive coordination should include the limiting of the
inductive influence of the supply system, of the inductive
susceptiveness of the communication system, or such
combination of these as will most conveniently and
economically provide satisfactory coordination, the methods
to be based on the knowledge of the art.

B-2 Cooperation: In order that full benefit may be derived from
these Principles and in order to facilitate their proper
application, railroad and electric light and power companies
between whose facilities inductive coordination may now or
later be necessary, should cooperate along the following
lines:

1. Railroad and electric light and power companies
operating in the same general territory should give
each to the other advance notice of any construction,
reconstruction or change in operating conditions of its
- 3
AREMA C&S Manual
1994 Part 20.1.6
facilities which are concerned or likely to be
concerned in situations requiring inductive
coordination.

2. If it appears to either company that problems of
inductive coordination requiring joint consideration
are involved, the companies should confer and cooperate
to secure inductive coordination in accordance with the
Principles set forth herein.

3. To assist in promoting conformity with these
Principles, an arrangement should be set up between the
railroad and the electric light and power companies
whose facilities occupy the same general territory, for
the interchange of pertinent data and information,
including that relative to existing and proposed
construction and changes in operating conditions of
facilities concerned or likely to be concerned in
situations which require inductive coordination.

4. A computer software program (CORRIDOR) is available
through AAR or Electrical Power Research Institute
(EPRI) and will enable railroad communications and
signal engineers to calculate overhead transmission
line coupling to passive conductors.

The CORRIDOR module enable railroad communications and
signal engineers to readily determine the induced
voltage and current in conductors that parallel one or
more power lines. Input data can include common
occurrences such as multiple power lines, segmented or
multigrounded static wires, counterpoises, rail or
pipeline insulators, relay impedances, ballast
unbalance, bonds between pipelines or other conductors,
cathodic protection anodes, and pipeline-coating and
soil-resistivity changes along the length of the
corridor. Most importantly the CORRIDOR module
accounts for the shielding or interactive effects
(mutual coupling) of the various paralleling conductors
of the sharing utilities, and it predicts the voltage
and current coupled to the passive conductors at user-
defined locations along the corridor.

B-3 Choice of Specific Coordinative Methods: When specific
coordinative methods are necessary and there is a choice of
such methods, those that provide the best engineering
solution should be adopted.

1. The specific methods selected should be such as to meet
the service requirements of both systems in the most
convenient and economical manner without regard to
whether they apply to the railroad or electric light
- 4
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.6 1994
and power facilities or to both.

2. In determining which specific methods are most
convenient and economical in any situation, all factors
for all facilities concerned should be taken into
consideration, including present factors and those
which can reasonably be foreseen.

3. Neither party should assume to be the judge of the
service requirements of the other system, or of what
constitutes good practice in that system.

B-4 Inductive Coordination for Existing Situations: Railroad
and electric light and power companies should exercise due
diligence in applying coordinative methods to existing
situations in accordance with these Principles.

When railroad or electric light and power facilities are
generally reconstructed, rearranged, or extended, the new or
changed parts should be brought into conformity with these
Principles.

B-5 Systematic Fundamental Planning: The principles of advance
notice and cooperation are not limited in application to
instances of new construction or reconstruction presently to
be undertaken, but should be applied also in connection with
preparation of fundamental or systematic plans for future
extension and improvement of their systems. The application
of these principles, in cases of the latter class, should be
made sufficiently early to ensure that fundamental plans for
future developments will encounter no serious difficulties
of coordination that can reasonably be foreseen.

B-6 Coordinated Location for Lines: The utilization of
generally paralleling rights-of-way is often essential to
the economical and efficient extension, operation and
maintenance of railroad and electric light and power
facilities.

1. Each utility recognizes the right of the other to
place, as necessity requires, circuits of any modern
and efficient type on any highway, provided the
location and type of construction are such as to
coordinate reasonably with modern and efficient
circuits of the other utility.

2. Each utility recognizes the right of the other to
operate lines of modern and efficient type along
private rights-of-way free from substantial
interference to service resulting from the
construction, maintenance or operation of paralleling
lines of the other utility. Each utility admits,
- 5
AREMA C&S Manual
1994 Part 20.1.6
however, the right of the other utility to construct
lines paralleling its private rights-of-way, provided
it is practicable to coordinate the respective systems
in such a manner that they can be maintained and
operated without causing substantial interference to
the service of either utility.

3. Railroad circuits are, as a rule, located along
railroad rights-of-way as it is usually impracticable
to locate these circuits elsewhere. In order to
provide adequate service, electric light and power
circuits are located along streets, highways, and on
private rights-of-way, and these routes are often
adjacent to railroad rights-of-way. Moreover, it is
impracticable to change the routes of certain electric
light and power circuits when these are established
either by extensive existing construction or by service
requirements. However, where alternative routes for
either class of circuit are available, these should be
considered, together with other possible methods of
coordination.

B-7 Deferred General Coordination: While railroad facilities or
electric light and power facilities not concerned or likely
to be concerned in the near future in situations requiring
inductive coordination should usually conform to general
coordinative methods, either of these facilities, pending
the incoming or development of the other, may, if deemed
economically advantageous, occupy locations or use types of
construction and operating methods other than those
conforming to general coordinative methods. However,
non-coordinated facilities should be altered when and as
necessary to conform to such methods upon the incoming or
development of the other facilities conforming to general
coordinative methods. Where, however, all things
considered, specific coordinative methods will be sufficient
and more economical than general coordinative methods in any
particular case, specific coordinative methods may be
applied.

B-8 Special Methods of Coordination: Where the inductive
coordination of railroad facilities and electric light and
power facilities cannot be technically or economically
established under the methods of coordination covered by
these Principles, cooperative consideration should be given
to determine what special methods should be employed.

C-Practices - Introductory
C-1 These recommended Practices supplement and are in accord
with the Principles. They are based on experience and
cooperative investigation and are intended to indicate
methods that should be considered in the inductive
- 6
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.6 1994
coordination of supply facilities and communication
facilities. Quantitative discussions are not included since
the application of the Practices in specific cases will
depend upon the particular circumstances in each case and
the existing state of the art.

C-2 Electrified railroads generally use the traffic rails to
carry power current and since these rails are not
effectively insulated from ground, a portion of this current
flows in the ground. The treatment of the problem of
inductive coordination involving such electrified railroads
differs in many respects from that usually given to other
types of supply circuits. In the design, construction and
maintenance of rail-return circuits and associated
equipment, consideration should be given to facilities and
methods of operation which will limit, as far as
practicable, the inductive effects on neighboring
communication facilities. The coordination of these
circuits with the communication circuits of the railroad and
of commercial communication companies presents the major
problem. Since in practically every case the measures
adopted to provide this coordination will be adequate to
take care of any communication facilities of electric light
and power companies, no detailed practices have been
prepared for these circuits.

C-3 It is recognized that in the growth and development of the
railroad and electric light and power industries and as the
art progresses, other mutually satisfactory methods of
coordination will doubtless be devised. The fact that such
other methods are not included herein does not preclude
their use, nor their later incorporation in these Practices
as they may be agreed upon.

C-4 In order that the intend of the Principles may be carried
out, the Practices herein designated as "General
Coordinative Methods" should be applied to all supply
facilities and communication facilities except as deviations
may be made under the principle of "Deferred General
Coordination." In cases of inductive exposure, where these
general coordinative methods are insufficient, such of the
Practices herein designated as "Specific Coordinative
Methods," should also be applied as will provide the best

D-Mutally Applicable Practices
D-1 Notice and Cooperation: Arrangements should be set up
between railroad and electric light and power companies
operating in the same general territory providing for
notice, as far in advance as practicable, of any
construction, changes in construction or changes in
operating conditions of their facilities, which are
- 7
AREMA C&S Manual
1994 Part 20.1.6
concerned or are likely to be concerned in situations
requiring inductive coordination. These arrangements should
include a list of items regarding which each company will
give advance notice to the other company and should specify
the territory included in each such arrangement. For each
such territory each company should designate an office to
receive and send advance notices and should adopt such
routines within its organization as will provide for the
proper forwarding of advance notices and the prompt handling
of notices that are received. (An illustrative arrangement
between a railroad company and an electric light and power
company is shown in Appendix A.)

D-2 Where situations arise which in the opinion of either
company require inductive coordination, the railroad and
electric light and power companies should cooperate in
determining and carrying out those methods which provide the
best engineering solution in each case and to this end there
should be complete interchange of pertinent information.

D-3 Operating Instructions: Companies operating supply circuits
should adopt instructions that outline the procedure to be
followed when abnormal operating or fault conditions exist.
Companies operating communication circuits should adopt
instructions that outline the procedure for notification of
a company operating a neighboring supply system when
inductive disturbances arise on communication circuits that
appear to be due to the influence of that supply system.

D-4 If abnormal operating conditions on supply facilities of one
company should temporarily prevent the use of certain
communication facilities of the other, and these effects can
be avoided only by rerouting the services or rearranging the
facilities of one or both companies, joint consideration
should be given to such arrangements as will give the best
overall results from the standpoint of the public.

D-5 Records: In order to facilitate a study of disturbances on
the communication facilities of one company which appear to
be due to conditions on the supply facilities of another
company, each company should keep operating records of its
own supply facilities as well as records of disturbances on
its communication facilities.

D-6 Limitation of Influence and Susceptiveness: In designing,
specifying or otherwise determining the character, location,
construction, and arrangement of supply facilities or
communication facilities, or the character, quality,
arrangement, and suitability of materials or apparatus
making up these facilities, and in operating and maintaining
these facilities, all factors which would contribute to
inductive influence or inductive susceptiveness should be
- 8
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.6 1994
limited as far as necessary and practicable.

D-7 The mechanical and electrical design and construction of
supply facilities and communication facilities should
conform to good modern practice.

D-8 Coupling: Efforts should be made to arrange supply
facilities and communication facilities so as to minimize
the coupling between them.

D-9 While coupling may be reduced by increasing the separation
in sections of the exposure, other methods of coordination
should be considered along with this method and those
arrangements adopted which, in combination, will give the
best engineering solution. In the consideration of
separation as a means of reducing coupling, future service
requirements and permanency of location should be included.

D-10 Where communication facilities of one company and supply
facilities of the other company are located in proximity to
each other, cooperative consideration should be given to the
relative locations of ground connections with a view to
limiting coupling.

D-11 Changes in Systems or Methods of Operation: In changing
systems or methods of operation, precaution should be taken
to avoid increasing, and an effort made toward decreasing,
the inductive influence or inductive susceptiveness. If any
condition develops which increases these factors, an effort
should be made promptly to remedy the situation as far as
necessary and practicable.

D-12 Maintenance: Supply facilities and communication facilities
should be maintained in good condition. Repairs and
renewals should be made promptly.

E-Practices Applicable to Communication Facilities
E-1 General Coordinative Methods: The following practices
should be applied to communication facilities except as
deviations may be made under the principle of "Deferred
General Coordination."

E-2 Protection: Protective devices should be so designed,
constructed, installed and maintained as not to cause
unnecessary unbalances or interruptions of communication
circuits.

E-3 Inspection: Routine inspections and tests should be made
with a view to maintaining electrical balance and efficiency
of communication facilities.

E-4 Discontinuities: Discontinuities should be limited to the
- 9
AREMA C&S Manual
1994 Part 20.1.6
number required by the conditions to be met.

E-5 Insulation Resistance: The insulation resistance of
communication circuits should be as high as is necessary and
practicable.

E-6 Cable plant should be so designed, constructed and
maintained as to ensure a high insulation of working
conductors.

E-7 Conductor Spacing: In order to avoid increasing the
interaction between grounded telegraph circuits, pin
spacings less than those normally employed in communication
practice should be avoided.

E-8 Excessive spacing of the conductors of metallic circuits
should be avoided. This, however, does not mean that the
spacing should be less than that required by considerations
of safety and service.

F-Practices Applicable to Supply Circuits
and Associated Equipment
F-1 General Coordinative Methods: The following practices
should be applied to all supply circuits and associated
equipment (not including rail return circuits) except as
deviation may be made under the principle of "Deferred
General Coordination."

F-2 Residual Voltages and Currents: Residual currents returning
in the earth or by remote metallic paths, and residual
voltages, should be limited as far as practicable.

Unsymmetrical loads between phases, which would give rise to
such residual currents or voltages should be avoided as far
as practicable.

F-3 Discontinuities: Discontinuities should be limited to the
number required by the conditions to be met.

F-4 Switching: In all switching operations care should be taken
to limit the production of transient disturbances.

Care should be taken to avoid reenergizing a faulted circuit
at normal voltage an excessive number of times even if done
in order to locate or clear the fault.

F-5 Connections: Care should be taken to avoid contact
resistance that might increase inductive influence.

F-6 Balance of Lines: In order to limit the residual currents
and voltages arising from line unbalances, the resistance,
- 10
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.6 1994
inductance, capacitance and leakage conductance of each side
of a circuit in any section thereof should be as nearly
equal as practicable to the corresponding quantities in any
other side in the same section.

Some of the methods and means for limiting unbalance in
lines are described as follows:

1. Configuration: Where there is a choice between two or
more configurations of open-wire lines, consideration
should be given to the use of such configuration of a
circuit or a group of circuits as will provide the
superior balance.

2. Phase Arrangement (Interconnection): Certain phase
arrangements of multiple circuit lines that are
especially effective in reducing the inductive
influence should where practicable, be employed.

3. Transpositions: The capacitances and inductances of
the phase conductors of a circuit should be suitably
balanced by transpositions, as far as necessary and
practicable.

4. Branch Circuits: Where branches employing less than
the total number of phases are to be used, they should
be so planned as not to give rise to excessive residual
current returning in the earth or by remote metallic
paths, or to excessive residual voltages. Limiting the
length of such branch circuits and distributing them
among the phases of the main circuit will aid in
accomplishing this result.

F-7 Three-Phase Four-Wire Circuits with Multi-Grounded Neutral:
On three-phase four-wire circuits with multi-grounded
neutral, single phase and open-wye loads should be limited
in size and distributed among the phases to limit as far as
necessary and practical the unbalanced load current.

Where energy is supplied to three-phase four-wire circuits
with multi-grounded neutral from a delta-wye connected
transformer bank, consideration should be given to
connecting the neutral of three-phase wye-delta connected
load transformer banks to the neutral wire in order to limit
the flow of triple harmonic currents.

F-8 Overhead Ground Wires: Where overhead ground wires are to
be installed on supply lines, consideration should be given
to the utilization of such kind and size of wire as will aid
in providing the most satisfactory coordination. Frequently
those characteristics that are beneficial from a
coordination standpoint during abnormal conditions on the
- 11
AREMA C&S Manual
1994 Part 20.1.6
supply line have adverse effects during normal operating
periods. Therefore the relative importance of both normal
and abnormal effects should be considered in each
installation.

F-9 Rotating Machinery: Synchronous machines should be
specified and selected so as to have a waveform in which the
harmonic components are limited as far as necessary and
practicable. Where three-phase generators having grounded
neutrals are to be connected either directly or through
wye-wye connected transformer banks to three-phase supply
circuits, means should be used to suppress triple harmonics

Induction motors and generators should be selected so that,
as far as practicable, their harmonic voltages and currents
will not increase the inductive influence of the system to
which they are connected.

F-10 Transformers: In order that the waveform of voltage and
current may be affected as little as practicable by
transformers, such apparatus should be designed as not to
require operation at excessive magnetic densities. In the
installation, connection and operation of transformers, care
should be taken to avoid normal voltages in excess of
rating, and excessive magnetizing currents.

1. Where a three-phase supply circuit is connected to
wye-wye connected transformers with grounded neutral,
or to wye-connected auto-transformers with grounded
neutral, low impedance closely coupled delta-connected
windings, or other suitable means for adequately
limiting the triple harmonic components of residual
currents and voltages should be employed.

2. Care should be taken that the individual units in each
bank of transformers, operated with a grounded neutral
and connected to a three-phase supply circuit, are
substantially alike as to electrical characteristics
and that they are similarly connected.

F-11 Circuit Breakers: Each circuit breaker controlling the
supply of energy to transmission circuits should have all of
its poles arranged for gang operation, except when arranged
for rapid opening and reclosing of a single phase to clear a
phase-to-ground flashover. These circuit breakers should be
automatic for short circuits between phases and in the case
of grounded-neutral systems from phase to ground. They
should be of a type that will disconnect the faulty circuit
in as short a time as practicable.

F-12 Protective Apparatus: Protective apparatus should be such
- 12
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.6 1994
that it will not unnecessarily add to transient disturbances
and should, as far as practicable, avoid or limit such

1. Lightning arresters should be so designed and adjusted
as not to operate at small over-voltages.

2. Where lightning arresters requiring periodic charging
are used on a supply circuit involved in an inductive
exposure, they should be equipped with auxiliary
resistances and contacts.

3. Routine inspections and tests should be made to ensure
that adjustments in all protective apparatus are
properly maintained.

F-13 Ground Connections: Ground connections, if employed on
apparatus connected to supply circuits, should so far as
practical be made at balanced or neutral points. In single-
phase extensions of multi-grounded neutral circuits one side
of the circuit is still considered a neutral although it is
not a balance point of the particular branch.

1. Ground-return circuits or ground-return branches of
multi-wire supply circuits should not be employed.

2. Consideration should be given to the use of current
limiting impedance in neutral-to-ground connections of
apparatus electrically connected to supply circuits.

F-14 Specific Coordinative Methods: The specific practices which
follow are to be used in addition to the general practices
to supplement the latter, in so far as may be necessary and
practicable, in cases where supply circuits and
communication facilities are involved or are about to be
involved in situations requiring inductive coordination.

It is not intended that all of these practices should be
applied in any specific case, but in each instance that
practice or those practices should be selected which, in
combination with the methods that are to be applied to the
communication facilities, will afford the best engineering
solution.

F-15 Configuration: Where physical and economic conditions
permit a choice of configuration of supply circuits within
inductive exposures, the configuration selected should be
such as to limit the inductive influence most effectively.

F-16 Coordinated Transpositions: Consideration should be given
to the use of transpositions in supply circuits, within
inductive exposures, for the purpose of reducing coupling at
- 13
AREMA C&S Manual
1994 Part 20.1.6
noise frequencies. Such transpositions should be located at
suitable intervals, consistent with the discontinuities of
the exposure and the locations of transpositions in the
communication circuits. Where normal induction at
fundamental frequency is involved, consideration also should
be given to the location of the transpositions so as to
reduce coupling with overhead ground wires or shield wires
within inductive exposures. In addition, consideration
should be given to the location of existing transpositions
so as to obtain the best overall results.

F-17 Wave Shape: Where necessary and where service conditions
permit, consideration should be given to special means and
devices for reducing the amplitude of harmonics on systems
involved in inductive exposures.

1. Where a ground connection on the armature winding of an
alternating-current generator or motor, directly
connected to a supply circuit, results in triple
harmonics on circuits involved in inductive exposures,
means should be employed as far as necessary and
practicable to reduce the triple harmonics.

2. Where rectifiers, arc furnaces or other apparatus,
distort the voltage or current waveform of a supply
circuit involved in an inductive exposure,
consideration should be given to the use of suitable
auxiliary apparatus or other means to limit such
distortion as far as necessary and practicable.

F-18 This Section intentionally left blank

F-19 Circuit Breakers: Consideration should be given to the
installation of automatic circuit breakers or their
equivalent to control the supply of energy to supply
circuits involved in inductive exposures.

Practice similar to that for transmission circuit is
desirable for distribution circuits as far as coordination
is concerned and should be applied to distribution circuits

F-20 Current Limiting Devices: Consideration should be given to
the use of current limiting devices in either the line wires
or the neutral-to-ground connection of supply circuits as
far as necessary and practicable.

F-21 Branch Circuits: Consideration should be given to the
isolation of branch circuits consisting of less than the
total number of phases of the main circuit, by means of
transformers, when such main or branch circuits are involved
in inductive exposures.
- 14
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.6 1994
F-22 Shielding: Consideration should be given to the
installation of shield wires in inductive exposures. In
order to obtain the full benefit of such shield wires they
should be effectively grounded at the ends of the exposures
and at intervals within the exposures.

G-Explanation of Terms
For the purpose of these Principles and Practices, the
following terms are used with meanings as given below:

G-1 Abnormal Operating Conditions: Electrical operating
conditions resulting when operating arrangements other than
normal are established.

G-2 Communication Circuits: Circuits used for the electrical
transmission of intelligence by wire, such as telephone,
telegraph, signal relaying or control circuits.

G-3 Communication Facilities: Communication circuits and their
associated apparatus.

G-4 Configuration: The geometrical arrangement in transverse
section of any assemblage of generally parallel conductors
including their sizes and their relative positions with
respect to other conductors and to the earth.

G-5 Coordinated Transpositions: Transpositions which are
installed, either in supply circuits or in communication
circuits or in both, for the purpose of reducing coupling;
and which are located effectively with respect to the
discontinuities of the exposure and are so arranged that
those in each circuit are located with due regard to those
in the other circuit.

G-6 Coupling: The interrelation of neighboring circuits by
electric or magnetic induction or both, or by conduction
through a common earth path, or by combinations thereof.

G-7 Discontinuity: A point at which there is an abrupt change
in the physical relations of supply circuits and
communication circuits or in the electrical characteristics
of either circuit. Transpositions, however, are not
considered as discontinuities.

G-8 Fault Conditions: Conditions resulting when a fault to
ground or a short-circuit occurs on a supply circuit.

G-9 General Coordinative Methods: Those methods reasonably
available for general application to communication
facilities or supply facilities that contribute to inductive
coordination without specific consideration of the
requirements of individual inductive exposures.
- 15
AREMA C&S Manual
1994 Part 20.1.6
G-10 Inductive Coordination: The location, design, construction,
operation and maintenance of communication facilities and
supply facilities in conformity with harmoniously adjusted
methods which will prevent inductive interference.

Note: Inductive interference is an effect arising from the
characteristics and inductive relations of communication
facilities and supply facilities of such character and
magnitude as would prevent the satisfactory and economical
operation of the communication facilities if methods of
inductive coordination were not applied.

1. Inductive Exposure: A situation of proximity between
supply facilities and communication facilities under
such conditions that inductive coordination should be
considered.

2. Inductive Influence: Those characteristics of supply
facilities that determine the character and intensity
of the inductive field which they produce.

3. Inductive Susceptibility: Those characteristics of
communication facilities which determine, so far as
such characteristics can determine, the extend to which
such facilities are capable of being adversely affected
in giving service, by a given inductive field.

G-11 Overhead Ground Wires: Wires installed on aerial lines and
grounded at intervals, which are intended primarily to
provide lightning protection for the supply circuits or to
limit potential rise of structures in case of fault, or
both.

G-12 Supply Circuits: Circuits used for the electrical
transmission of energy.

G-13 Supply Facilities: Supply circuits and their associated
apparatus.

G-14 Residual Current: The vector sum of the currents in the
phase conductors of a transmission or distribution circuit.

G-15 Residual Voltage: The vector sum of the voltages to ground
of the phase conductors of a transmission or distribution
circuit.

G-16 Shielding: An effect, due to the presence of grounded
conductors or grounded conducting structures, which in
general is a reduction in coupling between neighboring
circuits.

G-17 Shield Wires: Wires that are installed primarily to provide
- 16
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.6 1994
reduction in coupling by shielding.

G-18 Specific Coordinative Methods: Those additional methods
applicable to specific situations, where general
coordinative methods are inadequate.

G-19 Transpositions: An interchange of position of conductors of
a circuit between successive length.

APPENDIX A
COOPERATION AND NOTICE

Illustrative Arrangement Between a
Railroad Company and an Electric Light and Power Company

The purpose of this Appendix is to illustrate an arrangement
for cooperation and advance notice, in accordance with the
Principles and Practices, between a Railroad Company and an
Electric Light and Power Company operating in the same territory.
In any specific case the details may differ from the
illustration, although the items covered should ordinarily be
included.

COOPERATIVE ARRANGEMENTS
INDUCTIVE COORDINATION

The Railroad Company
The Electric Light and Power Company

General
This memorandum covers arrangements for cooperation and
advance notice between the Railroad and the
Electric Light and Power Company where
inductive coordination is involved.

Cooperation
All situations requiring inductive coordination will be
handled expeditiously in accordance with the Principles and
Practices of the Joint General Committee of Association of
American Railroads and the Edison Electric Institute.

Territory and Representation
For the area traversed by the Railroad in
the States of advance notice of any
construction and other information connected with the
coordination of Railroad and Electric Light and Power supply and
communication facilities will be forwarded by the Railroad
Company to Mr. , Superintendent of
Distribution* of the Electric Light and
Power Company and by the Electric Light and Power Company to Mr.
- 17
AREMA C&S Manual
1994 Part 20.1.6
, Superintendent of Communication* of
the Railroad Company.

* This will vary with the organization of the company
concerned.

Items to be Reported: Whenever any of the following items of
work are planned, a notice will be sent to the designated
representative of the other company as far in advance as
practicable of actual construction or the making of commitments:
1. Construction of new facilities that will be or are
likely to be concerned in situations requiring

2. Relocation or rearrangement of facilities that will
change the separation of length of existing inductive
exposures.

3. Reconstruction or rearrangement of facilities, located
on or near railroad rights-of-way, which will require
or may require inductive coordination.

4. Changes in facilities or methods of operation that will
appreciably affect inductive susceptiveness or
inductive influence, where such facilities are involved
in situations in which consideration must be given to

Form of Advance Notice: Advance notices will be sent by letter
and will include the following:
1. Location and brief description of proposed work.

2. Estimated starting and completion dates.

3. With whom the inductive coordination matters involved
should be taken up in the company in whose plant the
work is proposed.

Action to be Taken Upon Receipt of Advance Notice: The
representative of the company receiving advance notice will
proceed as follows:
1. See that the notice is promptly brought to the
attention of the people who are concerned in his
company and associated companies.

2. Ascertain if his company, or associated companies, plan
any work which may be affected by the proposed work.

3. Write to the representative of the company sending the
notice, advising as to his views with regard to the
desirability of further joint study, and as to who will
- 18
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.6 1994
represent his company and associated companies in
connection with these matters.

4. Arrange for representatives of his company or
associated companies to get in touch with the proper
representatives of the other company.

Coordination for Existing Situations: Where the circumstances
are such as to make it advisable to give joint consideration to
coordination for existing situations, the designated
representatives of the Railroad and Electric Light and Power
companies will make such arrangements for action or further study
as may be required by the facts in each specific case.

Special Arrangements: (This section should include any further
and detailed arrangements which the Railroad and Electric Light
and Power companies desire to make.)
- 1
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
Discussion of Fundamental Factors Involved in
Inductive Coordination and of Remedial Measures Applicable
Under Various Conditions
Revised 1996 (82 pages)
Index
A-Introductory
Paragraphs
Introductory...................................... A-1 to A-5
B-General
Electromagnetic Induction, Electric and Magnetic
Induction.................................... B-1 to B-5
Induction from Electrical Supply Circuits into
Communication Circuits, Effect of the
Earth........................................ B-6 to B-7
C-Fundamental Principles of Shielding
General........................................... C-1
Fundamental Principles of Shielding............... C-2 to C-16
Calculation of Shield Factor...................... C-17 to C-26
D-Balance of Power and Communication Circuits
General........................................... D-1
Balance of Supply Circuits........................ D-2 to D-43
Configuration................................ D-9 to D-22
Transpositions............................... D-23 to D-25
Branches Consisting of Less Than the Total
Number of Phase Wires........................ D-26 to D-43
Balance of Communication Circuits................. D-44 to D-53
Line Unbalances.............................. D-46
Mutual Unbalances............................ D-47 and D-48
Self Unbalances.............................. D-49 to D-53
Equipment Unbalances.............................. D-54 to D-56
Office Unbalances............................ D-55
Station Unbalances........................... D-56
E-Transpositions
General........................................... E-1 to E-13
Application of Transpositions..................... E-14
Supply Circuit Transpositions................ E-14
Supply Circuit Transpositions for Low Frequency
Induction.................................... E-15 to E-48
Balanced Current Induction................... E-24 to E-27
- 2
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
Paragraphs
Design of Barrels in Pairs................... E-28
Transpositions at Ends of Barrels............ E-29
Crossovers................................... E-30
Use of One Three-Phase Transposition......... E-31
Balance to More Than One Communication Line.. E-32 and E-33
Transpositions to Reduce Residuals in Ground
Wires, Phase Conductors, etc............ E-34
Ground Wire Induction........................ E-35 to E-39
Balance to Ground............................ E-40
Load and Single Phase Extension Unbalance.... E-41
Composite Systems............................ E-42 and E-43
Interconnection of Phases of Twin Circuit
Lines................................... E-44
Methods of Transposition..................... E-45 and E-46
Combined Systems............................. E-47
Interconnection for Least Capacitance
Unbalance............................... E-48
Supply Circuit Transpositions to Reduce Noise
Frequency Induction.......................... E-49 to E-71
Communication Circuit Transpositions......... E-50 to E-52
Transposition Systems for Communication Lines E-53
Exposed Line System.......................... E-54
Whole Line Transpositions.................... E-55 and E-56
C-1 Transposition System..................... E-57
R-1 Transposition System..................... E-58
R-2 Transposition System..................... E-59 and E-60
Coordinated Transpositions................... E-61 to E-66
Design Procedure............................. E-67
Communication and Signal Supply Circuits
on Joint Poles.......................... E-68 to E-76
A-Introduction
A-1 The remedial measures applicable in any given situation
requiring inductive coordination depend upon many factors,
such as the nature and magnitude of the induction and the
types of power and communication circuits. It is the
purpose of this section to outline the more important of
these factors and the remedial measures that are applicable
under various conditions. It is not the intent to give
complete technical information, such as is required for
design purposes, but rather to present an overall picture,
non-mathematical and generally descriptive. The outline of
remedial measures contains information on the types of
- 3
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
situations to which each is applicable and its relative
effectiveness.
A-2 It has been found desirable to divide the material and group
the various items in several ways. One important division
is that of noise frequency induction and low frequency
induction. Noise induction has to do primarily with
induction at such frequencies and of such magnitude as might
cause noise in data voice and carrier circuits and is
generally caused by harmonics in the power systems. Low
frequency induction, on the other hand, refers generally to
induction at the fundamental and lower harmonic frequencies
of the power systems. The interference effects produced by
low-frequency induction may be of two types; namely,
interference with signal devices which operate in the lower
frequency range, or induced voltages of such magnitude as to
operate protectors or introduce hazard. Another important
division is that between power systems and communication
systems.
A-3 For a detailed treatment of the fundamental factors involved
in inductive coordination, refer to "IEEE Recommended
Practice for Inductive Coordination of Electric Supply and
Communication Lines" IEEE Standard 776-1992. This
publication is available from IEEE Service Center, P. O. Box
1331, Piscataway, New Jersey 08855. This recommended
practice addresses the inductive environment that exists in
the vicinity of electric power and wire-line
telecommunications systems and the interfering effect that
may be produced. Guidance is offered for the control or
modification of the environment and the susceptibility of
the affected systems in order to maintain an acceptable
level of interference.
A-4 For a complete discussion of the practical factors involved
in inductive coordination, refer to "IEEE Guide for the
Implementation of Inductive Coordination Mitigation
Techniques and Application" IEEE Standard 1137-1991. This
publication is available from IEEE Service Center, P. O. Box
1331, Piscataway, New Jersey 08855. This guide provides for
controlling or modifying the inductive environment and the
susceptibility of affected wire line telecommunications
facilities in order to operate within the acceptable levels
of steady-state or surge induced voltages of the
environmental interface. Procedures for determining the
source of the problem are given.
- 4
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
Mitigation theory and philosophy are discussed, and
mitigation devices are described. The application of
typical mitigation apparatus and techniques and
installation, maintenance and inspection of mitigation
apparatus are addressed. Advice for determining the best
engineering solution is offered, and general safety
considerations are discussed.
A-5 A computer program CORRIDOR has been developed by the
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) and AAR that
enables engineers to readily determine estimates the induced
voltage and current in conductors that parallel power lines
and railroad tracks. Input data can include common
occurrences such as multiple power lines, segmented or
multi-grounded static wires, counterpoises, rail or pipeline
insulators, relay impedances, ballast unbalance, bonds
between pipelines or other conductors, cathodic protection
anodes, and pipeline-coating and soil-resistivity changes
along the length of the corridor. Most importantly, the
CORRIDOR module accounts for the shielding or interactive
effects (mutual coupling) of the various paralleling
conductors of the sharing utilities, and it estimates the
voltage and current coupled to the passive conductors at
user-defined locations along the corridor. This software is
available from the Association of American Railroads, C&S
Section for member railroads.
B-General
B-1 Electromagnetic Induction, Electric and Magnetic Induction:
Electromagnetic induction is a process that occurs whenever
an electromagnetic field varies with respect to time. It is
a dual process, each part of which consists fundamentally in
the production of electric forces - that is, forces which in
general cause voltage or electromotive forces, and which,
when conductors or conducting materials are present, cause
charges (that is, quantities of electricity) to appear upon
the surfaces of conductors and currents to flow in them.
B-2 One part of this dual process is called electric induction,
and is an effect due solely to electric charges. The
electric forces concerned are those of attraction and
repulsion that, charges exert upon each other. The effect
can and does exist even when there are no field variations
with respect to time. The word electrostatic is used to
describe such a stationary state and the term electrostatic
- 5
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
induction is used for the process by which a charge is made
to exist upon a part of a conductor by the proximity of
another charge, fixed in amount and stationary in position.
The term is sometimes used as the name of the more general
phenomenon that is called electric induction; but this usage
is inappropriate because of the "static" part of the word
"electrostatic." "Static" means fixed or unchanging with
time. The term "electric" rather than "electrostatic"
induction is used to convey the idea that the phenomena are,
or may be, variable with respect to time, even though only
effects due to charges are being considered. In this usage,
"electric" is the broader term and includes "electrostatic"
as a special case. Electric induction, then in the general
case, is an effect due to electric charges - not to currents
- that vary with time, and it consists essentially in the
appearance of voltages between conductors in the vicinity of
these charges and of charges upon and currents in such
conductors.
B-3 The other part of the process of electromagnetic induction
is called magnetic induction. It is due solely to electric
currents, and the word magnetic is used because the magnetic
fields associated with the currents are responsible for the
inductive action. In this case, the phenomenon can only
occur if there is time variation of the currents*, since an
unchanging magnetic field produces no electrical effects.
Thus, if the "induced" charges and currents are very small
compared with the "inducing" ones, the reactions of the
former upon the latter may be neglected and the analysis of
the phenomena of induction is greatly simplified. This, in
general, is the situation in induction from electrical
supply circuits into communication circuits, except for
electric induction in situations of very close exposure,
such as under joint use conditions.
* For magnetic inductive action to occur at a given place, it is only
necessary for the magnetic field to change at that place. This can
happen if the device by which the field is produced is moved about,
without changing the strength of the electric current that produces the
field. This exception to the statement in the text is of little
importance in the considerations that are to follow.
- 6
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
B-4 The same set of effects comes from magnetic induction as
from electric induction - that is, voltages between
conductors, charges on conductors and currents in
conductors. These effects, whether they arise from electric
or magnetic induction, are usually considered induced
voltages, charges and currents. This implies a certain
point of view that distinguishes inducing from induced,
which separates a part of the total electromagnetic field
under contemplation as being cause, and regards the rest of
it as effect. Although, strictly speaking, every charge or
current reacts upon every other, and is both "inducing" and
"induced," the distinction mentioned may often be
advantageous for practical purposes.
B-5 This scheme, which is purely a matter of practical
convenience, has led to a representation about electric
induction that is somewhat misleading. That is, in most of
the working data one will find electric induction as
"induction from" or "due to" the voltages of such-and-such a
power line configuration. It is frequently of value to
remember, nevertheless, that the induction is really due to
the charges on the line in question.
B-6 Induction from Electrical Supply Circuits into Communication
Circuits, Effect of the Earth: Aside from cases of actual
contact, the transfer of energy from an electrical supply
system to a communication system takes place either (1) in
parallel or quasi-parallel exposures of line conductors, or
(2) through proximity of ground connections in the two
systems. In the latter, "proximity" must be understood as
covering the range from common or closely adjacent ground
connections to separations of a mile or more, and "ground
connection," for the supply system, includes accidental
connection (faults to ground) as well as intentional ones.
The first class is that of "inductive coupling" and the
second that of "ground potential" or "end effects"; but in
many practical situations, especially of low frequency
induction, both types of effect are present in important
degrees.
However, except for cases of common or closely associated
intentional ground connections, line conductors of both
systems are involved.
B-7 If the line part of an electrical supply or a communication
circuit consists of two or more conductors insulated from
- 7
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
the earth and forming what is called a "metallic circuit,"
(line to line, differential, normal mode, transverse) the
fact that both conductors are, and necessarily must be,
closely adjacent to the ground, makes very little difference
as long as both remain well insulated and are operated in a
balanced manner. Under such circumstances the earth may be
forgotten, and only the metallic circuits considered, so far
as their mutual relations are concerned. If the insulation
of either circuit becomes seriously defective or fails, or
if otherwise the electrical symmetry (i.e., balance) of
either circuit with respect to the earth is sufficiently
impaired, the earth enters as an important factor.
C-Fundamental Principles of Shielding
C-1 Voltages produced in communication lines by magnetic
induction may be reduced by large amounts under favorable
conditions by induced currents flowing in neighboring
conductors. Also, voltages electrically induced in
communication circuits may be reduced, usually by even
greater amounts, by charges induced in neighboring
conductors. These reactions are called shielding. Magnetic
shielding may be produced by supply line ground wires,
railway tracks bonded for current return, metallic sheaths
of supply or communication cables, by water, gas or other
types of buried pipe lines or by conductors installed
specifically for the purpose. The most effective practical
shields against electric induction are grounded cable
sheaths and direct grounding of the communication circuits
through drains or through apparatus. This section describes
the general nature of shielding and illustrates its
dependence upon the electrical constants of shielding
conductors and upon their coupling with supply or
communication lines.
C-2 Fundamental Principles of Shielding: This discussion deals
explicitly with shielding against voltages along a conductor
or between conductor and ground, (as contrasted to voltages
between conductors), produced by residual currents and
voltages. All circuits, therefore, are earth-return
circuits, for which mutual and self-impedances are
determined by methods described in Section D. The
principles of shielding, however, are the same whether the
source of the induction is in residual or balanced
components, or whether the induced voltage is along the
- 8
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
conductor, between conductor and ground, or between
conductors. A system of three earth-return conductors is
assumed, designated as (1) the "disturbing" conductor, i.e.,
the power conductor producing the induction, (2) the
shielding conductor and (3) the "disturbed" conductor, i.e.,
the communication conductor receiving the induction.
C-3 Shielding, as used herein, means the reduction* in induced
voltage produced by the reaction of the shielding circuit.
The shield factor is the ratio of the shielded voltage to
the unshielded voltage; a low shield factor means high
shielding.
C-4 Electric shielding is accomplished by placing near the
disturbed conductor, or near the disturbing conductor, a
third conductor bearing a charge of sign opposite to that of
the disturbing conductor. The voltage induced by this
charge opposes that produced by the charge on the disturbing
wire, and the resulting voltage on the disturbed wire is
reduced. The simplest way to charge the shield wire is by
grounding it, thus permitting it to retain a net charge
induced by the charge on the disturbing wire. This process
is illustrated in Figure 1.
C-5 As mentioned in Paragraph C-1, the most effective practical
shield against electric induction is a grounded power or
telephone cable sheath. Virtually no electric field
associated with the disturbing conductor exists outside of
the grounded sheath of a supply cable, and none exists
inside of the grounded sheath of a communication cable. It
may be noted that where electric induction is concerned, it
is necessary to provide low resistance grounds to sheaths or
other shields. Moreover, except for long exposures, one
ground connection is sufficient.
* In certain cases the disturbed wire may be exposed to the shield wire
but not to the disturbing wire. The reaction of the shield in such a
case would be to increase the voltage in the disturbed wire. This
effect is spoken of as "secondary induction."
- 9
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
Figure 1: Shielding Against Electric Induction.
Conductor 1: Disturbing conductor energized to
ground at voltage V, and carrying
charge +q.
Conductor 2: Shielding conductor connected to
ground and carrying charge -q
induced by charge +q on conductor
1.
Conductor 3: Disturbed conductor. Voltage V
1
induced by charge +q on conductor 1
is opposed by voltage V
2
induced by
charge -q on conductor 2.
C-6 With open-wire communication lines exposed to open-wire
supply lines, shielding in many cases may be effected by the
use of drainage coils or resistances, or by grounds on
apparatus connected to the lines. The use of special shield
wires for the reduction of electric induction, as compared
to the arrangements mentioned above, apparently does not
offer enough advantage to require description of methods of
calculation.
C-7 Magnetic shielding is accomplished by placing near the
disturbed conductor, or near the disturbing conductor, a
third conductor connected in a closed circuit. Since this
conductor is acted on by the primary magnetic field
surrounding the disturbing conductor, a voltage will be
induced therein in consequence of which a current will flow
in the shielding circuit, the magnitude of which will
- 10
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
depend upon the voltage induced and upon the self-impedance
of this circuit. This current in the shielding conductor
will in turn induce in the disturbed conductor a voltage,
the magnitude of which depends upon the magnitude of the
shielding current and the coupling of shielding and
disturbed circuits. The phase relationship between this
shielding voltage and the voltage induced in the disturbed
conductor by the primary field will depend upon the phase
angle of the shield self-impedance and upon that of the
mutual impedance of shielding and disturbed conductors. For
effective shielding, the shielding voltage should be as
nearly as possible equal and opposite to the voltage
produced by the disturbing conductor. Factors that favor
this condition are low impedance of the shielding circuit,
large coupling between shielding and disturbed, or between
shielding and disturbing conductors, and a high ratio of
inductive reactance to resistance in the shield
self-impedance and the mutual impedance of shield and
disturbed conductors.
C-8 The physical processes involved in magnetic shielding are
illustrated by the simple system shown in Figure 2. With a
given current I
1
in the disturbing circuit the voltages
induced in the shielding circuit and in the disturbed
circuit, with the shielding circuit open are:
V
2
= Z
12
I
1
in shielding circuit (1)
V
3
= Z
13
I
1
in disturbed circuit (2)
- 11
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
Figure 2: Shielding Against Magnetic Induction.
Conductor 1: Disturbing Conductor
Conductor 2: Shielding Conductor
Conductor 3: Disturbed Conductor
With the shielding circuit closed, a current I
2
will
circulate in it:
V
2
Z
12
I
2
= ___ = ___ I
1
(3)
Z
22
Z
22
The voltage induced in the disturbed circuit by the current
I
2
in the shielding circuit is:
V
3
' = Z
23
I
2
(4)
- 12
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
The total voltage in the disturbed circuit with the
shielding circuit closed is:
Z
12
Z
23
V
3
" = V
3
- V
3
' = Z
13
(I - _) I
1
(5)
Z
13
Z
22
The shield factor is then:
V
3
" Z
12
Z
23
= = 1 - (6)
V
3
Z
13
Z
22
The impedances Z
12
, Z
23
, Z
13
and Z
22
are total mutual and
self-impedances of the circuits designated by the
subscripts. When the circuits are uniform, parallel,
coextensive* and of length s, and the shielding circuit is
grounded at the ends through resistances having a total
resistance R:
Z
12
= sz
12
Z
13
= sz
13
Z
23
= sz
23
Z
22
= sz
22
+ R
where the lower case impedances are values per unit length,
the shield factor then becomes:
Z
12
Z
23
= 1 - (7)
Z
13
(Z
22
+ R/s)
C-9 From equation (6) it is apparent that for a given
arrangement of disturbing, shielding, and disturbed
conductors, the shield factor is unchanged when the
positions of the disturbing and disturbed conductors with
relation to the shielding conductor are interchanged. In
other words, the shield factor is the same whether Z
23
is
made large and Z
12
small by placing the shield close to the
disturbed conductor, or whether Z
12
is made large and Z
23
small by placing the shield close to the disturbing wire.
This is shown graphically in Figure 3 by the symmetry of the
curves of shield factor versus position of shield conductor.
* The disturbing circuit or the disturbed circuit may extend beyond the
other two circuits.
- 13
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
Figure 3: Variation of Shield Factor with Location of Shielding
Conductor.
Separation of Shielding and Disturbing
Conductor, d
12
, feet
1 = Disturbing Conductor
2 = Shielding Conductor
3 = Disturbed Conductor
Frequency: 60 Hz Earth Resistivity: 100 Meter-Ohms
Shielding Conductor: No. 0 Copper Wire; Perfect Ground
Connections; Disturbing, Shielding and Disturbed Conductors
Parallel and Coextensive. Shield Wire Moved Horizontally.
C-10 When the shielding conductor is a cable sheath, or a ground
wire, or grounded communication conductors, equation (6) may
be simplified as follows: For a communication cable sheath,
or other shield close to the disturbed conductor, Z
12
may be
assumed equal to Z
13
, hence
Z
23
= 1 - _ (8)
Z
22
- 14
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
For a power cable sheath, or other shield close to the
disturbing conductor, Z
13
may be assumed equal to Z
23
, hence.
Z
12
= 1 - (9)
Z
22
C-11 The variation of shield factor with the resistance and
reactance of the shielding conductor will, for simplicity,
be illustrated by considering the shield to consist of an
aerial shield, such as a cable sheath, placed close to the
disturbed conductor and grounded at the ends. The
principles involved and the general conclusions apply to any
form of shield. Using total circuit impedances, the shield
factor may be written as:
Z
22
- Z
23
= (10)
Z
22
where Z
22
= R' + (R
22
+ jX
22
) is the total earth return
self-impedance of the shield. R' is the dc resistance of
the sheath plus grounds, and R
22
- jX
22
are, respectively, the
real (excluding the dc resistance) and imaginary components
of the earth-return self-impedance of the sheath.
Z
23
= (R
23
- jX
23
) is the earth-return mutual impedance of
shield and disturbed conductors.
If the shield and the disturbed conductors are of the same
length, R
22
= R
23
approximately and X
22
= X
23
approximately:
hence
R'
= approximately (11)
Z
22
- 15
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
Equation (11) shows that the shield factor increases
(shielding diminishes) as the dc resistance of the shield
increases, and that it decreases with increasing shield
reactance.* Thus with aerial cables, for a given grounding
resistance, the shield factor decreases as the size of the
cable or the number of cables in parallel increases, or for
a given cable, the shield factor decreases as the grounding
resistance is reduced. For a given cable and grounding
resistance, the shield factor may be reduced by placing tape
armor around the sheath, thus increasing its self-reactance.
Increasing the frequency increases sheath reactance: also an
increased reactance is associated with larger earth
resistivity. Equation (11) therefore shows that the shield
factor decreases with increasing frequency or increasing
earth resistivity. To summarize: the shield factor
decreases (shielding increases) when shield resistance
decreases, and the shield reactance, the frequency, and the
earth resistivity increase.
If the disturbing, shielding and disturbed circuits are
parallel and coextensive (the disturbing or disturbed
circuits may extend beyond the other two circuits), equation
(11) may be written in terms of unit length impedances as:
r' + R/s
= (12)
Z
22
+ R/s
in which r' is the dc resistance per unit length of sheath,
R is the total resistance of ground connections to the
sheath and s is the length of the shielding circuit.
Equation (12) indicates that the effect of a given total
grounding resistance, R, is less the greater the length of
the shielding circuit, and also that, under the given
conditions, little is to be gained by using a shielding
conductor of low resistance if it is not possible to secure
a low ratio of R's. Figures 4 to 7 illustrate these
* This statement is true only if whatever is done to increase the shield
reactance at the same time and by a proportionate amount increases the
mutual reactance of shield and disturbed conductor; this excludes
(except in a special case) increasing the shield reactance by reactance
coils.
- 16
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
variations of shield factor with constants of the shielding
circuit.
Figure 4: Earth Resistivity, 100 Meter-Ohms, 60 hertz.
Cable Length in Miles Indicated by Numerals in Curves.
Dashed curves apply to two or more closely spaced cables
having a parallel resistance smaller than that of a full
size cable.
Variation in Shield Factor with sheath Resistance for Aerial
Cables of Various Lengths Grounded at Endpoints Through a
Total Resistance of R = 2 Ohms.
- 17
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
Figure 5: Earth Resistivity: 100 Meter-Ohms
Ratio of Total Resistance of Endpoint Grounds in Ohms to
Length of Cable in Miles indicated by Numbers on Curves
Variation in Shield with Frequency
For Full-Size Aerial Cable Grounded at Endpoints
- 18
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
Figure 6: Frequency 60 Hz
Ratio of Total Resistance of Endpoint Grounds in Ohms to
Length of Cable in Miles Indicated by Numerals on Curves
Variation in Shield Factor with Earth Resistivity For
Full-Size Aerial Cable Grounded at Endpoints.
C-12 While the discussion in the preceding paragraphs illustrates
the physical nature of magnetic shielding, and the
calculation of shielding in practical cases proceeds from
the concepts set forth, it may be well to point out a number
of factors which may not be readily apparent. In the first
place, the discussion has been limited to the effect of
shielding upon longitudinally induced voltages in circuits,
such that no current flows along the conductor. This
condition is approximately satisfied in open-wire circuits
of moderate length and in cable circuits of short length,
the length depending on the frequency in question: in these
cases, if the circuits are terminated in grounded
- 19
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
apparatus the impedance of this apparatus ordinarily is high
enough compared to the conductor impedance to approximate
the open-circuit condition satisfactorily. In long
circuits, particularly in long cable circuits, on the other
hand, even though the conductors may be open-circuited at
the ends, the open-circuit condition as regards induced
voltage may not be realizable because charging currents
flowing through the distributed capacity of the conductors
to ground may be of sufficient magnitude to cause a voltage
drop along the conductors. This effect may also be
heightened if the conductors are connected to grounded
apparatus at the terminals, since for long circuits the
impedance of this apparatus may be small compared to the
conductor impedance.
Figure 7: Earth Resistivity: 100 Meter-Ohms, 60 Hz
Total Resistance in Ohms of Endpoint Grounds Indicated by
Numerals on Curves Variation in Shield Factor with Cable
Length For Full-Size Aerial Cable Grounded at Endpoints.
- 20
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
Under these circumstances, shielding cannot be defined as
simply as when circuits are short. For the long circuit
case, the calculation of shielding must take into account
the propagation of voltage and current along the disturbed
conductors and becomes a complicated process except in the
more simple cases. For practical purposes, however, cable
conductors can be regarded as being short if they do not
exceed 25 miles for 60 hertz and 35 miles for 25 hertz.
C-13 In the discussion in Paragraph C-12, an aerial shield is
used grounded only at the ends, and current in the
disturbing conductor is fed in one direction only. It is
apparent that the equations given above will not apply if
the shield contains intermediate grounds as well as terminal
grounds: because, in this case, the shield current is not
constant. If current in the disturbing wires is fed from
two directions, say from each end to a point inside the
exposure, the equations above will apply to the net
longitudinal voltage if there are no intermediate shield
grounds but not to voltage to ground. It is not practicable
to attempt to give general equations for the many variable
conditions of this kind that may be encountered. The
shielding in particular cases can usually be determined by
straightforward application of circuit theory.
C-14 In the case of a cable sheath that is continuously grounded,
such as an underground cable, the calculation of shielding
involves propagation of voltage and current along the sheath
and the shield factor is consequently a more complicated
function of the circuit configuration and constants. The
minimum shield factor obtainable for underground cables is:
r'
= (13)
Z
22
in which the terms are as defined in equation (12). It will
be seen that equation (13) is obtained from equation (12)
when R/s vanishes. This minimum shield factor is approached
in situations in which the underground cable, both the
shield and the exposed conductors, extends for considerable
distances beyond each end of the exposure.
- 21
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
C-15 In the foregoing discussion, it has been taken for granted
that there is no resistive coupling between the grounds to
which the induced voltage is referred and the grounds to
which the shield is connected: i.e., these grounds are
assumed sufficiently far apart so that their mutual
resistance is negligible. If such mutual resistance exists,
it counteracts the effect of the shield grounding
resistance: that is to say, the shield factor is reduced by
it. In practical situations, no great amount of control can
ordinarily be exercised over the resistive coupling between
ground connections: its presence or absence is determined by
local conditions. For example, in the case of a telephone
cable sheath connected to a central office ground, the only
ground practically accessible for voltage reference at the
central office may be the sheath or the same ground to which
the sheath is connected. In this case, the resistance of
the shield ground is mutual to the shielding and the
disturbed circuits, and the induced voltage is reduced by an
amount equal to the drop across the shield ground
resistance. The shield factor is thus smaller than it would
be if the voltage were referred to some other ground, in
which case the voltage would exclude part or all of this
drop, depending upon the mutual resistance between the
grounds. At a point on an aerial cable outside of the
central office, on the other hand, the voltage between
conductor and a ground other than the sheath ground, for
example a guy, may be of interest, in which case mutual
resistance between the grounds would in general be much
smaller than in the foregoing example.
C-16 The statement has been made that it is immaterial, as
regards shield factor, whether the shielding conductor is
placed close to the disturbed conductor or close to the
disturbing conductor. While this statement is true as
regards shield factor, it may not be true as regards the
resulting induced voltage. Unless the separation between
the disturbing and disturbed conductors is usually small,
placing the shield close to the disturbing conductor will
tend to decrease the self-impedance of the latter to a much
greater extent than if the shield is placed close to the
disturbed conductor. If the induced voltage results from a
given current in the disturbing conductor, as may be the
case under normal load conditions, this reaction of the
shield upon the disturbing conductor will have no effect
upon the net induced voltage in the disturbed circuit. On
the other hand, if the induced voltage is produced by
- 22
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
current flowing to a fault on a power conductor, this
current may be increased by the reaction of the shield upon
the disturbing wire, hence the net voltage induced in the
disturbed wire may be longer than if the shield were placed
close to the latter even though the shield factor may be the
same for the two cases.
C-17 Calculation of Shield Factor: Values of self and mutual
impedance for use in calculating shield factor may be
determined from the charts of Figures 8-10, Tables C-1 to
C-4, inclusive. These are taken from Engineering Report No.
37 of the EEI-Bell System Joint Reports, Vol. IV. Thorough
study of the report is recommended.
C-18 Figure 8 and Tables C-1 to C-4, inclusive, provide the data
necessary for the determination of the 60 and 25 hertz
self-impedance of an overhead wire with ground return. (Z
22
of equation 8, Paragraph C-10, for example.) The formula
for self-impedance appears on Figure 8, together with curves
giving the reactive component (X
11
) as a function of
conductor diameter, for several values of earth resistivity.
The effective resistance (R) and the internal reactance
(K), which must be added, are shown in Tables C-1 to C-4
inclusive.
C-19 Calculation of shield factor also requires the use of the
mutual impedance between, for example, the disturbed
conductor and the shield (Z
23
of equation 8, Paragraph C-10).
This may be derived conveniently from the curves of Figures
9 and 10, for 60 Hz and 25 Hz, respectively. The mutual
impedance is plotted as a function of the separation between
the two conductors, for a range of earth resistivities.
C-20 The self and mutual impedances derived as outlined above,
and employed in equations 8 and 9 of Paragraph C-10 will
suffice in such problems as determining the shielding effect
of a lead cable sheath on the internal conductors, the
effect of a shield wire on the communication line or the
calculation of the percent earth current as affected by the
multi-grounded neutral conductor on a single-phase
distribution line.
- 23
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
Figure 8: Self-Impedance of One Overhead Wire with Ground Return.
- 24
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
Figure 9: 60-Hz Mutual Impedance of Two Overhead Wires with
Ground Return.
- 25
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
Figure 10:25-Hz Mutual Impedance of Two Overhead Wires with
Ground Return.
- 26
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
Table C-1
EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE OF HARD-DRAWN STRANDED COPPER CONDUCTORS
Taken in part from Table 26, page 421, of "Symmetrical
Components: by C. F. Wagner and R. D. Evans.
For a temperature of +50C, 25C rise above +25C ambient.

Effective Resistance (ohms per mile)
Size of Conductor
Circular mils

AWG

Outside
Diameter
(Inches)

60 Hz

25 Hz

1,000,000

---

1.152

0.0685

0.0648
950,000

---

1.123

.0718

.0683
900,000

---

1.093

.0752

.0718
850,000

---

1.062

.0794

.0761
800,000

---

1.031

.0837

.0806
750,000

---

0.998

.0888

.0860
700,000

---

.964

.0947

.0920
650,000

---

.929

.0997

.0991
600,000

---

.891

.1090

.1070
550,000

---

.853

.1194

.1173
500,000

---

.814

.1300

.1280
450,000

---

.772

.1446

.1429
400,000

---

.725

.1620

.1600
350,000

---

.679

.1849

.1835
300,000

---

.628

.215

.214
250,000

---

.574

.257

.256
211,600

0000

.528

.303

.303
211,600

0000

.522

.303

.303
167,806

000

.464

.382

.381
133,077

00

.414

.481

.481
105,535

0

.368

.607

.606
83,693

1

.328

.765

.765
66,371

2

.292

.964

.964
52,635

3

.260

1.22

1.22
41,741

4

.232

1.53

1.53
33,102

5

.206

1.93

1.93
26,251

6

.184

2.44

2.44

The internal reactance (K) of copper conductors depends on the
stranding. Values applicable to the usual strandings for wire
sizes in the above table are:

Internal Reactance (K) (ohms per mile)
Size of Conductor
Circular mils

Number of
Strands
60 Hz

25 Hz
25,251 to 211,600

7

0.039

0.016

211,600 to 400,000

19

.033

.014

450,000 to 600,000

37

.032

.013

650,000 to 1,000,000

61

.031

.013

All sizes

solid

.031

.013
- 27
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
Table C-2
EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE AND INTERNAL REACTANCE
OF ACSR CONDUCTORS
Taken in part from Table 26, page 420, of "Symmetrical
Components" by C. F. Wagner and R. D. Evans.
For a temperature of +50C, 25C rise above +25C ambient.

Number of
Wires

Effective Resistance
ohms per mile

Internal Reactance (K)
ohms per mile

Size of Conductor
Circular Mils or AWG

Alum

Steel

Outside
Diameter of
Cable (Inches)

60 Hz

25 Hz

60 Hz

25 Hz
1,590,000

54

19

1.545

0.068

0.066

0.026

0.011
1,510,500

54

19

1.506

.072

.069

.026

.011
1,431,000

54

19

1.465

.076

.073

.026

.011
1,351,500

54

19

1.424

.080

.077

.026

.011
1,272,000

54

19

1.382

.085

.082

.026

.011
1,192,500

54

19

1.338

.091

.087

.026

.011
1.113,000

54

19

1.293

.097

.094

.026

.011
1,033,500

54

7

1.246

.104

.101

.026

.011
954,000

54

7

1.196

.113

.109

.026

.011
900,000

54

7

1.162

.119

.116

.026

.011
874,500

54

7

1.146

.123

.119

.026

.011
795,000

54

7

1.093

.138

.131

.026

.011
795,000

30

19

1.140

.129

.129

.025

.011
795,000

26

7

1.108

.129

.129

.023

.010
715,500

54

7

1.036

.148

.145

.026

.011
715,500

30

19

1.081

.144

.144

.025

.011
715,500

26

7

1.051

.144

.144

.023

.010
666,600

54

7

1.000

.160

.157

.026

.011
636,000

54

7

0.977

.169

.164

.026

.011
636,000

30

19

1.019

.162

.162

.025

.011
636,000

26

7

0.990

.162

.162

.023

.010
605,000

54

7

.953

.178

.172

.026

.011
556,500

30

7

.952

.186

.186

.026

.011
556.500

26

7

.927

.186

.186

.023

.010
500,000

30

7

.904

.206

.206

.023

.010
477,000

30

7

.883

.216

.216

.025

.011
477,000

26

7

.858

.216

.216 .023

.010
397,500

30

7

.806

.259

.259

.025

.011
397,500

26

7

.783

.259

.259

.023

.010
336,400

30

7

.741

.306

.306

.025

.011
336,400

26

7

.721

.306

.306

.023

.010
300,000

30

7

.700

.342

.342

.025

.011
300,000

26

7

.680

.342

.342

.023

.010
266,800

26

7

.642

.385

.385

.025

.011
0000

6

1

.563

.592

.514

.128

.053
000

6

1

.502

.723

.642

.152

.063
00

6

1

.447

.895

.806

.157

.065
0

6

1

.398

1.12

1.01

.159

.066
1

6

1

.355

1.38

1.27

.153

.064
2

6

1

.316

1.69

1.59

.139

.058
3

6

1

.281

2.07

1.98

.121

.050
4

6

1

.250

2.57

2.50

.105

.044
5

6

1

.223

3.18

3.12

.097

.040
6

6

1

.198

3.98

3.94

.090

.037
- 28
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
Table C-3
EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE AND INTERNAL REACTANCE OF
STEEL STRAND AND COPPERWELD CONDUCTORS

Resistance
ohms per mile

Internal Recatance (K)
ohms per mile

Current
(amperes)

Diameter
(Inches)

60 Hz

25 Hz

60 Hz

25 Hz

Number of
Strands in
Conductor

Siemens Martin Steel Strand

5

1/4

12.25

12.20

0.42

0.18

--

15

1/4

12.54

12.51

.48

.20

--

25

1/4

13.04

13.02

.54

.23

--

5

3/8

5.44

5.42

.40

.17

--

15

3/8

5.49

5.47

.46

.19

--

25

3/8

5.62

5.57

.50

.21

--

5

1/2

3.40

3.27

.41

.18

--

15

1/2

3.43

3.39

.44

.19

--

25

1/2

3.47

3.41

.47

.20

--

High Strength Steel Strand

5

3/8

5.87

5.83

.39

.17

--

15

3/8

5.94

5.86

.43

.18

--

25

3/8

6.03

5.99

.47

.20

--

Copperweld Conductor - 40% Conductivity

10

3/8

1.19

1.16

.17

.08

7

50

3/8

1.20

1.16

.18

.09

7

100

3/8

1.24

1.19

.21

.10

7

200

3/8

1.32

1.27

.17

.09

7

10

1/2

.765

.730

.15

.07

7

50

1/2

.792

.740

.15

.07

7

100

1/2

.792

.750

.16

.08

7

200

1/2

.820

.776

.16

.07

7

Copperweld Conductor - 30% Conductivity

5-120

5/16

2.92

----

.18

----

3

5-120

5/16

2.45

----

.20

----

7

0.1-160

3/8

1.53

1.50

.19

0.09

7

5-200

1/2

1.03

.99

.18

.09

7

5-215

21/32

.62

----

.19

----

19

The values for the steel strand conductors were
obtained from Overhead Systems Reference Book. Tables
compiled by the Indiana Steel and Wire Company. The
values for the Copperweld conductors were obtained from
measurements made by Project Committee 2K.
- 29
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
Table C-4
DC RESISTANCE OF LEAD CABLE SHEATH
Resistances are computed for a resistivity of 20 x 10-6 ohms
per centimeter cube at + 25C or + 77F.
Note: 1. The internal reactance (K) may be taken
as zero for lead cable sheaths.
2. Lead cable is not recommended due
to environmental hazards and
regulations, but is given here for
reference.
C-21 When the disturbing (or disturbed) circuit consists of
several conductors, as in the case of a three-phase line,
where the shield factor is most commonly used to evaluate
the shielding afforded by the overhead ground wire during
phase-to-ground faults, it is convenient to use the method
of geometric mean separations. This is particularly so
since the fault may occur on any of the three conductors,
and separate evaluations of shield factor are not justified.
In this approach, the geometric mean separation is used in
determining the value of the mutual impedance.
- 30
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
C-22 As an example, let S
17
, S
27
, S
37
be the distances between the
individual phase conductors (1,2,3) and the overhead ground
wire (7), then the geometric mean spacing S
m
is:
______________
S
m
=
3
S
17
X S
27
X S
37
(14)
The mutual impedance between phase and ground wire is then
determined from Figure 9 or 10 for a separation
corresponding to S
m
.
C-23 This method of geometric mean spacing may also be used in
computing the shielding effect of the neutral conductor on a
three-phase, four-wire multi-grounded neutral line.
C-24 When two shield conductors, of like conductivity, are
present, as in the case of two overhead ground wires, it is
practical to compute the geometric mean spacing from the
phase wires (1,2,3) to each ground wire (7,8) and then to
combine these mean spacings in a similar manner.
_______________
S
m
7 =
3
S
17
X S
27
X S
37
(14a)
_______________
S
m
8 =
3
S
18
X S
28
X S
38
(14b)
________
S
m
= S
m7
X S
m8
(15)
Similar procedures may be followed for double circuit
three-phase lines, though not always necessary with
symmetrical configurations.
C-25 With two-shield conductors (7, 8) of like conductivity, the
self-impedance with earth return of the two conductors in
parallel is:
Z
77
z
78
z
s
= ______ (16)
2
Where Z
77
is the self-impedance of one shield conductor,
determined as described in Paragraph C-18, and Z
78
is the
- 31
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
mutual impedance between shield conductors as described in
Paragraph C-19, and obtained from Figures 9 or 10.
C-26 The shield factor for two ground wires, then is, derived
from equation 9 of Paragraph C-10 by substitution of the
proper values:
2 Z
17
= 1 - ______ (16)
z
77
+ z
78
Where Z
17
is the mutual impedance between phase-wire groups
and ground-wire groups, at a spacing corresponding to S
m
(equation 15).
D-Balance of Power and Communication Circuits
D-1 In discussing balance of power and communication circuits,
it is convenient to distinguish between (1) line unbalances
and (2) apparatus, equipment or load unbalances. In
general, in the following, the word "circuit" is used to
mean the line-part of the complete circuit, without
inclusion of loads or apparatus. It is believed that no
confusion will arise from the occasional use of the word in
a broader sense, the context being sufficient to make the
meaning clear in such cases.
Balance of Supply Circuits
D-2 A supply circuit is balanced if the normally energized
conductors belonging to it have equal self-impedances and
admittances to ground and equal impedances and admittances
to each other and to all neighboring conductors, in each
elementary section of the length of the circuit. This is
equivalent to saying that, in a balanced circuit, the
conductors that are regularly energized, when the circuit is
in use as designed, possess the property of electrical
symmetry in any short section of the circuit. It is not
necessary that any two of the sections should be alike: that
is, for example, the various electrical characteristics
(impedances and admittances) of the normally energized
conductors may be different, in one mile of line, from what
they are in another; but in each of these miles, considered
by itself, the property of electrical symmetry must obtain
among all of the normally energized conductors in that mile,
if the circuit is balanced.
- 32
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
D-3 The use of the adjective "elementary" (or "short") in the
above definition means, strictly, that in applying the
criterion of electrical symmetry the length of section to be
taken is to be allowed to approach zero as a limit. While,
theoretically, this might make the criterion easier to meet,
this is of no importance practically, since all actual lines
are more or less unbalanced, and the unbalances are
approximately compensated, where necessary and practicable,
by transpositions. Thus for practical purposes, the
"elementary" section may often be a transposition section.
Technically speaking, the length of such a section should be
a comparatively small fraction of the wavelength of the
highest frequency deemed to be of interest. Also, in order
to include the case (discussed below) of branches having
fewer than the total number of phase-conductors, an
"elementary" section of the main circuit in the vicinity of
such a branch must be considered to include the branch
connections. It should be noticed that in the above
definition of a balanced supply circuit, the characteristics
of the circuit as regards balance do not depend upon the way
in which the circuit is energized: nor does the presence of
residual currents or voltages in a supply circuit
necessarily mean that the circuit is unbalanced, since such
residuals may be the result of the mode of energization, or
of loading. It is also important to notice that the terms
balanced and unbalanced, when used in describing the
condition of a supply circuit with respect to electrical
symmetry among its conductors, are used in a different sense
from that in which they are used in describing the currents
and voltages of the conductors of the circuit. It is
evident that such a property, or the lack of it, is not
among the characteristics of the wires to which the currents
(or voltages) belong. The opposite of "balanced," when one
is talking about currents or voltages, is "residual," not
"unbalanced", although it is true that residual current, for
example, is sometimes (inappropriately) called "unbalanced"
current. Also, a ground-return circuit is sometimes said to
be "wholly unbalanced." It is preferable to speak of it
simply as a ground-return circuit.
D-4 It is a characteristic of a balanced circuit that if it is
energized in a balanced manner and if the loads are also
balanced or have no connection to neutral or to ground, no
residuals will result. On the other hand, residuals are in
general produced if an unbalanced circuit is energized,
- 33
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
even with balanced voltages, or if a balanced circuit is
energized with voltages containing residual components. In
fact, since it is impossible to build electrical machinery
having identical characteristics for all phases, and since
it is equally impossible to construct perfectly balanced
lines, residuals are necessarily present in actual lines for
both reasons. Practically, it is simply a question of their
magnitudes. As has been previously pointed out, the
coupling between a supply and a neighboring communication
circuit is usually much larger for ground-return residuals
than for balanced components. While the former, for this
reason, are frequently the more important in coordination
problems, situations are by no means uncommon in which
balanced components are of controlling importance.
D-5 In an ungrounded system, the voltages to ground are largely
determined by the capacitances to earth of each phase of the
whole system. If these are unequal, a residual voltage is
produced. Transposition of the phase wires tends to
equalize these capacitances to ground and to reduce residual
voltages. In general, residual voltage due to circuit
unbalances will be lower with a grounded neutral system than
with an isolated system, since with the former, line
capacitances to ground are shunted by transformer
impedances. However, the presence of these lower impedance
paths to ground tends to increase the residual currents.
D-6 In considering the matter of supply circuit balance as
herein defined, it must be recognized that other factors,
such as wave shape or methods of operation, may he of
greater importance in contributing to inductive influence.
This does not mean that circuit balance is not an important
factor, but that in certain cases more can be accomplished
in the control of inductive effects through the control of
other factors.
D-7 For the purpose of this discussion it will be convenient to
divide supply circuits into two classes: namely,
transmission circuits and distribution circuits. The
distinction assumed between these two classes of circuits is
that transmission circuits may be thought of as transmitting
power in bulk between specified points, as from a generating
station to a substation which may be located at some distant
point, whereas distribution circuits may be thought of as
circuits which carry the power from the substation to the
customers or points of
- 34
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
utilization located in a generally limited adjacent area.
Under this classification transmission circuits may be
thought of as generally operating at a voltage higher than
distribution circuits. However, transmission circuits may
be operated at voltages as low as 6600 volts, while under
certain conditions circuits operating at voltages as high as
22,000 volts may be classed as distribution circuits.
Transmission circuits are more or less permanent when once
established, whereas distribution circuits are subject to
day-by-day changes and extensions. Another distinction is
that a transmission circuit generally includes the full
number of phase wires throughout its length, whereas a
distribution circuit is commonly made up of a main feeder
and numerous branches some of which may consist of less than
the full number of phase wires.
D-8 The principal factors affecting the impedance or admittance
unbalance of a supply circuit are:
(a) Configuration including phase arrangement on twin
circuit lines.
(b) Transpositions.
(c) The distribution among the various phases of branches
consisting of less than the total number of phase
wires.
D-9 Configuration is defined as "The geometrical arrangement in
transverse section of any assemblage of generally parallel
conductors including their size and their relative positions
with respect to other conductors and to the earth." (See
C&S Manual Part 20-1-4 (Recommended Principles and Practices
for the Inductive Coordination of Railway Electrical Supply
Facilities and the Commercial Communication Facilities)).
Aside from its effect upon induction from balanced
components, the configuration of a supply line is of
interest because of its relation to admittance unbalance and
impedance unbalance. As to admittance unbalance,
configuration affects this only through its effects upon
capacitance unbalance since, of course, it has no direct
effect upon leakage.
D-10 The capacitances to ground and the mutual impedances of the
normally energized conductors of a supply circuit are
affected by their relative heights above ground, their
spacing and by other conductors located on the same or
closely adjacent lines. In discussing the effect of
- 35
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
configuration on balance, therefore, it is necessary to
consider it from two points of view: namely the
configuration of the normally energized conductors of the
supply circuit itself, and the configuration of the line as
a whole, as defined in Paragraph D-9. Where the line
carries only the normally energized conductors, as in the
case of a three-wire three-phase line, the two points of
view become the same. In general, however, other wires are
present on the line in various combinations and the
following shows typical examples of the various conditions
that may be met:
1. Single circuit lines that carry only the wires to be
energized: the circuits may be two-wire single-phase or
three-wire three-phase.
2. Single circuit lines, as described in (1) but with the
addition of overhead ground wire or wires.
3. Multi-circuit lines in which the several circuits are
of the same voltage and are energized from the same
source. Such lines are often spoken of as twin circuit
lines, triple circuit lines, etc., depending on the
number of circuits carried. Such multi-circuit lines
may or may not also carry overhead ground wires.
4. Single or multi-circuit lines in which the circuits are
made up of more than the normally energized conductors,
as for instance, three-phase four-wire circuits.
5. Lines carrying combinations of one or more circuits, as
described in (1) to (4) with other circuits of
different voltage or frequency. One specific example
would be a line carrying a 22,000-volt circuit, a
4,000-volt distribution circuit and a 220-volt
secondary circuit.
6. Lines carrying both supply and communication circuits.
D-11 Transmission circuits are generally carried on lines of the
types described in (1), (2) and (3) in Paragraph D-10.
Distribution circuits, on the other hand, are generally
carried on lines of the type described in (4), (5) and (6)
in Paragraph D-10.
- 36
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
D-12 While the configuration of a circuit has a considerable
effect on its balance if it is un-transposed, it is
frequently the case that the residual voltage and ground
return currents are more dependent on the method of
energization, the method of connecting and the amount and
type of load carried and (for distribution circuits) on
single-phase branches, than on configuration. Furthermore,
in cases where the capacitance unbalance due to
configuration is important, it can under certain conditions
be reduced by power circuit transpositions as discussed in
Paragraphs D-23 to D-25. Since the configuration employed
is often largely determined by structural and insulation
considerations, there are many cases where it is not subject
to adjustment for inductive coordination reasons alone.
Where there is a choice of configuration, it is helpful to
employ the one that will provide the superior balance.
D-13 For a single three-phase transmission circuit carried on a
line of the type described in (1) of Paragraph D-10,
symmetrical configurations have in general less admittance
unbalance than unsymmetrical configurations. Of the various
symmetrical configurations, the triangular has the lowest
capacitance unbalance to ground, the equally spaced vertical
and equally spaced horizontal configurations having much
higher and about equal capacitance unbalances to ground.
For one single-phase circuit carried on such a line, a
horizontal configuration has less unbalance than all other
arrangements.
D-14 The unbalance incident to configuration results in a
residual voltage when the circuit is energized with balanced
voltages from an ungrounded source. If the line section is
short and un-transposed, and balanced voltages, equal in
magnitude to the nominal voltage of the circuit, are applied
between the phase-conductors, the resulting residual voltage
is called the characteristic residual voltage of the
circuit. The characteristic residual voltage is frequently
expressed as a percentage of the nominal phase-to-phase
voltage of the circuit. Thus expressed, it depends only on
the configuration, Figures 11 and 12 show calculated
characteristic residual voltages (in kilovolts) for single
circuit lines, for a number of configurations, with various
heights and voltages of energization with conductor spacings
as shown in Table D-1. To use the curves, find the first
column of Table D-1, the
- 37
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
line voltage corresponding to the configuration and spacing
of the actual line for which the characteristic residual
voltage is desired. Locate this voltage on the horizontal
scale of Figures 11 (or 12). The intersection of the
ordinate, passing through this point so located, with the
curve corresponding to the configuration and height above
ground of the actual line, gives directly, on the vertical
scale, the desired characteristic residual voltage, provided
the actual line voltage is the same as the line voltage
taken from Table D-1. If these two line voltages are not
the same, the result read on the vertical scale, as
described, must be multiplied by the ratio
actual line voltage__
voltage from table D-1
to get the characteristic residual voltage of the line in
question.
D-15 Where overhead ground wires are added to single circuit
lines as described in (2) of Paragraph D-10, the situation
may be considerably changed. For a three-phase circuit the
preferable configuration from the standpoint of balance will
depend upon the number and relative location of the ground
wires with respect to the phase wires. Under certain
conditions where a single ground wire is used, the inverted
triangle, or where two ground wires are used, the
symmetrical horizontal may be preferable. For the single
phase circuit the horizontal configuration will generally be
preferable.
D-16 In the case of multi-circuit lines, as described in (3) of
Paragraph D-10, such a variety of conditions arise that each
case must be considered individually. In such cases,
however, more can often be accomplished in limiting the
inductive influence of the lines by suitable phase
interconnection of the circuits than by attempting to select
the optimum configuration. Figures 13 and 14 give some
calculated data regarding the characteristic residual
voltage (Erc), in percentage of the phase-to-phase voltage,
for twin-circuit three-phase lines. It will be noted that
the dimensions given contain no reference to a unit of
length, E
RC
depending only on the relative magnitudes of the
various dimensions. Figure 13 covers certain twin circuit
configurations without ground wires, for different methods
of interconnecting the conductors of the two circuits.
- 38
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
These data are taken from the book "Inductive Interference,"
Railroad Commission of the State of California, San
Francisco, 1919. Further data on lines without ground wires
are given in that book. Calculated data for a twin-circuit
line without ground wires, and with one and two ground
wires, are given in Figure 14 for four schemes of phase
interconnection. The pronounced effect of the ground wires
should be noticed.
Table D-1
Conductor Spacings for Three-Phase Circuits

Line
Voltage
Kv.

High or
Equilateral
Triangular
(Feet)

Low
Triangular
(Feet)

11
Horizontal
1--1
(Feet)

11
Horizontal
2--1
(Feet)

13
Horizontal
3--1
(Feet)

Vertical
(Feet)

6.6

1.67

2

2.5

3.75

5.0

5

11

2

3

5

7.5

9

5

22

2.5

4

5

7.5

---

5

33

3

6

6

9

---

6

44

4

8

8

---

---

8

66

6

12

12

---

---

12

88

8

16

16

---

---

16

100

10

20

20

---

---

20

125

13

26

26

---

---

26

150

16

--

32

---

---

32

Note: The above spacings are for the following: Triangular - Base of Triangle.
Horizontal - Distance between outside conductors.
Vertical - Distance between upper and lower conductors.

D-17 In addition to its relation to capacitance unbalance, the
configuration of a power line with a ground wire affects the
balance of the mutual impedances between the
phase-conductors and the ground wire. Any lack of equality
among these mutual impedances causes ground-return current
to appear in the ground wire.
D-18 These ground-return currents, although considerably less
than the load currents, have a much larger coefficient of
coupling and therefore may produce relatively large
longitudinal voltages in exposed communication circuits.
The magnitude of the ground wire currents depends upon the
load currents, the degree of impedance unbalance, the self-
impedance of the ground wires and the resistance of the
earth connections.
- 39
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
D-19 On single-circuit lines the configuration is the principal
factor determining the impedance unbalance. On lines
carrying more than one circuit, certain interconnections of
the various phase wires may result in considerable decrease
in the unbalance. Figure 15 shows the impedance unbalance
on three representative types of twin-circuit lines with one
and two ground wires, showing the effects of various
interconnections of the Phase wires. The configurations in
the top and bottom rows are the same as in Figure 14. The
lines are assumed to be carrying equal and symmetrical
loads.
D-20 Circuits carried on lines of the types described in (4) and
(6) of Paragraph D-10, generally fall under the
classification of distribution circuits. In the case of
three-phase four-wire circuits having single or
multi-grounded neutral, the neutral conductor is frequently
grouped with the phase conductors, and the optimum
configuration will depend upon the arrangements employed,
the presence of other conductors and whether or not such
conductors are grounded. For this class of circuit the
effects of load balance, distribution of branches, etc., may
be far more important from the inductive standpoint than the
balance of the circuit, or circuits, as defined in this
discussion.
D-21 For lines of the type described in (5) of Paragraph D-10, it
is necessary to consider the configuration of the line as a
whole. Here again, the inductive effects resulting from the
methods of operation, particularly of the intermediate
voltage circuits and the distribution of branches, etc., are
frequently of much greater importance than the configuration
of either the line or the transmission circuit.
D-22 From the above, it is evident that the effect of
configuration on supply circuit balance is of importance
mainly in connection with transmission circuits. Quite,
commonly, in the case of distribution circuits and in some
cases of transmission circuits, the effects of other factors
on inductive influence are so much greater that
configuration becomes a secondary matter. In certain cases,
configuration may, of course, have an important bearing on
induction from balanced components. In some cases, the
configuration that is preferable from the standpoint of
induction from balanced components, is not
- 40
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
preferable from the standpoint of circuit balance. In such
cases, it is necessary either to select the configuration
according to whether it is more desirable to control
induction from residuals or from balanced components, or to
make a compromise between the two.
D-23 Transpositions: The capacitance unbalance to ground
incident to the configuration of a supply circuit can
theoretically be brought to a condition of approximate
balance by systematically interchanging the conductors
between the conductor positions so that each normally
energized conductor occupies each conductor position for an
equal distance, that is, by the proper use of
transpositions.
- 41
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
Figure 11:Characteristic Residual Voltage of a Three-Phase Line
(Single Circuit) Horizontal and Triangular
Configurations.
- 42
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
Figure 12:Characteristic Residual Voltages of a Three-Phase Line
(Single Circuit) Vertical Configurations.
- 43
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
Figure 13:Characteristic Residual Voltages Twin Circuit Power
Lines without Ground Wires.
- 44
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
Figure 14: Characteristic Residual Voltages Twin Circuit
Power Lines with One and Two Ground Wires and
Without Ground Wires.
- 45
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
Figure 15: Examples of Impedance Unbalance Between Phase
Conductors and Ground Wires for Different
Configurations and Interconnections.
- 46
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
D-24 Transpositions are installed in sections of line to form
what are known as "barrels." For a single-phase line, a
barrel would be a given length with a single transposition
installed at the mid-point of that length. For a
three-phase line, a barrel would be a given length divided
into three equal parts by two transpositions located at the
one-third and two-thirds points, respectively.
Theoretically, the length of the barrel should be a small
fraction of the wavelength of the highest frequency of
interest. It follows, therefore, that for low frequencies,
such as 25 or 60 Hz, a barrel can be of much greater length
than where harmonic frequencies are of interest, for a given
degree of effectiveness.
D-25 In the case of three-phase circuits having single-phase
branches, or where there is a combination of circuits on the
line as described in (5) of Paragraph D-10, other
conditions, such as the distribution of the branches among
the three phases, may be of more importance than the
unbalance incident to configuration. It follows, therefore,
that from the standpoint of circuit balance, transpositions
find their main application to transmission circuits.
Transpositions within inductive exposures are useful in
controlling induction from balanced components, as will be
discussed in Section G on Coordinated Transpositions.
D-26 Branches Consisting of Less Than the Total Number of Phase
Wires: Branches consisting of less than the total number of
phase wires are rarely employed on higher voltage
transmission circuits. On the other hand, they make up an
important part of distribution networks, and they are
sometimes used on that class of transmission circuit that
also supplies distribution along its route.
D-27 Since branches consisting of one wire with ground return are
not recognized standard construction, they will not be
considered in this discussion. Branches from two-wire
single-phase circuits will therefore consist of the total
number of phase wires. Since the three-wire single-phase
type of circuit in common use is generally of the low
voltage secondary class, this discussion will be confined to
two-wire branches from three-wire three-phase circuits and
from four-wire three-phase grounded neutral circuits.
- 47
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
D-28 In discussing branches from three-phase circuits, it will be
convenient to consider the matter from three viewpoints:
namely:
1. The balance of the branch.
2. The balance of the three-phase circuit.
3. The net result when the three-phase circuit is
energized in a balanced manner.
On extensive systems or long branches, the matter of
propagation resulting in resonance effects at harmonic
frequencies becomes involved. In the following discussion
Paragraphs D-29 to D-34, inclusive, consider first the
situation where such effects do not arise. A discussion of
these effects is given in Paragraph D-37.
D-29 A two-wire branch from a three-wire three-phase circuit,
even if approximately balanced of itself, will experience a
residual voltage when energized due to the fact that the
vector sum of the voltages to ground on the two wires is not
zero. If the loads on the branch are connected between the
two wires only, the load current in the branch will be
balanced. Where the branch is short, charging current may
not be of importance. Where, however, the branch is of
considerable length, residual charging current, due to the
action of the residual voltage on the capacitance to ground,
may have an important effect on exposures to the branch
particularly if they are located near the supply end of the
branch.
D-30 On the three-phase circuit the effect of the branch is to
unbalance the circuit since, in effect, it adds admittance
to ground to two of the phase wires without a corresponding
addition to the third. When the circuit is energized in a
balanced manner, two conditions have to be considered:
first, if the neutral is not grounded the branch will cause
the residual voltage normally on the three-phase line to be
increased, but the total residual voltage on the three-phase
line will not be as great as the residual voltage on the
branch. Second, if the neutral is grounded the branch will
affect the residual voltage of the three-phase circuit but
to a smaller extent than with the isolated neutral, and will
increase the ground return charging current.
D-31 Two-wire branches from four-wire three-phase circuits may
consist of branches from two-phase wires or from phase and
- 48
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
neutral, the latter being referred to hereafter as
phase-neutral branches. Branches form two phase-wires will
have the same effect in this case as in the case of the
three-wire three-phase circuits discussed in Paragraphs
D-28, D-29 and D-30. In considering phase-neutral branches
two conditions arise; first where the neutral is grounded at
the supply end only; and second, where the neutral is
grounded at the supply end and at a number of points along
the line. These two conditions will be referred to as
uni-grounded and multi-grounded neutral, respectively.
D-32 A phase-neutral branch from a uni-grounded neutral four-wire
three-phase circuit may, of course, he approximately
balanced if considered apart from the three-phase circuit.
However, when connected, one wire of the branch will be
grounded and the branch will therefore be unbalanced. When
energized, the full voltage on the branch will appear as
residual voltage. The load current on the branch will be
balanced, but there will exist a residual charging current
having earth return which may have an important effect on
exposures to the branch particularly near the supply end.
D-33 A phase-neutral branch from a multi-grounded neutral
four-wire three-phase circuit is unbalanced since one wire
is grounded at various points along its length. When
energized, the full voltage will appear as residual voltage.
A substantial part of the load current, and of the
transformer exciting current, gets into the earth through
the ground connections. On the other hand, charging current
that flows through the capacitance between the phase wire
and ground is partly pulled back (through magnetic inductive
action) from the earth into the neutral wire. These two
opposing effects have a net result that may be in either
direction at noise frequencies; that is, having multiple
grounds, instead of no grounds, along the branch, may result
in either a smaller or a larger inductive influence,
depending on whether the more important factor is charging
current (as in long, lightly-loaded lines at the higher
voltages), or load current plus transformer exciting current
(shorter, more heavily-loaded, lower voltage lines). The
wave-shape of the impressed voltage is also an important
factor in these considerations. At the fundamental and
lower harmonic frequencies the inductive influence of a
multi-grounded
- 49
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
neutral branch is considerably greater than that of one
having no grounds.
D-34 Regarding the effect of a phase-neutral branch on the
three-phase circuit, the latter circuit will be unbalanced
whether the neutral is uni-grounded or multi-grounded, since
the effect is that of adding admittance to ground to one
phase-wire without similar additions to the other two
phase-wires. When the circuit is energized, the residual
voltage of the three-phase circuit will not be substantially
changed by connecting the branch to it whether the neutral
is uni-grounded or multigrounded, and the ground return
residual current will be increased in either case.
D-35 If a three-phase four-wire circuit has a number of similar
phase-neutral branches, the Z will be approximately balanced
(aside from propagation effects) if the mileage of branch
lines is approximately the same for all phases. This does
not necessarily mean, however, that the charging current
will be even approximately balanced at all points of the
three-phase circuit. Thus, for example, if the branches
from one phase are all taken off in a single stretch of
line, and no other branches are connected within this part
of the line nor between it and the point of supply, it is
obvious that the charging current may be very substantially
off balance at the end of this part of the circuit that is
farthest from the point of supply. To avoid this kind of
situation, the mileage of branch lines should evidently be
disturbed equally among the phases, not merely on an
over-all basis, but also within suitably short sections of
the main circuit. To do this may be difficult if there are
a few scattered long branches and many short ones. In such
cases, the long branches, or some of them, may be connected
to the main circuit through two-winding transformers. If
such transformers are connected to two phase-wires of the
main circuit, the branch will not cause capacitance
unbalance to ground in the main circuit, regardless of the
type of grounding (uni- or multi-) of the neutral wire, and
regardless also of whether the branch itself is grounded on
one side. But if the transformer is connected between a
phase-wire and the neutral wire, the use of it will not
prevent the branch from unbalancing the main-circuit
capacitance to ground, nor (if the main-circuit has a multi-
grounded neutral) the appearance
- 50
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
of ground-return residual current in the main circuit, due
to branch capacitance and loads.
D-36 It should be noted that the method of obtaining balance as
discussed in Paragraph D-35 may have no relation to load
balance among the phases and that the best distribution of
branches from the standpoint of load balance may be far from
the best from the standpoint of circuit balance. In
considering balance, therefore, it is necessary to determine
which type of balance is important and be guided
accordingly. At fundamental frequencies, load balance is of
prime importance.
D-37 Where branches of considerable length are involved, or where
the branches are associated with an extensive three-phase
line, the capacitances and inductances which go to make up
the self and mutual impedance and admittances to ground may
be in such a combination as to approach a condition of
resonance for certain harmonic frequencies which may be
present in the impressed voltage or which may be produced by
loads. When this condition obtains, induction due to the
frequency or frequencies concerned will be accentuated
throughout the length of the branch. Furthermore, the
condition of resonance on the branch may materially affect
the inductive influence of the three-phase portions of the
supply line as well as that of other single-phase branches
fed from the latter.
D-38 In considering the application to practical problems of the
foregoing discussion, three types of situations involving
distribution circuits may arise; namely, (1) urban
distribution, (2) suburban distribution, and (3) rural
distribution.
D-39 In urban distribution, the supply and communication circuits
quite commonly occupy joint poles. The communication
circuits are generally in cable, the sheath of which, when
grounded, provides an effective shield against electric
induction. In such cases, therefore, magnetic induction
from the power system currents is practically always
controlling. Since the feeders are usually short and
operate at 6600 volts or below, charging currents may be
expected to be less important than harmonic components of
the load and transformer exciting currents. On urban
distribution systems, therefore, equal distribution of load
and connected kva of transformers
- 51
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
between the various phases is of greater significance than
equal capacitances of the various phase wires to ground.
D-40 In suburban areas, the communication circuits may be a
combination of cable and open wire and may be subject to
either electric or magnetic induction or both. In such
cases, therefore, particularly where the power circuits are
long, capacitance balance as well as load balance on the
distribution circuits must receive consideration.
D-41 In rural areas the supply circuits may be long and may be
largely made up of single-phase branches or circuits, and
the loads are generally relatively light. In such cases the
more important factors from the noise induction standpoint
are ground return charging current, the distribution of the
branches among the three phases of the feeder circuit, wave
shape and in some cases residual voltage.
D-42 At fundamental frequency, load balance rather than
capacitance balance is controlling, in nearly all cases.
Due to the normal variation of loads with time, as well as
the fluid nature of distribution lines, the control of
influence by load balance of three-phase, four-wire lines
has not been especially successful in practice.
D-43 In exposures to single-phase multi-grounded neutral lines,
no possibility of load balance exists. For the sizes of
neutral wires commonly used, about 75% of the load current
at fundamental frequency returns through the ground.
Balance of Communication Circuits
D-44 A metallic communication circuit is balanced if its two
sides have equal self-impedances and admittances to ground,
and equal mutual impedances and admittances to neighboring
conductors, in each elementary section of its length. This
definition applies both to metallic circuits of two
conductors and to phantom circuits. In the latter case, the
wires composing the side circuits from which the phantom is
derived are considered as being in parallel, and are treated
as if they were single conductors.
D-45 This definition is in substantially the same terms as the
definition given in Paragraph D-2 of balance in the case of
a supply circuit, and most of the discussion given in
connection with that definition applies directly (in most
- 52
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
cases with suitable and obvious changes in wording) to this.
Thus longitudinal uniformity is not necessary to a
condition of balance in a communication circuit, it is only
necessary that corresponding electrical constants of the two
sides of the circuit should be equal in each elementary
section. An elementary section, from a practical
standpoint, can be taken as a transposition section, and if
taken in the vicinity of a branch on one side of a phantom,
it must include the branch connections. The condition of
balance of a communication circuit does not depend upon its
mode of energization, but depends only on the self and
mutual characteristics of the conductors of the circuit and
neighboring conductors. In an exposure, a metallic
communication circuit may be energized longitudinally by
magnetic induction from a supply circuit, and from wires to
ground by electric induction; but no metallic circuit
voltages or currents will result from these components of
induction unless the circuit, or equipment connected to it,
is unbalanced. As it is impossible entirely to prevent
unbalances in communication circuits or equipment, metallic
circuit effects always follow from longitudinal induction or
induction to ground. Practically, it is simply a question
of the magnitudes of these effects.
D-46 Line Unbalances: Unbalances of communication circuits are
of two general types. The first may be called self-
unbalances, involving only the conductors of the circuit and
ground, and the second, mutual unbalances involving other
conductors. Thus, a self-unbalance would exist even though
all other conductors except those of the circuit in question
were moved beyond the field of influence. In practice both
self unbalances and mutual unbalances may have an
unfavorable influence from an inductive standpoint. The
resulting current or voltage in a circuit depends on both
the self and mutual unbalances, and upon the modes of
energization and terminal impedances of the circuit in
question and neighboring conductors.
D-47 Mutual Unbalances: In practice, none of the circuits on
multi-wire lines are inherently balanced in respect to their
mutual relations to other conductors. A close approximation
to such balance is obtained, however, by means of
transpositions whereby the unbalances existing in one
section are neutralized by those in a nearby section of
line. Thus transposition errors are the main source of
- 53
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
mutual unbalances. In a poorly maintained line, leakage may
be a factor.
D-48 The mutual unbalances that remain in a well-transposed line
are largely of the nature of shunt unbalances, i.e., they
are equivalent to admittances connected from a wire of one
circuit to a wire of another circuit. In other words, if a
well-transposed pair is energized to ground, both currents
and charges are produced in other wires. The currents in
the well-transposed pair itself are unequal, due to the
other wires, but largely because of their charges rather
than because of their currents.
D-49 Self-Unbalances: Self-unbalances may be divided into the
general classifications; namely, series impedance unbalances
and shunt admittance unbalances.
D-50 A series impedance unbalance is a difference, usually local,
between the series impedances of the two conductor composing
the circuit. Such an unbalance may be caused, for example,
by a high resistance joint in one of the conductors. If
such a joint exists, the longitudinal currents in the
conductors due to induced voltages encounter unequal
impedance with a resulting difference in voltage drop on the
two conductors. This difference in voltage drop causes a
voltage acting around the circuit, which tends to cause
noise-metallic. The effect of a given series unbalance
depends, of course, on the longitudinal current through it,
which in turn depends on the voltage or noise to ground and
the admittance to ground of the circuit on either side of
the unbalance.
D-51 Shunt admittance unbalances are generally due either to
unbalanced capacitances to ground or to unbalanced leakances
to ground of the two wires. The effect of an admittance
unbalance is to cause more current to flow to ground from
one side of the circuit than from the other. Part of this
excess current is drawn from the other side of the circuit,
thus flowing through the terminal equipment and thereby
causing noise-metallic.
D-52 Some of the most common sources of self-unbalances are:
1. Series impedance unbalances (line):
a. Defective splices in line conductors.
b. Contact resistance in test connectors, binding
posts and fuses.
- 54
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
c. Broken line conductors in tie wires.
2. Shunt admittance unbalances (line):
a. Defective insulators.
b. Contact of line wires with trees, vines,
crossarms, guy wires, foreign wires or with wires
falling across the line.
c. Leakage at protectors.
d. Capacitance or insulation unbalance in cables.
e. Defective insulation on bridle wires.
f. Capacitance unbalance due to transposition errors
or irregularities.
D-53 Other precautions that should be observed in connection with
phantom circuits to avoid unbalancing them are:
1. When terminating one side circuit at an intermediate
point, balancing resistance or other compensating
apparatus should be inserted in the through side of a
phantom group at a point where the other side circuit
is terminated.
2. When one side circuit of a phantom is looped into an
office, the other side circuit also should be looped in
to avoid capacity and series unbalances in the phantom.
3. When a branch is connected to one side circuit only of
a phantom group, the connection should be made to the
side circuit through a repeating coil, or a branch
having the same characteristics should be connected to
the other side circuit. If the branch is terminated in
a switchboard or at other point where it may be
connected to other circuits, a repeating coil is always
advisable.
Equipment Unbalances
D-54 Circuit unbalances may be caused by office or station
equipment and associated wiring if the equipment is not
properly designed and constructed for the service in
question or is not properly maintained. Equipment
unbalances have the same general effect as line unbalances.
They are especially important on phantom and composite
circuits.
D-55 Office Unbalances: Some of the more common sources of
office equipment and wiring unbalances are:
- 55
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
1. Composite set unbalances:
a. Unbalance between the elements of composite sets
in two sides of a phantom group.
b. Unbalance between various parts of a composite
set:
--- Series condensers.
--- coils in telegraph branches.
--- Condensers in telegraph branches.
--- Coils in grounded branches.
2. Loose connections due to rosin joints or poorly
soldered joints.
3. Drops of solder, wire clippings, etc., falling on
terminals causing crosses, grounds or short-circuited
apparatus.
4. Poor connections at relay contacts in talking circuits.
5. Relay contacts normally open when talking, failing to
open.
6. Variable resistance contacts at heat coils.
D-56 Station Unbalances: Telephone station lines are subject to
self and admittance unbalances as described in Paragraph
D-52. Telephone station equipment is always subject to
unbalances, the more common sources of which are:
1. Leakage at protectors.
2. Unequal resistance at fuses, station terminals and
switches.
3. Defective cords.
4. Ground return ringing.
In situations where ground return ringing is employed, the
unbalance can often be reduced by the use of either a ringer
having high impedance at harmonic frequencies or by the use
of a relay at the station which will connect the ringer to
ground only during the ringing period.
E-Transpositions
General
E-1 If the two sides of a metallic communication circuit were
infinitely close together and thus equally exposed to a
paralleling supply circuit, there would be no voltage
induced directly in the metallic communication circuit.
Similarly, if the supply conductors were infinitely close
together and thus equidistant from the communication
- 56
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
circuit, there would be no longitudinal circuit induction in
the communication circuit from balanced components of
current and voltage in the supply circuit. These ideal
conditions cannot, of course, be realized in practice.
However, by means of transpositions in the supply and
communication circuits, the direct-metallic induction and
the longitudinal-circuit induction from balanced components
occurring within adjoining sections of the communication
circuit may be neutralized to a degree and an approximation
to the ideal arrangement may thus be effected.
E-2 An open wire communication circuit is said to be transposed
when the two sides of the circuit reverse their respective
pin positions on the line according to a definite plan. A
metallic circuit voltage (voltage between the two sides of
the circuit) induced from an external source in a section of
the circuit on one side of a transposition tends to be
neutralized by the corresponding voltage on the other side
of the transposition, since the voltage in the second
section is reversed with respect to that in the first by the
transposition. The interchange of pin positions by the
conductors of a communication circuit at the transposition
(the exposure conditions at the point of transposition being
otherwise uniform) may be said to cause a phase change of
180 deg. in the metallic circuit induction in that
particular communication circuit. Communication circuit
transpositions have no effect on longitudinal-circuit
induction because this type of induction takes place in the
circuit composed of the communication wires in parallel as
one side and the earth as the other.
E-3 Supply circuit transpositions, on the other hand, may be
used effectively to reduce longitudinal-circuit induction
from balanced components of current and voltage on the
supply circuit.
E-4 Transpositions in a supply circuit do not reduce the
induction from residual components, which act in a circuit
of which the earth forms one side, except as they may do so
indirectly by reducing the residuals themselves.
E-5 In the case of ground-return communication circuits where
only longitudinal-circuit induction is encountered,
transpositions are practicable only in the supply circuit.
- 57
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
E-6 The effect of transpositions in interchanging phase
conductor positions is to establish for the over-all circuit
a condition of equal induction between each of the several
supply conductors and the disturbed circuit.
E-7 A section of supply circuit of uniform configuration within
which the transpositions are so arranged that each conductor
occupies each of the conductor positions for an equivalent
length is commonly known as a "barrel."
E-8 The neutralizing effect of supply circuit transpositions on
longitudinal-circuit induction results from the change in
phase of the electric and magnetic fields of the balanced
components of voltages and currents, respectively,
accompanying a change in the relative positions of the
supply wires.
E-9 In a single-phase system where the currents in the two
supply wires are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction, that is, 180 deg. out of phase, a transposition
in the supply circuit changes the phase of the induction by
180 deg. Therefore, within a uniform parallel, one such
transposition will neutralize the longitudinal-circuit
induction from balanced components into the communication
circuit, if located at the mid-point of the exposure.
E-10 Similarly, in a three-phase system, where the currents in
the phase wires are 120 deg. apart, a transposition in the
supply circuit changes the phase of the induction by 120
deg. Two three-wire transpositions of identical type,
dividing a uniform parallel of a three-phase line into three
equal parts, will neutralize the longitudinal-circuit
induction on the communication circuit resulting from
balanced components. The application of this method,
however, is attended with difficulties in practical cases
because of the irregular exposures usually encountered. In
such cases, the transpositions are located, not at the
geographical third points, but at the points corresponding
to thirds of the induced potential. This is the normal
method of forming a transposition barrel.
E-11 In specific exposures, these theoretical transposition
locations will, often times, not fall opposite neutral
points in the communication transposition system. In these
cases, the question as to whether it is preferable to move
the supply line transposition, and thus avoid introducing
- 58
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
metallic circuit induction, at the expense of the
longitudinal circuit induction, must be answered. In other
words, the relative importance of the direct and indirect
metallic circuit induction, as modified by supply circuit
transpositions, as well as the effect of the un-neutralized
longitudinal induction on grounded circuits, must be
evaluated. Where the longitudinal induction predominates,
it may sometimes be preferable to re-transpose the
metallic-communication circuits to coordinate with the
theoretical locations of the supply line transpositions.
E-12 The application of transpositions to multi-grounded-neutral
supply circuits is usually not warranted. On such circuits
the ground return components usually predominate; therefore,
reduction of the balanced components by transpositions is of
little benefit.
E-13 The common functions of supply and communication circuit
transpositions may be summarized as follows:
1. Supply circuit transpositions within exposures tend to
reduce longitudinal-circuit induction due to balanced
components. They may tend to reduce induction due to
residual components if they reduce the magnitude of the
residuals themselves; they do not affect the induction
from given amounts of residuals. Furthermore, they may
either increase or decrease the direct metallic circuit
induction.
2. Supply circuit transpositions outside of exposures have
no effect on either metallic circuit or
longitudinal-circuit induction due to balanced
components. They may tend to reduce induction due to
residual components if they reduce the magnitude of the
residuals themselves.
3. Supply circuit transpositions within exposures, where
the supply line carries one or more overhead ground
wires, tend to reduce the effect of induced current
flowing in these wires. This is helpful in situations
where normal induction from fundamental frequency
currents is concerned.
4. Where the supply line carries a drained telephone
circuit, the fundamental frequency induction from
induced current flowing in this circuit may be reduced
- 59
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
by supply line transpositions designed to provide
balance between drainage points.
5. Supply circuit transpositions are of little benefit for
multi-grounded-neutral systems.
6. Communication circuit transpositions tend to reduce
cross-induction between the various circuits on the
communication line.
7. Communication circuit transpositions within inductive
exposures tend to neutralize metallic circuit induction
from both the balanced and residual components of the
supply system. They have no effect on
longitudinal-circuit induction.
8. Communication circuit transpositions outside of
exposures have no effect on direct metallic circuit
induction. They do, however, tend to reduce the
indirect metallic circuit induction (from either the
balanced or residual components of the supply system),
if they reduce unbalances that might be acted upon by
the longitudinal-circuit induction.
Application of Transpositions
E-14 Supply Circuit Transpositions: The considerations which
determine the need and application of transpositions in
supply circuits in the case of normal low frequency
induction may differ widely from those governing when noise
frequency induction predominates. Low frequency induction
involves the fundamental frequency and the lower range of
harmonic frequencies while noise frequency induction
involves the harmonic frequencies in the noise frequency
range. Where the TIF of the supply system is low
transpositions in the supply circuit may not be necessary
from the standpoint of noise frequency induction whereas
they may be necessary to reduce induction at the fundamental
frequency. On the other hand, in situations where noise
frequency induction is the only problem, the control of the
supply system wave shape may provide a more economical means
of reducing the supply system influence than the use of
transpositions.
Supply Circuit Transpositions for-Low Frequency Induction
(This discussion on supply circuit transpositions for low
frequency induction refers principally to three-phase
- 60
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
systems. However, the underlying theory applies equally
well to single-phase circuits.)
E-15 When a preliminary study of a given situation has indicated
the possible need of supply circuit transpositions, the
order of procedure might be as follows:
1. The obtaining of complete information about the
physical characteristics of the exposure and the
preparation of an exposure chart showing the relation
of the communication line to the supply circuits
involved in the exposure.
2. The obtaining of complete information regarding the
operating characteristics of the supply system,
including maximum probable load, transformer
connections, location of neutral ground connections,
type of relaying, etc.
3. The determination of the induced voltage and its effect
on service.
4. If transpositions in the supply line seem necessary, an
estimate should be made of the minimum number of
transpositions required.
5. The determination of the most desirable locations for
the transpositions, taking into account the minimizing
of the effects on both grounded and metallic
E-16 Careful consideration must be given to the number, location
and relative importance of discontinuities within the
exposure. A discontinuity as herein used is any point at
which an abrupt change occurs in the magnitude or phase of
the supply line voltages or currents, or in the resulting
induced voltage. Particular examples are:
1. Generating stations.
2. Switching or transformer stations.
3. Substations or load points.
4. Abrupt changes in separation.
5. Changes in configuration of the supply line.
6. Crossovers.
- 61
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
E-17 Transpositions, because of their application to
coordination, are not considered as discontinuities,
although technically included in the term.
E-18 The lengths of supply line transposition barrels are largely
determined by the exposure discontinuities. Attenuation and
phase change effects, which are of importance at noise
frequencies, are less important in the usual type of low
frequency problem.
E-19 Working, then, with sections between discontinuities, the
longitudinal-circuit-induced voltage is determined, as
explained below, for the entire exposure. The amount of
this voltage and its effect on the operation of the various
communication circuits involved are the basis for an
estimate of the desired number of supply line
transpositions.
E-20 It is then necessary to select the balance or neutral points
for the transposition system to be used to obtain the best
neutralization of induction consistent with the minimum
number of barrels. It is desirable that these points occur
at discontinuities. However, to locate such points at all
discontinuities is often impracticable so that careful
consideration should be given to the relative importance of
discontinuities to determine if the minor ones cannot be
disregarded. For example, where the load taken off at an
intermediate substation is a small proportion of the total
transmitted load, this discontinuity may be ignored.
E-21 One or more barrels of transpositions are located between
successive balance points when the longitudinal-circuit
induction is sufficient to warrant their use.
E-22 The usual procedure in designing a barrel of transpositions
is to endeavor to locate the two transpositions at points
corresponding to 1/3 and 2/3 of the total induction between
balance points. As explained previously, the
longitudinal-circuit induction in the three sections should
then be 120 deg. apart and thus should neutralize. However,
in locating the supply circuit transpositions, consideration
must be given to the effect on direct metallic circuit
induction.
- 62
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
E-23 In designing transposition systems for supply lines which
carry overhead ground wires, consideration must be given not
only to the balanced current effects directly but also to
the effect of the residual current flowing in the ground
wires as a result of induction from the currents in the
phase conductors. The relative magnitudes of these two
components of induction will determine what source should be
given greater weight in the transposition design.
Paragraphs E-36 to E-40, inclusive, discuss the method of
estimating the effect of ground wires.
E-24 Balanced Current Induction: In computing the induction for
sections of uniform exposure, the coefficient of induction
at the separation concerned is multiplied by the length of
the paralleling section. The coefficient of induction may
be determined from the curves given in Section D in terms of
volts induced per ampere or per 100 amp. in the supply
circuit per unit of length of the exposure. Sloping
exposures may be divided into short elements, in which the
separation at the two ends does not differ by more than 10%,
and induction in each short element determined by
multiplying the average coefficient by the length of the
element. The average coefficient for each short element is
obtained by taking the average of the coefficients for the
separations at the two ends of the element. Since this
average point is located on the chord of the coefficient
curve rather than on the curve itself, it is necessary to
use short elements, that is, elements in which the change in
separation is not great in order to avoid introducing too
large an error. At close separations where the coefficient
of induction is large, and at separations where the slope of
the coefficient curve is changing rapidly*, frequent
subdivision of the sloping exposure is especially important.
However, when the length of sloping exposure is so short
that the induction from it is small compared to the total,
fewer subdivisions may be used. A somewhat similar method
of treating sloping exposures that, however, uses the
average separation for the small elements rather than the
average of the coefficients, is described in Section D.
* The slope of the coefficient curves for a vertically configured supply
line changes more rapidly at certain separations than the coefficient
curves for any other configuration.
- 63
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
E-25 For either method, the induction (average coefficient times
length) for each of the small sections is added cumulatively
and the transpositions (for each barrel) are located at
points equal to 1/3 and 2/3 of the total induction; i.e.,
the actual transposition points are found by interpolation
at the 1/3 and 2/3 points of the cumulative column.
E-26 The layout should be inspected to ascertain the relation of
the transpositions to the neutral points of the
communication circuit transposition system. In general, if
the supply circuit transposition locations were to be
altered to fit these neutral points, there would usually be
some un-neutralized longitudinal induction. Consideration
must be given to the effect of this on both direct and
indirect metallic circuit induction, and on grounded
telegraph circuits. A decision is then in order as to the
desirability of the more exact longitudinal balance obtained
by using the theoretical transposition locations, and the
possible necessity of re-transposing or installing whole
line transpositions in metallic circuits within the
exposure.
E-27 Where more than one barrel of transpositions is to be used,
a similar procedure is followed between the next pair of
balance points.
E-28 Design of Barrels in Pairs: Where the length of barrel is
not limited by discontinuities, and where theoretical
consideration shows the desirability of installing two
consecutive barrels in a particular exposure, it is
desirable to design the two barrels to be exactly alike, by
locating the transposition points at the 1/6, 1/3, 2/3 and
5/6 points of the total inductive length. It is frequently
more economical to install initial transpositions at the 1/3
and 2/3 points. If later it develops that further reduction
is necessary, a second barrel can be obtained by adding
transpositions at the 1/6 and 5/6 points.
E-29 Transpositions at Ends of Barrels: In general,
transpositions should not be used at the ends of complete
transposition barrels, since this would increase the
unbalance due to phase change, and also the cost of
transposing. Where it is necessary to have particular phase
relations at given points, this condition can often
- 64
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
be met by rolling certain barrels in opposite directions
instead of transposing at the junction points.
E-30 Crossovers: The direct balanced current induction from a
supply line of horizontal configuration is changed in phase
by 180 deg. at points of crossing over a communication line.
Sometimes such a crossover, therefore, may be usefully
employed in lieu of transpositions, when the exposure
dimensions are similar in the two directions from the
crossover. This method is of no benefit for a supply line
having vertical or unsymmetrical configuration, nor will
there be any reduction by use of this method in the
induction from residual current flowing in the overhead
ground wire.
E-31 Use of One Three-Phase Transposition: Where a barrel of
transpositions cannot be economically justified but where
some relief from inductive effects is required, a
three-phase transposition, located at the inductive center
of the exposure, will reduce the longitudinal-circuit
induction by approximately 50 percent.
E-32 Balance to More Than One Communication Line: Where there
are two communication lines involved in the same exposure,
it is not usually possible to provide equal coordination to
both. In such cases, the more important communication line,
or the one more closely exposed, should be given greater
consideration in designing the transposition scheme. If, as
is the usual case, the balance to the other line is
imperfect, it may often be improved by rolling certain
barrels in the opposite direction, and by inserting
additional transpositions at the balance points.
E-33 In general, a diagram, similar to Figure 16, should be
prepared, showing the theoretical transposition points, and
the method of rolling the individual transpositions. This is
especially important when reversed barrels are to be used.
E-34 Transpositions to Reduce Residuals in Ground Wires* Phase
Conductors* etc.: Supply line transpositions do not
mitigate inductive effects due to residual currents
directly, but such transpositions may reduce the induction
indirectly as described below.
- 65
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
E-35 Ground Wire Induction: Overhead ground wires on a supply
line may be an important source of low frequency induction.
It is evident that if the phase wires are not transposed
with respect to these wires, a voltage to ground will be
induced along them by the balanced phase currents, and a
ground return current will flow which may be of considerable
magnitude particularly where high conductivity ground wires
are used.
E-36 The resulting ground wire residual current induction on
paralleling communication circuits may be largely reduced by
suitable transpositions in the phase conductors. These
transpositions must be located with due regard to the
varying separation between the supply and communication
lines in the usual manner. Since the ground wire is
normally grounded at frequent intervals, the transposition
barrels, while they will change the phase of the induction
into the ground wire in each third of the barrel by 120
deg., will not reduce the ground wire current, since the
currents in each section will still flow to ground through
the ground connections. However (if the earth resistivity
is constant throughout the barrel and) if the transpositions
are so located that the coupling to residual currents is
equal in each third of the barrel, there will be no residual
current induction on the communication circuits, since the
inductive effects of the current flowing in the ground wire
in the individual barrel thirds will be equal and 120 deg.
apart, and hence will tend to cancel. In some situations,
this ideal condition may not be fully realized because of
end effects, and for this reason it is sometimes advisable
in severe cases to establish low impedance grounds (5 ohms
or less) on the ground wire at the ends of the exposure and
at transposition locations.
E-37 The calculation of ground wire induction is performed by
first computing the current in the ground wires per unit of
balanced current. The coupling to the communication line is
determined in the same manner as described in Paragraph E-24
for balanced current, except that the residual current
coupling curve is used. Interpolation for transposition
points is likewise done in the same way. Because of the
different shape of the coupling curves for balanced and
residual current induction, the transposition points (except
for uniform exposures) may not be at the same locations for
the two types of induction.
- 66
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
E-38 Transpositions to balance to the ground wire are needed only
within the limits of the exposure, but it is important to
remember that since a residual current is being considered,
as far as fundamental frequency induction is concerned, its
effects may be appreciable at separations of a mile or more,
especially in regions of high earth resistivity.
E-39 It may be assumed that the ground wire current flows to
earth at every point where this wire is grounded (such as at
towers), but since an equal current flows up the tower due
to the induced potential in the next span, the net result is
that of a uniform current flowing throughout the length of
the ground wire, with current flowing to ground only at
towers near where the ground wire is interrupted, where
transpositions are installed, and at the ends of the line.
E-40 Balance to Ground: Residual currents are usually present in
the phase wires of an un-transposed supply line due to the
unbalanced series impedance and admittance to ground of the
several phase conductors. The magnitude of the residual
current is determined by the impressed voltage, load
current, conductor configuration, length of supply line,
location of grounded transformer banks, and other factors.
This type of residual may be reduced by transposing the
supply line throughout its length, thus equalizing the
series impedances, and capacitances to ground of the phase
conductors.
E-41 Load and Single Phase-Extension Unbalance: Where the
residual current is due to unbalanced load currents, as in
three-phase four-wire multi-grounded neutral distribution
circuits or to the unequal lengths of single phase
extensions connected to the various phases, transpositions
are of little benefit.
- 67
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
Figure 16:Interconnection for Twin Circuit Vertical Lines Without
Ground Wires.
- 68
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
E-42 Composite systems: Since, except in uniform exposures, it
is impossible to design a system of supply line
transpositions which will be fully effective in reducing
both the induction from the balanced load currents and from
the current flowing in other parallel wires, such as ground
and telephone wires, the relative interfering effect of each
of these must be determined for each specific exposure, and
the transposition scheme laid out giving due consideration
to their relative weights. In an existing exposure, it is
sometimes possible to determine the relative importance of
the various sources of induction by actual tests; but in
proposed cases, this must be done by calculations. The
transposition scheme should be designed to provide the
greatest relief from the induction as a whole, consistent
with cost and practicability.
E-43 Combined systems of supply circuit transpositions may be
used. A common scheme is to lay out transpositions within
the exposure against balanced current or ground wire
induction, and to install additional transpositions outside
the exposure to reduce residuals. Transpositions may
sometimes be necessary in one or both of two paralleling
power supply circuits in order to reduce their combined
effect, including secondary induction, on a paralleling
communication circuit. While the general principles given
in this section will apply, such cases usually require
special consideration.
E-44 Interconnection of Phases of Twin Circuit Lines: The phase
conductors of twin circuit supply lines may generally be
interconnected to produce a partial neutralization of
particular inductive effects from the two circuits. A
general recommendation as to the most advantageous method in
each case is not possible, as numerous factors govern the
type to use in any particular case. Considering only the
inductive effect of the twin circuit due to balanced
currents, Figure 17 shows the relative merits of different
methods of interconnection for a few configuration types at
specific separations. The ratios given as I
E
in the drawing
are approximate and will vary with conductor spacing and
line separations, but the merits of the various methods of
interconnection are, in general, as indicated. If ground
wires or a telephone circuit are present on the supply line,
a special study is necessary.
- 69
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
E-45 Methods of Transposition: When transposing twin circuit
lines, both circuits should be transposed at the same point,
except as explained in Paragraph E-47.
E-46 Transpositions in the two circuits should be rotated in such
a manner that the chosen interconnection is maintained in
each part of the transposition barrels. Figure 18 indicates
the direction of rotation to be employed with various
methods of interconnection for vertical configuration.
E-47 Combined Systems: The interconnection which gives the least
induction from balanced currents, Figure 17, in general, is
not the one which gives the best balance to ground. For
this reason, it may be desirable to transpose one of the
circuits on a twin circuit line at the balance points at the
end of the exposure as shown on Figure 16 in order to change
from the best configuration for balanced current induction
within the exposure to the best for balance to ground
outside the exposure.
E-48 Interconnection for Least Capacitance Unbalance: For twin
circuit lines in vertical configuration* without ground
wires, the interconnection giving least capacitance
unbalance is with the top conductors of each circuit at the
same phase, and the two bottom conductors diagonally
interconnected, as shown on Figure 19. When ground wires
are used, the bottom conductors should be at the same phase,
and the two top conductors diagonally interconnected. For
twin circuits in triangular configuration without ground
wires, the least capacitance unbalance results when
similarly located conductors of each circuit are at the same
phase. For other arrangements a special study is necessary.
Supply Circuit Transpositions to Reduce
Noise Frequency Induction
E-49 Transpositions in supply circuits to reduce noise frequency
induction must of necessity be located with due regard to
the communication circuit transpositions. The locations and
arrangement of the transpositions in the two classes of
circuit should be such as to form a coordinated layout.
Such application is discussed in Paragraphs E-61 to E-76.
* Including those with center conductors displaced.
- 70
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
Figure 17: Twin Circuit Interconnection for Several Power
Line Configurations and Relative Inductive Effect
due to Balanced Phase Currents.
- 71
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
Figure 18:Direction of Rotation of Power Circuits with Various
Types of Interconnection.
- 72
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
E-50 Communication Circuit Transpositions: Practically all
metallic open wire communication circuits are transposed
throughout their length. Even if no supply circuits are
near the communication line, transpositions are necessary to
minimize the cross-induction between the various circuits on
the line. Transpositions installed solely for this purpose
in open wire communication circuits, however, do not
necessarily fit the discontinuities in exposures involving
neighboring supply circuits in such a way as to neutralize
effectively induction from these supply circuits. A
decrease in the induction in a metallic communication
circuit can usually be obtained in a given situation by
arranging the transpositions with particular reference to
the discontinuities of the exposure. Thus communication
circuit transpositions have two functions: to reduce
induction from other communication circuits on the same line
and to reduce the metallic circuit induction from the wires
of supply circuits located on the same line (joint use) or
on a neighboring line.
E-51 The components of indirect metallic circuit induction caused
by the action of longitudinal-circuit induction on
communication circuit unbalances may arise either inside or
outside of exposed sections. Experience has indicated,
however, that in many cases an exposed section is short
compared to the total length of the communication line. It
has therefore been convenient to refer to this effect as
occurring outside the exposed section and to contrast it
with the so-called direct induction into the metallic
circuit inside the exposed section.
E-52 The components arising outside the exposed section may be
reduced by any means that reduce the longitudinal circuit
induction or the unbalances. The balance of the
communication circuit depends to some extent on the
transpositions employed and in a particular case the
components of indirect metallic circuit induction might be
reduced by changes in the arrangement of the communication
circuit transpositions. However, the type of transposition
section is not usually a controlling factor since there is
little practical difference in the effect of different
transposition systems. For this reason and because of the
lengths of the lines and the consequent number of
transpositions involved, it appears that the re-
transposition of unexposed sections of communication line
- 73
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
is seldom a practical and economical measure for inductive
coordination.
E-53 Transposition Systems for Communication Lines: The design
of a transposition scheme to take care of both
cross-induction and induction from supply circuits for any
considerable number of communication circuits on a line is a
complicated process. However, a definite system of
transpositions, known as the Exposed Line System, has been
developed for general application. Instructions covering
the installation of the exposed line system are given in
Manual Part 1-D-9.
E-54 Exposed Line System: The Exposed Line System is designed
not only to reduce cross talk but also to be suitable, when
properly coordinated, for reducing the noise induction which
might otherwise result from exposures with supply circuits.
It consists of three types of sections, namely, standard,
auxiliary, and unit designated by the letters E, L, and U,
respectively.
E-55 Whole Line Transpositions: Whole line transposition units
were developed in order to provide for more frequent
transposing in either a part or all of a transposition
section designed for inductive coordination purposes,
through the super-session of additional transpositions.
Such transpositions can be employed effectively with the E
section (and sometimes the L section) but cannot be used
with the U section where phantom groups are present. These
units and their application are described in Communication
Manual Part 1-D-9, (Recommended Practices for the
Installation of Transposition in Open Wire Communication
Circuits) Section C. The whole line transposition units
therein described are particularly applicable to E sections
and, when properly applied, will not appreciably disturb the
voice frequency cross talk in such sections.
E-56 One important consideration in the use of whole line units
is the fact that if a short part of an existing E section
becomes exposed, it may be practicable to reduce the noise
induction without re-transposing the remaining part of the
transposition section. Furthermore, whole line
transpositions may be employed to furnish additional
transpositions in the irregularly exposed part or parts of
an E section (or where the interval between two adjacent
mile points of an E section is exposed for only part of its
- 74
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
length), the coordination in the remaining (relatively
uniform) parts of the exposure being satisfactorily provided
by the ordinary transposition arrangements of the E section,
thus avoiding the use of the shorter types of transposition
section. Whole line transpositions are also useful in
connection with slanting exposures and, in addition, their
use, where necessary, will make it possible for
discontinuities in an exposure (such as crossovers, changes
in separation, etc.) to occur at other than mile points of
the E section, an application which is often found to be of
advantage in exposures which are otherwise uniform.
E-57 C-1 Transposition System: The C-1 system is suitable for
carrier frequency applications up to about 35 KHz. It may
be applied to individual groups on lines transposed on the
Exposed Line basis. When this is done, modifications will
generally be required on some of the voice frequency
facilities. Voice frequency circuits may be operated on the
sides and phantoms of C-1 groups and will have about the
same cross talk performance as Exposed Line facilities. The
noise performance of the side circuits is generally better
than with the Exposed Line design due to the more frequent
transpositions; the noise on phantom circuits is about the
same since they are about equally transposed under the two
designs. The layout of the C-1 System is described in
Manual Part 1-D-9, Section F.
E-58 R-1 Transposition System: The R-1 system is intended for
use on non-phantomed voice frequency facilities subject to
severe metallic noise induction. Essentially it provides
for transpositions on each pair at every other pole with
transpositions on longitudinally or vertically adjacent
pairs staggered so as to fall on different sets of poles.
Transpositions should be made on double groove insulators,
mounted individually or on a two-pin bracket depending on
the span length. The use of drop brackets may substantially
impair cross talk performance. The R-1 design may be
applied to any pair on an existing voice frequency
transposed line. It may generally be used on carrier
frequency pole lines provided there are no carrier systems
operating above about 35 KHz on the same or adjacent
crossarms. The layout of the R-1 System is described in
Manual Part 1-D-9, Section G.
- 75
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
E-59 R-2 Transposition System: The R-2 system is similar to the
R-1 except that it provides for transpositions on every
fourth pole and finds its principal application when the
average span length is less than about 300 ft. Because of
the less frequent transpositions, the noise performance is
about 6 db lower than the R-1 system for the same span
length. The R-2 design is not satisfactory for use on
carrier transposed lines because of possibility of voice
frequency cross talk.
E-60 The R-1 and R-2 systems were primarily designed for use on
short distance circuits such as PBX extension loops, pony
lines, block circuits, etc.
E-61 Coordinated Transpositions: For coordinated transpositions
to be fully effective, conditions among the various sections
of line within which the induction is to be neutralized must
be substantially alike as regards the relations of the
supply and communication circuits to each other, to ground,
and to other circuits on each line.
E-62 Even though a layout of transpositions were perfectly
coordinated on paper, it would not be correspondingly
effective when installed because of unavoidable
irregularities in the spacing of poles, in the separation
between the supply and communication circuits, in the
presence of shielding objects, in the heights of poles, etc.
It is usually impracticable to treat these as
discontinuities and to take account of them in the
transposition design. The extent of impairment caused by
non-uniform conditions in a particular case is, for
practical purposes, impossible to calculate with any degree
of accuracy. General estimates, however, of the order of
magnitude of the effectiveness of transpositions may be made
on the basis of measurements, if any are available, for
cases similar to the particular one under consideration.
E-63 The design of coordinated transposition layouts cannot, in
general, be carried out by the application of fixed formulas
or rules but must to a certain extent be conducted as a cut
and try process. A study of several different possibilities
is usually involved for a particular exposure. The
selection of the final design is dependent upon obtaining
adequate effectiveness with due regard also to relative
economies and to the reaction on circuit
- 76
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
operation at the frequencies that are employed on the
communication line.
E-64 The design of a practical layout of transpositions for a
particular case requires great care. In the majority of
cases, the attention of an experienced designer is required
to obtain satisfactory results without undue expense.
Figure 19 shows an illustrative example which, together with
the information given in Paragraphs E-67 to E-75, inclusive,
may be used as a general guide in this work.
E-65 When a preliminary study of a given situation has indicated
the probable need of coordinated transpositions, the design
of the coordinated layout frequently proceeds by a definite
series of steps, such as are outlined in Paragraph E-67.
Certain definite limitations are established by the usual
conditions where the length of the communication line in the
particular exposure is only a relatively small part of the
total length of the line, so that the transposition system
installed in the line as a whole is a primary factor in
determining the choice of a suitable transposition scheme
for the exposed section. For instance, where circuits
transposed for carrier frequency operation are present, the
transpositions in the exposed section must be such as to
provide for this type of operation.
- 77
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
- 78
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
E-66 The adaptation of transpositions to fit the discontinuities
of the exposure will usually be limited to adjusting the
lengths of the several types of available transposition
sections within the limits allowed, or combining sections
having different nominal lengths. Preference is usually
given to the transposition sections having the greater
nominal lengths, such as the E section of the exposed line
system. To avoid undesirable increases in cross induction
and to otherwise avoid impairing the effectiveness of the
transpositions, the adjustment of a transposition section
length is usually made in such a way as to result in a
decreased rather than an increased length of section as
compared to the nominal length. Considerations of
coordination are usually limited to fitting as far as
practicable the available neutral points of the
communication transposition system in the most effective
manner to the exposure discontinuities by one or the other
of these devices.
E-67 Design Procedure: With these considerations, the usual
steps of the design are as follows:
1. Obtain as complete information, as practicable, about
the physical characteristics of the exposure and
prepare an exposure chart showing the relation of the
communication line to the various supply circuits
involved in the exposure.
2. Divide the exposure into zones between discontinuities,
such that, throughout each zone, substantially the same
conditions exist in the relation of the supply and
communication circuits to each other and to ground.
3. Make detailed estimates of the metallic circuit
induction and longitudinal circuit induction for the
various important components of supply circuit voltage
and current for each zone of the exposure. These
estimates are usually carried out initially as if the
supply and communication circuits were totally un-
transposed.
4. Make a preliminary selection of the transposition
systems that appear to have a reasonable degree of
application of the case in hand and make a trial
adjustment of these systems to the discontinuities of
the exposure.
- 79
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
5. Make an inspection of the general order of
effectiveness and characteristics of the layout of this
preliminary selection, with a view to eliminating from
further consideration as many as practicable of those
sectional arrangements, which have the more outstanding
values of un-neutralized metallic circuit or
longitudinal-circuit induction, the larger values of
cross induction, an imperfect longitudinal circuit
balance, etc. While at this stage use will ordinarily
be made of the results of the estimates outlined in
step (3), it will frequently be possible to use
graphical methods and by them to simplify the
operations and reduce the amount of calculation
required. For instance, in simple cases, a brief
general inspection of a layout, together with
consideration of the estimated values of induction,
will often show at once that certain less severely
exposed parts of an exposure may be neglected, at least
temporarily, while attention is concentrated on
reducing the induction in the more severely exposed
parts.
6. Carefully examine certain of the layouts (those which
have not now been eliminated in the steps which have
been taken) with respect to their effectiveness in
reducing the induction and with respect to the
practicability of applying them. Where the need for
supply circuit transpositions has been indicated, this
step includes the design of their arrangement to
coordinate with the communication transposition layout.
In general, supply circuit transpositions, when used,
would be located opposite neutral points of the
communication circuit transposition layout, consistent
with obtaining a sufficient neutralization of the
longitudinal circuit induction. In uniform sections of
exposure at highway separations, barrels approximately
3 or 6 miles long will coordinate with the full length
E or L sections. Where the exposure involves
successive full-length transposition sections, barrels
of longer lengths will coordinate with the
transposition layouts in the communication circuits.
In the design and application of supply circuit
transpositions, which are primarily used to minimize
the indirect metallic circuit induction and the
longitudinal induction in grounded circuits, care needs
to be exercised lest the direct metallic circuit
- 80
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
noise be increased. Where no grounded circuits are
involved, too great a refinement in the neutralization
of the longitudinal circuit induction may not be
justified by the reduction of over-all noise in the
metallic circuit.
7. After the adoption of layout based on the preceding
steps, it is necessary to consider the matter of
obtaining suitable locations for the necessary
transposition poles, particularly for circuits
transposed for carrier operation. This factor may have
a considerable influence upon the relative
practicability of specific layouts.
8. Estimate the un-neutralized induction (of various
types) or noise expected to result from the particular
arrangement of transpositions adopted.
E-68 Communication and Signal Supply Circuits on Joint Poles: A
class of construction prevalent on railroads is that of a
joint single-phase signal supply circuit operating at
voltages up to 550 volts and placed on pins at one end of a
crossarm carrying low voltage signal wires, usually only one
gain separated from communication circuits. This has been
known to cause induction in adjacent or nearby communication
circuits, even in short sections. However, the need for
coordination between signal supply and communication
circuits on joint lines is to a considerable extent
dependent upon the nature of the exposure and the wave shape
of the signal supply line.
E-69 Where the exposed line transposition system is present, the
transpositions in the communication circuits are designed to
provide adequate protection from direct metallic circuit
induction if the supply circuit discontinuities are at "S"
or mid-section points (E-32 or L-16). Most signal supply
circuits require the connection of loads much more
frequently than would be permitted by limitation to those
points. It is also not good practice to adjust the
telephone transposition scheme to conform to minor
discontinuities of the signal supply system. In
consequence, discontinuities in signal supply circuits are
permitted to occur at nominal mile points of the
communication transposition scheme. The signal supply
circuit should be transposed at the odd mile points of the
communication transposition scheme, i.e.
- 81
AREMA C&S Manual
1996 Part 20.1.7
1. For E-sections, at the odd 1/8ths of the communication
transposition scheme.
2. For L-sections, at the odd 1/4ths.
3. For U-sections, none for a single U-section. Where
there is a series of consecutive U-sections one supply
circuit transposition located at a US pole,
approximately at the center of this series of
consecutive U-sections.
E-70 Major discontinuities in the signal supply circuit should,
in general occur at balance points in the communication
transposition scheme. When this is impractical, special
transpositions in the supply circuit should be installed so
as to secure adequate balance between the supply and
E-71 Major discontinuities in the signal supply circuit are: The
power feed point, change in pin position of the supply
circuit, change in crossarm spacing between signal and
communication arms of one gain or more.
E-72 Minor discontinuities that do not have to be taken into
account are: Load transformers, disconnecting switches, and
end of supply circuit.
E-73 Circuits transposed to 30 KHz patterns have a greater number
of transpositions than those transposed to the exposed line
system. They are therefore somewhat less susceptible, and
discontinuities may be permitted at more frequent intervals
than with 3 KHz patterns. However, it is believed that 3
KHz circuits will be present in most situations, and
coordination with signal lines that is suitable for these
circuits will be adequate for the 30 KHz facilities.
E-74 This arrangement provides reasonable coordination to both
phantom circuits and non-phantomed pairs, but may tend to
increase the direct metallic circuit induction to the
side-circuits of some phantom groups. Where the desired
degree of neutralization is not obtained, a special study of
the needs of the communication circuit will be necessary.
E-75 Another method, which has been used in some instances for
single-phase signal supply circuits and which has proved
- 82
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.7 1996
effective in reducing the induction in the communication
circuits where the supply circuit was free of residuals, is
to treat the supply circuit, so far as its transpositions
are concerned, as if it were a communication circuit. For
transposition purposes, it is assigned the pin position
numbers that a communication pair on the same pins would
take. The numbering of the pin positions for the
communication circuits and their transpositions are also
arranged as if the supply circuit were one of the
communication circuits. For the best results, this method
would, in general be confined to cases where the supply
circuit was continuous throughout a complete communication
transposition section and where there were no loads on the
supply circuit at points within the section.
E-76 Grounds on signal supply circuits, if to be used, should be
made only at balance points of the supply transformers.
Grounds at unbalance points are likely to increase the
influence of the signal supply circuit materially, with
attendant increased coordination problems. Multi-grounded
neutral signal circuits will greatly increase the cost of
coordinating the communication plant. Such construction is
not recommended. Transposition of a multi-grounded neutral
signal supply circuit offers little or no benefit to exposed
- 1
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
Recommended Practices for Investigating
Inductive Effects on Communication Facilities
A - General
A-1 These recommended practices are for evaluating the
seriousness of, and determining a solution for, problems
associated with proposed or existing parallel power lines
and communication lines.
A-2 The principles outlined in Manual Part 7-7 (Discussion of
Fundamental Factors Involved in Inductive Coordination and
of Remedial Measures Applicable Under Various Conditions),
will be applied in as systematic and non-technical a manner
as possible.
A-3 Inductive interference may be defined as the disturbance or
complete interruption of communications, either telephonic
or telegraphic, or physical hazard to personnel or equipment
by extraneous voltages introduced into the communication
circuits as a result of fields associated with nearby
electric supply lines.
A-4 Induction problems for the purpose of this discussion have
been divided into the following three classifications:
1. Normal low frequency induction. Predominantly from
distribution lines.
2. Abnormal low frequency induction. Predominantly from
transmission lines above 25 kv.
3. Noise frequency induction. Predominantly from
distribution lines of 100 ft. separation or less.
A-5 Normal low frequency induction results from load and
transformer exciting currents that introduce into
neighboring communications circuits fundamental frequency
voltages (usually 60 Hz, although 25 Hz for some railroad
electrifications). The third harmonic voltages (180 or
75 Hz) also are often considered as normal low frequency
effects because of their large magnitudes in many cases.
Induced voltages from normal low frequency induction have
been measured up to 100 volts or more in severe exposures
where the power system residual current was unusually high,
although such voltages are generally considerably lower.
- 2
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
The principal adverse effects that may be experienced on
communications systems involve false signaling on telephone
voice frequency circuits using ground return signaling and
interference with the operation of ground return telegraph
circuits. Occasionally normal induction on isolated
sections of open wire lines may result in hazardous voltages
between conductors or from conductors to ground, requiring
remedial measures.
A-6 Abnormal low frequency induction relates to the fundamental
60 (or 25) Hz voltage induced in communications circuits
only momentarily at times of faults to ground on neighboring
power circuits. Such induced voltages which may be in the
order of 1,000 volts or more for severe exposures, can
result in communication service interruptions due to
temporary or permanent grounding of protector blocks and
possible hazardous voltages to workmen along the conductors,
unless suitable remedial measures are adopted.
A-7 Noise frequency induction results from the harmonics caused
by power system wave shape distortion inducing voltages over
the voice frequency range into neighboring communications
circuits. These voltages, which may be in the order of
millivolts, act on even slight unbalances in the
communications circuits and may cause noise in the telephone
receiver or other terminal equipment.
A-8 It is essential to keep in mind that inductive coordination
involving any of the above forms of induction is a mutual
problem that must be handled cooperatively with all the
organizations involved. Technically sound solutions to
problems cannot be expected unless the relations of the
interested parties are on a sound basis. In view of the
complexity of many coordination problems and the fact that
they frequently involve consideration of operating
requirements which differ markedly between the classes of
service involved, the importance of establishing and
maintaining friendly relations and arranging for frank
discussions of mutual problems can hardly be overemphasized.
A-9 The following sections discuss more in detail most of the
points mentioned above, as well as the consideration of
remedial measures for the various types of induction.
- 3
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
B - Normal Low Frequency Induction
B-1 This section discusses methods of estimating fundamental
frequency (usually 60 Hz) normal induction from supply
lines. Such lines fall conveniently into two classes,
requiring different methods of treatment, namely multi-
grounded neutral distribution lines and transmission lines.
The former is often the more serious from a normal induction
standpoint, while the latter sometimes presents a difficult
problem with respect to abnormal low frequency induction.
B-2 Computations are often necessary in considering a projected
exposure, and this section treats in some detail the methods
to be employed in making such computations. Actual
measurements, however, are always preferable to computations
whenever possible. It has well been said that "One test is
worth a thousand expert opinions."
B-3 Before any estimate is made, it is necessary to assemble
information concerning the general features of the power and
communication facilities involved. This preliminary
information will consist of a description of the general
location and route (actual or proposed) of the lines and the
type of power and communication facilities.
B-4 Using these data preliminary estimates of the coordination
aspects of a given situation may be made using the charts
shown on Figure 2018-1. The zones are based on certain
assumptions of load current, conductor size, configuration,
earth resistivity and limiting values of induction as are
frequently encountered in the field. This preliminary
analysis will generally indicate whether the situation will
require further detailed study.
- 4
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
Figure 2018-1: Evaluation of Proposed Exposures to Supply Lines.
B-5 Due to the large 60-Hz residual currents inherent in multi-
grounded neutral distribution lines, especially the
single-phase ones, their influence in the normal low
frequency induction problem is often greater than that of
transmission lines for similar exposure conditions.
B-6 A method will be outlined for estimating the induction from
normal load currents in power distribution circuits with
multi-grounded neutral. Since it is not always possible to
determine accurately all of the basic information necessary
for the estimate, the results will not necessarily indicate
precisely the amount of induction. The method is intended
to give an estimate that will usually be accurate enough for
practical purposes.
B-7 The induced voltage is given by the formula:
Vi = Z
m
lI
g
where Z
m
is the coupling per unit length, l is the length of
the exposure, and I
g
is the equivalent earth current.
B-8 Values of Z
m
applicable within the indicated separation
ranges with a maximum error of less than 15 percent are
given in the following table:

Coupling-volts/ampere/mile Range of
Separation (feet)

p=10

100

1,000

10,000
50-100

0.31

0.45

0.59

0.73
100-175

0.23

0.37

0.51

0.65
175-250

0.18

0.31

0.46

0.60
250-500

0.15

0.26

0.40

0.53
500-1,000

0.08

0.18

0.32

0.38

- 5
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
B-9 The symbol p indicates earth resistivity in meter-ohms.
Where the value of earth resistivity is not known, a value
of 100 meter-ohms may be assumed. However, it should be
noted that, for wide separations, this assumption may
introduce considerably more error than for shorter
separations. Values for 10,000 and 1,000 meter ohms are
also expressed graphically in Figure 2018-2.
Figure 2018-2: Induced Voltage Along Conductor from Residual
Current - 60 Cycles
B-10 The length of the exposure, l, should be expressed in miles.
B-11 I
g
, the ground return current, is determined by the load
current in the line through the exposure. As an
approximation on single-phase multi-grounded lines, the
earth current can be estimated as 80% of the circuit load
current. For three-phase lines, a figure of 30% of the
circuit load current is taken as the value of the current
flowing in the earth. The situation should be considered on
the basis of maximum load current.
B-12 A more exact approximation of the earth current can be made
by the following method:
1. First obtain a diagram of the feeder involved, showing
mileages of the main feeder and branch lines, the
average connected transformer kva per mile of small
- 6
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
transformers, plus size and location of large ones,
exclusive of three-phase banks.
2. Determine the demand factor, that is, the ratio of the
maximum kva demand on the feeder to the total connected
transformer kva. In the absence of more accurate
information a demand factor of 0.5 may be used.
3. Determine the size of the neutral conductor making up
the major portion of the feeder.
4. Determine the length and location of the exposure.
5. If data are readily available, determine the earth
resistivity.
6. Plot a diagram of the exposure showing points where
important branch lines leave the main feeder.
B-13 From the information as to connected transformers kva assign
as an equivalent load at the end of the exposure furthest
removed from the source of power, the total kva of
transformers connected to the feeder and its branches beyond
that point, plus one-half of the total kva of transformers
distributed through the exposure. At points within the
exposure where there are large concentrated loads or where
branch lines leave the feeder, assign an equivalent load
equal to the total connected transformer kva of the load or
branch.
B-14 Find the currents due to the various equivalent loads by
multiplying the kva of each by the demand factor and
dividing by the nominal line to neutral voltage.
B-15 Where the currents so determined apply to sections of the
exposure, as in the case of branch lines or concentrated
loads within the exposure, determine an equivalent current
applicable to the entire exposure by multiplying the section
current by the ratio ls/lt, where ls is the distance from
the end of the exposure nearest the supply substation to
load or branch line, and lt the total length of exposure.
- 7
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
B-16 Add directly the individual equivalent currents so
determined to obtain a total equivalent current (I). Find
the corresponding earth current I
g,
where I
g
= KI amperes.
B-17 For neutral conductor approximate K values are:
Conductor Size K Value
No. 2 copper or equivalent.................. 0.65
B-18 This value of I
g
can be used in the formula Vi = Z
m
lI
g
as
explained previously.
B-19 If there are major variations in separation or shield factor
(K) within the exposure, divide it into sections of fairly
uniform separation and shield factor and apply the above
procedure, treating each section as a separate exposure.
Add directly the induced voltages found for each section to
determine the total voltage.
B-20 In computing normal 60-Hz magnetic induction from
transmission lines, there are a number of factors that must
be evaluated. These include:
1. Induction from the balanced currents.
2. Induction from the ground return currents that flow in
the overhead ground wires of the transmission line as a
result of induction into these ground wires from the
phase currents.
3. Induction from the residual currents flowing in the
transmission line phase conductors.
B-21 In a specific case the magnitude of induced magnetic
potential from balanced three-phase circuits depends
somewhat on the configuration and spacing of the power
conductors. Figures 2018-3 and 2018-4 are typical curves
for coupling coefficients. These coefficients are expressed
in volts per mile per 100 amp. of balanced
- 8
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
current. These curves apply to average soil conditions and
are valid only for 60-Hz currents.
B-22 The induction from the overhead ground wires is most likely
to be important where high conductivity ground wires are
used. Steel ground wires in the smaller sizes, around
3/8-in. diameter, offer sufficiently high impedance to the
flow of current that their inductive effect will usually be
less than that from the balanced currents.
B-23 The residual current in the phase conductors is an unknown
quantity when a proposed exposure is under consideration.
Sixty Hertz residual currents of 5 to 10 amp. are not
unusual and may be used for estimating purposes. The
induced voltage from such residual currents is computed by
the formula in Paragraph B-7, and adds to the induced
voltage from the three-phase balanced currents.
B-24 This section left blank.
B-25 Induction into dc grounded telegraph circuits below 10 volts
will usually not be troublesome; voltages between 10 and 25
volts are likely to require remedial measures and voltages
in excess of 25 volts will definitely require correction.
Due consideration must be given to existing induction on the
circuits in question. Higher speed telegraph circuits
approaching 60-Hz operation will suffer comparable
impairment at lower induced voltages than those named above.
For metallic operations considerably higher voltages than
those referred to may be tolerated.
B-26 Normal low frequency induction has been known to interfere
with 60-cycle signal systems operated by track circuits.
C - Abnormal Low Frequency Induction
C-1 The purpose of this section is to describe methods of
determining whether the low frequency induction from supply
system short circuit currents to ground warrants remedial
measures, and if so, to what extent such measures should be
undertaken. Abnormal low frequency induction affects both
ground return and metallic communication circuits. It
results from high ground return currents that occur at times
of ground faults on neighboring supply systems and its
characteristic is, therefore, one of relatively high induced
voltages of short duration. The effects on the
communication system vary over a wide range from
- 9
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
the distortion of signaling, false signals, loss of
synchronism, operation of protectors and communication plant
damage, to acoustic and electric shock hazards in extreme
cases. Important factors in connection with this type of
induction are the magnitude of the induced voltage, the
frequency of its occurrence and the length of time that each
occurrence persists.
Figure 2018-3: Induced Voltage Along Conductor From Balanced
Three-Phase Currents Horizontal and Triangular
Configuration - 60 Hz, 20 Meter Ohms
- 10
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
Figure 2018-4: Induced Voltage Along Conductor From Balanced
Three-Phase Currents Vertical Configuration -
60 Hz, 20 Meter Ohms
- 11
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
C-2 This section covers analyses of both proposed and existing
situations. The same data are required for both, the
principal difference being in the manner of obtaining the
information and its reliability. For example, coupling can
often be obtained by direct measurements on the circuits
involved in an existing exposure whereas for a proposed
exposure, other means must be used. Also in existing
exposures the frequency of faults on the power system and
the troubles experienced in the communication system are
known whereas an estimate of these must be made for a
proposed exposure.
C-3 Because of the many factors involved in low frequency
induction, it is not practical to set definite limits for
the magnitude of the voltage which can be tolerated in the
communication plant from the standpoint of safety and
service reactions. Therefore, to provide a basis for
appraising the possible effects of a particular exposure, it
is suggested that information be prepared on certain factors
that will enable estimates of the following type to be
prepared.
1. Service Reactions: Estimated frequency of occurrence
and number of momentary protector block operations.
Estimated frequency of occurrence and number of
protector operations resulting in permanently grounded
blocks.
2. Safety: Estimated miles of communication line
subjected to significant voltages; the frequency of
occurrence of these voltages and their duration. These
estimates should include voltage differences between
conductors and between conductors and ground or
grounded metallic objects, and voltages across an
"open" conductor.
C-4 The service reactions and hazards of low frequency induction
are subject to wide variations and estimates of these
factors will not have a high degree of precision.
Furthermore, in some phases of the study, rough
approximations must be used. On the other hand, reasonable
accuracy is practical and should be obtained in connection
with the fault currents, coupling, fixed shielding, etc.
- 12
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
C-5 General Procedure in Analyzing Problems: An analysis of an
inductive exposure situation should, in general, cover the
steps given below.
1. Estimates or measurements of coupling, including all
shielding except that due to grounded communication
conductors and cable sheaths.
2. Magnitude and duration of fault currents through the
exposure.
3. Estimates of primary field calculated as the product of
the coupling determined in (1) and the magnitude of
fault current determined in (2).
4. Estimates of shield factor for grounded communication
cable sheaths, and normally grounded communication
conductors.
5. Estimate of shielded longitudinal voltage as product of
(3) and (4). This is called herein longitudinal
induced voltage.
6. Estimates of voltages across protectors
*
and the
likelihood of protector operation for selected fault
locations.
7. Determination of approximate number of protectors
likely to be operated for selected fault locations.
8. Determination of current through protectors and the
likelihood of permanent protector grounding for
selected fault locations.
C-6 For a complete analysis of an inductive problem other
factors should also be considered such as:
1. Voltage distribution for selected fault locations:
a. Conductor voltage to ground or to sheath.
b. Voltage between conductors.
c. Voltage across an open in a conductor.
* Actually the voltage across protector blocks cannot exceed the operating
voltage of the block. Here, and in the following, the expression "voltage
across protectors" means the voltage that would exist at a given point if the
protector blocks were removed.
- 13
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
2. Average frequency of occurrence of faults over the
power line. (Faults per 100 miles of power line per
year.)
3. Determination of miles of power line over which faults
at different locations will produce significant
voltages and currents.
4. Miles of communication line subjected to different
values of voltage for various power line fault
locations and frequency of occurrence of such faults.
(Fault-mile products.)
It is usually difficult to obtain accurate data
regarding many of these factors, consequently a
detailed discussion is not included.
C-7 In certain cases, a preliminary analysis, consisting only of
the first few steps necessary for a complete study, may
develop that a particular problem can be dismissed with no
further work. For example, preliminary scrutiny indicating
that voltages induced will be below protector breakdown may
show no further study necessary if the durations of fault
currents are not over two or three seconds. If the number
of faults that might result in voltages above protector
breakdown is large, or if a border line case is indicated, a
fairly complete study should be made, and in more severe
cases complete studies are necessary.
C-8 The importance of an inductive exposure is determined by
considerations of both service reactions and safety-not by
any single factor such as the magnitude of the longitudinal
induced voltage. As explained below, the appraisal of
service reactions is based on a consideration of how many
and how often protectors are likely to be operated or
permanently grounded. The appraisal of safety is based on a
consideration of the frequency of occurrence of significant
voltages, their duration, the number of miles of
communication line subjected to these voltages, etc.
Detailed Procedure in Analyzing Problems
C-9 Coupling: As indicated in Paragraph C-5, it is usually
desirable to determine first the coupling between the power
and communication circuits including shielding effects of
ground wires on the power line and of other conducting paths
not associated with the communication line. The
- 14
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
product of this coupling factor and the fault current
through the exposure is the primary field, which excludes
the effect of shielding from conductors on the communication
line. The longitudinal induced voltage is found by
multiplying the value of primary field by the shield factor
for the communication cable sheath (if any) and normally
grounded conductors. In some cases the coupling and shield
factors can be estimated with sufficient accuracy
(ER
*
-14,26,48), while in other cases the coupling and
shielding must either be measured directly or computed with
the assistance of measurements of earth resistivity (see
Section D). The importance of earth resistivity depends
upon the separation between the power and communication
circuits. For example, a 100 to 1 change in earth
resistivity results in less than a 2 to 1 change in 60-Hz
coupling at about a 60-ft. separation, but approximately a
30 to 1 change in coupling at a separation of 5,000 ft.
C-10 Paragraph B-8 and Figure 2018-2 give information by which
coupling factors can be readily estimated and the primary
field calculated for particular conditions, provided a high
degree of accuracy is not required. TO obtain a higher
degree of accuracy actual coupling between power and
communication circuits should be obtained by measurements.
C-11 Magnitude and Duration of Fault Currents: The magnitudes
and durations of fault currents for use in analyzing an
inductive problem should be arrived at only after consulting
the power company involved as suggested in Paragraph A-8.
In some situations, particularly for exposures to relatively
short power lines, fault resistance is an important factor
in determining fault current and a choice for its value for
use in calculations should be made only after careful
consideration. The results of extensive joint tests
indicate that where fault resistance is to be allowed for in
fault current computations, 20 ohms for line and 5 ohms for
substation ground faults are reasonable values to use
(ER-39).
* ER-Engineering Reports of the Joint Subcommittee on Development and
Research of the Edison Electric Institute and Bell Telephone System.
- 15
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
C-12 Maximum Longitudinal Induced Voltage: The longitudinal
induced voltage in itself is not sufficient for judging an
exposure situation. It does, however, provide a starting
point in an investigation, since the resulting currents and
voltages on the communication line depend on it. The
maximum longitudinal induced voltage is that obtained for
the "worst" fault location; that is, the location for which
the fault current and coupling are so related that their
product is a maximum. In most cases the "worst" fault
location can be selected by inspection. In others it may be
necessary to make estimates for faults at a number of
locations from which the "worst" may be selected.
C-13 Voltages Across Protectors and Likelihood of Protector
Operation: If the voltage at a protector point exceeds the
operating voltage of the protector, the protectors at both
ends of the circuit will operate (assuming that there is no
drainage at either end.) As mentioned previously, standard
protectors operate so fast that the voltage across them
cannot rise above the operating value.
The following tabulation shows the average and approximate
range of 60-Hz breakdown voltages for the various spacings
of protector blocks commonly used:

60 Cycle rms Volts

3-mil
Spacing

5-mil
Spacing

6-mil
Spacing

8-mil
Spacing

14-mil
Spacing
Average operating voltage

300

500

600

800

1200
Minimum operating voltage

250

300

500

400

1000
Maximum operating voltage

400

800

800

1000

1500

It will be noted that the average breakdown voltage is at the rate of about 100 volts rms per mil spacing of the blocks.
C-14 At best, it is a rather complicated procedure to estimate
precisely the voltage across the protectors at the two ends
of a conductor when there are other conductors on the line
which are grounded at their ends since these other grounded
conductors exert a considerable shielding effect and the
total induced voltage usually does not divide equally across
the protector blocks at the two ends of the communication
circuit. Experience indicated that a practical assumption
is that if the longitudinal voltage in a conductor is above
500, 3-mil spaced protectors will operate; if it is below
500, the protectors will not operate. This value of
longitudinal voltage is about midway between that for which
two sets of protectors in
- 16
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
series will operate under the most unfavorable conditions
(about 400 volts) and that for which they will operate under
the most favorable conditions (about 600 volts). Where
protectors of other spacing are used at terminals, these
values will be approximately directly proportional to the
air gap spacing.
Likelihood of Permanent Protector Grounding for Selected Faults
C-15 The permanent grounding of carbon block protectors
depends upon the current through the blocks, and its
duration. Tests made on new 3-mil blocks have yielded
average values of these factors that are summarized in the
table below:
Average Number of Occurrences Required to Cause
Permanent Grounding of 3-mil Spaced Blocks

Duration

1.5 Amp.

2 Amp.

5 Amp.

10 Amp.
Several Seconds

Many

1

1

1
1 Second

Many

5 or 6

2

1 or 2
0.5 second

Many

10 or more

4

2 or 3
0.2 second

Many

Many

8

3 or 4
3-5 cycle

Many

Many

Over 10

Over 5
C-16 The figures cannot be used to predict whether any particular
block or group of blocks will or will not become permanently
grounded in a particular occurrence. However, they can be
used to give an idea as to the number of blocks that will be
grounded over a period of time.
Discussion of Remedial Measures
C-17 Coupling and Shielding: The most foolproof method of
reducing coupling is to secure increased separation. Such a
solution, however, is not always practical.
C-18 Other methods of reducing coupling are substituting metallic
sheath cable for open wire circuits, the use of steel tape
armoring on communication cable, and installation of shield
wires on the power or communication line. The following
observations may be made with respect to these measures:
1. Under the most favorable conditions, the shielding for
a lead sheath is about 50 percent for a full size
cable.
- 17
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
2. Shield wires of practicable sizes on either power or
communication lines do not usually provide shielding of
over 50%. In communication cables, additional low
frequency shielding can be obtained if copper is added
as circuits rather than as separate shield wires.
3. Generally, tape armoring provides a higher degree of
shielding than shield wires.
4. Low resistance grounds on the sheath or other shield
conductors are essential to obtain maximum shielding.
C-19 Power System Influence: Various developments in the power
industry during recent years have had a definitely favorable
reaction on low frequency inductive coordination. The most
significant of these are measures taken to reduce the
frequency of occurrence of ground faults which cause power
line outages, and measures to insure more prompt clearance
of such faults.
C-20 On several occasions, residual current limitation has been
used as a means of reducing power system influence. The
usual form of such limitation involves resistance or
reactance in the neutral-to-ground connections of important
transformer supply banks (ER-27). The type and amount of
neutral impedance that can be used in any power system
depends upon system layout, insulation levels, relaying
systems, etc. The effect on low frequency induction of such
current limitation can be summarized as follows:
1. For exposures near the power supply point, the hazard
to workmen due to induced voltages frequently can be
reduced by the use of relatively small values of
neutral impedance.
2. For exposures remote from the source of supply,
comparatively large values of neutral impedance would
be required and these frequently are impracticable.
3. There is a tendency for power system relaying to become
slower and less positive where large values of neutral
impedance are used. This may actually increase the
influence of the system.
C-21 From the standpoint of limiting ground fault currents, a
special form of neutral impedance known as the Petersen
- 18
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
coil, or "ground-fault neutralizer" or "resonant" grounding
is probably the most satisfactory. In the United States the
use of the Petersen coil is limited to a large extent to
situations where special kinds of power operating problems
exist. The Petersen coil however acts to increase the
60-cycle residual current during normal operation of the
power system.
C-22 Communication System Susceptiveness: The two measures which
are most widely used now to reduce the susceptiveness of
communication systems to low frequency induction are
short-circuiting relay protectors (ER-41) and drainage. The
more important differences between relay protectors and
ordinary protectors can be summarized as follows:
1. The multi-grounding type of relay protector is used
extensively for the reduction of hazard. With this
type all wires are grounded whenever any protector in
the group operates, thus insuring shielding from all of
the wires in the group. By the same token, potential
differences between wires at the protector point are
brought essentially to zero.
2. With multi-grounding type relay protectors certain
circuits on the line may be short-circuited and
grounded at times when the protectors on them would not
otherwise be operated. Hence in cases where, in the
absence of relay protectors, only a small proportion of
the regular protectors would operate, the service may
be impaired. On the other hand, in cases where the
regular protectors on most of the circuits would
operate, the service may be improved by relay
protectors, and in particular, where permanent
grounding of regular protectors may occur, the
improvement in service may be relatively large.
3. If multi-grounding relay protector installations are
appropriately placed, substantial reductions in
voltage-to-ground hazards can be secured, and voltage
differences at cable poles can be virtually eliminated.
4. Unit type relay protectors, also known as arrester
relays, are frequently used to improve service by
preventing permanent grounding of regular protectors.
- 19
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
C-23 The location of relay protectors should be such as to
provide the largest possible reduction in hazard from a
minimum number of installations. Locations at or near
communication entrance cable poles are frequently desirable
since relay protectors at such locations often give maximum
effectiveness, cable sheaths can often be used for ground,
and maintenance is facilitated. Installations at other
points frequently involve "making" low resistance grounds,
which in some cases may be expensive and difficult. In some
cases, of course, relay protector installations can be
located in towns or other places where water pipes or other
extensive grounding structures are available.
C-24 Drainage can sometimes be used to eliminate even momentary
protector operation on metallic circuits used only for voice
or carrier transmission. A physical circuit is drained
simply by connecting the drainage coil across the line with
windings in series-aiding and with the neutral point
grounded. A phantom group requires three coils at each
drainage point, a single coil being connected across each
side circuit, the neutral points of which connect to the
line terminals of the third coil, and the neutral of this
third coil is grounded.
C-25 Acoustic shock may be caused by a high induced voltage
operating a protector or otherwise breaking down the
insulation on one side of a telephone circuit or by
operating the arresters on the two sides of a pair un-
symmetrically. Under such conditions, the difference
between the voltages simultaneously appearing in the two
sides of the circuit causes a discharge of current through
the terminal apparatus.
C-26 The device known as the varistor, which consists of an
assembly of copper oxide discs, has been used widely as a
means for reducing acoustic shock. This device has the
property of decreasing its resistance with increase in
voltage across its terminals, that is, when such a device is
placed across the circuit, the shunting effect increases
with increasing voltage.
D - Noise Frequency Induction
D-1 Introduction: This section discusses the general principles
and procedures involved in determining the technical
solution to a noise frequency inductive coordination
problem. It is based largely on experience in
- 20
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
many such situations and an attempt has been made to
summarize this experience as concisely as practicable.
D-2 It is obviously impractical to set down any procedure that
will be universally applicable to all noise problems. There
is too much variety among problems. However, experience has
shown that there are several methods of approach and this
section is designed to be of help in finding the method most
likely to secure the best overall results.
D-3 This section has been prepared to meet the needs of the
following:
1. The engineer who has had little or no experience with
noise coordination problems, but who wishes to become
generally familiar with the fundamentals and methods of
attack and to know where to find detailed information
on particular phases of the work.
2. The experienced coordination engineer who wishes a
ready reference to the available material for use in
his day-to-day problems.
3. The supervisor who wishes to have a broad picture of
the essential factors involved in noise coordination
problems.
To meet these needs the discussion of the body of the
section assumes knowledge of the meanings of the special
terms used in noise coordination studies and of the physical
processes of induction. However, explanations of these
fundamental ideas are given in Section A of the Manual Part
7-7.
D-4 It is essential to keep in mind that inductive coordination
is a mutual problem that must be handled cooperatively with
the power organizations. Technically sound solutions to
problems cannot be expected unless the relations with the
power organizations are on a sound basis and sound relations
cannot be long maintained unless technically sound solutions
to specific problems are secured. This is not a new
thought, nor is it difficult to understand its importance,
but situations sometimes arise in which it seems evident
that its full significance is not appreciated.
- 21
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
D-5 Experience has indicated very definitely that in order to
arrive at technically sound solutions there are a number of
principles that must be observed. Furthermore such
experience has clearly shown that failure to observe any one
of these principles may and frequently does lead to
unsatisfactory results in specific cases or to
unsatisfactory relations or to both. These principles are
outlined below.
1. Do not try to arrive at a conclusion without sufficient
facts. Both the facts and the conclusions should be
arrived at cooperatively with the power organization.
2. Weigh the various factors involved in a problem
properly. For example, do not concentrate on some
factor which may be the cause of high influence and
neglect a possible cause of high susceptiveness, and do
not spend too much time correcting the source of 15 db
of noise while leaving a source of 40 db uncorrected.
3. Wherever practicable use measured rather than computed
values. No matter how precisely computations are made,
the results are no more accurate than the data or
assumptions on which they are based. There are few
things as detrimental to sound conclusions (or to
relations) as the use of values purporting to be
correct to three or four significant figures when the
assumptions on which they are based may be off two or
more to one.
4. Remember that a power man knows more about the power
business than a communication man and is the one who
should determine what can and what cannot be done on
his system.
5. Remember that a power man ordinarily has no particular
reason or incentive to take the lead in solving an
inductive coordination problem. It is up to the
communication man to follow up each situation and to
carry out any arrangements made with the power man at
the earliest practicable moment.
- 22
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
D-6 There are three factors that combine to determine the
overall effect of noise on exposed communication circuits in
an area.
1. The inductive influence of the power system.
2. The inductive coupling between the power and
communication systems.
3. The inductive susceptiveness of the communication
system.
In analyzing an existing or potential problem, each of these
factors should be given proper weight. The most successful
investigating techniques involve securing the data necessary
to weigh properly these three factors as a basis for
arriving at a conclusion as to which alone or in combination
should be controlled.
D-7 There is no ready rule for determining how much control can
and should be exercised over each of these factors or even
over the final result of all three of them (i.e. the noise).
Furthermore, a proper balance of these factors in one case
will be out of line in another or might have been out of
line in the same case had it occurred a year before or a
year later. The balance is constantly shifting with
developments in the art, with material and manufacturing
conditions and with many other factors.
D-8 It is desirable to avoid the use of arbitrary "limits" for
power system influence and noise. Experience over a long
period has shown that difficulties nearly always arise in
the joint solution of noise problems when the concept of
"limits" is introduced. On the other hand, most problems
have been satisfactorily worked out on the basis of
reasonable control of the influence, coupling and
susceptiveness, as described above. The noise objectives
that are used by the maintenance people in day-by-day
operation of the communication plant are for their guidance
in determining whether the plant is in trouble and must not
be thought of as engineering limits.
D-9 In noise coordination work it is important to be sure one
thinks only in terms of harmonics rather than the
fundamental frequency. When looking at a power system it
must be seen not as a system transmitting kilowatts from a
group of generators to a group of loads but purely as a
- 23
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
system composed of inductances, capacitances and resistances
with one or more sources of harmonics on it. Where these
harmonics originate, where they go, how they are attenuated
or amplified (as by resonance) usually bear little or no
relation to the 60 Hz characteristics.
D-10 The results of noise tests on poorly balanced communication
circuits (where the unbalance is due to poor maintenance)
should never form the basis for negotiations with a power
company concerning a noise problem. Where extensions of or
changes in a power system have caused noise increases, or
exposed circuits, it may be desirable to investigate
influence, coupling and susceptiveness conditions
cooperatively, before reaching conclusions that improved
balance is desirable.
General Considerations
D-11 Certain general considerations common to all types of noise
frequency induction studies are discussed below with
references to related material that gives detailed
discussions of the various factors.
D-12 Layout of Power and Communication Facilities: The first
step in any general survey of noise conditions or in an
investigation of a specific noise case is to obtain
up-to-date information on the layout of the power and
communication systems involved in the problem. There is
probably no greater single cause of delay in solving such
problems than an attempt to proceed without adequate
information of this type. These data will normally include
information on the relative locations of the power and
telephone circuits involved, the type of power system,
source of supply for the particular feeders under
consideration, transformer connections, etc., as well as the
types of communication circuits and equipment used. Ground
connections and continuity of any telephone cable sheaths
involved in a specific noise problem should be carefully
checked. Such data should normally be available in the
records of the power and communication companies, but, if
there is a possibility of the records not being kept up to
date, these will need to be carefully checked at the start
of the study. A brief description of the physical situation
and of the power and telephone equipment involved should
always form part of the report covering the test results.
(See Paragraphs D-50 to D-53, inclusive.)
- 24
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
D-13 The information on the power and communication system layout
and type should be "adequate" in all cases; the type and
amount of information to be assembled should be carefully
considered in the light of the nature and extent of the
problem. It is undesirable to attempt to secure more
detailed information than is necessary, particularly when it
involves asking a power company to prepare and furnish
information on every detail of an extensive system. While
considerable experience is necessary before completely sound
judgment can be exercised in this important matter, the
principles involved are briefly outlined below and will be
made clearer from study of the remaining parts of this
section.
1. The first principle is to decide what the general scope
of the problem is or is likely to be, viz.:
a. Is it a specific problem involving only one or
more exposures?
b. Is it a general problem that extends or may extend
over a substantial area and involve a considerable
(and possibly unknown) number of exposures?
2. If on class (1-a), it usually is desirable to secure
information pertaining to the exposures and circuits in
considerable detail.
3. If the class (1-b), more general information is usually
sufficient - e.g. single line diagrams and geographic
layouts of the power transmission system, and general
descriptions of the communications system giving the
locations and rough dimensions of exposures but not
going into much detail on either system.
4. Regardless of the general class of the problem,
complete information on the power and communication
systems in the vicinity of important sources of
harmonics or at points of high influence on the power
system should be secured.
D-14 Influence, Coupling and Susceptiveness: In all
investigations it is of primary importance to keep in mind
that every noise induction problem involves consideration of
three major factors, (a) the inductive influence of the
power system, (b) the coupling between the power and
communication lines, and (c) the susceptiveness of the
- 25
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
communication system. Each of these major factors depends
in turn on several other factors, which are briefly noted
below. Figures 2018-5, 2018-6 and 2018-7 show schematically
the factors involved in three cases.
D-15 The inductive influence of a power circuit in an exposure is
determined by the magnitudes of the harmonic currents and
voltages present on the circuit. Since the inductive
coupling between the power and communications circuits is
different for currents or voltages associated wholly with
the power line phase conductors (balanced components) than
for those components of current or voltage involving the
ground (residual or ground return components) it is
convenient to consider the two sets of components
separately. This separate consideration should not be
allowed to obscure the interdependence of balanced and
residual (or ground return) components. For example, a
ground return component of current often results from the
effect of a balanced voltage impressed on a power circuit
having an unbalanced impedance-to-ground.
D-16 Figure 2018-5 shows in simple terms the various portions of
a power transmission system as it is generally considered
from the noise coordination standpoint. A transposed, (or
even the usual un-transposed) three-phase transmission line
is ordinarily well enough balanced to ground so that
harmonics originating as balanced components in generators,
three-phase transformer banks or loads are largely confined
to the phase conductors. However, triple harmonic
components originating in grounded neutral generators
directly connected to the transmission circuit (ER-12), or
in grounded neutral transformer banks not equipped with
large capacity delta* windings, are directly impressed on
the circuit as residuals. The majority of important noise
problems involving exposures to transmission lines are
caused by triple harmonic residuals.
* For two-winding or three-winding transformers, at least one-winding
connected delta.
- 26
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
D-17 Figure 2018-6 shows a schematic diagram of a power
distribution circuit and exposed communication plant that
consists of aerial cable. Ordinarily a distribution system
feeds a substantial portion of single-phase load and is
inherently unbalanced to ground, because of the unequal
lengths of line associated with each phase. Consequently
non-triple harmonic residual components arising in
single-phase load transformers, or as a result of balanced
impressed voltages acting on unbalanced system impedances to
ground, may be as important as, or more important than,
triple harmonic components. (Under these conditions the
usual distinction between triple and non-triple components
loses much of its significance.) There are usually many
load transformers and loads connected to a distribution
system and each of these is a potential source of harmonics.
Consequently, the influence of a distribution system is
affected by many more factors than that of a transmission
circuit connecting a point of generation with a load.
D-18 In Figure 2018-5, two separate components of coupling are
shown between the power line and an exposed open wire
communication line. Induction into an exposed communication
line is primarily longitudinal (Section B of Manual Part
7-7) and direct metallic induction may be considered as the
difference between the unequal magnitudes of longitudinal
induction that act on two communication wires at different
spacings from the power line. It follows that if induction
into the two wires is equalized either by properly
coordinated transpositions or by keeping the two wires of
the pair close together (as in cable or drop wire, etc.),
the effects of direct metallic induction can be made very
small even though the longitudinal voltages (between wires
and ground) and longitudinal currents (flowing in the wires
with ground return) will still be present and will act on
any series or shunt unbalances in the communication circuit
or terminal equipment to produce metallic circuit noise.
D-19 The magnitude of the coupling for either direct metallic or
longitudinal induction depends upon the exposure length and
the separation between the power and communication lines.
Coupling for ground return currents also depends upon the
distance of the ground return path below the power phase
wires, but this is generally assumed as 400 ft. (200-ft.
ground plane) in noise induction problems. Occasionally
- 27
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
cases may arise in which the coupling in fairly wide
separation exposures (say 100 ft. or more) is considerably
greater than would be indicated by a 200-ft. ground plane,
but there appears to be very little advantage in trying to
precisely evaluate the depth of ground plane in such cases
since coupling computations are usually made only in
connection with preliminary noise estimates and there are
other factors which have a greater effect on the precision.
Figure 2018-5: Schematic Diagram Illustrating Factors in Noise
Induction Problems, Power Transmission Line and
Exposed Open-Wire Communication Line
- 28
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
Induction Problems, Power Distribution Circuit and
Exposed Exchange Telephone Line in Aerial Cable
D-20 As shown in Figures 2018-5, 2018-6 and 2018-7, the
susceptiveness of a communication circuit depends upon the
overall effect of the transpositions (ER-16 and ER-17) (in
the case of open wire) and upon the series and shunt balance
of the line and on the balance of the terminal equipment.
Ordinarily the design of long distance circuits in open wire
and cable and of their associated terminal equipment is such
that good balance should be secured. However, unless care
is taken to insure that terminal apparatus is in good
condition and is properly connected to the circuit, and to
insure good line conditions, circuit balance may be a
controlling factor in the noise on these circuits.
- 29
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
Induction Problems, Power Distribution Circuit and
Exposed Communication Lines in Open Wire and Cable
D-21 Referring to Figure 2018-6 the susceptiveness or balance of
equipment is generally of primary importance for local
circuits in cable since the series and shunt unbalances of
cable pairs are usually small. There is a wide range in the
susceptiveness of different types of equipment (ER-46).
There are two ways to reduce the effect of unbalances in
equipment, viz.:
1. To replace it with equipment of less susceptive types,
and
2. To reduce the voltage to ground impressed upon the
equipment or the longitudinal current in it, as by
drainage or longitudinal chokes.
The use of longitudinal chokes or drainage in individual
circuits has the disadvantage (as compared to general
changes in the type of office equipment) that close
supervision and care must be exercised in connection with
growth and changes in order to maintain good noise
conditions. However, in some cases these arrangements form
part of the best engineering solution. In many cases the
longitudinal induction on cable pairs may be reduced by
means of cable sheath shielding (ER-43).
- 30
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
D-22 Figure 2018-7 illustrates the factors to be considered under
conditions often encountered in the field involving circuits
in open wire and cable. In addition to metallic and
longitudinal induction, the diagram emphasizes the
possibility of secondary induction from certain cable pairs
- which are connected to exposed open wire extensions - into
other pairs which do not have such extensions. A similar
situation may exist when open wire telephone circuits are
connected into a cable.
D-23 Overall Influence and Noise Measurements and Harmonic
Analyzes, Test Program: All test programs are usually
directed toward securing data on existing or potential noise
situations and on the coupling, influence and susceptiveness
factors which contribute to that noise. Such a test program
will generally include noise measurements (metallic and
to-ground or longitudinal), measurements of power system
influence and of the effects of changes (if any) in the
coupling.
D-24 Planning an adequate but not too elaborate test program
presents one of the most important, and most difficult
problems to the coordination engineer. No substitute has
been found for good judgment based on experience in laying
out such a program. A few general principles based on
experience which may be helpful are listed below.
1. Determine what questions require answers concerning
noise, influence, coupling, and susceptiveness.
Pertinent questions are likely to remain unanswered
regardless of how much data are accumulated unless the
purpose of the tests is clear-cut.
2. A test or series of tests should be made which will
answer each of the questions in the most direct and
simplest manner practicable. Wherever a direct
measurement can be made, do not rely on an indirect one
- and rely on computations only when a direct or an
indirect measurement is not practicable.
3. The test program should be flexible enough to take
account of new facts that may be discovered as the
tests proceed. Care must be taken, however, to prevent
being sidetracked from the main issues.
- 31
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
D-25 Coordination of Power and Communication System Tests:
Whenever practicable, it is desirable to carry on
simultaneous measurements of power system influence and
telephone circuit noise. The advantages of being able to
tie together the effects of changes in the power and
telephone system on the influence and noise will usually
justify the extra personnel and apparatus required for such
simultaneous measurements. Where it is impracticable to
provide for simultaneous tests, it is often necessary to
give considerable study to the factors which control the
variations in the influence and noise over a period of time,
as otherwise the test results are apt to lead to wrong
conclusions.
D-26 Variation of Influence and Noise with Time: A number of
problems have been investigated in which it was found that a
knowledge of the variations in the power system influence
and resulting noise with time provided important clues to
the solution of the problem. For example, in locating a
source of harmonic distortion on a power circuit, such as a
motor, it has been found advantageous to make records of the
resulting influence or noise in order to determine the
operating cycle of the particular motor as a clue to its
location. Likewise, there are many cases where the
influence of the power circuit varies considerably with the
amount of load on the circuit (ER-40). In other cases it
has been found advantageous to set up a recording
arrangement at a particular point on a power system and then
to survey influence or noise condition at other points using
the record at the key point as an indication of any changes
in conditions during the tests. Where recording equipment
is not available for this purpose, it may be desirable to
have an observer testing at the key point at all times when
measurements are being made at other points. With such an
arrangement it has been possible to solve several problems
that had previously been investigated over long periods by a
single test crew without success.
D-27 Noise Estimates vs. Measurements: In connection with noise
estimates (ER-16 and ER-17) following the principles
outlined in the introduction to this section, computations
of noise should never be used in place of measurements,
where tests are practicable. Estimates of noise metallic
are likely to be unreliable unless a great deal of
information is available on power system influence, coupling
and susceptiveness, most of which must be obtained
- 32
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
by measurement. On the other hand, computations may be very
helpful in estimating the contributions of various types of
induction or of particular communication plant unbalances to
a known (measured) overall noise.
Power Systems
D-28 Types of Situations Likely to be Encountered: Several
different types of inductive coordination problems may
confront the engineer and the procedure in determining the
power system influence will vary accordingly. For example,
it may be desirable to investigate the effect of some known
change in power system operation, such as the conversion of
a power circuit from one type of operation to another or the
addition of a new generator or piece of load equipment. In
this case it is ordinarily desirable to start the
investigation at the point where the change has been made,
or where the equipment is being added, although it should
not be concluded if conditions are satisfactory there that
the same is necessarily true at all other locations. On the
other hand, the noise problem may arise from some unknown
cause and it is often impossible to determine by discussions
with the power company exactly what change or changes might
be responsible. This particularly is difficult when a
number of changes in operating conditions occur over a short
period in both the power and communications systems. A
change in power system operations that is responsible for a
change in influence and noise may well be one that seems to
have little significance to the power people, who naturally
view their system primarily from the point of view of
supplying power. For example, in one case it was found that
a short length of distribution feeder had been disconnected
from one source of supply and connected to another. The
addition of this length of line to the second system changed
its impedance characteristics and introduced a condition of
resonance, which was responsible for a substantial increase
in influence and noise. In cases like this the
investigation of power system influence should commence in
the exposure section and work toward the source of harmonic
distortion or the cause of the condition of resonance.
D-29 Direct Measurements of Power System Influence: Where
suitable current and potential transformers are available
for measuring the influence of the harmonic currents and
voltages on the power system they should be used in
preference to any less direct method of test. Such
- 33
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
transformers are ordinarily available at generating plants,
substations and at the points where fairly large loads are
located. However, the instrument transformer connections
that are ordinarily used for metering and relaying a power
circuit, may not be the most advantageous arrangement for
use in investigating the inductive influence of the power
system.
D-30 Exploring Wire Methods: The development of exploring wire
methods (ER-20) for measuring the influence of a power
system within the exposure section of interest, has provided
a valuable tool for noise induction studies. These methods
are comparatively simple and yield results that indicate the
influence at the desired point as well as the relative
importance of the various harmonic components. Nearly all
the recent investigations of complicated problems have
depended to a considerable extent upon the use of these
exploring wire methods. The probe wire method used for
measuring the ground return IT product of a power line is
the most useful of these arrangements. Effective use has
also been made of a loop of about 300 turns of wire wound on
a form 2 ft. or more in diameter for rapid qualitative
exploration of the harmonic currents present at different
points along a power line. (ER-20.)
D-31 Interpretation of Results: When the results of the overall
power system influence and the supplementary harmonic
analyses are available, they should furnish the answers to
the following questions:
1. Are the overall influence factors (balanced KvT,
residual KvT, balanced or phase IT, ground return IT)
in line with those to be expected in the light of
experience with similar types of circuits or apparatus
elsewhere? (ER-12, 15, 22, 40, 49.)
2. If any of the influence factors are substantially
higher than those observed in other cases, what are the
controlling frequencies?
3. What apparatus or circuit conditions are responsible
for these harmonic components? Have any additions or
changes been made recently?
4. What further data or tests are necessary to determine
whether it is practicable to improve the influence?
- 34
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
This does not mean that the best overall solution to
the problem will necessarily include a reduction in
power system influence. However, if the influence is
high, the available methods of reducing it should be
known before attempting to reach a joint decision as to
the best solution.
D-32 In connection with obtaining the answer to the third of
these questions from the available data, the following
tabulations of the harmonic components that may arise from
different causes may be helpful.
Components Controlling
Influence Possible Cause
One (or two adjacent) Balanced harmonics from generator
odd non-triple or synchronous motor or condenser.
harmonics. (ER-15)
Same but components (a) Balanced components arising as
not exact odd harmonics slot harmonics of induction
of fundamental. motors (ER-34) (These components
are usually quite variable in cases
where the motor is connected to a
pump, grinding mill machinery, saw
mill, etc.)
Same but components (b) If exposures are to dc
not exact odd harmonics trolley systems, components*
of fundamental. Having such frequencies may be
arising as slot harmonics of the dc
generators and also as "even" tap
harmonics of rotary converters.
(ER-21) (*Manifested as residuals
in the case of "rail-return" dc
trolley systems.)
All odd harmonics up "Out Lamp" on series street
to about 3,000 Hz. lighting circuit employing
individual lamp transformers.
- 35
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
Components Controlling
Influence Possible Cause
Relatively long "string" Components arising in electrical
on prominent components, devices containing saturable
that may include "even" reactors, in sodium vapor lamps,
as well as "odd" in "single-phase" rectifiers, in
harmonics. "electronic" welders, induction
heaters, frequency changers and
portable saws.
One or more odd triple Direct connected grounded neutral
harmonics. generator (ER-12) or motor or large
transformer without adequate delta
windings.
All odd non-triple 6-phase rectifier (ER-22).
harmonics starting with
5th harmonic.
Even harmonics 6, 12, DC side of 6-phase rectifiers.
18, etc.
11th, 13th, 23rd, 25th 12-phase rectifier (ER-22).
harmonics.
Pair of adjacent Multi-phase rectifier (ER-49)
non-triple harmonics
above the 23rd.
3rd, 5th, 7th, and 9th Exciting currents of distribution
harmonics. transformers (ER-40) possible aggravated
by circuit resonance resulting from
the presence of shunt capacitors
(ER-50).
Single outstanding Possible resonance in balanced or
component. residual circuit of power system (ER-23,
24 and 40). (May be due to shunt
capacitors.)
D-33 Application of Remedial Measures: Measures that may be
applied to reduce the influence of a power system may be
divided into two general classes. The first class consists
of measures, such as selective devices (ER-21 and 34) that
are applied to particular generators or loads (such as
- 36
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
motors or rectifiers) to prevent the flow of harmonics
originating in these machines out on the power network to
which the communication circuits may be exposed. Assuming
that it is not practicable to replace or change the
connections of the equipment so as to restrict the harmonics
originating therein, the use of selective devices is
ordinarily the most satisfactory and permanent method of
reducing the effect of such sources on the power system
influence. A second type of power system remedial measure
involves the use of arrangements to change the impedance
characteristics of a particular power circuit or system
(ER-23 and 24) at harmonic frequencies in order to minimize
the effects of harmonics arising from one or more sources.
Examples of these arrangements include the use of wave traps
in the neutral connection of a generator (ER-12) or of shunt
capacitors (ER-40) at the point where a distribution system
is supplied. Also use has been made of networks to
terminate a resonant power circuit in an impedance
approximating its characteristic impedance. The terminating
arrangements have been tested experimentally in a number of
cases and, in general, the results have not been as
satisfactory as the use of comparable amounts of material to
reduce the harmonic at the source, except in the occasional
situation where an acute resonance condition exists on a
particular power circuit and where the impressed harmonic
components are relatively low. A remedial measure applied
at or near the source of a harmonic is generally more
desirable than one placed on a branch to relieve that
particular branch. As long as the source is uncontrolled,
it is apt to cause trouble at other points with existing
conditions or in future exposures created by expansion of
either or both systems.
D-34 Where the overall results of the study indicate that
arrangements to reduce the power system influence are a part
of the solution, it is essential to keep in mind the
reactions of such arrangements on the fundamental frequency
supply problem and on components of frequencies other than
those that they are designed to reduce. The reaction of
such devices on power system operation can only be
determined by the power people involved. Wherever
practicable, therefore, the design of such arrangements
should be left entirely to them.
- 37
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
D-35 Coordinated Power and Communication Transpositions: The
determination of the necessity of coordinated communication
and/or power transpositions requires a full knowledge of the
situation and the factors other than transpositions that are
involved. There is no answer to the general questions
"should a power line be transposed?" or "should
communication transpositions coordinate with exposure
irregularities?" except "it all depends on circumstances."
D-36 The fundamental point which must be kept in mind in making a
wise decision with respect to transpositions (or for that
matter, almost any other specific measure) is, the fact that
coordinated transpositions help to reduce noise does not
mean that they are necessarily the right thing to use in a
particular case. Before present investigation techniques,
and present methods of controlling influence and
susceptiveness were developed, there were many cases where
about the only known procedure was to coordinate the
transpositions and hope for the best. Nowadays, coordinated
transpositions are like any other measures; they are good
things to use only when the facts show that they form part
of the best engineering solution - and like other measures
they are not always good things to use unless the facts so
show.
Communication Systems
D-37 The large majority of noise induction problems on telephone
circuits involve open wire exposures. However, the general
methods of attack for cable circuits are essentially the
same as those for open wire circuits. The purpose of noise
measurements and harmonic analyses on exposed telephone
circuits is to obtain the answers to one or more of the
following questions:
1. What are the magnitudes of noise metallic and
noise-to-ground on the overall telephone circuits under
a particular power system operating condition, and what
is the variation in these magnitudes over a period of
time, or with specific changes in power system
conditions?
2. What harmonic components control the magnitudes of
noise metallic and noise-to-ground on the exposed
circuits?
- 38
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
3. What is the relative importance of unbalances in the
outside plant and in the office equipment?
4. If the noise arises primarily in the outside plant, do
the unbalances in the entrance cables contribute to the
problem?
5. If the open wire is exposed to several different power
lines, which exposure is controlling in the noise?
6. Assuming that the controlling exposure has been
located, is the noise due primarily to direct metallic
induction inside the exposure (which may indicate
inadequate coordination of the communication
transpositions) or is it due primarily to the effects
of longitudinal induction on unbalances outside the
exposure?
D-38 A number of different kinds of measurements may be required
to answer these questions. These are considered briefly
below, approximately in the order in which they might be
made in the usual type of investigation. Where two-type
noise measuring sets which have been modified to include
"FIA" line weighting are available, noise measurements with
that line weighting will be included along with readings of
noise with "144" line weighting. Experience indicates that
only in the most complex cases will it be necessary to carry
out the complete series of tests mentioned below.
D-39 Overall Noise Measurements: One of the most important steps
generally necessary in the early stages of the investigation
of a specific noise frequency inductive coordination
problem, is the carrying out of suitable overall
measurements of noise metallic over the particular area
concerned. One of the chief purposes of such overall
measurements - as made at switchboards, or as expressed in
terms of noise at switchboard level - is that their results
serve as very helpful reference points and, as such, perform
an important function in determining the overall effects of
any changes (in the line of remedial measures, etc.) that
may subsequently be made. Also, such measurements are in
many instances needed to indicate the "geographical" extent
of the particular noise problem concerned, as well as to
show definitely the magnitudes of the noise. (Subsequent to
the carrying out of these overall tests it will often, of
course, be necessary to
- 39
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
proceed with certain of the other type of tests which are
outlined in Paragraphs D-41 to D-43.)
D-40 Where the overall measurements mentioned in Paragraph D-39
form (as they often will) a part of a cooperative study with
a power company, it is desirable to include measurements of
noise-to-ground in the repeater section where the exposure
exists. The latter measurements must be made on the line
side of the repeating coil group associated with the
circuits. Ordinarily this involves interrupting at least
the voice frequency circuit on the phantom. Where a number
of noise-to-ground measurements and harmonic analyses are to
be made, it has been found convenient to bring out
temporarily the midpoint of the line side of the phantom
coils (or side circuit coil in the case of non-phantomed
circuits) to a special jack (such as a spare testboard jack)
and to measure and analyze from this point to ground. With
this arrangement, the testing is simplified since it is not
necessary to take any circuits out of service for
noise-to-ground measurements.
D-41 "Condition" Tests: Before proceeding with noise
measurements to determine which portion of the outside plant
or which power line exposure is the controlling factor in
the noise, it is essential that the condition of the
telephone circuits be investigated. These condition tests
include measurements of insulation and resistance unbalance.
If these tests indicate abnormally high leakage or high
resistance joints, the next step obviously is to locate and
remove these conditions. In making such tests it should be
recognized that certain jack contacts or intermediate
connections which are in the circuit during its normal
operation may be removed from the circuit as a result of the
measuring arrangements which are used during tests (such as
at the line jacks). Where unbalances in the outside plant
are found to be small, the possibility of unbalances in the
jacks and wiring between the main frame and equipment should
be investigated before proceeding with detailed tests on the
outside plant. In the case of individual phantom groups,
measurements of the side-to-own-phantom voice frequency
cross talk will often give a useful indication of the
general condition of balance of the respective groups.
D-42 "Location" Tests: In some cases, the test data obtained up
to this point in the investigation will not give a clear
- 40
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
indication as to just which of several exposures may be
controlling. There are three general ways to find out.
1. Make "sectionalized" tests on the communication line.
In some cases, this may require merely "general"
sectionalization (that is, cutting all wires in the
lead at perhaps only two or three points), while in
occasional instances the conditions may be such as to
warrant cutting the lead into several fairly short
lengths (each of which embraces only one exposure).
This measure should be used only "as a last resort."
It is essential for these tests that all grounded or
simplexed telegraph circuits be cut at the locations
where the telephone circuits are cut. This is to
eliminate the possibility of secondary induction into
the telephone circuit from any telegraph circuit that
may extend through the exposure.
2. De-energize the power lines, one at a time, and observe
the results; recommended only for special cases.
3. Measure the influence (particularly the harmonic
voltages and currents) on each of the power circuits
concerned (ER-33) (ER-20) and correlate the results
with the measured noise and harmonics in the
communication circuits (ER-16, 17, 20).
Of these, the method (or combination of methods) that is
best for any particular case will depend upon the
circumstances. It frequently will be found, however, that
the comparison of influence and noise (method "3" just
above) will involve less difficulty and net effort than
either of the other two methods, particularly where
"exploring wire" tests (ER-20) are used.
D-43 Influence Tests: The "influence" tests mentioned in Item
"3" of Paragraph D-42 will include, for at least one point
in each exposure:
1. Measurements of the voltage TIF and of the
corresponding contributions of the various harmonic
components of voltage - usually on the secondary of a
convenient service transformer.
2. A determination of the balanced and ground return IT
and the controlling harmonics.
- 41
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
For these latter measurements, the exploring wires described
in ER-20 are often helpful (particularly in cases where
direct measurement of some or all of these quantities, at a
point in or reasonably near the exposure, is impracticable).
In the case of high voltage systems, for example, such
exploring wires may be the only practicable means of
securing the desired data on influences. A comparison of
these "influence" results (Items 1 and 2) with the results
of measurements of noise-to-ground (and frequency analyses
thereof) at the adjacent testboard will usually indicate the
exposure (or exposures) for which further consideration is
warranted.
D-44 As mentioned in Paragraph D-24, it is often desirable to
have simultaneous measurements of influence in the exposure
and of noise-to-ground at the testboard, particularly if the
noise is found to be variable with time.
D-45 If the influence in the controlling exposures is relatively
high, as compared with other similar exposures, the next
step is to determine the controlling sources of harmonics or
the particular power system impedance conditions
responsible, as outlined under Power Systems. It may also
be desirable to make tests to indicate whether the noise is
controlled by direct metallic induction within the exposure
(which might be reduced by improving exposure transposition
arrangements) or results from longitudinal induction acting
on unbalances outside the exposure section (which might be
improved by suitable maintenance work or perhaps by re-
transposing certain of the communication line sections
outside the exposure). (ER-16, 17)
D-46 Sectionalized Tests: If it so happens that the noise on
only one or two phantom groups on an open wire line stands
out above the average, the relative importance of
direct-metallic induction and longitudinal induction may
usually be determined by noise measurements with this
particular group (or groups) sectionalized at each end of
the exposure section. It is usually necessary to open all
grounded telegraph circuits including simplex circuits.
This method of test has the advantage that it does not
require complete interruption of service on the line, such
as is required for completely sectionalized noise tests or
measurements of current balance ratios. On the other hand,
if several of the phantom groups have high noise values, or
if it is found impracticable to determine the relative
- 42
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
importance of electric and magnetic induction in
contributing to the noise by means of exploring wire tests,
it may be necessary to make completely sectionalized noise
tests, possibly supplemented by measurements of current
balance ratios. Experience has shown that it is necessary
to resort to these detailed tests (which involve complete
interruption of service over the line, including carrier and
telegraph circuits) in only a very small percentage of the
noise problems encountered. It is almost always desirable
to exhaust all of the testing methods outlined above before
resorting to sectionalized tests, at least on important
lines.
D-47 Remedial Measures: A number of measures, which include the
following, have been used to improve the susceptiveness of
exposed telephone circuits.
1. Removal of series unbalances caused by high resistance
joints in open wire or cable.
2. Removal of shunt unbalances caused by defective
insulators, contacts with tree or guys, dusty carbons
in protectors or unbalanced cable pairs.
3. Improvement in balance of office equipment, such as
office cabling, repeating coils, telegraph composite
sets, carrier filters, etc.
4. Improvement in communication transposition layouts
inside exposure section to reduce direct metallic
induction.
5. Improvement in communication transposition arrangements
in unexposed sections (particularly the older type
transposition sections or incomplete sections) adjacent
to exposures to improve overall balance of
communication line to longitudinal induction.
6. Increase in transmission levels (on repeated circuits)
to improve signal-to-noise ratio inside exposure (See
Paragraph C-10.)
7. Drainage of longitudinal circuit (usually by grounding
midpoint of line side of phantom repeating coils) to
reduce voltage-to-ground across terminal equipment that
may have unbalances to ground. Such drainage may
- 43
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
also result in some longitudinal shielding from
magnetic induction. Overall improvement in noise will
result only where series unbalances are small.
8. Isolation of longitudinal circuit in exposed and
unexposed sections by use of repeating coils. Such
arrangements are undesirable from standpoint of dc
telegraph and carrier operation and dc testing.
9. Drainage at ends of exposed section to prevent
longitudinal induction from acting on adjacent
unexposed sections. In the one case where this device
was employed, the drainage arrangement was made more
effective by tuning the capacitive reactance of
condensers (in series with the drainage coils) to
resonate at a particular frequency, using an auxiliary
reactor in the ground connection. The specific case
just mentioned involved a relatively light telephone
line and required special design work and an
appreciable amount of experimentation. In any specific
situation it would be necessary, in designing such a
device, to guard against any adverse resonance effects
which might otherwise occur between the device itself
and the line impedances. The use of such a low
impedance termination might, of course, tend to result
in increased noise (particularly at, or in the vicinity
of, its tuned frequency) in cases where important
series unbalances are present in the communication
circuit. On the other hand, the effects of the noise
voltage-to-ground acting upon admittance
unbalances-to-ground might be expected to be decreased.
It is expected that this device would have but little
general application in practice, as compared with other
available methods.
10. Reduction in noise metallic by use of a sharply tuned
resonant shunt across the metallic circuit at offices
adjacent to the exposure to reduce the effects of a
single outstanding component of induction.
Experimental work indicates that such noise reductions
are technically possible. However, it may be noted
that this measure also reduces the speech signal
somewhat and may affect the intelligibility. In
addition, on repeated circuits or circuits which may be
used as links in a built-up connection involving
repeaters, consideration would have to be given to the
- 44
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
matter of impedance irregularities, a factor which
would tend to produce adverse effects such as singing
echoes or false operation of voice-operated devices.
For these and other practical reasons it has generally
been found preferable to reduce the induction-or its
effects-by some other method. It is therefore expected
that this device will have little practical application
to voice frequency telephone circuits.
D-48 Cable Sheath Shielding: The lead sheath of a communication
cable provides practically perfect shielding against
electric induction (from power system voltages) when it is
grounded at one or more points (provided, of course, that
the sheath is electrically continuous between the points at
which it is grounded). The sheath also provides substantial
magnetic shielding when it is grounded more or less
continuously, as in underground construction, or is grounded
at both ends of an aerial section or near both ends of an
exposure. The degree of magnetic shielding increases with
the frequency of the induction and is also dependent on the
size of the cable, type of sheath and on the resistance of
the ground connections. These relationships are illustrated
in Table 1. (See also ER-48.) From this tabulation, it is
evident that low resistance sheath grounds are required if
the maximum benefits from shielding are to be obtained.
This is particularly true for the shorter exposures
involving large size cables. A low resistance ground may
generally be obtained at the end of the cable nearest the
office by bonding the aerial and underground cable sheaths.
At points on the cable remote from the office, it has long
been the practice to obtain a low resistance ground by
bonding the cable sheath to the water system, where
feasible. More recently it has been found that fully as
effective shielding can usually be obtained by bonding the
cable sheath to the multi-grounded neutral of the power
distribution system (ER-43). This method of bonding is
generally more convenient than a connection to a water pipe,
and can ordinarily be arranged with the power company.
Intermediate grounds generally do not provide appreciable
additional shielding for communication circuits extending
throughout the exposure, except for power faults within the
exposure or where the end grounds are high in resistance and
intermediate grounds of much lower values can be obtained.
As may be noted in Table 1, the shielding provided by
aluminum plastic sheath is not quite so good as
- 45
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
lead sheath, especially for the larger size cables where
long exposures and low resistance grounds are involved. The
column for zero ohm grounding resistance represents the
maximum shielding condition and is the percent of remaining
voltage which is approached by a long exposure where the
grounding resistance is negligible compared with the total
sheath impedance.
D-49 Cable sheath shielding is effective only when the cable
sheath is electrically continuous between the points where
grounds are applied. When tests are being made to determine
the effectiveness of shielding, it is necessary to strap out
any insulating joints and to make low resistance connections
between the sheath and ground. In some situations,
grounding the cable sheath at two or more points may react
adversely on electrolysis conditions, and it may be
necessary to insert an electrolytic condenser in series with
the ground connections or in the sheath-to-power
system-neutral bond. This is discussed in detail elsewhere
(ER-43).
Presentation of Test Results
D-50 A carefully planned and clearly worked out report of the
test results and the conclusions which are indicated by
these results is an important part of a noise investigation,
particularly where the studies have been made jointly with
the power company. Wherever practicable, the report should
be prepared jointly by the representatives of the power and
railroad companies who actually participated in the tests
and should be submitted for comments to others interested
before being put in final form. Where circumstances make it
necessary for the railroad company representatives to
prepare the initial draft of the report, the power company
engineer should be given an opportunity to review the plan
of the report in the early stages and to comment freely
before a final draft is prepared.
- 46
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
TABLE 1
Magnetic Shielding for Various Frequencies
Sizes and Lengths of Communication Cables and
Various Grounding Resistances Expressed as Percentage of
Remaining Voltage to Original Voltage with no Shielding
(Calculated Values of e
r
/e
i
x 100)
(e
i
=Voltage present with sheath grounded at one point only)
(e
r
=Voltage remaining after grounding sheath at both ends)

Outside Diameter 2.6 Inches

Outside Diameter 1.7 Inches
1 Mile**

3 Miles**

1 Mile**

3 Miles**

Frequency
Hz

0 ohms*

5 ohms*

10 ohms*

5 ohms*

10 ohms*

0 ohms*

5 ohms*

10 ohms*

5 ohms*

10 ohms*
LEAD
60

44%

96%

98%

85%

93%

66%

97%

99%

89%

94%
180

17

81

93

52

71

30

83

93

59

74
300

10

67

85

36

54

19

69

85

41

57
420

7.6

55

77

27

43

14

57

77

31

46
540

6.0

47

69

23

35

11

48

70

25

38
660

5.0

40

63

19

30

9.0

42

63

21

33
1,000

3.4

29

48

12

21

6.2

30

49

15

22
2,000

1.8

15

28

6.4

11

3.3

16

28

7.6

12

LEAD Outside Diameter 0.9 Inch
ALUMINUM PLASTIC Outside
Diameter Approximately 1.2 Inches

60

88%

99%

99%

97%

99%

180

56

94

97

87

94

300

39

87

94

74

87

420

29

79

91

63

79

540

24

72

87

54

72

660

20

66

82

48

66

1,000

13

51

72

35

51

2,000

7.1

30

48

19

30

Outside Diameter Approximately 2.8 Inches

Outside Diameter Approximately 1.9 Inches

ALUMINUM PLASTIC
60

67%

97%

99%

89%

95%

78%

97%

99%

91%

95%
180

31

84

93

60

75

41

85

93

65

78
300

20

70

86

43

59

27

71

86

47

61
420

15

59

78

33

47

20

60

78

36

50
540

12

50

71

26

40

16

51

72

30

42
660

9.7

43

65

22

34

13

44

65

25

36
1,000

6.5

31

50

15

23

8.9

32

50

17

25
2,000

3.4

17

29

8.0

12

4.7

17

29

9.0

13

* Refers to total grounding impedance (Approximate dc resistance) of the two ground
connections - expressed in ohms.
** Refers to distances along cable sheath between the two grounding points.

D-51 The form and length of a test report will of course depend
to a great extent on the complexity and importance of the
situation under consideration. In every case, however, the
history of the problem and a brief description of the plant
involved, as well as the outstanding results and
conclusions, should be included in the first few pages,
- 47
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
with confirming data and details following, where necessary.
A brief report that is well organized and easy to follow is
better than a longer report which must be read through
completely before the problem becomes clear.
D-52 When the investigation includes many harmonic analyses of
wave shape and noise, it will be desirable to tabulate the
detailed results as attachments to the report and to include
brief summary tables in the body of the report along with
the discussion. These summaries might include only the
overall measured power system influence and noise, together
with the contributions of the important harmonic components.
Comparative data taken under different test conditions
should be included in the same tabulation wherever feasible.
It is well to remember that a little time spent in
organizing and summarizing the material in the report may
easily save considerable time for those reviewing the
report.
D-53 Maps and circuit schematics are usually helpful in
indicating the general layout of the power and communication
facilities under consideration. Wherever practicable, the
power and communication system layouts should be shown on
the same drawing. Also, use can often be made of graphical
methods of presenting the test results. In particular, the
results of noise measurements on a number of exposed
communication circuits under different power system
operating conditions can be shown in a series of cumulative
percentage curves on the same background. A number of
different methods of drawing such curves have been
developed. In the interest of uniformity it is suggested
that the scheme shown in Figure 2018-8 be adopted where
practicable.
- 48
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
Figure 2018-8:
D-54 The following paragraphs briefly describe the purpose of
some of the more important types of testing apparatus used
in noise coordination studies.
D-55 Noise-Measuring Sets:
The 2A and 2 B Noise Measuring Sets are self-contained
portable visual-indicating devices for measuring noise.
These noise-measuring sets include:
1. Weighting networks to enable the measurement of noises
of different frequencies in terms of their noise
effects.
2. Amplifiers to raise the level of the noise currents to
measured sufficiently to operate an indicating
instrument.
3. A copper oxide rectifier and a rugged output meter on
which the visual indication is obtained.
- 49
AREMA C&S Manual
1997 Part 20.1.8
4. A graduated gain control permitting measurement of a
wide range of noise magnitudes.
5. Input coils and switching arrangements to facilitate
the various measurements.
6. Self-contained calibrating means.
7. Self-contained dry-cell battery supply.
8. A means for monitoring under all test conditions.
D-56 Harmonic Analyzers:
The 10-A Noise Analyzer Attachment is an adjunct to the 2-
Type Noise Measuring sets to provide a visual indicating
arrangement for measurements of individual harmonic
components of noise or power system influence in the range
from 180 to about 4,000 Hz (or higher under special
conditions.) The frequency selectivity, sensitivity,
freedom from the effects of external fields, and other
operating characteristics of the analyzer attachment noise
measuring set combination have been found satisfactory for
most of the noise coordination problems which are apt to be
encountered. It is impossible to overemphasize the
importance of harmonic analyses of power system influence
and noise in arriving at the solution to a noise
coordination problem.
D-57 Couplers for Power System Influence Measurements: The same
noise measuring set and analyzer which is used for noise
tests may also be used for measurements and analyses of
power system influence is auxiliary apparatus (mentioned in
paragraphs D-58 and D-59) is used for connections to the
power system.
D-58 The current TIF coupler (per D-99127) consists chiefly of a
low impedance (0.4 mh) retardation coil, together with a
605-ohm resistance. These and the binding posts of the
coupler are so arranged as to facilitate connecting the
retard coil in series with the secondary of a current
transformer inserted in the power circuit under test, while
the analyzer and/or noise measuring set in series with the
605-ohm resistance is connected across the retard coil (via
the To Set binding posts) of the coupler. Because of its
low impedance (j0.15 ohm at 60 cycles) on the To C.T.Sec.
side, this coupler has no effect on any metering or
- 50
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 20.1.8 1997
relaying equipment that is normally connected to the
secondary of the same current transformer. The inductive
reactance of the retard coil, in conjunction with the line
weighing curve of the noise measuring set, provides the
proper frequency weighting curve for measurements of IT
product.
D-59 Similarly, the voltage TIF coupler (per D-00128) consists
essentially of a small condenser (0.01 mfd) in series with a
605-ohm resistance. This coupler is so arranged that the
analyzer and/or noise measuring set can be connected across
the 605-ohm resistance. By this means, the device serves to
couple the input of the analyzer or noise measuring set to
the power voltage (secondary of service or potential
transformer). On the power voltage side, the impedance of
the coupler is controlled by the high impedance of the 0.01
mfd condenser (265,000 ohms at 60 Hz) and therefore has no
effect on any metering or relaying equipment that might be
connected to the same transformer secondary. In this case
the capacitive reactance of the condenser and the line
weighting curve of the noise measuring set provide the
proper frequency weighting for measurement of the KvT
product.
D-60 Current and Potential Transformers: Measurements of power
system influence and supplementary harmonic analyses may be
made on the secondaries of current and potential
transformers normally employed for metering and relaying or,
in special cases, on specially installed transformers. In
the latter case, the current transformers may be connected
directly in series with the circuit under test or may be of
the clamp or split core type.
D-61 Miscellaneous Equipment: In addition to the apparatus
already mentioned, a variety of other testing equipment and
special terminating arrangements may be required in noise
coordination work.



Section 21 Data Transmission

2002
AREMA C& S Manual

SECTION 21 - DATA TRANSMISSION


______________________________________________________________
- 1 -

Operating Guidelines for
Telephone Transmission 19 Extended 2001

Analog Data Transmission
Over Voice Channels 12 Extended 2001

- 1
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 21.1.1
Recommended Functional/Operating Guidelines for
Telephone Transmission
A. General Requirements
1. Telephone System: The primary function of a telephone
system is to provide for the transmission of
information (including speech, data, graphics, video,
etc.) with sufficient faithfulness, received level and
freedom from extraneous noises to be readily usable,
and to provide a satisfactory means of signaling. To
attain this objective, the equipment and line
facilities must be suitably designed, installed and
maintained. The actual results depend to a
considerable extent on how the system is used, but as
the use is largely beyond the control of the
communications engineer the following sections deal
only with design and maintenance.
2. Telephone Transmitter: The telephone transmitter is a
means for translating acoustic vibrations into
electrical current variations. A transmitter widely
used accomplishes this by varying its resistance in
accordance with variations of the sound pressure.
That part of the transmitter whose resistance is
subject to variation is the carbon button and consists
of a small sealed chamber partly filled with granular
carbon through which direct current passes when the
telephone set is used. When the transmitter diaphragm
vibrates in response to speech, the resistance of the
carbon button is varied which in turn varies the
direct current. These latter variations are in effect
alternating current and constitute the speech currents
transmitted over telephone circuits. The telephone
transmitter introduces some frequency distortion
because its electrical output is not uniform over the
entire speech range for a given input energy. The
transmitter also introduces some frequencies other
than those impinging upon the transmitter. This
latter type of distortion is noticeable only when the
transmitter is overloaded due to too high talking
volumes. Offsetting these disadvantages is the fact
that the carbon transmitter is a very effective
amplifier, that is, the electrical energy in the
output is many times that of the acustic energy
impinging upon the transmitter diaphragm.
- 2
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 21.1.1 2001
3. The efficiency of a transmitter decreases rapidly as
the distance between the speakers lips and the
transmitter increases. If this fact were more widely
appreciated and more care taken to use the instrument
correctly the average grade of transmission would
undoubtedly be considerably improved, and many cases
of extremely poor transmission eliminated. Figure
2111-1 shows the decrease in transmitter efficiency as
the distance between the mouthpiece of the transmitter
and the lips of the speaker is increased. The curve
is based on average results from tests on local
battery instruments of some half dozen manufacturers.
Figure 2111-1 Transmission Loss Due to Talking at Various
Distances from Transmitter Mouthpiece (Average of
Several Types of Local Battery Transmitters)
- 3
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 21.1.1
4. Telephone Receiver: The function of the receiver is
the opposite of the transmitter since it is actuated
by the alternating electric currents and delivers
acoustic waves. This is accomplished by the variation
in pull on the diaphragm by the electromagnet that is
energized by the line current. As in the case of the
transmitter, the quality characteristics of the
receiver are dependent upon both its electrical and
its mechanical performance.
5. Telephone Sets: A telephone set is a combination of
receiver and transmitter and is associated with a
subset which contains an induction coil, usually a
ringer, and in some cases, other equipment. The
battery supply for the transmitter may be from local
batteries or from a common battery source. In the
latter case, the transmitter current flows over the
same conductors as used for speech transmission.
6. Common-Battery Sets: "Anti-sidetone" circuits are now
standard for common-battery telephone sets. In the
older circuits high side-tone in the speaker's ear
often caused the user to unconsciously lower his
voice. Furthermore, room noises were amplified in his
ear when he was listening. Both of these conditions,
in effect, degrade transmission. Anti-sidetone sets
employ a balancing arrangement that eliminates the
speaker's voice from his own receiver. The degree of
balance obtainable varies with frequency and with
impedance of the connected line. The balance cannot,
therefore, be perfect but it is generally good enough
to provide performance quite superior to the older
side-tone sets.
7. Local-Battery Sets: These are two general types of
local-battery sets. One type uses a push button (or
foot switch) to cut the transmitter into the circuit
only when the user is actually speaking. Sets of this
type have inherently good transmission efficiency.
They are especially useful where more than two phones
are bridged on a line simultaneously because they have
a low bridging loss and because transmitter background
noise is eliminated from all but the one set being
used by the speaker at any given instance. Sets of
this type are almost universally used on dispatching
circuits.
- 4
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 21.1.1 2001
8. The other type of local-battery set employs a
transmitter circuit that is continuously closed when
the set is in the "off-hook" condition. Such sets are
quite satisfactory on lines normally used by only two
people at any given time. The use of this set is
simpler for those not accustomed to "push-to-talk"
sets.
9. Telephone Circuits: The circuits between two
telephone sets may be direct or may be switched at one
or more points. The circuits may be physical or they
may be derived. In any case it is necessary that
speech be transmitted with adequate volume, sufficient
faithfulness, and relative freedom from noise and
crosstalk. In many instances these requirements can
be met only by giving very careful consideration to
the characteristics of the circuit facilities.
Attenuation and noise levels are of paramount
importance. Flat attenuation frequency
characteristics and wide bandwidth (250-3,000 cycles)
are desirable but must frequently be sacrificed where
increased circuit capacity of a line is a requirement.
B. Types of Railroad Circuits
1. The following classes of circuits (based primarily on
usage rather than design) are commonly found in
railroad service:
a. Trunk circuits.
b. Train dispatching circuits.
c. Message circuits.
d. PAX circuits.
e. Yard circuits.
f. PBX extensions.
g. Block circuits.
h. Party line circuits.
2. Trunk Circuits: A trunk circuit interconnects two
switchboards. The switchboards may be miles apart and
not infrequently are separated by hundreds of miles.
- 5
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 21.1.1
Short trunks of a dozen miles or less are usually
physical circuits. Longer trunks are generally
derived circuits. A large, and constantly increasing,
proportion of long trunk circuits are carrier derived.
Signaling is either ring-down or dial depending on
terminal use.
3. Train Dispatching Circuits: Dispatching circuits are
normally physical, although sections of carrier are
not uncommon when the dispatcher is remote from the
controlled territory. The dispatcher's circuit is a
push-to-talk, local-battery party line. Selective
signaling, employing individual impulse following
selectors, is used outward from the dispatcher's
office. The dispatcher is generally provided with an
amplifier-loudspeaker set which eliminates any need
for inward signaling.
4. Message Circuits: These circuits are provided to
interconnect all way stations on a district or
division, and generally terminate in a railroad owned
or leased private branch exchange switchboard.
Signaling toward the switchboard is 20-Hz ring-down.
Signaling outward from the switchboard is, by
selectors, similar to those used on dispatcher
circuits, by 20-Hz code ringing, or by a combination
of both. Message circuits are almost universally of
the local-battery type and usually use a common
telephone set switchable between the dispatcher and
message lines.
5. Private Automatic Exchange (PAX) Circuits: Dial
telephones are extensively used by railroads. Such
systems do not differ essentially from those commonly
used by other industries.
6. Yard Circuits: Where PAX service is not available,
yard communication is usually provided by a circuit
connecting all principal points in the yard. It
usually is of the local-battery, code-ringing type and
generally does not terminate in a switchboard.
7. Private Branch (PBX) Extensions: Wherever PBX service
is provided, local phones are served by extension lines
from the switchboard. These lines are common battery.
- 6
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 21.1.1 2001
They may be manually switched or may be a combination
of manual and dial.
8. Block Circuits: Block circuits were provided to
connect adjacent block stations, but sometimes were
extended to connect several stations. Generally, they
were local-battery, code-ringing, and do not connect
to a switchboard. Block station eliminations have all
but obsoleted this type circuit.
9. Party Line Circuits: Some use is made of party line
service on lightly loaded circuits extending from a
single PBX switchboard to outlying points, or in some
instances on semi-trunk circuits between two distant
PBX switchboard locations. When such service is used
the intermediate telephones (or PBX switchboard) are
connected to the circuits on a bridging basis. Coded
magneto ringing is generally used for signaling
purposes.
10. Miscellaneous Circuits: The list of circuits given
under Paragraph B-1 is not exhaustive. Many other
types of circuits are used in railroad service.
Paging loudspeaker, talk-back loudspeaker, and office
inter-communicating sets are examples of the many
arrangements available.
C. Transmission Losses
1. Some of the electrical power input into a circuit is
dissipated in the circuit due to line attenuation,
reflection and equipment losses. These losses in the
power transmitted over a circuit are termed
transmission losses. Transmission losses are commonly
expressed in terms of the attenuation or power ratio
between the input and output of a circuit. The unit
is the decibel (abbreviated "db") that is a
logarithmic expression of the power ratio. The loss
expressed in decibels in a particular case is
P
1
10 log ____ where P
1
is the input power and P
2
the
P
2
output or received power. Where the impedances are equal,
I
1
E
1
db equals 20 log___ or 20 log where I
1
I
2
E
2
- 7
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 21.1.1
and E
1
are the input and I
2
and E
2
are the output current
and voltage.
2. The use of a logarithmic unit such as the db permits
the direct addition of the losses in different parts
of a circuit, or of the gains due to repeaters.
3. Line Loss: Line loss, or attenuation, reduces the
magnitude of the received power. The following
factors affect line loss.
a. Resistance: This is influenced largely by the
size, material, and temperature of the line
conductors. The unit of resistance is the ohm.
b. Leakage or Leakage Conductance: This is the
shunt loss between the two conductors of the
circuit. It is measured in mhos, and at low
frequencies is practically the reciprocal of the
line insulation resistance. Leakage, in open
wire, depends on the number, type and condition
of the insulators, foreign contacts such as
trees, and upon weather conditions. At high
frequencies, other factors are involved.
c. Inductance: The series inductance of a circuit
is the self-inductance of each conductor plus the
mutual inductance between the individual
conductors of the pair. The magnitude of the
series inductance is dependent upon the material,
size and spacing of the wires and the surrounding
conductors. At a given frequency, the greater
the separation of the conductors, the larger the
inductance. The effect of inductance is
dependent upon the imposed frequency. The unit
of inductance is the henry.
d. Capacitance: The shunt electrostatic capacitance
of a circuit is the electrical capacitance
between the two conductors of the pair including
the effect of capacitance to earth. The
magnitude of the shunt capacitance is dependent
on the size, separation and dielectric material
between the conductors, as well as the presence
of surrounding conductors. With a given
frequency and dielectric constant, the closer the
conductors, the greater the capacitance. The
- 8
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 21.1.1 2001
effect of capacitance is dependent upon the
imposed frequency. The unit of capacitance is
the farad.
4. Characteristic Impedance: This is the impedance
looking into one end of a infinitely long uniform line.
By definition, it is also the impedance of a uniform
line of any length terminated in its characteristic
impedance. It is dependent on the frequency and the
four factors above noted in connection with line loss.
It is measured in ohms.
5. Reflection and Return Losses: When alternating
currents traveling along a circuit encounter an
impedance irregularity; i.e., pass from a circuit of
one impedance to one of another impedance, a portion
of the current or voltage is reflected and travels
back toward the sending end. This loss in
transmission through the irregularity is known as the
reflection loss and in computing the overall loss in a
circuit or connection these reflection losses are
added to the attenuation losses. Expressed in terms
of the line impedances looking in the two directions
at the irregularity Z
1
and Z
2
, the power reflection
loss in db
Z
1
+ Z
2
equals 20 log _______
2
Z1 Z2
6. The ratio of the reflected current to the current
striking the irregularity is known as the return loss.
The return loss is of principal interest in its effect
on repeater balances and may be referred to the
repeater by adding twice the attenuation loss between
the irregularity and the repeater. This is then known
as the "singing" point irregularity. The return loss
in db equals
Z
n
+ Z
L
20 log where Z
n
is impedance of the network
Z
n
- Z
L
and Z
L
is impedance of the line.
7. Insertion Loss: The complete effect of the
introduction of a piece of equipment or line in a
- 9
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 21.1.1
circuit is frequently considered in terms of its
insertion loss. The insertion loss obviously includes
both the reflection effects and the losses or gains in
the device or line itself. The insertion loss is
defined as a loss expressed in decibels of the ratio
between the power received with the device or line not
in the circuit and that received with the device or
line inserted in the circuit. It should be noted that
the result is frequently an insertion gain,
particularly where a repeating coil of the proper
ratio is inserted at a point of the junction of two
lines of unequal impedance and existing reflection
effects are reduced.
D. Distortion
1. Attenuation-Frequency Distortion:
Attenuation-frequency distortion may be defined as the
distortion or modification of voice signals passing
through a unit of apparatus or circuit of such a
character that the attenuation of a signal is not the
same at all frequencies. Such distortion results in
unequal losses to the various frequency components
desired for speech transmission and may seriously
affect the intelligibility of the received signal.
2. Frequency Distortion may be introduced into a circuit
by station equipment, repeating coils and other
apparatus, such as repeaters, if they do not have a
satisfactory attenuation-frequency characteristic.
Another source of frequency distortion is the line
itself. Non-loaded open wire circuits are
comparatively free from this form of distortion, but
this is not true of cable facilities. Loaded cable
facilities have a comparatively flat transmission
frequency characteristic within the band for which the
loading system is designed.
3. Non-Linear Distortion: Non-linear distortion is the
modification of signals passing through a unit of
apparatus or a circuit in a manner such that the
output of the unit or circuit is not proportional to
the input. In other words, for a given change in
input energy, where this type of distortion occurs,
there will not be a corresponding and proportional
change in the output energy. This effect may result
in apparent changes in the transmission loss or gain
- 10
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 21.1.1 2001
of the circuit and results in the generation of
harmonics and other undesired frequencies.
4. Non-linear distortion may take place in telephone
transmitters or receivers where the conversion from
mechanical to electrical signals, or vice versa, is
not equally efficient for all energy values.
5. Non-linear distortion may take place in repeating
coils where these coils are operated at higher current
levels than they are designed for or where, through
abnormal use, these coils have become magnetized. The
result is the generation of harmonics and the
modulation of normal line signals, one upon the other,
to produce undesired products of modulation.
6. Non-linear distortion may occur in repeater equipment
using analog amplifying circuits, producing distortion
of the signal or extraneous noise when operated beyond
rated input values.
7. Delay Distortion: Delay distortion is the
modification of signals passing through a circuit
under conditions such that certain frequencies or
groups of frequencies are delayed and arrive at the
receiving end of the circuit after the remainder of
the frequencies have arrived. This results in a phase
relation between the frequency components of the
received signal different from the relation in the
original or transmitted signal. Delay distortion will
seldom be apparent in railway voice telephone
circuits. It is present in each unit of equipment and
in each section of line, but is so small as to be
negligible. When many of these units are connected in
tandem to provide a circuit, the distortion may be
sufficiently great to require attention if the circuit
is used for purposes other than voice.
E. Interference
1. General: Although a system may be capable of
transmitting speech with sufficient volume and with
good quality, the presence of disturbing noises may
detract from the intelligibility of the speech
received and in some cases may make the circuit
unsatisfactory. A small amount of noise may in effect
be equivalent to an appreciable increase in
- 11
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 21.1.1
transmission loss. Disturbing noises may be due to
inductive disturbances, cross talk and other causes.
2. Inductive Interference: Telephone noises can be
caused by paralleling power circuits. Such noises may
result from inadequate or uncorrelated transposition
systems or from transposition errors. The effects of
inductive disturbances are increased by line
unbalance. Corresponding electrical quantities for
the two sides of the circuit should be substantially
equal at all points along the circuit; that is, there
should be electrical symmetry of the two sides of the
circuit. Unbalances may be due to fuses or heat coils
of unequal resistance in the two sides of the line,
high resistance in the line due to sleeve or other
line joints, loose connections in equipment or wiring,
unequal leakage in the two sides of the circuit,
partial grounds in line or protectors, different gages
of wire in the two sides of the line, or other causes.
3. Crosstalk: Under this heading is classed the
transference of voice frequencies from one circuit to
another, which may be due to several causes, among
which are induction between physical circuits or parts
thereof, unbalance between the two sides of a phantom
group, resistance and capacitance unbalances incapable
circuits and a variety of defects in office equipment
and wiring. Crosstalk may be caused by inadequate
transpositions or by transposition errors in open wire
circuits or by induction between improperly shielded
repeating coils and relays. Excessive capacitance
unbalances may be due to improper splicing of cable.
High impedance battery leads may be responsible for a
considerable amount of crosstalk.
4. Other Noises: Besides disturbing noises traceable
directly to inductive disturbances and crosstalk, room
noises are often a source of disturbance. Room noise
may be detrimental to intelligible transmission in
several ways; it may interfere directly, it may be
picked up by the transmitter and appear as sidetone
noise in the receiver and thus affect transmission, or
it may be transmitted to the other end of the line and
interfere with received speech. Of the methods by
which room noises may cause impairment of
transmission, that of sidetone noise is the most
- 12
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 21.1.1 2001
detrimental and may be minimized by the use of
transmitter cutouts and anti-sidetone sets.
F. Reference Standards
1. Volume Reference Standard: It is the practice in
communication work to measure the speech volume level
on a circuit by means of a device called a volume
indicator. This instrument has clearly defined
ballistic characteristic and pointer action that
follows the variation in the speech wave in a
determined suitable manner.
2. The Standard Volume Indicator is calibrated to give a
steady state reading of zero when a 1,000 Hz signal of
one milliwatt is being dissipated in a 600-ohm
resistance across which the instrument is bridged.
Readings made with a volume indicator of this type and
calibrated in this way are recorded as "+ X vu," where
X is the number of db by which the speech volume level
differs from the reference level of this meter.
3. Transmission Testing Standards: In making
transmission tests on telephone circuits it is the
usual procedure to transmit a power of one milliwatt
(0 dbm) into the line at the sending end. The power
received at the other end is measured and its
relationship to one milliwatt, expresses the
transmission gain or loss of the circuit. Both ends
of the circuit must be terminated in 600 ohms
impedance or such other impedance as specified.
4. Noise Reference Standard: A circuit noise meter
measures noise in terms of the number of db by which
the noise reading exceeds a certain reference
standard. The communications industry has in the past
used as the reference power level for noise
measurements 10-12 watt, or 90 db below 1 milliwatt at
1,000 Hz per second. Measurements made in decibels
above this reference level using a 144-weighting
network were called dbRN or decibels above reference
level. A practice has been to use F1A weighting based
on the more sensitive F1A handset, and to use -85 dbm
as the reference level. Measurements made with the
F1A weighting network are designated as "dba" or
decibels adjusted to differentiate between the old and
new standard. With the 500-type set, a new weighting
- 13
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 21.1.1
characteristic was found desirable. A new noise meter
has reverted to the use of the original reference
level of 10
-12
watt, or 90 db below 1 milliwatt at
1,000 cycles. However, due to the difference in F1A
weighting and the new 500 set, or C-message weighting
the measurement made with the set should be designated
as "dbRn C-Message" for purposes of differentiation.
5. Standard Crosstalk Unit: The crosstalk meter in
common use is calibrated in terms of db and expresses
the db loss between the transmitted power on the
disturbing circuit and the received power on the
disturbed circuit. These meters are also calibrated
in terms of crosstalk units. These units express in
one-millionths the ratio of the received current on
the disturbed circuit to the transmitted current on
the disturbing circuit. The crosstalk unit is
abbreviated "dbx.". Reference coupling is that which
produce 0 dba in the disturbed circuit when a test
tone of 90 dba is impressed on the disturbing circuit.
Both values of dba are for the same weighting.
6. Reference Power Unit: The most common reference power
used in communications work is the milliwatt. A
convenient method of indicating an amount of power is
to express it as being so many db above a reference
power of one milliwatt. Because of its common usage,
decibels above or below one milliwatt are usually
abbreviated plus or minus dbm.
G. Line Facilities and Equipment
1. General: There are several aspects with regard to
line facilities and equipment which involve
transmission considerations of a type which it would
be desirable to review in this section. This applies
particularly to the use of loading and repeaters for
improving the transmission performance of existing
circuits and in designing new ones, and to the
application of carrier systems for deriving new
circuits.
2. Loading: Loading coils are inductances that are
inserted in telephone circuits at regular intervals to
offset or counteract the effect of capacitance between
wires. While loading was formerly applied to open
wire circuits, other methods of reducing attenuation
- 14
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 21.1.1 2001
such as the use of repeaters have proven more
economical and more reliable and at present the
application of loading is restricted to cable
facilities and long twisted pair runs. The purpose of
loading is to reduce attenuation and to provide an
improved transmission frequency characteristic. In
addition, it is often desirable to load entrance and
intermediate cables on open wire routes in order to
make the impedances of the cable facilities
substantially equal to the open wire, as well as
reduce the attenuation and the variation of
attenuation with frequency. This, of course, reduces
line irregularities and permits the operation of
repeaters at higher gains than might otherwise be
possible.
3. There are several loading systems commonly in use.
Those systems that make use of the lower inductance
coils and shorter spacings provide the higher cut-off
frequencies. It is generally desirable to select
systems that provide nominal cut-off frequencies of at
least 2,900 Hz. For the longer cable circuits or
cable circuits which may be used as links in long
built-up connections it is particularly important to
make use of the higher cut-off types of loading, such
as H-44-25, H-88-50, B-88-50, etc., in order to avoid
objectionable echo and singing reactions.
4. In the case of toll entrance and intermediate cables
in open-wire lines, the selection of loading usually
involves a review of the several possible loading
layouts that might be used. A number of systems have
been worked out making use of full weight and
fractional weight coils in combination for different
lengths of cables.
5. Cable facilities loaded for voice frequency systems
will not satisfactorily transmit carrier frequencies.
Where carrier systems are involved and loading is
necessary, carrier-loading systems should, therefore,
be used. These carrier-loading systems not only
reduce attenuation but will also largely eliminate
reflection losses at junctions with open wire. When
cable pairs connect with open wire carrying both voice
frequency and carrier it is sometimes necessary to
separate the frequencies by means of filters and
- 15
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 21.1.1
transmit the voice frequency over one pair and the
carrier frequency over another. For best results each
pair should be loaded for the frequencies that it is
to pass.
6. Voice-Frequency Repeaters: Telephone repeaters are
basically amplifiers and are employed to overcome
excessive attenuation losses. Four-wire repeaters are
relatively simple and are capable of high gain.
Two-wire repeaters require hybrid-balancing
arrangements that inherently make them much less
stable than four-wire repeaters. Two-wire repeaters
are easily unbalanced by changes in line impedance.
If adjusted to produce high gains they are easily
thrown into a feed-back, or "sing," condition.
7. Depending upon their application, voice-frequency
repeaters fall into two classifications: (1) Terminal
and (2) Through-line.
8. Terminal repeaters are often favored because of easier
testing and maintenance of facilities at terminal
points, but through-line repeaters generally yield
better transmission gains.
9. "Negative Impedance" Repeaters are finding some use on
railroad cable circuits. They are designed to produce
a phase shift which feeds more energy into the line
than is drawn from it.
H. Carrier Telephone
1. Carrier: Carrier systems provide a means of
communication through the use of frequencies above
those of the normal voice circuit range. This is
accomplished by apparatus at the circuit terminals
which translate the voice frequencies received into
carrier frequencies whereas at the opposite end the
carrier frequencies are translated back into voice
frequencies. The first of these operations is called
modulation and the second demodulation. In the
opposite direction of transmission the same thing is
done but the carrier frequency band used on the line
is different. For example, the band from 4,000 to
6,800 Hz may be used for transmission from the west to
east direction and the band from 7,200 to 10,000 Hz
used for the opposite direction of transmission.
- 16
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 21.1.1 2001
Filters in the carrier equipments prevent the carrier
channels and voice circuit from interfering with one
another.
2. Basic Types: There are several methods of securing
derived circuits by the use of carrier frequencies but
only two are in common use:
a. Single sideband, amplitude modulation.
b. Frequency modulation.
Single sideband amplitude modulated carriers are
almost universally employed in trunk circuits. This
is largely because they are efficient users of
bandwidth and therefore permit a maximum number of
channels in a given spectrum space.
3. Low-Frequency and High-Frequency Carriers:
Single-channel carriers usually occupy a
frequency-range of from 4,000 to 10,000 Hz.
Three-channel carriers generally extend upward to
about 35,000 Hz. High-frequency carriers extend from
40,000 to about 150,000 Hz and normally provide 12
channels. There are other carrier systems having as
many as 600 channels but they are designed for
co-axial cables or microwave radio.
4. Attenuation of Carrier Frequencies: When planning
carrier installations consideration must be given to
the greater attenuation of carrier compared to voice
frequencies. Although this increase is not nearly
proportional to frequency, it is an appreciable
factor. On 0.104 dry, open copper wire, for example,
the attenuation at 100,000 Hz is approximately four
times the db loss at 1,000 Hz. This disadvantage is
at least partly offset by the fact that carrier
repeaters are generally much more effective than
voice-frequency repeaters and provide much higher
gains. The explanation of this is that carrier
repeaters are, in effect, four-wire repeaters.
Actually, transmission in both directions may take
place over the same pair of wires, but the use of
separate frequencies for the two directions, insolated
form each other by appropriate filters, provides very
nearly the equivalent of a four-wire circuit.
- 17
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 21.1.1
5. Carrier Regulation: Carrier attenuation on cable
pairs is subject to variation with temperature.
Attenuation on open-wire pairs is subject not only to
temperature effects but also to the greater effects of
wet weather, snow, and ice. A 100-mile carrier
circuit, for example, having a dry-weather attenuation
of 20 db may have losses of as much as 100 db under
severe icing conditions. Such a circuit would
obviously become completely unworkable unless
increased gain is provided to compensate for the
losses. All long-haul carriers are provided with
automatic gain control. This feature makes possible
the operation of high-quality circuits with many
repeater sections. Circuits 2,000 and more miles in
length are not uncommon.
I. T-Carrier Systems
1. CARRIER: Describes a digital communications facility
with a 1.544 Mbps bandwidth that can be used for
digitized voice, data or image transmission. The
1.544 Mbps standard is used in both North America and
Japan; the rest of the world implements E-1 at 2.048
Mbps. T-1 service is available from virtually every
long distance carrier, as well as satellite carriers.
Although it started strictly in the province of
telephone companies, it is now available to end-users.
Numerous multiplexer vendors offer equipment so that
railroads can utilize it on their own transmission
lines, including copper, coax and fiber-optic
2. CHANNELS: T-1 "pipes" carry the equivalent of
twenty-four 64 Kbps voice circuits, or other
combination of voice, data or video within their 1.544
Mbps bandwidth. For pure data transmission, a T-1
line can handle more than 24 circuits, since data may
be at other speeds, as 1.2, 2.4, 4.8, 9.6, 19.2, 56
Kbps, 64 Kbps, N x 64 Kbps.
3. MODULATION TECHNIQUE: In its basic implementation for
voice communications, a T-1 channel bank samples
analog signals from each of up to 24 channels
connected to it. Using Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
techniques an analog signal is sampled 8000 times per
second, each sample being represented by an 8-bit
code. This results in a digitized voice signal
requiring 64 Kbps of bandwidth for each individual
- 18
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 21.1.1 2001
voice channel. The digital bit stream for each voice
channel, also known as a DSO channel, is time-division
multiplexed with other similar channels and
transmitted over a four-wire circuit (the T-1 line) to
another channel bank at the receiving end which
decodes it back to its original 24 analog signals. In
a fully digital environment with digital PBX's or
other devices, conversion from analog to digital takes
place at the telephone instrument only, with
separation of channels taking place internally on the
digital bus of the PBX, for example, for individual
switching without a change from the digital encoding.
4. TRANSMISSION: Data, in the form of digitized voice,
is assembled into frames for transmission over a T-1
line. Each frame consists of 24 DSO channels
containing 8 data bits representing a digitized voice
sample for each of the 24 channels. This, plus one
framing bit, used by carrier equipment to signal the
beginning of each frame, makes a total of 193 bits per
frame. The entire frame generation process occurs
8000 times per second. This results in an aggregate
data rate of 1.544 Mbps, also known as a DS-1. Higher
transmission speeds are possible and have a T-series
digital circuit hierarchy as follows:
Digital Transmission & Voice
Signal (DS) Speed (bps) Channels
0 64K 1
1 1.544M 24
1C 3.152M 48
2 6.312M 96
3 44.736M 672
4 274.176M 4096
5. FORMATS: The frame configuration of 24 channels with
8 bits per framing bit is called the D4 Format. It
allows the transmitter and receiver to achieve proper
synchronization so that the beginning and end frame
can be readily identified for information retrieval.
A more complex framing technique, called D3 Format is
used in many voice and data applications also. It
utilizes a concept called a super-frame, which
consists of 12 separate DSO frames, two of which
include signaling bits. A even newer technique,
- 19
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 21.1.1
called Extended Super-frame Format (ESF), adds a
Facility Data Link (4 Kbps) and Cyclic Redundancy
Check (2 Kbps) to a smaller framing sequence of 2
Kbps. The result is continued use of the one bit for
every 8000 samples (8 Kbps) concept, but provides a
data channel between ends without interrupting a
session in progress and the CRC indication of
transmission quality over the circuit. This
information can be polled by Network Management to
proactively monitor line performance.
6. TIMING: Since T-1 is a synchronous type of
transmission, it must have timing information encoded
between sending and receiving devices, plus all signal
repeaters in between. In T-1, timing information is
sent as part of the digital pulse stream. The
beginning pulse of each frame is called the S, or
framing, pulse and is used to synchronize terminal
devices. The least significant pulse, or 8th bit, is
often used for timing and signaling. Thus small
errors are created. Voice traffic is generally
unaffected by these errors but data speeds are limited
to 56 Kbps in this system, since data does require
error-free transmission. However, ISDN standards,
which is based on T-1 specifications, eliminates even
this limitation by providing for separate signaling
channels on each connection.
7. High bit rate Digital Subscriber Link (HDSL) provides
DS-1 transmission thru existing metallic plant with
extended range unaffected by bridge taps.
- 1
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 21.1.2
Recommended Functional/Operating Guidelines for
Analog Data Transmission Over Voice Channels

A. Scope
The transmission of data over channels that have been
designed primarily for voice operation presents some new
problems. Certain transmission parameters that are of small
concern in voice transmission must be carefully considered
in order to assure satisfactory data transmission
performance. The following paragraphs describe these
parameters and the mitigation of some of the possible
transmission impairments.

B. General Considerations
1. In voice communication the talker and listener usually
have a high degree of tolerance to transmission
impairments. For one thing, redundancy in speech often
allows the listener to supply syllables or even words
missed or garbled because of noise, excess loss or
other transmission difficulties. Also, people will
adjust themselves (within limits) to problems in
transmission by talking louder, listening more closely
or asking for repeats.

2. Data transmission is more exacting than voice
transmission for a number of reasons. First and
foremost the data sets are really electronic devices
that do not exhibit human characteristics. The sets
cannot adjust themselves to transmission variations
except within very narrow limits. Further, not only
are they very sensitive to the same transmission
impairments as voice but they are also sensitive to
other transmission parameters which have little effect
on voice.

C. Transmission Considerations
1. Primary transmission characteristics of voice channels
that can affect data transmission are:
Over-all Attenuation
Attenuation-Frequency Characteristics
Return Loss and Echo
Steady Background (White) Noise
Impulse Noise
Delay-Frequency Characteristics
Carrier Frequency Error
- 2
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 21.1.2 2001

Of these, only the first four usually cause serious
difficulties in voice transmission. The same four
items are even more important in data transmission,
because degradations not serious enough to prevent
voice communications may make data transmission
virtually impossible. The last three items are of
minor importance in voice transmission but are very
important to the transmission of data signals.

2. Transmission Levels: The maximum transmit level of
data sets is limited by both crosstalk considerations
and the maximum level at which the data signals may be
applied to a carrier channel. The data carrier level
should be set at a level -13 dbm0 (below ref./test tone
level) for measurement point. When more than one tone
is involved in the data signal the above transmit
levels represent the total rms power of all tones
transmitted simultaneously.

3. Over-all Loss: The maximum over-all loss allowable
between data sets depends upon the sensitivity of the
set and varies with the type of set and operating
frequencies. Generally, the maximum permissible loss
ranges from 30 to 45 db. Exact figures can be obtained
by subtracting the maximum transmit level from the
minimum receive level. In determining this value the
highest frequency used by the data signal should be
considered.

4. Data transmission systems are susceptible to over-all
loss changes due to level variations that may be
encountered on a channel. The effect of level
variations on data transmission is dependent upon a
number of factors, including type of modulation and
type of automatic gain control used in the data sets,
magnitude of level changes, and the frequency with
which level changes occur. Effects of level changes on
data sets are usually most serious when the changes
result in higher loss and the data sets are operating
near their minimum receive levels. Typical of level
variations that may be encountered are:

a. Changes due to temperature, daily as well as
seasonal, component aging, etc.
- 3
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 21.1.2

b. Abrupt changes due to microwave switching,
microwave fading where protection channels are not
available, regulation action, equipment
irregularities, etc.

c. Slow level changes up and down at a cyclic rate of
several seconds or more.

Level variations can be kept to a minimum by the
application of proper engineering and maintenance
practices.

5. Loss-Frequency Characteristics: The loss-frequency
characteristic (sometimes referred to as the
transmission-frequency characteristic) is very
important to good data transmission. A loss-frequency
curve can be used to determine both attenuation
distortion (sometimes called frequency distortion) and
bandwidth. Attenuation distortion is usually expressed
as so many db slope across the transmitted band. For
optimum data transmission this slope should be
essentially 0 db, in other words, the loss-frequency
curve should be essentially flat in the transmitted
band. In the practical case data sets are designed to
tolerate some attenuation distortion. With those data
sets using speeds under 200 bits per second slope is
not a serious problem because of the limited bandwidth.
Some of the higher speed data sets (1200-2400 bits per
second range) have compromise loss-frequency equalizers
that increase their tolerance to slope. Slope
tolerances for the various types of data sets range
from about 3 to 10 db in a band of 1,000 to 2,300 Hz.
Most cases of excessive slope on channels can be taken
care of by the application of attenuation-frequency
equalizers.

6. The loss-frequency characteristic of a channel can be
used to define its bandwidth. Some data sets involve
frequencies as low as 600 Hz and as high as 2,700 Hz.
Modern transmission facilities provide sufficient
bandwidth for such as some of the older type carrier
systems and heavy loaded cable systems such as the
H172-63 system may prohibit the use of such data sets.
- 4
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 21.1.2 2001

7. Return Loss and Echo: In voice transmission, talker
echo is controlling. With properly designed data sets
talker echo is not particularly important because the
set cannot send and receive on the same frequency at
the same time. It is necessary to delay the start of
data reception until talker echoes have diminished but
this is accomplished in the design of the data set.
Listener echo, on the other had, is very important in
data transmission because the receiving data set will
interpret data received through the echo path as
interference. This happens because listener echoes
usually affect subsequent transmitted pulses at bit
speeds used on voice channels. Most data sets are
designed to tolerate listener echo as little as 12 db
below received signal levels.

8. Steady Background (White) Noise: Steady background
noise, including white noise is not a serious problem
with data transmission over a voice channel if
satisfactory noise objectives from a voice standpoint
are met on the channel. Under such conditions adequate
signal-to-noise ratio should be obtained for
satisfactory data transmission over the channel. In
general the signal-to-steady noise ratio should be at
least 15 db.

9. Impulse Noise: Impulse noise hits are a primary source
of errors in data transmission. Such hits are short in
duration, often lasting only a milli-second or less.
Since the human ear is insensitive to such short noise
peaks, impulse noise of this type is not important in
voice transmission. With data transmission, however,
impulse noise is a serious problem because the bit
durations are short, for example 0.8 millisecond in a
1200-bit frequency shift serial system. If impulse
noise hits are of sufficient magnitude and occur very
often, they can seriously degrade the error rate of a
data transmission system.

10. One of the simplest criteria for the identification of
impulse noise is there is more than 15 counts of
impulse noise maximum in any 15-minute interval above a
threshold that is 6 db below the received signal level.
White noise in itself will have excursions
- 5
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 21.1.2
that seldom exceed this level. A more detailed
description of impulse noise would involve the
following parameters:
a. The distribution of peak amplitudes;

b. The frequency spectra of individual bursts;

c. The distribution of burst lengths;

d. The distribution of impulses in time or possibly
the distribution of the intervals between bursts.

11. Each one of the above parameters is of importance in
determining the detrimental effects of impulse noise on
a data signal. Consider that:
a. The interfering effect of an impulse is a function
of its amplitude;

b. Data systems are often of small bandwidth. Hence,
the position of the major portion of the energy of
an impulse in the frequency domain must be
considered;

c. The length of an interfering noise impulse will
determine how many data bits may be disturbed;

d. The length of quiet intervals is an important
factor in determining one distribution of errors
in the received signal. This information is
necessary in the construction of error detection
and error correction codes.

12. Occurrence rate of impulses is related to the system
activity. However, during equal system activity times
impulse noise is a function of traffic load. For
system evaluation purposes, measurements should be made
during periods of peak system activity.

13. Impulse noise measurements require relatively long
periods of time. The reason for this hinges on two
factors:
a. Impulse noise has a low incidence rate.

b. Determination of a distribution requires a large
number of samples.
- 6
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 21.1.2 2001

14. The long measuring period and repetitive nature of the
measurements lends itself to automated equipment.
Measuring sets are available with built-in timers,
filters and adjustable threshold settings for
measurement of impulse noise.

15. With such an instrument, impulse noise objectives could
be stated in terms of a threshold level and a maximum
permissible number of registrations on the counting
register in a given period of time.

16. Channels provided by carrier systems inherently are
subject to impulse noise. For these types of channels
the noise comes primarily from carrier-frequency
transients generated as by-products of normal telephone
operation. Among the known sources of impulse noise
generated in communication plant are:
a. Relays and switches in switching offices. Dial
switching offices are usually more prolific of
noise than manual switching offices because of the
large number of switching operations.

b. DC telegraph, particularly when operated on
grounded simplex facilities.

c. Breakdown test sets, buzzer-type sets and
reflection type fault finders.

d. Rectifier-type power supply and defective power
lines.

e. 20-Hz ringing.

17. Impulse noise may also arise from sources external to
the communication plant such as atmospheric static,
radio transmitters or another carrier system.
- 7
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 21.1.2

Figure 2112-1: Secondary Induction Paths

18. Figure 2112-1 illustrates how noise generated by relays
and switches in the office may travel into the plant
over the longitudinal (ground return) circuit,
energizing the longitudinal circuit of the carrier
pairs by near-end coupling. Due to the less-than-
perfect longitudinal-to-metallic balance of the carrier
pair and the associated equipment some of the noise
power appears in the metallic circuit of the carrier
system.

19. Figure 2112-2 shows how noise generated by central
office equipment that is not located in the same
building as the carrier equipment can nevertheless
appear on the carrier system. It will be noted that
noise can reach the carrier pairs by way of both near-
end and far-end coupling.

- 8
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 21.1.2 2001

Figure 2112-2: Noise Induction From Non-Carrier Office

20. The most important path for induction from sources
external to the communication path is by secondary
induction from non-carrier pairs. These include voice-
frequency channels in the carrier cable having
extensions directly into open wire lines or to branch
cables of short length connected to open wire or drop
wire plant. A longitudinal voltage is picked up on the
open wire or drop wire from an external source such as
atmospheric static. This voltage is propagated
longitudinally into the cable pairs connected to the
open wire and then into the carrier system by the same
process of longitudinal coupling and unbalance as
discussed above.

21. When a carrier system is operated in part or entirely
over cable pairs with non-soldered twisted joints,
erratic noise of various kinds may be apparent as a
- 9
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 21.1.2
result of the variation in resistance of such joints
with movement of the conductors due to changes in
temperature or wind action. The use of punched sleeves
or soldering on carrier pairs should maintain uniformly
low resistance over a long period of time.

22. Secondary induction of office noise may be controlled
as follows:
a. Plan the carrier system layout so the repeaters or
terminals are physically separated from the source
of the noise. In this way, the noise is
attenuated before reaching the carrier system. To
a large extent this attenuation is due to the loss
in the longitudinal circuit of the disturbing
conductors. Although it is not possible to
estimate longitudinal loss precisely, it may be
approximated by using metallic circuit attenuation
data.

b. Use a separate carrier-only entrance cable. Here
the noise is attenuated both as it travels over
the non-carrier pairs from the office to the
junction with the carrier cable and from this
point back to the office over the carrier pairs.
The noise reduction is, therefore, roughly twice
the one-way loss in the cable pairs.

c. Install longitudinal suppression inductors on the
non-carrier pairs. These coils are of two general
types, one for use on pairs not employing phantom
circuits and the other on pairs that make up
phantom circuits. These types of inductors are
only used to suppress noise generated in switching
offices.

d. Install radio suppression filters in the non-
carrier cable pairs at the main distributing frame
of the distributing switching office. These
filters should be placed on all non-carrier pairs
that enter the carrier cable, with the output
wiring segregated from the input wiring.

e. Restrict the length of the carrier repeater
section adjacent to the carrier equipment.
- 10
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 21.1.2 2001

23. Type 1530A (2-windings) and 1530B (4-windings) or
equivalent inductors are used to suppress longitudinal
noise that enters a carrier cable at open wire or drop
wire taps. The 1530A inductor is used on non-phantomed
pairs and the 1530B is used on pairs that make up
phantom circuits. This type of longitudinal noise
arises from external sources such as atmospheric static
or a radio transmitter.

24. Grounded dc telegraph operated in the same cable with
carrier systems may be an important source of impulse
noise. High values of noise may be expected from
repeaters whose transmitting relay contacts operate
directly into the line. Any high impedance between the
relay contacts and the line such as a relay winding,
retard coil of a voice-frequency noise killer, or
resistance pads, and any low impedance shunts to
ground, such as the capacitor in some of the noise
killer circuits provides important reductions in the
amount of carrier-frequency noise put out on the line.

25. The magnitude and frequency of occurrence of impulse
noise voltages are used to specify objectives for
impulse noise on a channel to be employed for data
transmission. The objective is expressed as the noise
peak level that will be equaled or exceeded a given
number of times during a specified period of time on a
long-term average basis. This period of time usually
is 30 minutes during the busy hour period and the given
number of times is 90.

26. Data sets that operate at speeds in the 1000-9600 bits
per second range require a large part of the voice
band. In general, these data sets have an effective
bandwidth approaching that of C message weighting.

The basic impulse noise objectives are expressed in
dbrn using a weighting similar to the C message
weighting. They vary somewhat depending upon the type
of modulation, gain control and bandwidth employed.
However, for data sets operating in the range of 1000-
9600 bits, the objectives are set to provide in the
order of a 4 to 8 db ratio between the rms power of the
data signal as measured by a transmission
- 11
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 21.1.2
measuring set and the setting of the Impulse Noise
Counter. Thus for a data signal level of -16 dbm not
more than 15 counts should be obtained with an Impulse
Noise Counter setting of 68 dbrn to provide a 6 db
ratio, i.e., -16 dbm corresponds to 74 dbrn; 74-68 = 6.

27. Delay-Frequency Characteristics: Data transmission can
be seriously degraded by delay distortion better known
as envelope delay distortion. Such distortion results
from the variation of the phase characteristic of a
channel from perfect linearity. For voice transmission
envelope delay distortion is not a problem because the
ear is relatively insensitive to minor phase
variations.

28. Envelope delay distortion is usually expressed as the
maximum excursion of the envelope delay characteristic
within a particular frequency band. It is generally
expressed as microseconds over the band. Data sets
vary in their tolerance to envelope delay distortion,
depending upon the type of modulation and bit speed.
The slow speed sets can operate satisfactorily with
more envelope delay distortion than is possible with
the higher speed sets. The effects of excessive
envelope delay distortion show up as high distortion of
the data signals and high error rate.

29. Figure 2112-3 shows typical envelope delay or delay
distortion characteristics of various types of carrier
channels and a loaded cable circuit. It will be noted
that the distortion is very much greater at the extreme
ends of the pass band. The delay distortion can be
minimized by the application of special networks that
effectively flatten out the characteristics shown in
the drawing. Such networks are sometimes included as a
part of the data sets.

30. Carrier Frequency Error: Carrier frequency error
experienced over a channel has little effect on voice
transmission. In the case of data transmission it
presents more serious problems. Modulation in data set
transmitters results in tones of various frequencies on
the channel. These tones are demodulated at the data
set receivers to recover the data. If the frequencies
of the transmitted tones are
- 12
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 21.1.2 2001
changed as they traverse the channel, the frequency
sensitive circuits in the receivers will not be
receiving the tones at the optimum points resulting in
distortion in the received data. In general, the
maximum line frequency error on a channel between data
transmitter and data receiver should not exceed 10
Hertz.

Figure 2112-3: Envelope Delay of Various Facilities

31. There is no frequency error problem with wire
facilities or carrier systems in which the carrier used
for modulation is transmitted to the receiving end and
used for demodulation. Likewise, there is no problem
in systems that suppress the carrier at the
transmitting end and re-supply it at the receiving end
from a generator held in synchronism with the generator
at the transmitting end. Frequency error problems may
exist in suppressed carrier systems where there is no
provision for synchronizing carrier supplies.



Section 22 Radio

2002
AREMA C& S Manual

SECTION 22 - RADIO


______________________________________________________________
- 1 -


22.1.1 35-2 Recommended Clean Cab Radio
Channel Designators and
Railroad Radio Services VHF
Frequency Table 1 Reaffirmed 2002

22.1.2 35-2 Listing of Allocated
Frequencies in the Railroad
Radio Service 1 Extended 2001

22.2.1 35-2 Recommended Design Criteria/
Functional Guidelines for
Interface of Radio
Communications Module in
Clean Cab Locomotive 16 Extended 2001

Remote Control of Engine by
Portable Radio 3 Extended 2001

22.2.3 35-2 Recommended Design Criteria for
Rack Mounted Frequency Modulated
Transceiver and Accessories 14 Extended 2001

22.3.1 35-2 Recommended Guidelines,
Considerations and Radio
Frequency Requirements for Train
Information Systems 39 Extended 2002


AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 22.1.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
- 1
Recommended Clean Cab Radio Channel Designators and
Railroad Radio Service VHF Frequency Table
Reaffirmed 2002 (1 Page)

"All Channel Radios" display the selected channel by two sets of digits i.e., 54 54
indicates the radio is transmitting and receiving on the same frequency 160.920 MHz
(Simplex); 08 64 indicates the radio is transmitting on 160.230 MHz and receiving on
161.070 MHz (Duplex).

Table 2211-1: Frequency Table

#Footnote 613 #Footnote 613
Channels Channels Channels Channels
No. MHz No. MHz No. MHz No. MHz
2* 159.810 32# 160.590 59 160.995 91# 161.475
3* 159.930 33# 160.605 60 161.010 92# 161.490
4* 160.050 34# 160.620 61 161.025 93# 161.505
5* 160.185 35# 160.635 62 161.040 94# 161.520
6* 160.200 36# 160.650 63 161.055 95# 161.535
7 160.215 37# 160.665 64 161.070 96# 161.550
8 160.230 38# 160.680 65 161.085 97# 161.565
9 160.245 39# 160.695 66 161.100
10 160.260 40# 160.710 67 161.115
11 160.275 41# 160.725 68 161.130
12 160.290 42# 160.740 69 161.145
13 160.305 43# 160.755 70 161.160
14 160.320 44# 160.770 71 161.175
15 160.335 45# 160.785 72 161.190
16 160.350 46# 160.800 73 161.205
17 160.365 47# 160.815 74 161.220
18 160.380 48# 160.830 75 161.235
19 160.395 49# 160.845 76 161.250
20 160.410 50# 160.860 77 161.265
21 160.425 51# 160.875 78 161.280
22 160.440 52# 160.890 79 161.295
23 160.455 53# 160.905 80 161.310
24 160.470 54# 160.920 81 161.325
25 160.485 55# 160.935 82 161.340
26 160.500 56# 160.950 83 161.355
27 160.515 57# 160.965 84 161.370
28 160.530 58# 160.980 85 161.385
29 160.545 86 161.400
30 160.560 87 161.415
31 160.575 88 161.430
89 161.445
90 161.460

* Canada Only

# International Maritime Frequencies in the
bands 160.600 - 160.975 MHz and 161.475 - 162.050 MHz for railroad
use in the United States and Canada only.

- 1
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 22.1.2
Listing of Allocated Frequencies in the Railroad Radio Service
Extended 2001 (1 Page)
The below listed frequencies are allocated to the Railroad Radio
Service and are coordinated by the Association of American
Railroads by the authority of the Federal Communications
Commission Rules and Regulations Part 90 Private Land Mobile
Radio Service.
Very High Frequency - VHF
Voice analog channels used in all train operations
and other railroad related functions
91 Channels*
160.215 MHz - 161.565 MHz
Channel Spacing - 15 kHz
Occupied/Equipment Bandwidth - 25 kHz
Ultra High Frequency - UHF
Voice Analog - Paired Channels
452.900 MHz (Fixed) - 457.900 MHz (Mobile)
Channel Spacing - 12.5 kHz
Slave Control of Locomotives - Paired Channels
452.925 MHz - 452.950 MHz
457.925 MHz - 457.950 MHz
End of Train Device - EOTD Half Duplex
452.9375 MHz - 457.9375 MHz
Advanced Train Control Systems (ATCS) - Paired Channels
Mobile Base
896.8875 MHz - 935.8875 MHz
896.9375 MHz - 935.9375 MHz
896.9875 MHz - 935.9875 MHz
897.8875 MHz - 936.8875 MHz
897.9375 MHz - 936.9375 MHz
897.9875 MHz - 936.9875 MHz
Occupied/Equipment Bandwidth - 12.5 kHz
* See Manual Part 22.1.1 (Recommended Clean Cab Radio Channel
Designators and Railroad Radio Service VHF Frequency Table)
for channel and frequency arrangements.
- 1
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 22.2.1
Recommended Design Criteria/Functional Guidelines
for Interface of Radio Communications Module in
"Clean Cab" Locomotive
A. Purpose
Recommended design criteria/functional guidelines are for
the purpose of setting forth the recommended general
requirements for the space, mounting and connections for a
communications module in a locomotive utilizing AAR clean
cab concepts. They set forth specific detailed
requirements representing modern communication practice
recommended for new installations and for replacement of
existing installations when general renewal or replacement
is to be made.
B. Mounting and General Arrangement of Radio or Control Head
Module
The mounting and general arrangement of a radio module are
shown in Figure 1. It should be remembered that the radio
module is always installed and serviced from the rear of
the control stand. Therefore, sufficient clear space at
the rear shall be allowed for removal and servicing of the
communications equipment. The mounting tray always remains
mounted within the control stand when the radio is removed
for service. A control head only module may be mounted
over the front opening with 10-32 nuts and bolts, utilizing
the mounting holes shown in Figure 2.
C. Fabrication
1. The space and mounting arrangement shall be in
accordance with Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4. It should be
noted that the area adjacent to the connectors 1, 2,
and 3 above the padlock shown in Figure 1 shall be
kept free and clear of any non-radio cables or piping
to insure clearance for radio connector plugs, etc.
2. Cables shall be installed in a manner to allow
sufficient length for connection to mating receptacles
regardless of location on the communications module.
3. When a control head module is used, a flat plate may
be required in lieu of the radio mounting plate to
provide protection to the control head module.
- 2
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 22.2.1 2001

D. Thermal Environment
The ambient temperature inside the module partition of the
control stand shall be within -30C(-22F) to 65C(140F).
E. Mounting Plate
1. The communications module shall be mounted by a plate
as shown in Figures 4 and 5.
2. This radio mounting plate shall be secured to the
control stand mounting brackets. Refer to Figures 2, 3
and 5.
3. The control stand mounting brackets should be at right
angle to the vertical surface of the control stand.
4. A suitable model of the AAR Clean Cab Radio module has
been supplied to all domestic locomotive manufacturers
for the purpose of verification of correct fit.
5. The radio module shall be secured in place within the
control stand by a suitable locking device (not a
responsibility of the locomotive manufacturer).
F. Handset Hanger and Cable Opening Location
1. When a handset is required, the handset hanger may be
located as shown in Figure 6.
2. A handset cable opening shall be provided as shown in
Figure 3.
G. Electrical Connectors
1. External Remote Connector: Plug - Amphenol 67-06C14-
12P or approved equivalent. (Mates with 67-02E14-12S.)
2. Antenna Connector (VHF): Plug - Amphenol 83-1SP or
approved equivalent. (Mates with 83-1R)
3. Power Connector: Plug - Amphenol-Straight MS 3106-
A-184S or Right Angle MS-3108A-18-4S, Strain Relief MS
3057-10-6 or approved equivalents. (Mates with MS-
3102A-18-4P)
4. Handset Connector: Plug - Amphenol MS-3106A-14S-6P,
Strain Relief MS 3057-6A or approved equivalents,
(Mates with MS-3102A-14S-6S-639)
- 3
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 22.2.1
H. Electrical Connections:
1. Power Connector Pin Assignment on the Communications
Module. Amphenol MS 3102A-18-4P or approved
equivalent.
A- +72 volts
B- -13.6 volts
C- -72 volts
D- +13.6 volts
2. External Remote Connector Pin Assignment:
A- Microphone
B- Microphone/Earphone Ground/Shield
C- Push-to-talk
D- Push-to-talk return
E- Handset audio
F- A plus (power)
H- Handset audio return or spare
J- A minus (power)
K- Channel Revert
L- Spare
M- Speaker)Pair
N- Speaker)
I. Blanking Plate
When a communications module is not used, the front opening
shall be covered by a surface-mounted blanking plate,
secured to the control stand opening by 10-32 nuts and
bolts, utilizing the mounting holes shown in Figure 2.
J. Tolerances
1. Dimensions are supplied in fractions or decimals
appropriate to fabrication operations.
2. The tolerances for all dimensions are to be plus or
minus 1/16 in. unless otherwise specified.
K. Data Option
1. The structure of the radio should be modular and have
the ability to transmit and receive data. Data
modulation/De-modulation, message encoding, decoding,
Forward Error Correction (FEC) and RF protocols should
conform to the latest edition of AAR ATCS
Specifications 200 and 210.
- 4
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 22.2.1 2001

2. Maximum of three RS422 serial data connectors type MS
3112 F 14-15 P (mates with a MS 3116 F 14-15 S Plug)
should be mounted at the back of radio.
Figure 1: Pictorial View of Typical Communications Module
Installation
- 5
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 22.2.1
Figure 2: Rear View of Clean Cab Communications Module
Mounting Details
- 6
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 22.2.1 2001

Figure 3: Additional Mounting Details, Section A-A

- 7
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 22.2.1
Figure 4: Details of Mounting Plate
- 8
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 22.2.1 2001

Figure 5: Additional Details of Mounting Plate
- 9
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 22.2.1

- 10
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 22.2.1 2001

- 11
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 22.2.1
Figure 8: Isometric View of Mounting Plate Control Stand
- 12
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 22.2.1 2001

Figure 9: Plan View of Control Stand
- 13
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 22.2.1
Figure 10: Angle Iron and Tray Mounting in Control Stand
- 14
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 22.2.1 2001


- 15
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 22.2.1
- 16
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 22.2.1 2001

- 1
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 22.2.2
Recommended Functional/Operating Guidelines
for Remote Control of Engine by Portable Radio
A. Purpose
This Manual Part recommends functional/operating guidelines
for remote control by personnel of an engine in yard
switching service, in hump service, in road switching
service or in road and terminal service.
B. General
1. System shall provide for the remote control of the
following, where required:
(a) Direction
(b) Throttle
(c) Engine Brakes (independent)
(d) Train Brakes (automatic)
(e) Horn
(f) Bell
(g) Coupler pins of engine
(h) Rail sander
(i) Headlight bright or dim
(j) Speed selection
(k) Dynamic brake
(l) Others (to be specified)
2. The system shall be designed so that the engine can be
operated in either the remote control or manual mode such
that only one mode of operation is functional at a time.
Manual movement of the controls when the system is in the
remote mode or remote operation of the system with the
control in the manual mode will not create an undesired
release of brakes or an undesired call for power.
3. System shall provide the following automatic features,
where required:
(a) Speed regulation (operating, coupling or other)
(b) Headlight selection for direction
(c) Fire protection
(d) Emergency stopping program in case of:
(l) Low air pressure
(2) Low oil pressure
(3) High engine temperature
(4) Fire
- 2
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 22.2.2 2001
4. The combined controller and transmitter shall be of such
size, weight and design as to permit it being carried or
worn without interference to vision, hearing, mobility or
such activities as throwing track switches by hand, using a
telephone, coupling or uncoupling cars, climbing upon
engine or cars, or entering an engine cab.
5. The combined controller and transmitter shall be powered by
a lightweight battery that is to be normally charged from
the engine power supply when the unit is in its storage
rack located on the engine. The battery shall be capable
of operating the equipment continuously for 3-1/2 hr.
6. The controller shall include a deadman feature to stop the
engine and attached cars should the operator fall or become
disabled.
7. Transmission power shall be adequate to provide reliable
control from all points in line-of-sight within 2,000 ft.
of the engine.
8. Each radio channel shall be on a frequency in the VHF or
UHF band which is allocated by governmental agency for use
by railroads and which is approved by that agency for use
in the remote control of engines. The equipment shall be
designed to use minimum spectrum space consistent with
performance required by these performance specifications.
9. Remote control equipment for location on the engine shall
be so designed that it can be installed so as not to
interfere with conventional control equipment if provided.
10.System shall be designed so that failure will not cause an
unsafe condition. When the normal control signal is not
present at the engine receiver, the controls shall operate
to apply the brakes and cut off the power.
11.System shall be designed to minimize interference from
other remote control and communication systems, if any, in
the same general area, and shall be designed so that such
interference will not cause an unsafe condition.
12.Throttle control shall be designed to advance or retard
throttle in discrete steps or "notches" on engines using
this type of control.
- 3
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 22.2.2
13.The radio equipment shall be capable of compliance with all
applicable governmental rules, regulations and standards in
effect at time of delivery.
14.Where required, an alarm device or devices, visible or
audible from a distance of 2,000 ft. under normal
conditions, shall be located on the engine to provide
warning of low air pressure, wheel slippage, penalty brake
application, operation of ground indication relay, or other
abnormal conditions.
15.Systems designed with speed control shall be capable of
limiting the speed of the engine to a maximum of 20 mph
when it is in the remote control mode.
16.System shall be designed to insure that engine has stopped
before power can be applied for movement in the opposite
direction.
17.System shall be designed to insure there is adequate brake
pipe or main reservoir pressure to stop the train or engine
before power can be applied for movement.
- 1
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 22.2.3
Recommended Design Criteria for Rack Mounted
Frequency Modulated Transceiver and Accessories
A. Purpose
The purpose of this Manual Part is to guide the
manufacturer in the supplying of frequency-modulated Rack
Mounted Transceiver equipment for use on railroad mobile
equipment.
B. Specifications
Except where otherwise noted in this part, the transceiver
shall conform to TIA Standards 603, Land Mobile FM or PM
Communication Equipment Measurement and Performance
Standards, and Canadian Government Standards, Industry
Canada RSS-119, 2500 Wilson Blvd., Arlington, VA 22201
Note: Latest version of above specifications shall be
used.
C. Dimensions
Metric equivalents of all dimensions in millimeters are
shown in parenthesis. All dimensions shall be within the
tolerances specified. Where allowable variations are not
shown, reasonable correspondence to specified dimensions is
required, consistent with good commercial practice.
D. General Requirements
1. Service Conditions: Unless otherwise specified,
equipment shall be operable without damage under any
combination of service conditions listed below:
a. Ambient Temperature*...-30
o
C(-22
o
F) to
+65
o
C(+149
o
F)
b. Ambient Relative Humidity...0 to 95%
c. Duty...................Transmitter intermittent,
**Receiver continuous.
d. Power Supply.............Any one of the power
supplies specified in Paragraph G-1.
2. Normal Test Conditions: Unless otherwise specified,
the term "normal test conditions" as used in this
______________________
*Inside weatherproof housing.
**Cycle of 5 min. on and 15 min. off for a period of 7 hr., and
10 sec. on and 20 sec. off for 1 hr.
- 2
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 22.2.3 2001
specification shall be understood to have the
definition given below:
a. Ambient Room Temperature. +25
o
C(+77
o
F)
b. Line Voltage.............Any one of the normal
voltages as shown in Paragraph G-1.
c. Power Output.............Full rated.
d. Mode of Operation........Transmitter
intermittent,
**Receiver continuous.
3. Frequency Range: This equipment should be capable of
operation on any specified frequencies between 159 and
162 Mhz.
4. Primary Power: The primary power input required by
this equipment shall be a minimum consistent with
other requirements of this specification. Reference G-
1
5. Single-Package Unit: Unless otherwise ordered, the
transmitter, receiver, and power supply should be
furnished in a single-case assembly, including shock
and vibration mounts, when required, which shall
conform to the following:
a. Mounting Rack and Base Plate: The mounting rack
and base plate shall be as shown in Figures 1 and
2, and should be neat in appearance with all
corners and edges well formed and slightly
rounded. The dimensions of the mounting rack
shall be:
Inside width--10 in.(254), +1/16 in.(1.6), -0 in.
Length --15 in.(381), +0 in., -1/8 in.(3.1)
measured from the back of the front hook to the
inside curve of the rear hook.
The dimensions of the base plate, Figure 3, shall
be:
Width--10 in. (254) to inside of turn-up.
Length--17 1/2 in. (444.5)
To provide rigidity, the base plate should have a
minimum of 1/4 in. (6.3) turn-up along its full
length on each side. Four 1/2-in. (12.7) holes
shall be provided at the locations shown in
- 3
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 22.2.3
Figure 3. Conduit brackets for 1-in. (25.4)
conduit should be provided on each side of the
base plate near the rear end of the terminal
strips. The mounting rack should be supported 2-
1/4 in. (57.1) above the base plate in such a
manner as to provide accessibility to the
terminal strips and adequate space for forming
heavy wires.
b. Mounting Rack and Base Plate (Optional): The
mounting rack and base plate shall be as shown in
Figure 2. For this option, a completely enclosed
mounting base should be provided to protect the
wiring and the terminal strips when no radio unit
is installed. A removable cover should be
provided to gain access to the terminal strips.
The dimensions of the optional mounting rack and
base plate shall conform with those shown above
in this section.
c. Terminal Strips: One two-point terminal strip,
Jones 2-150, or approved equivalent, and two 12-
point terminal strips, Jones 12-142, or approved
equivalent, should be mounted and numbered as
shown in Figure 1. The numbering strip should
insulate the terminals from the base. Terminals
shall be utilized as shown in Figure 4.
d. Sockets and Plugs: The communications unit shall
have a Type NK-L23-32S socket, or approved
mechanical and electrical equivalent, located as
shown in Figure 6. The insert in the socket
shall be oriented within the socket as shown.
The plug shall be a Type NK-L23-23C, or approved
mechanical and electrical equivalent. The insert
within the plug shall be oriented as shown in
Figure 6.
The cable attached to the plug should be long
enough to reach the socket as located anywhere in
the area specified in Paragraph (e), but not less
than 15 in. (381) from clamp on base to clamp on
plug. The antenna coaxial receptacles shall be
Type 83-1R, or approved mechanical and electrical
equivalent, and located as to be separated from
the plug and cable by at least 2 in. (50.8).
- 4
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 22.2.3 2001
e. Dimension of Case Assembly: The outer dimensions
of the case assembly shall not exceed:
Width -- 15 in.(381)
Length-- 18 in.(457.2)(not including handle)
Height-- 9-1/2 in.(241.3)
Figure 1: Mounting Rack and Base Plate
- 5
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 22.2.3
Figure 2: Mounting Rack and Base Plate (Optional)

- 6
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 22.2.3 2001
The handle should be 3/8-in. (9.6) or larger
diameter stock and shall be located in the
approximate center of gravity on the front of the
equipment case, Figure 7, and should not extend
beyond the outside edge of the case and
approximately 2-3/4 in. (69.9) outward from the
front of the case.
The cable and antenna receptacles should be
located within the area 5 in. (127) each side of
the vertical center line and not closer than 1-
1/2 in. (38.1) to the handle. The antenna
receptacle should not be mounted below the cable
receptacle. The case assembly should include
facilities to permit securely attaching case to
mounting rack, Figure 2.
f. Weight: The weight of case assembly including
transmitter, receiver, power supply and shock
mounting, if required, should not exceed 48 lb.
(21.8 Kg).
Figure 3: Base Plate Mounting Holes

- 7
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 22.2.3
g. Locking Means:
1. Case: Provision should be made on the case
for locks to prevent unauthorized entry into
the case.
2. Case to Rack: The case should have
provision to lock the case to the rack,
mating with bracket on front of rack, Figure
1.
h. Mounting Space: The equipment should be mounted
in a location which is well ventilated and a
minimum clear space of 20 in. (508) wide, 24 in.
(610) deep, and 14 in. (356) high should be
provided with the base plate mounted in the
center of the 20 in. (508) dimension and the
front of the base plate should be 2 in. (51) from
the front of the opening.
i. Mounting: When so ordered, this equipment should
be provided with mountings capable of reducing
the effects of vibration and shock encountered
sufficient to prevent damage to the equipment.
When both shock mounting and housing are
provided, the mountings should be located inside
the housing.
E. Transmitter Unit
1. General Requirements for Transmitter
a. Input Circuit: The audio input impedance of the
transmitter should be a nominal 500 ohms.
Voltage of a positive polarity should be supplied
to the ungrounded microphone terminal, such as to
supply 10-milliamp. current through a 68-ohm, 5%
resistive load.
b. Output Impedance: The output coupling system
should be suitable for feeding a 50-ohm
unbalanced coaxial line.
c. Power Output: The transmitter should be designed
to supply full radio frequency output of 25 watts
or more as ordered into a 50-ohm unbalanced load.
- 8
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 22.2.3 2001
Figure 4: Terminal Strip and Plug Connection
- 9
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 22.2.3
Figure 5: Multi-channel Control Unit
- 10
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 22.2.3 2001
Figure 6: Orientation of Plug and Socket
Figure 7: Equipment Case

- 11
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 22.2.3
F. Receiver Unit
1. General Requirements for Receiver:
a. Input Impedance: The receiver input circuit
should be designed for operation from a 50-ohm
coaxial unbalanced transmission line.
b. Output Impedance: The receiver should be
designed to feed an 8-ohm load with one side of
load grounded.
c. Audio Output: Audio output should be at least 8
watts with a maximum overall distortion of less
than 5% measured with 10 microvolt input
modulated to a peak deviation of 3.5 KHz. At
least this power should be obtained with a 1
microvolt input modulated 90% at 1,000 Hz.
Distortion should not exceed that for 10
microvolts input at any frequency from 300 to 3
KHz.
d. Auxiliary Squelch Control: An auxiliary squelch
control circuit may be provided by the radio
receiver unit. This circuit should terminate at
Terminal 17 of the standard rack as shown in
Figure 4. The control voltage with reference to
the negative battery terminal (gnd.) should
change by at least 3 volts, when operating into a
load of 50,000 ohms or more, under conditions of
squelch closed (without signal) changing to
squelch open (with signal). The polarity of the
voltage change should be more positive with
"Squelch Open" than with "Squelch Closed". The
control voltage available with squelch closed may
be either zero or + 6 volts. The external
squelch unit should be so designed that it will
operate satisfactorily from either of these
reference voltages.
G. Power Supply
1. Primary Power: Railroad equipment should be capable
of operating from any one of the following power
supplies, as specified by the purchaser.
- 12
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 22.2.3 2001
Normal Voltage Minimum Maximum
117 volts 60 10 Hz 105 129
36 volts dc 29 42
72 volts dc 58 85
13.6 volts dc 10.9 15.5
a. There shall be no continuity between any of the
voltage input terminals and the chassis of the
radio unit.
b. Over a voltage range equal to the normal test
voltage 10%, the power output should not drop
more than 2.5 dB below the power output at the
normal test voltage. All other transmitter
requirements should be met, except for
transmitter frequency stability that should be
maintained over a range of 20% of normal test
voltage. Over a voltage range equal to the
normal test voltage -20%, the equipment should
start and the transmitter power output should not
drop more than 4 dB, and the usable receiver
sensitivity should not degrade more than 3 dB.
Receiver squelch when set according to
manufacturer's specifications at normal test
voltage should not open without signal, and
squelch sensitivity should not degrade by more
than 3 dB at normal test voltage +14%, -20%.
c. The above tests should be performed in an ambient
temperature of +25
o
C(+77
o
F).
d. Adequate protection should be provided to prevent
damage to the equipment caused by overload
conditions and transient voltages.
H. Accessories
1. Antennas: Antennas furnished for use with this
equipment should be of such design as to reduce high
angle radiation to a minimum. Antennas should be
designed for a nominal input impedance of 50 ohms
unbalanced. When fed by a corresponding coaxial
transmission line, the voltage standing wave ratio
should be not greater than 1.5 to 1.
- 13
AREMA C&S Manual
2001 Part 22.2.3
2. Handsets: Unless otherwise specified, microphones
furnished for use with this equipment should be of the
handset type incorporating a spring-return, push-to-
talk switch. Frequency response should be
substantially flat between 300 and 3,000 Hz. The
microphone should be capable of satisfactory operation
between ambient temperatures of -30
o
C(-22
o
F) to
+65
o
C(+149
o
F). Earphone impedance shall be between 75
and 150 ohms at 1,000 Hz.
3. Mobile Control Unit: The following features should be
provided:
a. Transmitter-on indicator as required by
governmental regulations.
b. Channel selector with minimum indication of four
channels.
c. Moisture-proof speaker
d. Speaker pad with attenuation continuously
variable over a range of approximately 20 dB. A
residual audio level should remain to prevent the
operator from turning the speaker "off".
e. Handset connector with connections as follows:
A--Microphone
B--Microphone/earphone ground, shield
C--Push-to-talk relay
D--Push-to-talk return
E--Receiver
F--Microphone (balanced only)
f. Attenuator network for feeding suitable level to
handset earphones.
g. Terminal board with terminal connections as
follows:
1) OSC return
2) 8-ohm speaker
3) Chassis ground
4) Microphone ground
5) Microphone
6) Blank
7) Audio input (8 ohms)
8) Headset earpiece
- 14
AREMA C&S Manual
Part 22.2.3 2001
9) Push-to-talk relay
10) 13.6 volt dc relay (power)
11) Channels 1, 5, 9
12) Channels 2, 6, 10
13) Channels 3, 7, 11
14) Channels 4, 8, 12
15) 13.6 volt pilot light
16) 6.3 volt pilot light
17) Power in (if used)
18) Power out (if used)
19) Tone squelch disable
h. The control unit should provide low side keying
and appropriate channel selection wiring per
Figure 5.
H. Time Out Device: When so specified, a time out device
should be provided which will limit continuous transmission
and give an indication of such operation. Time limit is to
be specified by purchaser.

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 22.3.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
- 1
Recommended Guidelines, Considerations and Radio
Frequency Requirements for Train Information Systems

A. Purpose

1. This document presents performance guidelines for Train Information
Systems, intended to provide additional train handling and safety
information in locomotive cabs. The Train Information Systems is
composed of a Basic System and related optional features that shall utilize
communications frequencies available under Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) and Department of Communications (DOC) rules. All
equipment shall comply with all applicable regulatory requirements.

2. The purpose of these guidelines is to outline various characteristics of
devices to transmit information between the rear-car and the controlling
locomotive cab of freight trains. The need for performance guidelines
arises because of the substantial advantage of avoiding development of
locomotive cab and rear-car units that are incompatible in their ability to
transmit messages to any other designated unit or receive messages from
any other designated unit. It is also important to ensure that these
systems do not cause undesirable communications interference with
systems on other trains. Compatibility shall ensure that run-through
motive power or train consists which exist, or may develop with further
rationalization of the railroad system, shall not be impeded.

3. For the foregoing reasons, the features of these performance guidelines
that shall be considered mandatory for any system designed to operate at
the prescribed frequencies are the message coding, format and protocol
used in transmissions and the rear brake pipe pressure threshold status
information. Other features of these guidelines are recommended in the
belief that they shall prove to be useful aids to operations. These
suggested features should not be considered mandatory in the above-
mentioned sense.

4. These performance guidelines are intended to maximize the alternatives
available to manufacturers in using whatever compatible equipment they
judge to offer the most attractive combination of features, performance,
maintainability, reliability, weight, etc. to purchasers.

5. The existence of these performance guidelines does not imply that Train
Information System devices are necessary for any type of freight service
nor do they imply that other devices should or could not be used at other
frequencies with this or any other transmission format acceptable to the
FCC or DOC.

6. Opinions will vary among railroads regarding the information desired in
locomotive cabs, the detail and accuracy of displays, and even the desire
for optional features as discussed in Section D. of this document. For this
reason, the features that the majority of railroads consider necessary to
provide a minimum compatible system for run-through trains are defined
as the BASIC SYSTEM. Additional features not absolutely necessary for

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 22.3.1 2002
______________________________________________________________________________
- 2
compatible run-through trains are considered OPTIONS. The main
purposes for describing the technical features of these Options are:

a. To suggest the direction of further development of compatible
systems by railroads who wish to obtain features beyond the Basic
System.

b. To ensure that the installation of such options on locomotives or as
features of the rear-car devices does not prevent equipment so
modified from operating with Basic System equipment such that
reduces the capability of the basic unit in any way. This
requirement is termed "upward compatibility."

7. A further consideration arises from the current U.S. Department of
Transportation requirement for a lighted rear-car marker and through the
possible advantages of a common power source for the information and
marker systems. It is not the intention of this guideline to attempt to
resolve the issue of rear-car marker regulations that differ between federal
jurisdictions in the United States, Canada and Mexico. Discussion of a
rear-car marker device is explanatory and is not intended as a mandatory
requirement, nor is it specifically recommended as a part of the Train
Information System.

B. Basic System

This section covers the technical and performance characteristics of the Basic
Train Information System. The Basic System will be composed of two units. The
Train Information System rear-of-train unit shall be located on the last car of the
train and hereafter referred to as the "rear unit" in this document. The second
unit that shall receive and display rear car information to the engineer in the
locomotive cab shall commonly be referred to as the "cab unit." The message
formats and protocol provisions that shall govern data transmissions between the
rear and cab units shall be commonly referred to as "communications." Rear unit
features are discussed in the next section.

1. Basic System Rear Unit: The rear unit shall determine the status of brake
pipe pressure above or below a preset brake pipe pressure threshold
value and transmit this information to the cab unit for display to the
locomotive engineer. The rear unit shall be designed for continuous duty
service on the rear of trains. The design of the rear unit shall consider the
nature and consequences of possible system failure modes in such a way
that a fault tolerant design results.

a. Measurement Device:

(1) A Brake Pipe Pressure (BPP) threshold sensing device is
required. The pressure threshold shall be set at nominal 45
psig on decreasing pressure; accuracy " 3 psig.

(2) A means of locally inspecting the brake pipe pressure
outside of the enclosure is highly desirable. Either an
integral air pressure indicating device (0-125 psig) or a

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 22.3.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
- 3
quick-disconnect coupling for an external indicating device
could be used.

(3) A test fitting, to an appropriate tap size, is desirable. This
fitting could be used with a gauge testing device or a second
air gauge to verify accuracy of the integral air gauge, if used.

(4) A glad hand coupling in accordance with AAR Standard S-
491
1
is required, arranged as necessary to connect rear unit
to the train line. Provisions must be included to maintain the
coupling of glad hand fittings in a vibration environment.

(5) A "bleeder valve" is required in the rear unit. This valve shall
permit the release of any air under pressure from the rear
car unit and/or associated air hoses prior to detaching the
device from the train line.

(6) An internal failure of the measurement device shall not
cause an undesired emergency brake application.

(7) No equipment damage shall occur with pressures up to 200
psig.

b. Reporting Rate: Multiple data transmissions shall occur
immediately following detection of a change of status of the
pressure threshold sensing device. During periods of no pressure
threshold status change, transmission will be controlled by a
randomized interval timer that will be set to generate a message at
intervals of 55-65 sec. (nominal 60 sec. time between messages).
The randomized interval timer will be reset following each
transmission.

c. Electrical Guidelines:

(1) Input Power for Rear Unit: Power for the rear unit will be
provided by removable, internal battery(ies) using universal
terminal connectors. It is highly desirable to have a battery
minimum operating life of 72 hr. with the optional marker
light included in the Basic System. Changing batteries shall
not require the use of tools.

(2) Power for Communications Equipment: Input Voltage: 13.6
volts dc 20%, negative ground.

(3) Transient Over-voltage Protection: Transient energy must
be suppressed to not more than 130 percent of the nominal
input voltage.

1
Association of American Railroads Mechanical Division, Manual of Standards and Recommended
Practices, Section E, Standard S-491, "Air Brake Hose Coupling Dual Fitting."

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 22.3.1 2002
______________________________________________________________________________
- 4
(4) Spurious Energy: Conducted spurious energy shall not
cause carrier to be deviated by more than 40 dB below test
tone level. Shall comply with regulatory requirements.

d. Characteristics of the Operating Environment: The rear unit must
meet all performance requirements specified herein under all the
following environmental conditions and also remain undamaged
under the specified non-operating (storage or transport)
environmental conditions.

(1) Temperature (ambient at device):

(a) Full performance: -40F (-40C) to +140F (60C)

(b) Operation: -40F (-40C) to +140F (60C)

(c) Storage/Transport: -40F (-40C) to +140F (60C)

(2) Relative Humidity:
95 percent non-condensing at +122F (+50C)

(3) Altitude: 12,000 ft MSL

(4) Vibration:

(a) Vertical & Lateral: 1 to 15 Hz, 0.5 g
peak to peak
15 to 500 Hz, 5 g
peak to peak

(b) Longitudinal: 1 to 15 Hz., 3 g
peak to peak
15 to 500 Hz., 5 g
peak to peak

(5) Shock: 10 g peak for 10 millisec. in any axis.

e. Physical Guidelines:

(1) Size: As required.

(2) Weight: A maximum 35 lb is recommended.

(3) Exterior: A durable finish is required.

(4) Mounting: In trailing end of rear car coupler knuckle area.

(5) Security: Device locked to car with switch lock.

(6) Enclosure: Sealed for service environment, lockable cover,
high security cabinet with a pressure relief safety valve to
avoid explosion from high pressure leak inside enclosure.

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 22.3.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
- 5
f. Communications Equipment for Rear Unit:

(1) Modulator: See Section B.3., Communications

(2) Radio Transmitter

(a) Frequency: 457.9375 MHz.

(b) RF Power Output (pursuant to current regulatory
requirements): 2 Watts.

(c) Modulation Designation: 16K0F2D/9Y
Peak Deviation of Mark and Space
Frequencies: 3.0 KHz

(d) Spurious: 60dB Minimum below carrier.

(e) Deviation: Flat within 0.5 dB from 300 to 3,000 Hz.
relative to 1,000 Hz.

(f) Transmitter Rise Time: Shall not exceed 5ms for 90%
Power and frequency within 1 kHz.

(3) Antenna: Shall be attached to the rear unit.

g. Rear Unit Identification Provisions: Each rear unit shall be
assigned a unique identification code that shall be transmitted
along with the pressure threshold message to the cab unit. This
code ensures that only data transmitted from the assigned rear unit
shall be accepted by the cab unit. In this way, rear unit messages
from adjacent trains shall be rejected by the cab unit. In order to
maintain the interchangeability between rear units and cab units,
the identification code shall be reported and selected at the cab unit
prior to the start of any train trip.

The unique identification code or "address" shall be in the range
00000 to 99999 and be established in the rear unit electronics by
solder strapping or other permanent and secure means. The
identification code shall also be clearly indicated on the exterior of
the rear unit enclosure.

The assignment of identification codes shall be made by the
Central Train Information Systems clearinghouse upon written
application by a railroad or manufacturer. Once assigned, an
identification code number shall remain in effect on the specified
rear unit until written notification is given to the clearinghouse by
the owning railroad stating that the device is not, and no longer will
be, in service. Under no circumstances shall any railroad or
manufacturer utilize an identification code not properly assigned by
the clearinghouse. Sufficiently large blocks of identification codes
shall be assigned to the manufacturers to allow them to utilize
proprietary bits and to recognize their equipment.

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 22.3.1 2002
______________________________________________________________________________
- 6
2. Basic System Cab Unit: The cab unit shall receive data messages from
the rear unit and display information to the locomotive engineer. The
receiver and cab display unit located in the locomotive cab shall be
designed for continuous duty service. The design of the cab unit shall
consider the nature and consequences of possible system failure modes
so that a fault tolerant design results.

a. Cab Display:

(1) Cab displays for the Basic System shall be two indicators
that will display the status of rear brake pipe pressure above
or below the selected threshold. The display indicators and
markings shall be clearly visible and legible from the
locomotive engineer's seat position under cab lighting
conditions ranging from full sunlight to night illumination. A
brightness control shall be provided.

(2) Display functions are as follows: One display indicates BPP
at or above preset threshold brake pipe pressure (i.e., the
"Go" condition). The second display indicates BPP below
preset threshold brake pipe pressure (i.e., the "No Go"
condition). If no communications are received for more than
5 min., the indication of the most recent valid information
shall flash until manually reset or communication is restored.
If the system is not operating properly (i.e., cab unit or rear
unit inoperative or power off), all displays shall be off. If
colors are used with display indicators, amber shall indicate
below threshold pressure and green shall indicate at or
above threshold pressure.

(3) An audible alarm shall be provided which can be clearly
detected in the noise environment of the locomotive cab.
The alarm shall sound for 5 sec. duration, or until reset,
whenever BPP drops below threshold pressure or
communications are lost for more than 5 min.

(4) Any system cab display shall be capable of displaying the
minimum system "Go" and "No Go" status indications
regardless of which additional options have been installed on
either the rear unit or the cab unit.

(5) A cab unit equipped to display optional information, shall not
present false information upon receipt of a Basic System
message from the rear unit.

b. Connections:

(1) Power Connectors: See AAR Standard S-500
2
for connector
and pin assignments.

2
Practices, Section F, Standard S-500,"Communication Module Application - Locomotive Control Stand."

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 22.3.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
- 7
(2) Antenna Connectors: See AAR Standard S-500
2
for
connector assignment.

(3) Data Connectors: See AAR Standard S-500
2
Section 8.2
regarding External Remote Connector.

Data connector use and pin assignments shall be defined by
the Central Train Information System clearinghouse on the
basis of future system requirements. Twelve pins are
reserved.

c. Reporting Rate: Data messages from the rear unit, or repeater
stations where applicable, can be expected to arrive at the cab unit
at any point in time.

d. Electrical Guidelines:

(1) Input Power for Cab Unit equipment shall operate from either
of the following voltages:

(a) 13.6 volts dc 20 percent, negative ground

(b) 72 volts dc nominal, 60 to 80 volts dc operating range,
floating ground, from the locomotive auxiliary
electrical system

(2) Transient Overvoltage Protection:

(a) 13.6 volt system: 130% of the nominal input voltage
for 5 sec.

(b) 72 volt system: 5 KV for 10 ms, 90 volts for 5 sec.

(3) Dielectric Strength: 750 volts for 1 min., any circuit to
enclosure.

e. Characteristics of the Operating Environment:
The cab unit shall meet all the performance requirements specified
herein under all the following environmental conditions and also
remain undamaged under the specified non-operating (storage or
transport) environmental conditions.

(1) Temperature (ambient at device)

(a) Full Performance: +32F (0C) to +140F (60C)

(b) Operation: +32F (0C) to 140F (60C)

Also see, AREMA C&S Manual, Part 22.2.1 (Recommended Design Criteria/Functional Guidelines for
Interface of Radio Communications Module in "Clean Cab" Locomotive) that is an equivalent standard for
this purpose.

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 22.3.1 2002
______________________________________________________________________________
- 8
(c) Storage/Transport: -40F (-40C) to 140F (60C)

Note: The above temperature ranges assume that a cab unit will
be located in the locomotive cab area. If not, the -40F
(-40C) temperature requirement applies as the lower limit in
above cases. Conditioning of the internal environment of the
enclosure will be permitted on a case-by-case basis. In such
cases, a maximum time of 10 min. shall be allowed to
condition the equipment to a temperature range consistent
with human operator temperature tolerance before operation
must commence.

(2) Relative Humidity: 95 percent non-condensing at +122F
(50C)

(3) Altitude: 12,000 ft above MSL

(4) Vibration:

(a) Vertical & Lateral: 1 to 15 Hz, 0.5 g
peak to peak
15 to 500 Hz, 5 g
peak to peak

(b) Longitudinal: 1 to 15 Hz, 3 g,
peak to peak
15 to 500 Hz, 5 g
peak to peak

(5) Shock:

(a) Vertical and Lateral: 2g peak for 10 millisec.

(b) Longitudinal: 5g peak for 10 millisec.

f. Physical Guidelines:

(1) Dimensions: Dimension and mounting in accordance with
AAR Standard S-500

(2) Displays may be integral with the cab unit enclosure,
installed in the locomotive control stand, or separately
packaged and mounted per user specifications (e.g.,
mounted on top of the control stand). If the display is
separated from the enclosure, it shall be connected using
manufacturer-supplied cables.

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 22.3.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
- 9
(3) AAR Clean Cab Criteria: Any exposed enclosure corners
shall conform to the radius standards described in AAR
Standards S-528
3
.

g. Communications Equipment For Cab Unit:

(1) Demodulator: See Section B.3.

(2) Radio Receiver: (Must comply with applicable regulatory
requirements)

(a) Frequency: 457.9375 MHz.

(b) Sensitivity: 0.5 microvolt at 20 dBQ

(c) Selectivity: 80 dB protection

(d) Intermodulation Distortion: 80 dB protection

(e) Spurious Response: 85 dB protection

(f) Receiver Discrimination: Flat within
0.5 dB from 300 to 3,000 Hz, relative to 1,000 Hz.

(3) Antenna: The antenna shall be suited for the environment
and the mounting location chosen by the user.

h. Unit Identification Provisions: Provisions shall be made for entry of
the rear unit identification code by operating personnel each time a
new rear unit is installed on the rear car of the train. The unit
addresses shall be on-site user selectable from 00000 to 99999
(e.g., using thumbwheel switches or other suitable means).

3. Communications: The following communications protocol and data
message formats shall be mandatory for the Basic System.

a. General: Synchronous Transmission.

b. Modulator/Demodulator:

(1) Modulation Technique: Continuous Phase Fast Frequency
Shift Keying (FFSK)

(2) Modulating Frequencies:
Space (0) 1800 Hz 0.5%
Mark (1) 1200 Hz 0.5%

(3) Transmit/Receive Rate: 1200 baud 0.5%

3
Practices, Section F, Standard S-528, "Rounding All Possible Exposed Convex Edges and Corners."

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 22.3.1 2002
______________________________________________________________________________
- 10
c. Data Reporting Rate: The minimum acceptable reporting rate for a
Basic System rear unit is described in Section B.1.
Communications strategies that employ more frequent
transmissions than that described in this section are permitted.
However, these strategies shall be consistent with the guidelines
set forth herein (especially battery operating life) and strive for
efficient use of the radio communications link.

d. Data Message - General: A message transmitted on the
frequency(ies) specified herein shall utilize the format described in
the following sections.

The general format of any message to be sent is a series of blocks,
of fixed length, which contain the data that is to be sent to the front
of the train. This format is illustrated as:

BASIC BLOCK OPTIONAL BLOCK 1 OPTIONAL BLOCK 2

Length: 144 bits Length: 144 bits Length: 144 bits

TRAIN INFORMATION SYSTEM MESSAGE FORMAT

Every message sent shall always have at least one block, namely
the Basic Block. Additional blocks may or may not be sent
depending upon the number of optional features built into the
system.

At the beginning of every block in the message, a series of
synchronization bits shall be sent to allow the transmitter and
receiver circuitry to settle and to establish both bit and frame sync.
Immediately following the synchronization bits shall be a 45 bit data
sequence for the block and an 18 bit BCH error detection/correction
code. The block is ended by a trailing bit that is designed to enable
the receiver to reliably extract the last bit(s) in the BCH code. The
total length of every message block is 144 bits.

The initial block contains all the information that is sent by any
Basic System. Included within this initial block is the message type
identifier, the rear brake pipe pressure threshold status, rear brake
pipe pressure information, motion indications, marker light status,
battery(ies) condition, and other discretionary information.

Following the Basic Block are Optional Blocks that contain the data
from other optional system features that are not provided for in the
Basic System message. The number of Optional Blocks, and
hence the total length of the message, shall vary depending upon
the number of options included in the rear unit, if any, and the
strategy the manufacturer uses for transmitting data to the cab unit.
Some messages sent by the rear unit, such as the Basic System
message will have no Optional Blocks, since all the information to
be conveyed is contained in the Basic Block. The maximum

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 22.3.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
- 11
number of Optional Blocks allowed by the message format is four.
Specific details about the message format are contained as follows.

e. Basic System Message Format: A message transmitted by the
Basic System shall have the following format.

Basic Bit sync
4
69 bits
Block Frame sync
4
11 bits
Chaining bits 2 bits
Device battery condition 2 bits
Message type identifier 3 bits
Unit address code 17 bits
Rear brake pipe status and pressure 7 bits
Discretionary information 11 bits
5

Motion detection 1 bit
Marker light battery condition 1 bit
Marker light status 1 bit
Basic block BCH code 18 bits
Trailing bit 1 bit
Total Length 144 bits

Each of these items is defined in the next section, and the bit-
positioning diagram corresponding to this format is given in
Appendix B.

f. Basic Block Data Message Elements:

(1) Bit and Frame Sync:
Immediately preceding the start of every basic block
transmission, a series of sync bits shall be sent to allow the
transmitter and receiver circuitry to settle, and to establish
both bit timing and frame synchronization. The bit sync shall
be a 69 bit pattern of alternating zeroes and ones (i.e.,
0101010101...). The frame sync shall be the eleven bit
marker code 01001000111, where the right most bit is the
least significant bit (LSB). The frame sync code shall be
transmitted LSB first. Note that the bit and frame sync
patterns are not considered to be a part of the message
information bits for the purpose of generating the BCH error
detection/correction code.

(2) Chaining Bits: Chaining bits are a two bit code which
provide information about the position of the current data
block within the overall message being received. Chaining
bits indicate whether the block is the first block, the last
block, or an intermediate block in the message. They may
be used in conjunction with the Number of Optional Data
Blocks field, described below, to locate the beginning of a

4
See Item B.3.f.(1)
5
For Two-Way Systems see Section C.

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 22.3.1 2002
______________________________________________________________________________
- 12
message in case of an RF dropout. The chaining bits are
encoded as follows:

First Chaining Bit (MSB)
0 = The block IS NOT the first block in the message
1 = The block IS the first block in the message

Second Chaining Bit (LSB)
0 = The block IS NOT the last block in the message
1 = The block IS the last block in the message

Thus, a system that transmits only the Basic System
message shall encode the chaining bits as binary 11. A
more advanced system sending a Basic Block plus two
Optional Data Blocks, for example, shall have chaining bits
in each message block encoded as binary 10, 00, and 01.
The chaining bits shall be sent LSB first.

(3) Device battery condition: Two bits shall be assigned to
monitor the device battery status as follows:

MSB LSB
1 1 = Device battery OK
1 0 = Device battery weak
0 1 = Device battery very weak
0 0 = Device battery condition not monitored
The LSB will be sent first.

(4) Message Type Identifier: The second element to be
transmitted is a three bit code which defines the type of
message being transmitted. This information shall be used
by the cab unit to identify the format of the message
received and enable correct decoding of the contents.
Messages from the rear unit of one-way systems shall
contain a message type identifier code of zero (0), or 000 in
binary. The message type identifier shall be sent LSB first.

Other message type identifiers shall be defined in the future
by the Train Information System clearinghouse when
requested. These additional message type identifiers could
be used for messages from wayside devices to train, or from
front to rear of train.

(5) Rear Unit Address Code: The rear units unique address
code shall be the fourth item transmitted in the data
message. This code number will be within the range 00000
to 99999 and, therefore, shall require seventeen bits. The
address code shall be expressed in binary and sent LSB
first.

(6) Rear Brake Pipe Status and Pressure: This seven bit
message element contains the information about the brake

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 22.3.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
- 13
pipe pressure status and brake pipe pressure data, if the
rear unit is configured to measure continuous quantitative
pressure. The rear brake pipe status and pressure
information shall be expressed in binary and transmitted LSB
first.

For a Basic System, which only monitors brake pipe
pressure above or below the threshold, the status
information is sent using the codes 126 and 127 expressed
in binary. If the actual brake pipe pressure at the rear unit is
below the established threshold (i.e., 45 psig.) the status
value shall be 126. If the actual brake pipe pressure is
greater than or equal to the selected threshold level, then the
status code shall be 127.

Advanced units equipped to measure quantitative rear brake
pipe pressure shall use this field in a slightly different
manner than discussed in the previous paragraph. The
brake pipe pressure shall be encoded as a seven bit
unsigned binary integer, where one bit represents 1 psig.
The allowable range of brake pipe pressures for advanced
systems shall be from zero (0) to 125 psig. In this case, the
"GO" or "NO GO" brake pipe pressure status shall be
deduced in the cab unit by examining the pressure value.
Pressures in the range 45 to 125 psig reflect the "GO"
status, while pressures 44 psig. and below indicate a "NO
GO" brake pipe pressure status.

The table below summarizes the coding and interpretation of
the combined brake pipe status and pressure field:

Coded Value
(Decimal Representation) Interpretation__
127 "GO" condition from a Basic
System rear unit. Brake pipe
pressure is at or above threshold
pressure.

126 NO GO" condition from a Basic
System rear unit. Brake pipe
pressure is below threshold
pressure.

45 through 125 Actual rear brake pipe pressure
value from an advanced system.
Pressure at rear unit is at or
above threshold pressure (i.e., a
"GO" condition).

0 through 44 Actual rear brake pipe pressure
value from an advanced system.
Pressure at rear unit is below

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 22.3.1 2002
______________________________________________________________________________
- 14
threshold pressure (i.e., a "NO
GO" condition).

(7) Discretionary Information: Eleven bits shall be used for
discretionary information in one-way systems, at the option
of the manufacturer. The use of these bits will be submitted
to the Central Train Information System clearinghouse, who
shall maintain a record of such on file. All bits not assigned
shall be coded as zeroes (0).

(8) Motion detection: One bit shall be assigned to indicate
whether or not the rear car of the train is in motion as
follows:
1 = Rear car in motion
0 = Rear car stopped or not monitored

(9) Marker light battery condition: One bit shall be assigned to
monitor the marker light battery status as follows:
1 = Marker light battery weak
0 = Marker light battery OK or not monitored

(10) Marker light status: One bit shall be assigned to indicate
whether or not the marker light is lit as follows:
1 = Marker light on
0 = Marker light off or not monitored

(11) Basic Block BCH Code: The basic block BCH code is an 18
bit error detection/correction code for the basic block portion
of a message. The BCH code is of the 63,45 type. It shall
be computed at the time a message is transmitted by
dividing the message block information bits by the generator
polynomial g(x) = (18, 17, 16, 15, 9, 7, 6, 3, 2, 1, 0)

The remainder is Exclusively OR'ed with the eighteen bit
code and the result becomes the quantity that is sent.
MSB LSB
000011101110110101

The bit and frame sync patterns are not considered part of
the block information bits and, therefore, are not included in
the BCH code generation process. The BCH Code shall be
sent LSB first.

(12) Trailing Bit: One "trailer" bit shall be added to the end of the
Basic Block to enable the last data bits to be reliably
received at the cab unit. This bit shall be a one (1).

g. Basic Block Plus Optional Data Block(s): Train Information System
units equipped with options over and above those provided for in
the Basic Block shall use additional message blocks to transmit
data. The Basic Block is always the first block in the message,

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 22.3.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
- 15
however. The general format for all Train Information System units
will be:

Basic Bit sync 69 bits
Block Frame sync 11 bits
6

Trailing bit 1 bit
Total length 144 bits

Optional Bit sync 69 bits
Block(s) Frame sync 11 bits
Block format indicator bit 1 bit
Optional block data bits 42 bits
Optional block BCH code 18 bits
Trailing bit 1 bit

(1) Basic Block Elements: All elements of the Basic Block are
described in the previous Section B.3.f.

(2) Optional Block(s) Bit and Frame Sync: Immediately
preceding the start of every optional block transmission, a
series of sync bits shall be sent to allow the transmitter and
receiver circuitry to settle, and to establish both bit timing
and frame synchronization. The bit sync shall be a 69 bit
pattern of alternating zeroes and ones (i.e., 0101010101...).
The frame sync shall be the eleven bit marker code
01001000111, where the right most bit is the least significant
bit (LSB). The frame sync code shall be transmitted LSB
first. Note that the bit and frame sync patterns are not
considered to be a part of the message information bits for
the purpose of generating the BCH error detection/correction
code.

(3) Chaining Bits: The two chaining bits are coded as described
in the previous Section B.3.f.(2). The chaining bits shall be
sent LSB first.

(4) Block Format Indicator Bit: This bit is used to indicate
whether the data contained in the current Optional Data

6
For Two-way Systems see Section C.

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 22.3.1 2002
______________________________________________________________________________
- 16
Block is in binary or ASCII format. Coding for this format
indicator bit shall be:
0 = Binary format for data in the block
1 = ASCII format for data in the block

(a) Data in Binary Format: If the indicator bit is zero (0),
the remaining 42 bits in the data block are coded in
binary using the following format:
Data Type "A" Identifier 7 bits
Data "A" 7 bits
Data Type "B" Identifier 7 bits
Data "B" 7 bits
Data Type "C" Identifier 7 bits
Data "C" 7 bits
Total Data Length 42 bits

The Data Type Identifier is a seven-bit code used to
describe or designate the datum which shall
immediately follow. Data type identifiers shall be
established by the Central Train Information System
clearinghouse and shall not be indiscriminately used
by a railroad or supplier in an unauthorized manner.
Valid data type identifiers shall be in the range of one
(1) to 127, expressed in binary representation. Data
type identifier zero (0) is a special code and is
discussed below. The data type identifier shall be
sent LSB first.

The data item appears in conjunction with the data
type identifier and contains the information about a
particular rear unit parameter associated with one of
the optional features of the Train Information System.
Generally speaking, each parameter the rear unit
reports shall be contained in a separate Data Type
Identifier with Data Item pairing, however, some data
shall be "packed together" to form related pieces of
information to "fill-up" a message element. The
coding of each data type shall be defined in the future
by the clearinghouse, as requirements arise.
Individual data quantities shall be transmitted LSB
first.

It should be noted that there is no requirement that all
the information that a rear unit could potentially
transmit must actually be transmitted when a data
message is sent to the cab unit. Any sequence or
combination of data parameters may be transmitted,
and in any order, so long as the basic rules of
message organization are fulfilled. That is, the data
type identifier shall precede the datum it describes. In
this manner, it is possible for the rear unit equipped
with optional features to determine which parameters

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 22.3.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
- 17
shall be transmitted to the cab unit at the time of a
transmission and thereby minimize use of the radio
transmitter.

If a rear unit does not require all 42 bits in the
Optional Block data field to transmit its information,
additional bits shall be sent to fill the block to the 42
bit length. This shall be accomplished by using Data
Type Identifier zero (0) as a special indication for the
"no data" situation. The associated data item shall
also be sent as zero (0), or 0000000 in binary.

(b) Data in ASCII Format: If the Optional Block format
indicator bit is a one (1), the following 42 data bits are
coded as six seven-bit ASCII characters. Appendix A
provides additional information regarding the
transmission of ASCII characters in a message.

(5) Optional Block BCH Code: The Optional Block BCH code is
the error detection/correction code for the data portion of a
message. It shall be computed at the time a message is
transmitted by dividing the data block information bits by the
generator polynomial.

g(x)=(18, 17, 16, 15, 9, 7, 6, 3, 2, 1, 0)

The remainder is Exclusively OR'ed with the eighteen-bit
code and the result becomes the quantity that is sent.

MSB LSB
000011101110110101

(6) Optional Block Trailing Bit: One "trailer" bit shall be added to
the end of any optional data block to enable the last data bits
to be reliably received at the cab unit. This bit shall be a one
(1).

h. Message Error Detection and Correction Techniques:
A combination of message repetition and error code checking shall
be used to provide the reliability necessary for Train Information
System communications. These concepts are discussed in the
following paragraphs.

(1) Rear Unit Transmission Requirements: A data message
sent by the rear unit shall be sent at least twice. The rear
unit must transmit the first message in its entirety before the
second repetition of the message is sent. That is, all blocks
of the first message shall be transmitted before any
repetition of blocks are sent.

A manufacturer may elect to transmit the message more
times than these guidelines require.

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 22.3.1 2002
______________________________________________________________________________
- 18
(2) Cab Unit Receiving Requirements: The capability to detect
invalid data is provided by the BCH codes in the message.
A BCH code shall be generated by the cab unit for each
information block, respectively, using the techniques
described in previous sections. If the new BCH codes agree
with the BCH codes received in the message block(s), the
message may be considered valid and decoded. If,
however, the BCH codes do not agree, the message shall be
considered in error and may be disregarded by the cab unit
or, at the discretion of the manufacturer, corrected to
become valid.

The communications guidelines described in this document
do not prohibit a manufacturer from using additional error
correction techniques, such as "bit averaging" techniques,
that may be afforded by multiple repetitions of the message.

C. Application of Train Brakes from Rear Car

The following general assumptions have been made to formulate the guidelines
for end-of-train braking systems:

The rear emergency valve is regarded as a backup device, not a braking
performance improvement device.

The probability of two trains trying to apply emergency brakes at the same time is
very low.

A failure of the system shall not cause application of the emergency brakes.

A 1 sec. delay between the command to apply rear emergency brakes and the
rear valve's activation is acceptable.

A requirement for rear of train braking necessitates the provision of two-way
communication. Guidelines for two-way transmission given below supplement
guidelines in Sections A. and B.

Additional Features - Rear Unit:
The addition of two way transmission to the rear unit described in Section B. will
provide the additional capability of applying the brakes, restoring normal brake
operation, transmission of status information and testing the communications
channel on receipt of a command.

1. Brake Application:
The front-to-rear transmission and rear-of-train equipment shall provide for
application of train emergency air brakes upon manual selection by the
locomotive engineer.

a. An emergency brake application command from the front unit shall
activate the emergency air valve typically within one sec.

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 22.3.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
- 19
b. The rear unit shall send an acknowledgment message to the front
unit immediately upon receipt of a brake application command.
The front unit shall listen for this acknowledgment and repeat the
brake application command if the acknowledgment is not correctly
received.

c. The rear unit, on receipt of a properly coded command, will open a
valve in the brake line and hold it open for a minimum of 15 sec.
This opening of the valve shall cause the brake line to vent to the
exterior.

d. The valve opening and hose diameter shall have a minimum
diameter of 3/4 in. to effect an emergency brake application.

e. Restoring of the braking function (recharging the air brake system)
shall be enabled automatically by the rear equipment, no more than
60 sec. after it has initiated an emergency release.

2. Transmission of Status Information:
The rear unit shall transmit the latest status information on receipt of
properly coded request. The transmission of the status information will
reset the randomized interval timer.

3. Power Requirements:
The radio receiver and support data equipment shall be powered from the
same battery pack as the rear unit described in Section B.1.c. and shall
still meet all the requirements of Section B.1.

4. Environmental Requirements:
The rear unit equipped with two-way transmission shall meet all the
environmental guidelines specified in Section B.1.d.

5. Additional Radio Receiver for Rear Unit:

a. Demodulator: See Section B.3., Communications

b. Radio Receiver:

(1) Frequency: 452.9375 MHz

(2) Sensitivity: 0.5 microvolt at 20 dBQ

(3) Selectivity: 80 dB protection

(4) Intermodulation Distortion: 80 dB protection

(5) Spurious Response: 85 dB protection

(6) Receiver Discrimination: Flat within +/-0.5 dB from 300 to
3,000 Hz, relative to 1,000 Hz.

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 22.3.1 2002
______________________________________________________________________________
- 20
(7) The receiver shall use the same antenna as the rear unit
transmitter, with suitable T/R switching provisions.

(8) The address code of the receiver shall be the same as set
for the rear unit identification code described in Section
B.1.g.

6. Communications Rear to Front:
The communications protocol and data message formats for rear to front
message exchanges shall be identical to that specified under Section B.
with the exception that two bits of information are now removed from the
discretionary field to become defined. The changed information, together
with a new bit-positioning diagram are detailed below.

a. Message Format Rear to Front Communications:
A message transmitted by the rear unit shall have the following
format:

Bit sync
7
69 bits
Frame sync
5
11 bits
Valve circuit status 1 bit
Confirmation indicator 1 bit
Discretionary information 1 bit
Trailing bit 1 bit

Total Length 144 bits

b. Additional Defined Bits:
The two new bits are defined below and the new bit positioning
diagram corresponding to this format is given in Appendix C-1.

(1) Valve Circuit Status - One bit is assigned to indicate the
status of the Emergency Valve Circuit:

0 = Emergency Valve Circuit failed
1 = Emergency Valve Circuit operational

(2) Confirmation Indicator - One bit is assigned to differentiate
between normal updates and responses to requests from the
Cab Unit:

7
See Item B.3.f.(1) of basic system

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 22.3.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
- 21
0 = Rear Unit transmission is a normal update
1 = Rear Unit transmission is in response to a
request from the Cab Unit

c. Additional Timing Requirement for Two-Way Operation:
When the confirmation bit is set to 1, i.e. when the Rear-to-Front
message occurs in response to a Front-to-Rear transmission, the
bit sync of the Rear-to-Front message must begin between 12 to 18
millisec. after the end of the Front-to-Rear message.

d. Discretionary Information:
Nine bits will be used for discretionary information at the option of
the manufacturer. The use of these bits will be submitted to the
clearinghouse, who shall maintain a record of such on file. All bits
not assigned shall be coded as zeroes (0).

e. Optional Data Blocks:
Timing constraints between messages does not permit the use of
additional optional data blocks, in the two-way system, for
transmission of additional information.

7. Additional Features - Cab Unit:
The addition of two-way transmission to the front equipment described in
Section B.2., shall provide the additional capability of applying the
emergency brakes at the rear end of the train, via an emergency air dump
valve, activate by remote control. The capability of requesting
transmission of status information from the rear unit and of testing the
communications channel shall also be provided.

a. Manual Emergency Brake Activation:
The Cab Unit will have a switch which, when activated, shall initiate
a front-to-rear transmission containing an emergency brake
application command. On receipt of this command, the brakes
shall be applied at the Rear Unit. The switch, distinctively labeled
"EMERGENCY", shall be protected, so that there shall exist no
possibility of accidental activation.

b. Manual Communications Test:
Means shall be provided for manual initiation of an end-to-end test
of the front-to-rear communications link with a visual/audible
indication of success or failure of the test. Activation of a manual,
communications link test shall simultaneously set a distinctive
symbol on the display and transmit a request for an update of the
status information from the rear unit. The distinctive symbol will be
cleared when the new status information (containing the
confirmation indicator Bit = 1) is received in the following rear-to-
front transmission. This indicator is also cleared by any subsequent
successful front-to-rear/rear-to-front confirmation cycle.

c. Automatic Communications Test:
The availability of the front-to-rear communications link shall be
checked automatically at least every 10 min.

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 22.3.1 2002
______________________________________________________________________________
- 22
d. Emergency Valve Test:
Means shall be provided to confirm availability and proper
functioning of the emergency valve as part of both the manual (item
b) and automatic (item c) communications tests.

e. Rear to Front Communications Failure:

(1) The cab unit shall be so designed that if no rear-to-front
transmission is received for a period of 196 sec. a request
shall automatically be transmitted to the rear unit for an
update of status information. If a message has not been
received after this request, another request shall be sent 15
sec. after the first. If no communication is received for a
period of 326 sec., another status update request shall be
transmitted to the rear unit. If, after 15 sec., no status
update has been received, another status update request
shall be transmitted. If after this fourth status update request
no status update has been received, Rear-to-Front
communication failure shall be declared.

(2) Display or indication of Rear-to-Front communication failure
shall take precedence over Front-to-Rear communication
failure.

f. Front-to-Rear Communications Failure:
Every 10 min. a status update request shall automatically be sent to
the rear unit. If no status update is received as a result of this
transmission, (i.e. with confirmation bit = 1) a second request shall
be sent 15 sec. later. If still no status update has been received, a
third request shall be repeated 6 min. later. If still no status update
has been received, a fourth request shall be sent 15 sec. later.

If after the fourth update request no update has been received (with
confirmation bit = 1), then Front-to-Rear communication failure shall
be declared. This warning shall be reset by the next successful
front-to-rear/rear-to-front confirmation cycle (automatically or
manually initiated).

Front-to-rear communication failure shall also be tested and
declared during an attempted emergency activation (Item C.7.a.).

g. Front-to-Rear Message Retries:
The cab unit will handle data message retries as follows:

(1) For emergency brake application commands, the retries
shall continue until a status update indicates that the rear
unit has received the command by setting the confirmation
bit in the update. Thereafter if the rear brake pipe pressure
has not been reduced to a level below 5 psi within 4 sec.,
another retry shall be made and again the confirmation bit
looked for. This process shall repeat up to a maximum time
of 2 min. after the last emergency switch activation. If a

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 22.3.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
- 23
confirmation bit has not been received within 15 sec. of the
initial or a 4 sec. retry emergency command, front-to-rear
communication failure shall be declared.

(2) For manually initiated status information update requests,
the cab unit shall not transmit any retries automatically, nor
cause a communication failure indication.

h. Power Requirements:
The additional radio transmitter and support data equipment shall
be powered from the same power source as the cab unit receiver
described in Section B.2.d.

i. Environmental Requirements:
The additional equipment included in the cab unit for two way
transmission shall meet the environmental guidelines described in
Section B.2.e.

j. ID Code:
The ID code transmitted by the cab unit transmitter shall be
identical to that selected for message reception from the rear
detailed in Section B.2.h.

k. Additional Radio Transmitter for Cab Unit:

(1) Modulator: See Section B.1. Communications

(2) Radio Transmitter

(a) Frequency: 452.9375 MHz

(b) RF Power Output: RF power of the Front-to-Rear
radio link shall be 2 watts nominal unless a greater
power output is permitted by regulatory authorities,
throughout the operating territory of the equipment.
Nominal radio power under any circumstances shall
not exceed 8 watts.

(c) Modulation Designation: 16K0F2D/9Y

Peak Deviation of Mark and Space
Frequencies: +/-3.0 KHz.

(d) Spurious: 60 dB Minimum below carrier

(e) Deviation: Flat within +/-0.5 dB from 300 to 3,000
Hz, relative to 1,000 Hz.

(f) Transmitter Shall not exceed 5 ms for 90%
Rise Time: power and frequency within 1 KHz

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 22.3.1 2002
______________________________________________________________________________
- 24
(g) The transmitter shall use the same antenna as the
cab unit receiver with suitable T/R switching
provisions.

(h) The transmitter identification code shall be the same
as that selected in Section B.2.h.

8. Communications Front to Rear:

The following communications protocol and data message formats shall
be mandatory for the front to rear communications link.

a. Governing Factors:
The following items were considered when formulating the
guidelines for the front to rear protocol.

(1) Since the front to rear communications protocol now
concerns a control function as well as telemetry, additional
code security is desirable.

(2) An emergency brake application command from the front
unit shall activate the emergency air valve typically within 1
sec.

(3) The front-to-rear radio link shall achieve a single
transmission success rate of 98% or better, averaged over
typical railroad operating terrain, for a train length of 5,000 ft.
The intent of this requirement is for this link to have the
same performance in terms of throughput, as the Rear-to-
Front link.

(4) To enable functioning of two-way telemetry on more than
one train in close proximity (radio range), no unit can be
allowed to flood either radio channel, with a long continuous
burst of message transmission.

(5) Performance of Rear-to-Front communication shall not be
degraded by the Front-to-Rear link.

b. General:
Synchronous transmission

c. Modulator/Demodulator:
The modulation scheme shall be identical to that described in
Section B.1.3., for the one way system.

d. Transmission:
The Front-to-Rear radio channel shall operate at 452.9375 MHz.
All other parameters describing this radio channel including band
width and stability shall be as stated in the guidelines for the one-
way system.

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 22.3.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
- 25
e. Transmission Format Front to Rear Communications:
Any message sent from the front unit to the rear unit, shall utilize
the format described in the following sections:

(1) Each message shall consist of three identical data blocks.

(2) At the beginning of the message (before first data block only)
a series of synchronization bits shall be sent to allow the
transmitter and receiver circuitry to stabilize and to establish
both bit and frame sync.

(3) Immediately following the synchronization bits, shall be a 30
bit data sequence for the block followed by a 33 bit BCH
error detection code.

(4) Each data block is followed by a single odd parity bit.

(5) The total length of each message is 672 bits.

f. Message Format Front to Rear Communications:
A message transmitted by the front unit shall have the following
format:

Bit Sync 456 bits
Frame Sync 24 bits
Data Block 63 bits
Odd Parity Bit 1 bit
Data Block (Repeat #1) 63 bits
Data Block (Repeat #2) 63 bits

g. Data Block Format:

(1) Each of the three data blocks shall have an identical format.

(2) The format within each block shall consist of 30 information
bits followed by 33 BCH error check bits conforming to the
(63.30) format.

(3) The general format of each data block is as follows:

Chaining Bits 2 bits (always 11)
Message Type Identifier 3 bits (always 000)
ID 17 bits
Command word 8 bits
Status Request or Emergency
BCH Code 33 bits

h. Message Data Block Elements: (In Order Transmitted)

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 22.3.1 2002
______________________________________________________________________________
- 26
(1) Bit Sync:
Immediately preceding the start of every basic block
transmission, a series of sync bits shall be sent to allow the
transmitter and receiver circuitry to settle, and to establish
both bit timing. The bit sync shall be a 456-bit pattern of
alternating zeroes and ones (i.e., 010101010101...)

(2) Frame Sync:
Immediately following the bit sync pattern. A frame sync
code shall be transmitted to establish frame synchronization.

The frame sync used shall be the 24-bit code:

1000 1111 0001 0001 0010 1001

The left bit in the above code is the LSB, transmitted first.
Note that the bit and frame sync patterns are not considered
to be a part of the message information bits for the purpose
of generating the BCH error detection/correction code.

(3) Chaining Bits:
Chaining bits are a two-bit code which provide information
about the position of the current data block within the overall
message being received. Chaining bits indicate whether the
block is the first block, the last block, or an intermediate
block in the message.

For the Front to Rear protocol, the first (and only) block is
uniquely identified by the chaining bits 11, signifying only
one block in the message. The left hand bit is MSB. Note
that for the Front to Rear protocol, the 2nd and 3rd blocks
are repeats of the first block.

(4) Message Type Identifier:
The message type identifier is a 3-bit code used to define
the type of message being transmitted by the cab unit. For
two-way end of train systems this code shall be all zeroes
(000).

(5) ID Code:
Unique ID code of the rear unit being addressed shall be the
next item in the data message. This code number will be
within the range 00000 to 99999 and, therefore, shall require
seventeen bits. The address code shall be expressed in
binary and sent LSB first.

(6) Command Word:
The left bit in the below code is the MSB and sent LSB first.
An 8-bit command word shall be used for the following two
functions:

(a) Status Update request from front unit:

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 22.3.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
- 27
01 01 01 01

(b) Emergency Brake Application
10 10 10 10

(7) BCH Code:
The BCH code used for Front-to-Rear transmissions is a 33-
bit detection/correction code applied only to the data portion
of the block. The BCH code is of the (63.30) type and is
computed at the time a message is transmitted by dividing
the message block information bits by the generator
polynomial:

g(x)=(33,32,30,29,28,27,26,23,22,20,15,14,
13,11,9,8,6,5,2,1,0)

This remainder is the result that is sent.

The BCH code shall be sent LSB first. Note that the bit sync
and frame sync patterns are not considered part of the block
information bits and therefore, are not included in the BCH
generation process.

(8) Parity Bit:
An odd parity bit shall be added at the end of each data
block. The bit-positioning diagram corresponding to this
format is given in Appendix C-2.

D. Optional Features

This section discusses several optional features that could be added to the Basic
System. As previously indicated, the Basic System is defined as the minimum
system necessary to ensure compatible operation for run-through trains. Most of
the options to be discussed become feasible as a result of installing onboard the
train those minimum data processing and communications capabilities provided
by the Basic System. With relatively modest increases in data processing,
communications, and display capabilities over and above capabilities provided by
the Basic System, a number of optional features become viable. The selection of
which option(s) is/are to be selected resides entirely with the acquiring railroad.
Many of the options are highly desirable to some railroads. However, the various
optional features described below can be added to the Basic System, if and only
if, the minimum compatible operations are not in any manner compromised by
the incorporation of any optional feature.

The options to be discussed are as follows:

Option 1 - Rear End Marker Device
Option 2 - Multiple Brake Pipe Pressure Threshold Switches
Option 3 - Brake Pipe Pressure Transducer
Option 4 - Rear Car Movement Indicator
Option 5 - Built-in Battery Charger for Rear Unit
Option 6 - Rear Unit Status Monitoring

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 22.3.1 2002
______________________________________________________________________________
- 28
Option 7 - Rear Car Slack Status Detection
Option 8 - Rear Car Brake Cylinder Release Detection
Option 9 - Undesired Emergency Location
Option 10- Emulation of Rear Car Brake Control Valve Activity
Option 11- Deleted, See Section C
Option 12- Automatic Initial Terminal Air Brake Test
Option 13- Voice Warning and Advice
Option 14- Hot Box, Dragging Equipment and Other Defects Cab Display
Option 15- Train Orders Cab Display
Option 16- Automatic Train Location
Option 17- Mid-Train Slack and Brake Pipe Pressure Detectors
Option 18- Disabled Train Warning Light
Option 19- Rear Car Acceleration Indicator
Option 20- Front Unit Authorization for Additional Security in Two-Way Systems

It should be noted that discussions of options, is not intended to suggest that any
single option or combination of options is a requirement. Each railroad should
make these choices based upon its own needs and objectives. It is the intent of
this section to enable the maximum opportunity to tailor the most effective Train
Information System that should meet the individual needs of each using railroad.
It should also be restated that any option or combination of options installed in
any system shall not in any manner interfere with or constrain operation with a
companion unit configured for Basic System capabilities. Furthermore, options
shall meet applicable environmental specifications established for related Basic
System units and components.

The following paragraphs discuss the various options.

1. Rear End Marker Device: A lighted rear marker device is currently
required by Title 49 CFR Part 221 on trains operating in the United States.
Other jurisdictions (e.g. Canada, Mexico) also have requirements that are
different from those described in 49 CFR Part 221. Because of these
requirements, there may be advantages for some railroads to incorporate
a rear marker device as an optional feature to their basic Train Information
System.

This section briefly addresses the issue of a rear-of-train marker device
insofar as it concerns Train Information System design. These provisions
are offered only as an explanation of ideas for meeting statutory
requirements with this type of system in a reasonable manner. In no way
do these provisions constitute an endorsement, specification or mandatory
requirement for a marker light feature in a Train Information System. If a
marker device (light) is installed as an optional feature in a Train
Information System, the following points should be considered:

a. The marker device be an integral part of the rear unit.

b. All statutory requirements be met by the marker device, including
Title 49 CFR Part 221 for a U. S. installation or other applicable
regulation for a foreign application.

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 22.3.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
- 29
c. The marker device power requirements have a minimal impact on
the rear unit battery life. See Section B.1.c.

d. The operation of the marker device be unaffected by the operation
of any other rear unit optional feature, within the limits of the battery
life.

e. A marker device status indication be developed at the rear unit,
transmitted to the cab unit as one of the data parameters and
displayed to the engineer.

f. Ease of field servicing and reliability be emphasized in the design of
the marker device.

2. Multiple Brake Pipe Pressure Threshold Switches:
An optional feature that could be incorporated into the Basic System is
one or more additional pressure threshold switches. The additional
pressure threshold intervals would permit additional brake pipe pressure
functions. For example, a 10 psig pressure switch could be used to power
down the rear unit during extended periods when Brake Pipe Pressure
(BPP) was zero. Other intervals could be selected by using railroads.
Additional display devices would be needed. However, these additional
devices shall not interfere with the planned uses and meanings of Basic
System functions and displays.

3. Brake Pipe Pressure Transducer: Another option is addition of a
continuous, quantitative BPP display in the cab. The BPP transducer shall
provide 0-125 psig measurements with " 3 psig accuracy. An
alphanumeric cab display could be used to present this information to the
locomotive engineer. This cab display shall provide sufficient characters
to present rear car brake pipe pressure to the nearest 1 psig.

The display shall be legible in both bright daylight and night vision
conditions in the cab. It is suggested that character height be at least 0.5
deg. of arc as viewed from the locomotive engineer's seated position.
Location of the alphanumeric display unit shall avoid obstruction of the
locomotive engineer's field of view. Optional display devices should also
meet other applicable guidelines presented in Section B.2. Basic System
Cab Displays.

4. Rear Car Movement Indicator: Another option would provide the
locomotive engineer with information about movement of the rear car. A
motion-detecting device in the rear unit would encode a single bit of
information in data messages. The cab unit would receive this information
and use a suitable display to indicate that the rear car is moving or not
moving.

5. Built-in Battery Charger for Rear Unit: Some railroads may wish to
incorporate a battery charger circuit into the rear unit to facilitate
recharging of battery packs. Reliability and serviceability would be
improved if personnel could simply plug in a line cord to 115 volts ac,

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 22.3.1 2002
______________________________________________________________________________
- 30
which would recharge battery packs at the correct voltage and charging
rate.

6. Rear Unit Status Monitoring: The reliability and maintainability of the rear
unit would be enhanced by built-in performance monitoring. This
performance monitoring feature could monitor the status of the sensing
device, battery voltage, and other optional features which may be added
to the rear unit. Status information could be displayed in the cab and/or
recorded for self-diagnosis, sensor calibration, and maintenance.

7. Rear Car Slack Status: Another optional feature for Train Information
Systems is the reporting of slack conditions between the last two cars in a
train. An elementary rear car slack status indicator would simply
determine the slack state as either being in a draft or buff condition and
display this status in the cab. A slightly more sophisticated rear car slack
status indicator would not only determine the buff/draft slack state but also
estimate the magnitude of the coupler forces.

8. Rear Car Brake Cylinder Release Detection: Train handling and
completion of terminal air test could be improved if a positive and reliable
method were devised to detect brake application and release at the rear
car. This could be accomplished by using a movement/motion sensor on
the brake cylinder piston or brake beam.

9. Undesired Emergency Location: The cause of undesired emergency
applications of train brakes (UDE) may occasionally be difficult to identify
because of the inability to isolate the source of the problem at the time of
occurrence. "Kickers" are one type of UDE that falls into this category. A
Train Information System equipped with a UDE Locator option should be
able to detect the source of an emergency application of the train brakes
to within one or two car lengths. Upon detecting the emergency
application at the rear car, a data message is immediately transmitted to
the cab unit reporting that the rear-end is in emergency. The cab unit logs
the time of arrival of this message and logs the time of arrival of the
emergency brake application at the front of the train using a BPP
transducer in the locomotive. The cab unit then calculates the location of
the UDE using train length data (previously input by the engineer) and
then displays the estimated location of the UDE on a suitable display.

10. Emulation of Rear Car Control Valve Activity: Another optional feature
could provide the locomotive engineer with expanded information about
the rear car brake system. By continuous monitoring of changes in brake
pipe pressure over time, it is possible to predict the brake cylinder,
emergency reservoir and auxiliary reservoir pressures without direct
measurement. Once this information has been calculated, it can be
presented to the engineer as a quantitative or qualitative indication of:

a. The state of the air charge at the rear of the train.

b. An emergency or service brake application.

c. A brake release in progress, or

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 22.3.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
- 31
d. Low rear end train line pressure.

11. Deleted, See Section C.

12. Automatic Initial Terminal Air Brake Test: Availability of an onboard
microprocessor in the locomotive cab offers the possibility of improving the
consistency and accuracy of both the Initial Terminal Air Brake Test and
the 1,000 Mile Air Brake Test.

13. Voice Warnings and Advice: Recent advances in the presentation of
information have included methods for verbal announcement of computer
generated display and status information. With this method, instead of a
visual display, a voice would announce the information on a speaker.
With such voice presentations, the locomotive engineer is not required to
visually scan a display to read the information. This method would be
most beneficial during periods of peak demands for visual scanning
outside the cab.

14. Hot Box, Dragging Equipment and Other Defects Cab Display: Availability
of both a data communications link and a microprocessor onboard
locomotives offers the potential for integrating existing wayside detector
systems into a cab display for the locomotive engineer.

15. Train Orders Cab Display: Availability of a microprocessor, computer
memory, and alphanumeric cab displays in locomotives offers the
potential for cab displays of a variety of train operations information and
aids useful to the locomotive engineer. For example, train orders, train
makeup information and special restrictions information could be prepared
on a main frame computer, recorded on a digital mass storage device
(e.g., cassette tape, non-volatile memory, CD ROM or diskettes), loaded
into the cab unit at the start of a trip, and displayed upon request of the
locomotive engineer in the cab at any time during a trip. Such a tape or
memory device could even be used to enter the identification number of
the Train Information System rear unit and train length for each trip. This
would require addition of a memory readout device and a larger
alphanumeric display device in the locomotive cab and computer facilities
for preparation of the digital storage memories.

16. Automatic Train Location: This option would use interrogation and
response interactions between wayside stations and the train to provide
accurate train location data independent of existing block signal systems.

17. Mid-Train Slack Status and Brake Pipe Pressure Detectors: Another
option could provide mid-train slack and brake pipe pressure status in the
cab. This would require one or more sensor units, similar to the rear unit
operating at any designated mid-train location, in parallel with the rear
unit. Each unit would be assigned a unique identification number to
enable the cab unit to distinguish data reported from each location.
Increased communications processing capability would be required, along
with increased alphanumeric display capability and a display selector
device.

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 22.3.1 2002
______________________________________________________________________________
- 32
18. Disable Train Warning Light: In the event a train suddenly becomes
disabled, such as from an undesired emergency brake application,
operating rules require the crew to protect approaching trains from the
possibility of a derailment. This option would add a light to warn
approaching trains of this situation. This warning light would be
illuminated either automatically when train brakes are applied in
emergency or manually by the locomotive engineer using a cab control
switch. The light would be reset by a control stand switch. This warning
light would not replace the rear end marker device, nor shall the marker
device serve this function.

19. Rear Car Acceleration Indicator:
Another train handling related option would provide a cab display of rear
car acceleration. This could be accomplished using a longitudinal
accelerometer in the rear car, and displayed in the cab in miles per hour
per minute.

20. Front Unit Authorization for Additional Security:
This is a recommended option that provides additional security to prevent
unauthorized application of the Emergency Braking Feature, by a party or
parties external to the control cab of the train.

This option is to maximize the safety of the system while not
compromising the two-way, front-to-rear code security, described in
Section C.

By using the following procedure when the rear unit is tested by a
employee at the end of the train, the front equipment is authorized to
transmit the Emergency command to its associated rear unit only.

Description of Arming Sequence:
Detailed below is a technical description of the Front Unit Authorization
option as used to provide protection against external initiation of the
Emergency Braking feature described in Section C.

a. When a front unit is said to be authorized to transmit Emergency on
a certain ID code, it means that it is capable of doing so only when
the thumb wheel switches match the authorized ID code.

b. The authorized ID code shall be stored in non-volatile memory in
the front unit, ie. it shall be retained indefinitely when unit is
unpowered. This is required should power to the device be lost.

c. The authorized ID code shall not be directly readable by the user in
operational mode, but shall be capable of being displayed in a test
mode for maintenance purposes.

d. The front unit shall retain the last used authorized ID code until re-
authorized on a different code.

e. Whenever the front unit sends a Status Update Request having an
ID code (selected by the thumb wheels) that does not match the

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 22.3.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
- 33
authorized code, it shall sound an audible alarm and display the
warning NOT ARMD for 1 sec. This alerts the user that the
Emergency function is not available, while still allowing a two-way
Communications Link test, to any rear unit without having to go
through the authorizing sequence.

f. To authorize the front unit, the TEST button on the rear unit is
pushed. The transmission initiated by this action, shall have the
code 111 as Message Type Identifier and the Confirmation bit reset
to "0".

g. When the front unit receives a rear-to-front message matching its
dialed ID code, which has Message Type Identifier 111, and which
has the Confirmation bit reset to 0, it shall sound an audible alarm
and display the message ARM NOW for 5 sec. The above
transpires, if and only if, the stored authorized code differs from the
ID code of the received rear unit's ID code.

h. To complete the authorizing sequence, a Communications Link
Test shall be initiated while the display shows ARM NOW. This
shall initiate a Status Update Request and causes the display to
revert to normal.

i. After the transmission with Message Type Identifier 111 has been
sent (per step f.), the rear unit shall respond to the first valid Status
Update Request received within 6 sec. from the front unit (per step
h.) with a message in which the Confirmation bit is set to 1 and with
a Message Type Identifier of 111. On subsequent replies to Status
Update Requests, or on any reply occurring 6 sec. after the ARM
transmission, the Message Type Identifier shall be set to 000.

j. When the front unit receives a confirmation of a Status Update
Request that has Message Type Identifier 111 and the
Confirmation bit set to 1, it shall sound an audible alarm and display
ARMED for several seconds. The display shall then revert to
normal. At this time, the new authorized code is written into non-
volatile memory in the front unit.

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 22.3.1 2002
______________________________________________________________________________
- 34

Appendix A

Coding of ASCII Characters in Messages

A desirable feature of a Train Information System is the ability to send ASCII
character strings to a cab unit, which could subsequently display this information
directly on a suitable display device. To facilitate the development of this
optional feature, the following information, which pertains to Type 0 messages, is
provided.

When an Optional Data Block format indicator bit is a one (1), the 42 data bits
that follow the indicator bit are coded as six seven-bit ASCII characters. The
designated coding format for a character is shown in Table A-1 that contains the
128 character conventional ASCII character set. Each ASCII character sent in
the block shall be transmitted LSB first.

A rear unit device shall transmit a total of six ASCII characters when the ASCII
data format is used. If the transmitting system requires only a portion of the six
characters available in the Optional Data Block, additional ASCII characters shall
be appended as place markers so that all 42 bit positions are filled with data.
(That is, all ASCII character strings shall be padded to six characters if less than
six are required.) The ASCII null (NUL) or space (SP) characters could be used
in many situations to fulfill this requirement.

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 22.3.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
- 35
Type 0 message example:

An example of a Type 0 message containing an ASCII character string is shown
below. The character string in the message is the ten-character string, "SAMPLE
ONE". This character string requires two Optional Data Blocks in the message.
Two ASCII null characters have been added to the string in order to fill the entire
data field in the second Optional Data Block. The data values listed are in
binary, with the right most bit being the LSB.

Basic Bit sync
Block Frame sync
Chaining bits
Device battery condition
Message type identifier
Unit address code
Rear brake pipe status and pressure
Discretionary information
Motion detection
Marker light battery condition
Marker light status
Basic block BCH code
Trailing bit

Optional Bit sync
Data Frame sync
Block 1 Chaining bits
Block format indicator bit 1
ASCII character S 1010011
ASCII character A 1000001
ASCII character M 1001101
ASCII character P 1010000
ASCII character L 1001100
ASCII character E 1000101
Optional block I BCH code
Trailing bit

Optional Bit sync
Data Frame sync
Block II Chaining bits
Block format indicator bit 1
ASCII character SP 0100000
ASCII character O 1001111
ASCII character N 1001110
ASCII character E 1000101
ASCII character NUL 0000000
ASCII character NUL 0000000
Optional block II BCH code
Trailing bit

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 22.3.1 2002
______________________________________________________________________________
- 36
Table 2231-A1: ASCII Code Chart

0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
87
86
85
BITS
84 83 82 81
CONTROL
HIGH X & Y
GRAPHIC INPUT
LOW X LOW Y
0 0 0 0 NUL 0 DLE 16 SP 32 O 48 @ 68 P 80 ` 96 p 112
0 0 0 1 SOH 1 DC1 17 ! 33 1 49 A 65 Q 81 a 97 q 113
0 0 1 0 STX 2 DC2 18 " 34 2 50 B 66 R 82 b 98 r 114
0 0 1 1 EXT 3 DC3 19 # 35 3 51 C 67 S 83 c 99 s 115
0 1 0 0 EOT 4 DC4 20 $ 36 4 52 D 68 T 84 d 100 t 116
0 1 0 1 ENQ 5 NAK 21 % 37 5 53 E 69 U 85 e 101 u 117
0 1 1 0 ACK 6 SYN 22 & 38 6 54 F 70 V 86 f 102 v 118
0

1 1 1 BEL 7
BELL
ETB 23 ' 39 7 55 G 71 W 87 g 103 w 119
1 0 0 0 BS 8
BACK-
SPACE
CAN 24 ( 40 8 56 H 72 X 88 h 104 x 120
1 0 0 1 HT 9 EM 25 ) 41 9 57 I 73 Y 89 i 105 y 121
1 0 1 0 LF 10 SUB 26 * 42 : 58 J 74 Z 90 j 106 z 122
1 0 1 1 VT 11 ESC 27 + 43 ; 59 K 75 [ 91 k 107 { 123
1 1 0 0 FF 12 FS 28 , 44 < 60 L 76 \ 92 l 108 | 124
1 1 0 1 CR 13
RETURN
GS 29 - 45 = 61 M 77 ] 93 m 109 } 125
1 1 1 0 SO 14 RS 30 . 46 > 62 N 78 ^ 94 n 110 ~ 126
1 1 1 1 SI 15 US 31 / 47 ? 63 O 79 - 95 o 111 RUBOUT
(DEL) 127

AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 22.3.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
- 37
Appendix B

BIT POSITIONING DIAGRAM

BASIC MESSAGE BLOCK - ONE WAY SYSTEM

MSB LSB
UAC MESSAGE TYPE
IDENTIFIER
DEVICE
BATTERY
CONDITION
CHAINING BITS
UNIT ADDRESS CODE (UAC)


DISCRE-
TIONARY
REAR BRAKE PIPE STATUS & PRESSURE
DISCRETIONARY INFORMATION

BCH
CODE
MARKER
STATUS
MARKER
COND.
MOTION
DETECT.
DISCRETIONARY
INFORMATION
BCH CODE

TRAIL.
BIT
BCH CODE

Note: Bit and Frame Sync Bits are not shown.

AREMA C& S Manual
Par t 22.3.1 2002
______________________________________________________________________________
- 38
Appendix C-1


MESSAGE BLOCK - TWO WAY SYSTEM

REAR - TO - FRONT COMMUNICATIONS

MSB LSB
UAC MESSAGE TYPE
INDENTIFIER
DEVICE BATTERY
CONDITION
CHAINING BITS


DISCRE-
TIONARY
REAR BRAKE PIPE STATUS & PRESSURE
VALVE
CIRCUIT
DISCRETIONARY INFORMATION
BCH CODE MARKER
STATUS
MARKER
COND.
MOTION
DETECT.
DISCRE-
TIONARY
CONFIR-
MATION
BCH CODE

TRAIL.
BIT
BCH CODE


AREMA C& S Manual
2002 Par t 22.3.1
_____________________________________________________________________________
- 39
Appendix C-2


MESSAGE BLOCK - TWO WAY SYSTEM

FRONT - TO - REAR COMMUNICATIONS

MSB LSB
REAR UNIT
ADDRESS CODE
MESSAGE TYPE
CONDITION
CHAINING BITS
REAR UNIT ADDRESS CODE

COMMAND

REAR UNIT ADDRESS CODE
BCH COMMAND

BCH CODE

BCH CODE

BCH CODE

PARITY
BIT
BCH CODE



AREMA Communictaions and Signals

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

AREMA Communictaions and Signals

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING AND

MAINTENANCE OF WAY ASSOCIATION

You might also like