TECHNOLOGY, ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETY

Anisul Haque



















Institute of Water and Flood Management (IWFM)
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Society (BUET)
January 2014

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Definition

Science

Science is the knowledge to reveal and explore the mystery of the nature.
Science is the reasoned investigation that aimed at finding the truth following
some scientific method. Science was originally used to study the nature.

Engineering

Engineering is the application of science.

Technology

The word Technology comes from the Greek word Technologia that combines
two words craft and logic. The meaning of technology is different to different
persons. Technology may be defined with respect to its origin, purpose and
characteristics. Technology is the application of science and engineering,
especially to industrial or commercial objectives. It is the practical application of
knowledge especially in a particular area. Technologies significantly affect
human as well as other animal species' ability to control and adapt to their natural
environments. The human species' use of technology began with the conversion
of natural resources into simple tools. Technology has three dimensions: (1) the
apparatus, or physical devices, used in accomplishing a variety of tasks; (2) the
activities involved in performing these tasks; (3) and the organizational networks
associated with activities and apparatus. Technology affects society and
environment. Technology is man-made. It enhances physical and mental
capability of human beings. For example finding the very basic of flow of electron
in an electrical circuit is the science. The technology is the use of this knowledge
to create, may be, semi-conductors.

Environment
Environment is the sum total of all surroundings of a living organism, including
natural forces and other living things. An environment is what surrounds a thing
or an item. Environment could be - physical environment (built environment or
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natural environment), human environment (social environment). Whole physical
and biological systems in which man and other organisms live. It is the aggregate
of social and cultural conditions that influence the life of an individual or
community. Environment is the circumstances, objects, or conditions by which
one is surrounded. Various interacting components of environment are biology,
geology, chemistry, physics, engineering, sociology, health and economics.

Society
Society is the group of people living or working together. It is a voluntary
association of individuals for common ends. It is an organized group working
together or periodically meeting because of common interests, beliefs, or
profession. A cooperating group whose members have developed organized
patterns of relationships through interaction with one another. Society is a
community, nation, or broad grouping of people having common tradi tions,
institutions, and collective activities and interests. People of many nations united
by common political and cultural traditions, beliefs, or values are sometimes also
said to be a society (for example: Muslim, Christian, Eastern, Western, etc).

Development
Development is the process of economic and social transformation that is based
on complex social and environmental factors and their interactions. It is the
process of adding improvements. Development is the gradual advancement or
growth through a series of progressive changes. It is an extension of the
theoretical or practical aspects of a concept, design, discovery, or invention.

Concept of Technology

(1) Bargaining strength
Technology has market value and is not given free. Price of technology depends
on bargaining strength also. In other words, it can be termed as a new form of
currency. Definitely technology provides a comparative advantage.
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The bargaining strength should be such that it must satisfy both the society and
the environment the two most important client of technology. The successful
transformation of currency (indicator of both investment and profit) into
technology and then again into currency mostly depends on the bargaining
strength of the technological product.

(2) Colonization
Technology is the technical means people use to improve their surroundings. It is
the knowledge of using tools and machines to do tasks efficiently or in other
words, to control the world where we live. Technology is the means by which
people can use their knowledge, tools and systems to make their lives easier and
better and try to improve their ability to do work. This dependency for the better
life can ultimately lead to colonization. Many technologies allow one society to
have military advantage over another society. The effects these technologies on
human society are complex and can even lead to modern slavery. The
automobile and its need for fuel becomes the basis for a resource war. Mass
media also often shapes the mass opinion.

(3) Development mode
Technology develops from a simple tool (for example a wooden spoon) into a
complex tool (for example a space station). For a particular society, this
development can happen either as a continuous function or as a discontinuous
function. Depending on the development pattern for a particular society,
marketing strategy for a particular technology should be designed.

(4) Black Box Concept
A technology can be created either as a black box or a transparent box. In simple
words, a black box technology is difficult to understand. But it may be easy to
use. A producer will always like to produce the technology as a black box. But a
consumer will surely like a transparent box.

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Technological Functions
Technology can be thought to be functions of the following parameters:
(1) Technical method (TM) (2) Skill (SK) (3) Processes (PR) (4) Techniques
(TC) (5) Tools (TL) (6) Raw Materials (RW) (7) Technological Ethics (TE)
(8) Environmental Impact (EI) (9) Technological By Product (TB) (10)
Technological Risk (TR) (11) Philosophical Topic (PH) (12) Social Topic
(SO)
Technological development thus can be expressed as:
T = f(TM, SK, PR, TC, TL, RW, TE, EI, TB, TR, PH, SO)
As the parameters are all dependent variables, technological development can
be termed as non-linear with respect to time.

History of Technology

History of technology is as old as history of civilization. The history follows a
progression from simple tools and simple energy sources to compl ex tools. The
earliest technologies converted natural resources into simple tools.

The use of fire (8000 B.C) was a key turning point in technological evolution,
providing a simple form of energy. Then comes the more complex tools which
were rather simple machines like wheel (400 B.C) and lever (300 B.C). The more
complex machines like engines or even computers were just a continuation of
these. As the tools increase in complexity, so does the knowledge needed to
support them.

Technology and Culture

Driving force for the technological innovation is the socio-cultural activity for a
particular technology producer. The activities can be grouped into (1)
Manufacturing (2) Infrastructure and (3) Space travel.

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Nature of Technology
Complexity
The most modern tools are difficult to understand. Some are easy to use, but
difficult to understand. This is linked with source and means of making. Some of
them are difficult to use and difficult to understand.

Dependency
Modern tools depend on other modern tools for their make and use. For example
automobiles have a huge complex industry of means and methods. To use them
requires complex of roads, gas stations and even waste collection.

Valence
Valence in other words means the different types of technology. A parent
technology may have different types. Each type can be considered as a separate
technology, but the basic remains the same.

Scale
The scale of technology is measured by the magnitude and size of production. In
other words, it can be termed as the total volume of production. The scale is
related with the market value. It is expected that as the market value of a
particular product increases, the scale of the product also increases.

Relation between complexity, dependency, valence and scale
As a general rule, increase of complexity results a greater dependency. When
valence increases, the production facilities have also to be increased. This will
lead an increased dependency between the main tool and the supporting tool.
The increase of valence will result increase of scale depending on the market
value.


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Social demands and Progress of Technology

Every advancement in technology influences and eventually changes society.
Need of society changes, creating more needs and, eventually creating more
technology. For example, switching of technology from normal telephone to
mobile phone can be considered. With the invention of telephone, society
depends on quicker ways of communication. Higher expectation for quicker
communication was initially met using short-range radio system. Higher
portability was then realized with miniaturization of components. This demanded
for new product which was eventually met by the mobile phone.

Inter Dependency between Technology and Society

Relationship between society and technology is complex. It can be characterized
as co-dependence on each other. Society creates and depends upon technology
to meet its need and desire. Technologys existence arises due to societys need
and desire. This is called symbiosis.

Technology is in the society. The society is into technology. The society
contributes the human and material resources necessary for technology to
blossom. Experiments in technology today are in one way or another affecting
the society. Take for example the experiment on cloning a human being. The
experiment brought a lot of controversy since the society was skeptical about it.
So technology is not progressing in that particular area. The developing world
has a long tradition of participatory action research, popular educati on and
community organization joining up to solve some science and technology issues
that affect the society. Different forms of danger have also resulted from
technology. It is the societal use of technology that gives rise to these dangers.
Every new technology also seems to come with its own problems of waste which
the society finds it difficult to manage.

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Ogburn Theory of Cultural Lag
The best-known statement about the relationship between technology and
society is Ogburns theory of cultural lag. According to Ogburn, a cultural lag
occurs when one of two correlated parts of a culture changes before or in greater
degree than the other, thereby causing less adjustment between the two parts
than existed previously. Typically, social institutions and technology readily adjust
and readjust to each other, but sometimes one or the other changes radically and
a lag develops.

Interdependency between technology and environment

There is a non-symbiotic relation between environment and technology. This can
be proved as follows:
If environment and technology is symbiotic, then both the resource and the
environment are functions of technology. This is because technology needs
resource which is provided by the environment. So, we can write:
r=f (t)
e=f (t)
Where r is resource, e is environment and t is technology.
In other words, we can say
t = f (r)
t = f (e)
or, t = f(r,e)
=f [ f(t), f(t) ]
Which is mathematically incorrect, because a function cant be a function of its
own. This proves that environment and technology is not symbiotic.

Environmental Stress
Sources of environmental stress that shows non-symbiotic relation between
environment and technology are:
1. Environmental stress results from the interaction of (a) the environment,
(b) the technological system, and (c) the social system. This interaction
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produces air and water pollution, problems of solid-waste disposal, and
other hazards. A difficulty in dealing with environmental stress is the
number of problems involved and the extent to which they are interrelated.
2. Technologically advanced societies consume, on the average, four times
as much food per person as people in less developed countries. That
causes environmental stress.
3. Energy consumption is distributed unevenly throughout the world, with
energy use in the developed countries amounting to about one-quarter of
the worldwide total. This creates environmental stress.
4. To satisfy their high standard of living, the developed countries put
enormous stress on the environment.

Interdependency between technology and development

Development depends on productivity improvement. Productivity improvement is
linked to improved technology. For example, productivity will improve if an
improved production process is developed. That will trigger development. The
relation between technology and development can be expressed by the Cobb
Douglas production function.

CobbDouglas production function


K AL Y

Y = total production (the monetary value of all goods produced in a year)
L = Labor input (the total number of person-hours worked in a year)
K = Capital input (the monetary worth of all machinery, equipment, and buildings)
, = Output elasticities of labor and capital, respectively. These values are
constants determined by available technology.



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About ,
Output elasticity measures the responsiveness of output to a change in levels of
either labor or capital used in production. For example if = 0.15, a 1% increase
in labor would lead to approximately a 0.15% increase in output.
When:
+ = 1,
the production function has constant returns to scale. Which means doubling
capital K and labor L will also double output Y.
When
+ < 1,
returns to scale are decreasing (doubling capital K and labor L will be less than
doubling the output Y).
When
+ > 1
returns to scale are increasing (doubling capital K and labor L will be more than
doubling the output Y).
Assuming perfect competition and + = 1, and can be shown to be labor
and capital's share of output (For example if = 0.15, a 1% increase in labor
would lead to approximately a 0.15% increase in output).
About A
A = depends on the Technological Processes (TP). Increase in A results increase
in total production and hence development occurs. In other words, increase in
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total production increases per capita income (total production/population).
Increase of per capita income means development.
Development of new Technology

There are four approaches that can be used to describe how a new technology
develops. These are: (1) Societal components (2) Societal direction (3) Societal
structure (4) Societal consumption

Societal components
There is a systematic interaction between technology and various components
which constitute human surroundings. These include economi c, environmental,
population, resources, socio-cultural and politico-legal. Every technology, when
applied, causes some alterations to its human surroundings. The changed
surroundings then act as a guiding force for the development of new technology.

Societal direction
Different technologies affect different elements of society in different directions,
and in turn, these systems exert different force on the technological system.
These interactions, feedback loops and control mechanisms are of paramount
importance for proper evaluation of technologies. Technology acts as a prime-
mover for economic growth and vice versa.

Societal structure
Technology increases life expectancy. A well-structured population can produce
more knowledge, which is an essential input for the production of technology.

Societal consumption
Increased use of certain technologies require over increasing consumption of
resources. Depletion of non-renewable resources puts pressure on technology
for the creation of new resources. Many technologies change natural
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environment by withdrawing some constituents from the ecosystem. Technology
introduces into ecosystem some alien elements. Threat of irreversible change in
the environment demand harmony from new technologies. To the political system
technology is an instrument of power. With political backing, the legal system can
control the development of technology. All of these together effect the social
change.

Side Effects
There are two types of effects from the use of technology. One is the main effect
and the other is the side effect. Main effects are those that are intended by the
technology. Side effects are those that are mainly unintended and unknown prior
to the implementation of technology. The side effects are:
1) Sociological
2) Environmental

1) Sociological: The most prominent effects from technological uses are
sociological in nature. These effects might go unnoticed without careful
observation. Sociological effects can be expressed as:

Values: The implementation of technology changes the values of the society.
There are at least three major interrelated values that are result of technological
innovation.

A) Mechanistic World View: A set of benefits that views the universe as a
collection of parts, like a machine, that can be individually analyzed and
understood.
B) Efficiency: A value, originally applied only to machines, but now placed
upon all aspect of society. Where each element (organizational structure
and human being) is expected to attain higher and higher performance.
C) Progressivism: The belief that societal progress is good.

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Ethics : Technology challenges the traditional ethical norms. It creates an
aggragation of effects and changes the distribution of justice. It ultimately
provides a great power.

Lifestyle: Technology raises leisure class and makes people more informed. It
increases multi-tasking works. With global networking denser social circles are
created. Pattern of consumerism changes with too much information.

2) Environmental: Effect of technology on environment is both (a) obvious and (b)
subtle. The obvious effect includes depletion of non-renewable natural resources
and added pollution of air, water and land. The subtle effects are long-term
impact like global warming, deforestation, natural habitat destruction, coastal
wet-land loss etc.

Control of Technology

Technology can be controlled in different ways, for example:

1) Autonomous technology
In one line of thought, technology develops autonomously. In other words
technology seems to feed on itself. Technology moves forward with a force
irresistible by humans. To these individuals, technology is inherently dynamic
and self-augmenting. Human can not resist the temptation of expanding the
knowledge and technical abilities.

2) Government
Government provides much of the funding for technological research and
development. So government has a vested interest in certain outcomes.
Government can allow more or less legal liability to fall to the organization or
individual responsible for damage.

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3) Choice
Society controls technology through the choices that it makes. The choices
include channels of distribution, how do product go from raw materials to
consumption, the cultural beliefs regarding style, freedom of choice,
consumerism and the economic value placed on the environment.

Technology and Philosophy
There are different philosophical thoughts regarding approaches towards
technology. These are:

1) Technicism

Technicism is an over-confidence in technology as a benefactor of the society. It
is the belief that man-kind will be able to control its existence using technology.
Human being will be eventually be able to master all problems, supply all wants
and needs, possibly even control the future. Newer and more recently developed
technology is better. This kind of thought results what seems to be a blind
acceptance of technological development.

2) Pessimism
Technological society normally breaks down. Society becomes technological at
the cost of freedom and psychological health. It is also related to physical health
due to pollution from technological product.

3) Optimism
Technology has beneficial effect for the society. Technological development is
morally good.

4) Appropriate Technology
It is not always desirable to use very new technology. So a locally adopted
technology is preferable.
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Technology and Human Resource Development (HRD)

HRD is the process of enabling people to make things happen. HRD deals both
with the process of competency, development in people and creation of
conditions to help people apply these competencies for their own benefit and for
that of others. Competencies may include knowledge, skills, attitudes and values.
The competencies also may deal with any field: agriculture, industry,
management, medicine, law, engineering, teaching, politics, public
administration, home science, cooking, labour, telecommunications, research,
tourism etc. The capabilities may be developed in individuals, and communities
or collectives. The competencies may be simple -- like learning the alphabets, or
complex -- involving high technology applications relating to medicine, space,
telecommunications, defense, environment, etc. The competencies so developed
could enable people to act and improve their own lives and those of others. The
essential task of HRD is to provide opportunities technology can create those
opportunities by creating alternatives. People live longer today, are better
informed, can communicate with one another across the world and therefore
carry on economic, professional, educational, social and other activities with
ease.- these are contribution of technology. Economic development is linked with
the HRD. The knowledge base surrounding HRD is increasing rapidly
technology is contributing in creating the knowledge base.

Components of HRD

Components of HRD are:

o Physical development - People cannot function or make things
happen unless they are physically well developed, healthy and free
from disease. Thus food, nutrition and freedom from disease
become important.

o Intellectual development - comes through the process of education
and socialization.

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o Social development - involves developing the ability to live as a
member of the society or a group and contribute to it, at the same
time deriving benefits from it.

o Political development - ensures human dignity through freedom of
expression, democratic participation and an opportunity to influence
things that in turn influence the individuals living.

o Moral and spiritual development - required to bring order, discipline
and peace into life and ensure that one persons comfort does not
become his neighbors poison.


Technology and Human Resource Management (HRM)

Traditionally human resource management (HRM) has had a people-oriented
approach. However today, an emphasis is being given to a knowledge-based
administration using technology as a tool. The use of technology by HR has
proven to assist on the improvement of business performances. By sharing
information (technology) through HRM, organizations create expanded
opportunities for market share and financial growth. Technologys role on HRM
depends on the nature of Business Technology. Business technology refers to
the integration of communication technologies, administrative applications and
procedures within an organization. With increased communication technology,
there is a move for many to work from anywhere; people are no longer
necessarily anchored to one place. This has created a necessity for a new type
of HRM.

Factors of HRM
Factors that should be considered in this new type of HRM include:

o Growth in knowledge needs : World trade is growing over three
times faster in knowledge-intensive goods and services such as
biomedicine, robotics, and engineering.
o Shift in human competencies: In future almost all employment
growth will be in knowledge workers.

o Global market connection Technology is dissolving borders and
creating an interconnected marketplace.
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o Business streamlining. : Easy to use communication, electronic
mail, electronic conferencing, and databases are creating
instantaneous dissemination of data to make better decisions to
geographically dispersed workers.

o Rapid response. Technology permits quicker communications,
which allows faster decision-making

o Quicker innovation. Teams of marketing, engineering, and
production personnel working in parallel with computer provided
files, data, and information develop products faster

o Quality improvement. The concept of building quality into the entire
process of making, marketing, and servicing is enhanced by
computer monitoring systems and through robotics.

Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS)
HRIS is an integrated system providing information used in HR decision making.
HRIS serves two major purposes in organizations: (1) improves the efficiency
with which data on employees and HR activities are compiled; (2) having
accessible data enables HR planning and managerial decisions making to be
based to a greater degree on information rather than relying on managerial
perceptions or intuitions. An HRIS has many benefits for an organization; one of
the most frequently used is the automation of payroll and benefit activities. To
ensure that the right health care provider is in the right place with the right skills,
accurate data on human resources for health (HRH) can be provided by HRIS.
HRIS helps an organization to manage its workforce more effectively and
efficiently, while reducing costs and data errors. There are many commercial
software available for implementation of HRIS.








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Technology Life Cycle


Figure: Technology life cycle.

From the management and investment view point the technology life cycle
consists of four distinct stages, these are:
1. Innovation stage
2. Syndication stage
3. Diffusion stage
4. Substitution stage
1.Innovation stage
This stage represents birth of a new product, material or process resulting from
research and development activities. In the research and development
laboratories, new ideas are generated by need pull and knowledge-push
concepts. Depending upon the resources allocated and also the change element,
the time taken in the innovation stage varies widely.
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2. Syndication stage
This stage represents the demonstration and industrialization of a new
technology (product, material or process) with potential for immediate utilization.
Many innovations are shelved in the research and development laboratories.
Only a very small percent of those are commercialized. Commercialization of
research results depends on technical as well as non-technical (mostly
economic) factors and the time taken in the syndication stage also varies widely.

3. Diffusion stage
This stage represents the market penetration of a new technology through
acceptance of the innovation by the potential users of the technology. Both
supply and demand side factors jointly influence the rate of diffusion and the time
taken in diffusion stage varies widely.

4. Substitution stage
This stage represents the decline in the use and eventual extinction of a
technology (product, material or process) due to replacement by another
technology (or technologies). Many technical as well as non-technical factors
influence the rate of substitution, and the time taken in the substitution stage
depends on the market dynamics.

Technology life cycle described above has been shown in the figure which gives
an indication of the time spans and volume of investment required. The volume
of application has also been shown. While the diagram is indicative in nature, the
gestation period essential for the endogenously developed technology becomes
quite apparent.




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Technology Life Cycle and International Trade

It is common knowledge that in general, the export from developing to developed
countries is predominantly non-technology intensive, whereas the export from
developed to developing countries is mostly technology intensive. Thi s is
generally true as long as we consider the developing countries as a group versus
developed countries as a group. Within these groups however, the pattern of
trade is somewhat mixed. But it is obvious that technology plays an important
role in international trade. Technology provides the competitive edge in
international trade. It should also be looked into where and how technology is
produced. Therefore, international trade in technology means export of
technology from its country of origin to other countries.

Let us look at the trade situation with respect to those technologies which are
more hardware intensive. Introduction of a new technology gives the country of
its origin an absolute advantage over other countries for a time, but in relatively
short time other countries which are not far behind in that particular technological
area start imitating and succeed in producing the technology as well. Therefore,
in the introduction phase of the technological life cycle the country of origin
produces more than its own needs and earns good profit from exports.
Somewhere in the growth phase, other developed countries start producing the
same technology to meet their own demand. At this time the country of origin
starts exporting to less developed countries. But eventually after the technology
has reached the maturity phase (when some other new technology produced by
a developed country starts substituting this technology), the developing countries
start to produce the technology marginally economically, and the trade situation
is reversed (often with little profit).

Next, let us consider the trade situation with respect to those technologies which
are more software intensive. As most technologies are developed in the research
and development laboratories of the private sector of the developed countries,
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they sell their know-how to developing countries. The scale of technology here
means either the direct scale for a lump sum or the scale of a license for royalty.


Technology Development Approaches

Basically there are three approaches to raise the countrys overall level of
technological sophistication. These are: (i) buy the entire gamut of available
technologies; (ii) produce all technologies by self; and (iii) buy some and produce
some. Let us consider the fundamental merits and demerits of each of these
three approaches.

The buy all strategy has the greatest advantage of giving instant result. There is
no need to waste time and resources in reinventing what is already available.
Moreover, one does not have to wait until the people acquire enough knowledge
to produce new technologies. But, technology is sold only to those who can pay
for it and it is very expensive. Even though some countries may have enough
primary resources (non-technology commodities, such as fossil fuels, mineral
raw-materials, etc.) to sell for the purchase of technology. The greatest
disadvantage of this strategy is the perpetual dependence on foreign countries.
In addition, the market value of primary commodities in relation to technology as
a commodity has been decreasing continuously due to many reasons, such as:
(i) substitution, recycling and conservation measures taken with the help of
advanced technology in the developed countries (ii) developing countries have
less bargaining power due to weak financial situation; and (iii) technology
supplying countries can influence the economic and political institutions of the
technology purchasing countries as the purchased technologies can not be used
without the help of foreigners. Therefore, in the long run, this approach to
technology growth through purchase alone is not viable.

On the other hand, make all strategy has the greatest advantage of self-
reliance. But this is a very slow and painful process. Moreover, it is doubtful
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whether this approach to technology development can at all be implemented
under the prevailing situation (such as, increased population, depleted resources,
no external market etc.). Therefore, the approach which is most practical is buy
some and make some.

Current State of Technology

Few examples are given below describing the current state of technology.

1. Agricultural robot or Agribot is a robot deployed for agricultural
purposes.

2. Closed ecological systems (CES) are ecosystems that do not rely on
matter exchange with any part outside the system. In a closed ecological
system, any waste products produced by one species must be used by at
least one other species.

3. Head transplant is a surgical operation. It is involving the grafting of an
organism's head onto the body of another. It should not be confused with
another, hypothetical, surgical operation, the brain transplant. Head
transplantation involves decapitating the patient. Although it has been
successfully performed using dogs, monkeys and rats, no human is known
to have undergone the procedure. This technique has been proposed as
possibly useful for people who are already quadriplegics and who are also
suffering from widespread organ failures which would otherwise require
many different and difficult transplant surgeries. Quadriplegia may be an
acceptable option for the terminally ill. There is no uniform consensus on
the ethics of such a procedure

4. Life extension science, also known as anti-aging medicine,
experimental gerontology, and biomedical gerontology, is the study of
slowing down or reversing the processes of aging to extend both the
maximum and average lifespan. Some researchers in this area, and "life
extensionists" or "longevists" (those who wish to achieve longer lives
themselves), believe that future breakthroughs in tissue rejuvenation with
stem cells, molecular repair, and organ replacement (such as with artificial
organs or xenotransplantations) will eventually enable humans to have
indefinite lifespans (agerasia) through complete rejuvenation to a healthy
youthful condition.
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5. Nanomedicine is the medical application of nanotechnology
Nanomedicine ranges from the medical applications of nanomaterials, to
nanoelectronic biosensors, and even possible future applications of
molecular nanotechnology. Current problems for nanomedicine involve
understanding the issues related to toxicity and environmental impact of
nanoscale materials. One nanometer is one-millionth of a millimeter.

6. A stereo display (also 3D display) is a display device capable of
conveying depth perception to the viewer by means of stereopsis for
binocular vision

7. Holography is a technique which enables three-dimensional images to be
made. It involves the use of a laser, interference, diffraction, light intensity
recording and suitable illumination of the recording. The image changes
as the position and orientation of the viewing system changes in exactly
the same way as if the object were still present, thus making the image
appear three-dimensional.

8. Electronic nose is a device intended to detect odors or flavors. Over the
last decade, "electronic sensing" or "e-sensing" technologies have
undergone important developments from a technical and commercial point
of view. The expression "electronic sensing" refers to the capability of
reproducing human senses using sensor arrays and pattern recognition
systems. Since 1982, research has been conducted to develop
technologies, commonly referred to as electronic noses that could detect
and recognize odors and flavors. The stages of the recognition process
are similar to human olfaction and are performed for identification,
comparison, quantification and other applications, including data storage
and retrieval.. However, hedonic evaluation is a specificity of the human
nose given that it is related to subjective opinions. These devices have
undergone much development and are now used to fulfill industrial needs.

9. E-textiles, also known as electronic textiles or smart textiles, are
fabrics that enable computing. Digital components, and electronics to be
embedded in them. Part of the development of wearable technology, they
are known as intelligent clothing or smart clothing because they allow for
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the incorporation of built-in technological elements in everyday textiles and
clothes. Electronic textiles do not strictly encompass wearable computing
because emphasis is placed on the seamless integration between the
fabric and the electronic elements, such as cables, microcontrollers,
sensors and actuators. The field of embedding advanced electronic
components onto textile fibers is sometimes called fibertronics.

10. Biofuels include fuels derived from biomass conversion, as well as solid
biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases. Biofuels are gaining increased
public and scientific attention, driven by factors such as oil price hikes, the
need for increased energy security. However, according to the European
Environment Agency, biofuels do not address global warming concerns.

11. Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems use mirrors or lenses to
concentrate a large area of sunlight, or solar thermal energy, onto a small
area. Electrical power is produced when the concentrated light is
converted to heat, which drives a heat engine (usually a steam turbine)
connected to an electrical power generator. During 2010, the global total
rises to 1095 MW.

12. Home fuel cell, also called micro combined heat and power (microCHP)
and microgeneration, is a residential-scaled energy system. This allows a
residence to reduce overall fossil fuel consumption, reduce carbon
emissions and reduce overall utility costs, while being able to operate 24
hours a day.

13. Wireless power is the transmission of electrical energy from a power
source to an electrical load without man-made interconnecting conductors.
Wireless transmission is useful in cases where interconnecting wires are
inconvenient, hazardous, or impossible. With wireless power, efficiency is
the more significant parameter. A large part of the energy sent out by the
generating plant must arrive at the receiver or receivers to make the
system economical.

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14. Artificial brain is a term commonly used in the media to describe
research that aims to develop software and hardware with cognitive
abilities similar to those of the animal or human brain.

15. Quantum computer is a computation device that makes direct use of
quantum mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and
entanglement, to perform operations on data. Quantum computers are
different from digital computers based on transistors. Whereas digital
computers require data to be encoded into binary digits (bits), quantum
computation uses quantum properties to represent data and perform
operations on these data.

16. Electric vehicle (EV), also referred to as an electric drive vehicle, uses
one or more electric motors or traction motors for propulsion. Three main
types of electric vehicles exist, those that are directly powered from an
external power station, those that are powered by stored electricity
originally from an external power source, and those that are powered by
an on-board electrical generator, such as an internal combustion engine (a
hybrid electric vehicle). Electric vehicles include electric cars, electric
trains, electric lorries, electric aeroplanes, electric boats, electric
motorcycles and scooters and electric spacecraft.

17. Flying car is an aircraft that can also travel along roads. All the working
examples have required some manual or automated process of
conversion between the two modes of operation.

18. Bioplastics are a form of plastics derived from renewable biomass
sources, such as vegetable fats and oils. Some, but not all, bioplastics are
designed to biodegrade. Bioplastics which are designed to biodegrade can
break down in either anaerobic or aerobic environments, depending on
how they are manufactured. There is a variety of bioplastics being made;
they can be composed of starches, cellulose, or other biopolymers. Some
common applications of bioplastics are packaging materials, dining
utensils, food packaging, and insulation.

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19. Miniaturized satellites or small satellites are artificial satellites of low
mass and size, usually under 500 kg (1,100 lb). One reason for
miniaturizing satellites is to reduce the cost: heavier satellites require
larger rockets with greater thrust which also has greater cost to finance. In
retrospect, smaller and lighter satellites require smaller and cheaper
launch vehicles and can sometimes be launched in multiples. Besides the
cost issue, the main rationale for the use of miniaturized satellites is the
opportunity to enable missions that a larger satellite could not accomplish,
such as: (1) Constellations for low data rate communications (2) Using
formations to gather data from multiple points (3) In-orbit inspection of
larger satellites. (4) University Related Research.

20. Solar roadway is a road surface that generates electricity by solar power
photovoltaics. One current proposal is for 12 ft x 12 ft (3.658 m x 3.658 m)
panels including solar panels and LED signage, that can be driven on. The
concept involves replacing highways, roads, parking lots, driveways, and
sidewalks with such a system


Development and Environment

Generally in the industrialized countries, ways have been devised to
accommodate and prepare the way for economic growth and increases in
population density without decline of key measures of environmental quality and
health.

Resource and Technology

Condition of resource substitution or use of alternative energy source are:

1. Technology expands and the available resource creates alternative that
ultimately triggers resource substitution.
2. Depletion of resources is the driving force for resource substitution.
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3. Energy substitution has been driven by the availability of a set of new
technologies that enabled an alternative energy source to satisfy the end-
use demand of society. This results a resource substitution.

Impact of Technology upon the Environment

Life Cycle Assessment

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool (analytical and information generating tool)
for identifying and analyzing the impacts (influences, costs, or benefits) of
technology upon the environment. Policy makers use the information generated
by an LCA to compare the tradeoffs of alternative products, processes, and
services and to better inform their policy, adoption, and management
decisions.Business and industry leaders use this information to improve the
environmental performance of their products and operations, e.g., pollution
prevention and recyclability, and inform strategic decisions.

Components of LCA

LCA is built upon principles of
1. Systems thinking,
2. Sustainability, and
3. Life cycle thinking

Systems Thinking

A system is a group of interdependent components which act together in a
unified way. All technological systems are embedded within larger social,
economic, and environmental systems which interact through the exchange of
materials, energy, and information. These inputs and outputs indicate points of
impact and dependence between systems.

Sustainability

For a system to be sustainable (i.e., continue to function), the inputs consumed
by one system must not exceed the stored or regenerative capacity of the
environment from which those inputs originate. Thus, a paper mill which
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demands trees as a source of pulp must not exceed the supply of an existing
forest or the growth rate of that forest. In addition, the outputs of a systemthe
products, wastes, and emissionsmust be benign or degradable by the
environmental system, or those undesirable elements must be managed and
stored to protect the health of the environment. Life cycle thinking is a powerful
decision making tool when striving for sustainability.

Life Cycle Thinking

Life cycle thinking is looking upstream and downstream at the phases of a
products life cycle. This perspective emphasizes that a product has
environmental, social, and human health impacts at each stage of its life cycle.
These Includes the extraction of raw materials, design and production, packaging
and distribution, use and maintenance, and disposal. This comprehensive view
compels the decision maker to consider a full range of impact indicators
associated with the inputs and outputs of each system. Especially energy
consumption, water requirements, solid wastes, atmospheric emissions, human
health effects, and other cumulative impacts to the biosphere has to be
considered.

Human Response due to Environmental Change


Human systems and environmental systems meet in two places, where human
actions proximately cause environmental change, that is, where they directly alter
aspects of the environment, and where environmental changes directly affect
what humans value. Why, for example, is there so much variation across
societies, even advanced industrial societies, with regard to energy consumption
per unit of economic output? Some basic questions may be asked regarding
Impact of Environment upon Human Changes:
o What will humans do in anticipation of global change to keep it from
harming what they value?
o How will humans respond to actual global changes?
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o What is the likelihood that humans will take no organized action at
all in response to particular global changes, and what would be the
consequent effects on human welfare?



Mitigation and Intervention

Social and economic organization and human values may change faster than the
global environment. People may respond in anticipation of global change. People
may respond to experienced or anticipated global change by intervening at any
point in the cycle of interaction between human and environmental systems.
Mitigationthat is, actions that alter environmental systems to prevent, limit,
delay, or slow the rate of undesired global changesmay involve direct
interventions in the environment, direct interventions in the human proximate
causes, or indirect interventions in the driving forces of global change. People
can also respond by blocking the undesired proximate effects of environmental
systems on what they value, for example, by applying sunscreens to the skin to
help prevent cancer from exposure to ultraviolet radiation. They can make
adjustments that prevent or compensate for imminent or manifest losses of
welfare from global change, for example, famine relief or drought insurance. And
people can intervene to improve the robustness of social systems by altering
them so that an unchecked environmental change would produce less reduction
of values than would otherwise be the case. For example, crop polyculture may
not slow the pace of global change, but it is more robust than monoculture in the
face of drought, acid deposition, and ozone depletion. Many of these responses
may indirectly affect the driving forces of global change.

Human Response to Global Change
Human responses to global change occur within seven interacting systems.
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1. Individual perception, judgment, and action: All decisions are based
on inputs from individuals. Individual actions, in the aggregate, often have
major effects.

2. Markets : Environmental change is likely to affect the prices of important
commodities and factors of economic production. However, existing
markets do not provide the right price signals for managing global change
for various reasons, and the participants in markets do not always follow
strict rules of economic rationality.

3. Sociocultural systems: Social bonds can also affect individual and
community responses to global change and to policy.

4. Organized responses at the subnational level : Such as by
communities, social movements, and corporations and trade associations,
can be significant both in their own right and by influencing the adoption
and implementation of government policies.

5. National policies : Are critical in the human response to global change by
making possible international agreements and by affecting the ability to
respond at local and individual levels. Not only environmental policy, but
also macroeconomic, fiscal, agricultural, and science and technology
policies are important

6. International co-operation : Is necessary to address some large-scale
environmental changes such as ozone depletion and global warming. The
formation of international institutions for response to global change is
widely considered to be the key to solving the problems, and both nation-
states and non-state actors are involved.

7. Global social change: Expansion of the global market, the worldwide
spread of communication networks, democratic political forms, and
scientific knowledge, and the global resurgence of cultural identity as a
social force may influence the way humanity responds to the prospect of
global change and its ability to adapt to experienced change.


Human societies respond to environmental (e.g., climate) signals through
multiple pathways including collapse or failure, migration and creative invention
through discovery.



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Extreme Events and Human Response

Extreme drought, for instance, has triggered both social collapse and ingenious
management of water through irrigation. Extreme events in the fourteenth
century in Europe fundamentally undermined social order. In the same period
(fourteenth century in Europe), agricultural land was abandoned and forests
increased. Many would argue that it also led to the end of the feudal system,
improved land and employee rights and, through the enlightenment period,
paved the way for the modern age. The Little Ice Age affected food availability in
many parts of Europe, leading to the development of technological, economic
and political strategies as ways to reduce vulnerability.

Great Acceleration and Human-Environment Relation

The engine of the Great Acceleration (the sharp increase in human population,
economic activity, resource use, transport, communication and knowledge
sciencetechnology that was triggered in many parts of the world) is an
interlinked system consisting of population increase, rising consumption,
abundant cheap energy, and liberalizing political economies. The Great
Acceleration is arguably the most profound and rapid shift in the human
environment relationship that the Earth has experienced. There are signs that the
Great Acceleration could not continue in its present form without increasing the
risk of crossing major thresholds and triggering abrupt changes worldwide.
Transitions to new energy systems will be required. Many of the ecosystem
services upon which human well-being depends are depleted or degrading, with
possible rapid changes when thresholds are crossed. There are circumstances in
which a society is resilient to perturbations (e.g., climate change) and there are
circumstances in which a society is so vulnerable to perturbations that it will be
unable to cope.


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Environmental Problems Leading to Societal Collapse

The 11 most serious environmental problems facing past and future societies
problems that often have led to the collapse of historical societies:
1. Loss of habitat and ecosystem services
2. Loss of biodiversity;
3. Soil erosion and degradation;
4. Energy limits;
5. Freshwater limits;
6. Photosynthetic capacity limits;
7. Toxic chemicals;
8. Alien species introductions;
9. Climate change;
10. Population growth; and
11. Human consumption levels.
Environment Friendly Technology
Green technology or environmentally friendly technology uses science to
safeguard the natural environment and resources as well as reducing the human
impact on the Earth. Following are some examples of green technology:
(1) Solar power is being used today and with the threat of global warming the
market is growing. Renewable energy is becoming more widely sought
and homes can often be found with solar panels and energy efficient
appliances.
(2) Recycling is a type of green technology that uses old materials to make
new products. Recycling saves not only energy and raw materials but also
space used in landfills.
(3) Wind can be used to generate power.
(4) Water purification is the process of turning raw and or contaminated
water into useful water for drinking, medical and industrial uses.
Technology is even being developed that can remove the salt from sea
water to make it into drinking water.
(5) Solar thermal power stations use mirrors to focus the sun's rays into
tanks of heat-transfer oil, heating it to about 400C, which is in turn used
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to boil water for a steam turbine. The solar thermal power plant, is
expected to generate 280 megawatts electricity.
(6) Prefabricated house is made with solid cork, seaweed, walnut plaster.
(7) Rainwater harvesting system will help a households to save up to 50%
of their water consumption.
(8) Solar panel road can replace asphalt on road surfaces. The issue of tyre
grip on the smooth surface of the solar panels has not been resolved.
(9) Paper bottle is molded from 100 per cent recyclable paper. It is cheap
and easy to produce, re-sealable, making it a viable alternative to plastic
bottles.
(10) Solar paint, when applied in layers to steel cladding, can convert
5% of solar energy to electricity.
(11) Solar windows look like conventional windows but they are coated
in a transparent dye. The dye captures, concentrates and redirects light
along the surface of the glass to photovoltaic cells in the frame. These
photovoltaic cells convert the light into electricity.
(12) Eco Towns are large scale developments including homes,
business premises and schools employing the latest innovation in green
technology to be low or zero carbon emitting.
Several Sources of Environmental Problems

Some of the examples below will show different sources of environmental
problems. For all these problems, it is the use of the technology, not the
technology itself, is responsible for the environmental problem.
(1) Nuclear Power Plant: The recent nuclear power plant accident in Japan
due ti tsunami was a much talked technological accident. It is now obvious
that it was due to the fault in the design of the power plant. No safety
factor was considered in the design of the power plant to take care of any
such events.
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(2) Ship Operation: Some problems come about largely because of
irresponsible or unintelligent behaviour. Careless ship operations appear
to be the immediate cause of oil spill.
(3) Gas or Oil Leaks: Gas or oil leaks from drilling could very likely have
been prevented by more thorough geological studies and better
engineering practice. Some problems arise because of collective effects of
individual behaviour that is not particularly serious on a small scale. Other
problems arise simply out of ignorance.
(4) CFC: No environmental impact statement at the time of the innovation is
likely to have identified the problems that arouse decades later with DDT
or chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Electric refrigeration looked like a
marvelous advance over the icebox when it was introduced into the mass
market in the late 1920s, and the CFCs looked attractive compared with
the problems of leaks and explosions associated with ammonia and other
first-generation coolants. CFCs were invented around 1930 as a safe
alternative to ammonia and sulfur dioxide for use in home refrigerators.
Certainly no chemist could have been expected in the 1930s to link CFCs
to destruction of stratospheric ozone, which could not be measured
accurately at that time, or to the greenhouse effect.
(5) Waste Disposal: Products and incentives should be designed in such a
way that a minimum of hazardous waste is created. But also, it should be
easy to dispose of those wastes that are created. Society might better use
its resources to recycle these materials than to prosecute those who dump
them.

Local and Global Environmental Problem

During the production phase, the industry will have an interaction with the local
surroundings. This interaction will produce waste locally and will affect the local
ecosystem resources, for example, the agriculture and the fishery in the river.
This is a local problem and that can be thought to affect only the local population.
35
On the other hand, during the consumption phase, the consumed product
interacts with the global surroundings and thereby, creates wastes. These
wastes may trigger the phenomena like global warning or climate change. This is
a global problem that affects the global population. The global problem also
affects the local population.

Environmental Regulation and the Industry

Environmental analysis and regulation have sometimes tended to focus on
industry as the major force shaping the evolution of the environment to the
exclusion of other important forces. Environmentalists have tended to view
industry as a collection of pollution sources. This view, no doubt, is inadequate.

Metabolism

The metabolism means the consumption. A product is metabolistic when it is
totally consumed considering the entire process of production and consumption.
The ultimate target of metabolism is to produce minimum or zero waste. Different
approaches of metabolism are:

(1) The concept of metabolism leads to unified, continuous, and
comprehensive consideration of production and consumption processes
from an environmental point of view.
(2) In many places the major sources of environmental pollutants have been
shifting from production to consumption processes.
(3) Several industries have increasingly been able to control the material
flows in their production processes quite comprehensively.
(4) The chemical industry, for example, is finding new uses for waste
products.
(5) Industry in future will recycle or use a number of todays major waste
products.
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Dissipation and Dispersion

Dissipation and dispersion are the two modes of consumption.

Dissipation is the consumption in the non-molecular level. A large number of
materials uses are inherently dissipative. Many materials are degraded,
dispersed, and lost in the course of a single normal use. In addition to fuels and
food, this applies to many packaging materials, lubricants, solvents, flocculants,
detergents, cleaning agents, dyes, most paper, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals,
fertilizers etc. Most of the current consumptive uses of toxic heavy metals, such
as arsenic, cadmium, chromium, and mercury are dissipative in this sense. Other
uses are dissipative in practice because of the difficulty of recycling such items
as batteries and electronic devices. Increasing product and materials complexity
may also contribute to a tendency toward dissipative use. Dissipative
consumption is non-metabolistic and normally residual remains.

Dispersion, on the other hand, represents consumption in molecular level. This is
possible mainly through repeated recycling. Dispersion makes the consumption
metabolistic.

Residuals and Environment

Residuals tend to be disappeared from the market domain, where everything has
a price. They do not disappear from the natural world in which the economic
system is embedded. Many signals given by prices are wrong from an
environmental viewpoint. For example, differences in prices of coal, oil and gas
scarcely reflect the different environmental consequences of these energy
sources.


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Dematerialization

The term dematerialization is employed to characterize the decline over time in
weight of materials used in industrial end products. Dematerialization would be
tremendously important for the environment, because less material could
translate in to smaller quantities of waste generated in both production and
consumption.

There are widely held perceptions of a long-term trend of decline in weight
(intensity) of materials. Among the evidence pointed to are the decline in per
capita consumption of such basic materials as steel in some advanced
industrialized countries and the increasing efficiency of energy use. The
significant decline in use of steel in the automotive industry does provide strong
evidence in support of dematerialization in production. Further evidence of
dematerialization in production is provided by data on overall industrial solid
waste generation, which showed a significant decline for several years beginning
in 1979.

However, the overall picture about dematerialization is not so sanguine. Two
examples can be cited in this regard. (1) Generation of municipal solid waste has
been on the increase, and there appears to have been overall a linear increase in
discards with time measured by weight. If smaller, lighter products are also
inferior in quality, then more units would be produced and the net result could be
a greater amount of waste generated. (2) Spatial dispersion of the population is a
potential materializer. Migration from urban to suburban areas, often driven by
affluence, requires more roads, more single unit dwellings, and more
automobiles. The shift from larger families to smaller nuclear families may be a
materializer.



38
Technological Contributions to Solutions of Environmental Problems

Two approaches can be considered in this regard.

(1) Technological contribution to the solution of environmental problems
associated with energy production and consumption. There is a general
agreement that reduction in emissions from the supply side and improvement in
efficiency on the demand side are the right things to do.

(2) The record of engineering achievement shows sustained improvement in
efficiency accompanied by a continuing decline in the cost over most of the time.
In the past few years, energy requirements and losses associated with emission
controls have offset continued engineering improvements aimed at efficiency.

Integrated Gasifier with Combined Cycle (IGCC)

To use further use of coal as well as gas resources, the Integrated Gasifier with
Combined Cycle (IGCC) can be considered a major step forward. If carbon
dioxide must eventually be removed from power plant effluents, IGCC can
probably best accommodate this requirement, not without cost, but at costs
below other coal-based alternatives. Meanwhile, gas produces less carbon
dioxide per kilowatt-hour than any other fossil fuel option and permits us some
time to understand better the issue of climate change without imposing costly but
ineffectual carbon dioxide removal requirements.

Integrated Energy Systems (IES)

The IES concept is one in which product streams and energy streams merge.
Coal, crude oil, liquefied petroleum gases, and natural gas could well be primary
materials used by the system. Waste of heat or components is minimized,
thereby enhancing economic efficiency. Zero emission, the ultimate dream for
39
energy systems, can be accomplished only with a hydrogen economy, and IES
offers a technological road toward that goal.

Social and Institutional Approach of Environmental Issues

Professionals have discovered environmental problems over the past 100 years.
First physicians and expert in public health, the engineers, later biologists and
toxicologists, and most recently lawyers. Each discovered problems and offered
solutions. All of the solutions have had unforeseen consequences, whether
natural, social, or economic, and most have been so narrowly focused that larger
public goals have been missed.

The legal system has generated some of the key decisions supporting
environmental protection. It has produced an adversarial, combative climate in
which it is virtually impossible for people from industry to discuss facts with their
colleagues in government or the public. Legalistic approach has produced a
staggering load of regulations that leaves little time or incentive for creativity and
human judgment in developing solutions and no time for concentrating on
environmental results. It has created a process oriented, rather than a result
oriented approach.

Legislative activities have resulted in an enormous, sometimes contradictory,
uncoordinated control requirements. Regulations require advanced waste
treatment of domestic waste at about 50% higher cost than the usual secondary
treatment when discharged into a water body. Better engineering would create
fewer problems for biologists and lawyers to worry about. Imaginative
approaches are needed for cooperative activity between technical experts and
the policymaking community.

The technological community, indeed all of the society, has been largely reactive
to environmental issues. In the past we have tended to wait for the crisis and
40
responded. Society needs a positive agenda for environment, based on theories,
better data basses and better analyses. For engineers, the emphasis should be
on design of environmentally compatible technologies, both for manufacturing
and plant operations for products.

Design should not merely meet environmental regulations. Environmental
elegance should be part of the culture of engineering education and practice.
Selection and design of manufacturing processes and products should
incorporate environmental constraints and objectives at the beginning. Ever-
increasing goals for environmental quality present the engineering profession
with challenges in design, basic research and education. Environmental quality
must become an ethic in all engineering design.

Waste Reduction

The most important waste reduction methods are:
1. Inplant process
2. Inplant re-cycling
3. Add on device
4. Change in process technology
5. Change in plant operation
6. Substitution of input material
7. Modification of end product
8. Avoid creation of waste
9. Waste destruction
10. Waste isolation

A movement has grown stressing design and in-plant processes, in contrast to
add-on devices or exterior recycling, to reduce or eliminate waste. This
movement has been called waste reduction or pollution prevention.

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It is necessary first to prevent waste creation. This involves the development of
substitute products and processes. It is necessary to seek general principles to
guide the search for substitutes for certain broad classes of widely used
materials with environmental effects. In response to developing regulatory trends
and competition from the paper industry, the chemical industry has begun
development of biodegradable plastics.

It is important of reducing waste and preventing waste creation. Avoiding creation
of a waste eliminates the need for its treatment and disposal, both of which carry
environmental risk. Treated effluent streams carry non-regulated residual
substances that may turn out later to be harmful.

Methods of waste reduction include in-plant recycling, changes in process
technology, changes in plant operation, substitution of input materials, and
modification of end products both to permit use of less-polluting processes and to
prevent the products themselves from becoming problem wastes. The
technology of waste reduction does not yet have a widely accepted scientific
basis.

If waste cannot be prevented, then way should be found to recycle or reuse it.
Apart from behavioral and economic hurdles, recycling faces technical
limitations. For example, recycling paper shortens paper fibers and lowers
quality. There are precious metals, such as platinum, used in catalytic
converters, that industry would like to recycle, but an economic means to collect
the converters has not yet been found.

If recycling or reuse is not possible, then it is time for treatment and destruction. If
those options are insufficient, the next resort is waste isolation. The last resort is
avoiding exposure to released residues. Even with remarkable engineering
achievements, many of the problems associated with waste disposal will become
worse.
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Waste Management

Following are some examples of waste management:

1. One example is the biodegradable plastics.
2. More could be understood about using ultraviolet radiation or gamma rays
to irradiate and harmlessly decompose plastics.
3. Material research itself can be a key to dematerialization. More needs to
be understood about combustion. Progress on fundamental of combustion
is already enabling the design of engines that produce lower NO
emissions. It is time to become serious about technologies for reducing
and recycling carbon dioxide emissions.
4. Technologies for cost-effective separation of hydrogen remain areas of
potentially high environmental payoff. There are also needs for
improvement and deployment of monitoring technologies. Environmental
monitoring still remains labour intensive.
5. Many engineering systems have been poorly designed from the point of
view of operators and that this human aspect of design must be taken
more seriously, whether in electrical or chemical plants or consumer
products.
6. In the past few years there has been a shift among environmentalists to a
revised view of the soft path option that emphasizes managing demand
downward rather than supply upward to meet societal needs and
problems.






43
Approaches to consider Environmental Issues

The main approaches are:
1. Search for optimality
2. Real time decision
3. Partial solution
4. Dynamic system consideration

The partial nature of solutions must be accepted. On most environmental issues,
the luxury of time to search for optimality does not exist. In many areas,
decisions are being made in real time or on the basis of anticipated
consequences. However, a sequence of partial solutions may form a good path if
the forces driving the system are reasonably well understood. The key is to work
on narrow or specific problems with an understanding of the interface with the
overall problem.

Isolating meaningful subsystems is not always easy, especially in turbulent,
dynamic systems such as those in which most environmental issues exist. There
may occasionally be simple and important relations to be found in complex
systems. The challenge is to couple technological, economic, and environmental
considerations without unrealistic data needs that can come with ambitious
modeling efforts.

End use efficiency

End-use efficiency is the result of a process involving several links in a chain.
Final products are made by sequences of processes with an overall conversion
efficiency that is the product of the efficiency at each stage. If a typical chain has
four steps, each with a very favourable conversion efficiency of 0.7, the overall
conversion ratio of the chain is about 0.7
4
= 0.24.

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Renewable Energy and the Environment
Definition
Fossil fuels are non-renewable, that is, they draw on finite resources that will
eventually dwindle, becoming too expensive or too environmentally damaging to
retrieve. In contrast, the many types of renewable energy resources-such as
wind and solar energy-are constantly replenished and will never run out.
Sources of renewable energy
The main sources are renewable energy are:
1. Sun
2. Wind
3. Hydrogen
4. Water
5. Geothermal
Most renewable energy comes either directly or indirectly from the sun. Sunlight,
or solar energy, can be used directly for heating and lighting homes and other
buildings, for generating electricity, and for hot water heating, solar cooling, and a
variety of commercial and industrial uses. The sun's heat also drives the winds,
whose energy, is captured with wind turbines. Then, the winds and the sun's heat
cause water to evaporate. When this water vapor turns into rain or snow and
flows downhill into rivers or streams, its energy can be captured using
hydroelectric power. Sunlight causes plants to grow. The organic matter that
makes up those plants is known as biomass. Biomass can be used to produce
electricity, transportation fuels, or chemicals. The use of biomass for any of these
purposes is called bioenergy. Hydrogen also can be found in many organic
compounds, as well as water. It's the most abundant element on the Earth. But it
doesn't occur naturally as a gas. It's always combined with other elements, such
as with oxygen to make water. Once separated from another element, hydrogen
can be burned as a fuel or converted into electricity. Not all renewable energy
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resources come from the sun. Geothermal energy taps the Earth's internal heat
for a variety of uses, including electric power production, and the heating and
cooling of buildings. Energy of the ocean's tides come from the gravitational pull
of the moon and the sun upon the Earth. Ocean Energy comes from a number of
sources. In addition to tidal energy, there's the energy of the ocean's waves,
which are driven by both the tides and the winds. All these forms of ocean energy
can be used to produce electricity.
Benefits of Renewable Energy
Environmental Benefits
Renewable energy technologies are clean sources of energy that have a
much lower environmental impact than conventional energy technologies.
Energy for future
Renewable energy will not run out. Other sources of energy are finite and
will some day be depleted.
Jobs and the Economy
Most renewable energy investments are spent on materials and
workmanship to build and maintain the facilities, rather than on costly
energy imports.
Energy Security
As an independent energy source, renewable energy do not depend on
the socio-economic and political situation of the world.
Trend of using Renewable Energy
In 2000, the International Energy Agency (IEA) published its World Energy
Outlook, predicting that non-hydro renewable energy would comprise 3 percent
of global energy by 2020. That benchmark was reached in 2008.
In 2000, IEA projected that there would be 30 gigawatts of wind power worldwide
by 2010, but the estimate was off by a factor of 7. Wind power produced 200
gigawatts in 2010, an investment of approximately $400 billion.
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In 1999, the U.S. Department of Energy estimated that total U.S. wind power
capacity could reach 10 gigawatts by 2010. The country reached that amount in
2006 and quadrupled between 2006 and 2010.
In 2000, the European Wind Energy Association predicted Europe would have 50
gigawatts of wind by 2010 and boosted that estimate to 75 two years later.
Actually, 84 gigawatts of wind power were feeding into the European electric grid
by 2012.
In 2000, IEA estimated that China would have 2 gigawatts of wind power
installed by 2010. China reached 45 gigawatts by the end of 2010.
Germany now generates 25 percent of its electricity from renewable
sources. Germany produced 67.9 billion kilowatt hours of renewable energy in
the first half of 2012, a record high and an increase of 19.5 percent from the
same period last year.
Notable shift in the energy mix is the significant growth in wind, solar and
biofuels. These three fuels grow rapidly, with demand in 2040 more than five
times the 2010 level.
Still, by 2040, they will only make up 3 to 4 percent of total world energy.
Although renewable energy made impressive advances, its impact has been
dwarfed by the changes caused by the surplus of cheap, abundant natural gas.
Greater advances in technology are needed to increase the commercial viability
and associated economics of developing these resources.

Types of Renewable Energy
1. Solar Energy
2. Wind Energy
3. Biomass Energy
4. Biogas Energy
5. Hydro Energy
6. Wave Energy
7. Tidal Energy
8. Geothermal Energy
9. Nuclear Energy


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Solar Energy
Solar Cells (really called "photovoltaic", "PV" or "photoelectric" cells) convert light
directly into electricity. People are increasingly installing PV panels on their roofs.
In Solar water heating, heat from the Sun is used to heat water. Water is pumped
through pipes in the panel. The pipes are painted black, so they get hotter when
the Sun shines on them. In 2000, total installed global photovoltaic solar capacity
was 1.5 gigawatts, and most of it was off-the-grid. The annual market in 2010
was 17 gigawatts.
Wind Energy
We can use the energy in the wind by building a tall tower, with a large propellor
on the top. The wind blows the propellor round, which turns a generator to
produce electricity. We tend to build many of these towers together, to make a
"wind farm" and produce more electricity. The more towers, the more wind, and
the larger the propellors, the more electricity we can make. It's only worth
building wind farms in places that have strong, steady winds. The best places for
wind farms are in coastal areas, at the tops of rounded hills, open plains and
gaps in mountains - places where the wind is strong and reliable. Some are
offshore. To be worthwhile, you need an average wind speed of around 25 km/h.
The propellers are large, to extract energy from the largest possible volume of
air. The blades can be angled to "fine" or "coarse" pitch, to cope with varying
wind speeds, and the generator and propellor can turn to face the wind wherever
it comes from. Some designs use vertical turbines, which don't need to be turned
to face the wind. The towers are tall, to get the propellors as high as possible, up
to where the wind is stronger. This means that the land beneath can still be used
for farming.
Biomass Energy
For a biomass power station making electricity, it's pretty much like a fossil fuel
power station:
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Wood was once our main fuel. We burned it to heat our homes and cook our
food. Wood still provides a small percentage of the energy we use, but its
importance as an energy source is dwindling. Sugar cane is harvested and taken
to a mill, where it is crushed to extract the juice. The juice is used to make sugar,
whilst the left-over pulp, called "bagasse" can be burned in a power station.
Other solid wastes, can be burned to provide heat, or used to make steam for the
power station. We can use rubbish, animal manure, woodchips, seaweed, corn
stalks and other wastes. Typical biomass fuels include a wide variety of material.
Some common fuels are forestry by-products, agricultural wastes, municipal
wastes. For a biomass-fuelled power station at Portbury, near Bristol, USA, the
fuel is wood, brought in by boat, and the station produces 150MW of electrical
power.
Biogas Energy
Biogas is a biofuel, and usually means a mixture of methane and hydrogen
produced by using bacteria to break down organic material.

Waste material is digested in the absence of oxygen (we call it "anaerobic
conditions") by bacteria. We also call this process "fermentation". It works best at
around 35~40 degrees Celsius. The gas produced depends on the material you
started with. If you start with manure, sewage or "green waste" from agricultural
land, you get mainly methane and carbon dioxide. If you start with wood or other
biomass, you get "wood gas" which is nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon monoxide and
a little methane.
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Hydro Energy
Water has proven itself as a reliable source of energy for centuries. A dam is built
to trap water, usually in a valley where there is an existing lake. Water is allowed
to flow through tunnels in the dam, to turn turbines and thus drive generators.
Hydro-electric power stations can produce a great deal of power very
cheaply.Although there are many suitable sites around the world, hydro-electric
dams are very expensive to build. However, once the station is built, the water
comes free of charge, and there is no waste or pollution. Because of the great
height of the water, it will arrive at the turbines at high pressure, which means
that we can extract a great deal of energy from it. The water then flows away
down river as normal.

In mountainous countries such as Switzerland and New Zealand, hydro-electric
power provides more than half of the country's energy needs.
Wave Energy
There are several methods of getting energy from waves. At a wave power
station, the waves arriving cause the water in the chamber to rise and fall, which
means that air is forced in and out of the hole in the top of the chamber. We
place a turbine in this hole, which is turned by the air rushing in and out. The
turbine turns a generator.
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Tidal Energy
The tide moves a huge amount of water twice each day, and harnessing it could
provide a great deal of energy - around 20% of Britain's needs. Although the
energy supply is reliable and plentiful, converting it into useful electrical power is
not easy. These work rather like a hydro-electric scheme, except that the dam is
much bigger. A huge dam (called a "barrage") is built across a river estuary.
When the tide goes in and out, the water flows through tunnels in the dam. The
ebb and flood flow of the tides can be used to turn a turbine, or it can be used to
push air through a pipe, which then turns a turbine. Large lock gates, like the
ones used on canals, allow ships to pass.
Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is the heat from the Earth. It's clean and sustainable.
Resources of geothermal energy range from the shallow ground to hot water and
hot rock found a few miles beneath the Earth's surface, and down even deeper to
the extremely high temperatures of molten rock called magma.
Geothermal Electricity
Generating electricity from the earth's heat. Most power plants need steam to
generate electricity. The steam rotates a turbine that activates a generator, which
produces electricity. Many power plants still use fossil fuels to boil water for
steam. Geothermal power plants, however, use steam produced from reservoirs
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of hot water found a couple of miles or more below the Earth's surface. There are
three types of geothermal power plants: dry steam, flash steam, and binary
cycle. Dry steam power plants draw from underground resources of steam. The
steam is piped directly from underground wells to the power plant, where it is
directed into a turbine/generator unit. Flash steam power plants are the most
common. They use geothermal reservoirs of water with temperatures greater
than 360F (182C). This very hot water flows up through wells in the ground
under its own pressure. As it flows upward, the pressure decreases and some of
the hot water boils into steam. The steam is then separated from the water and
used to power a turbine/generator. Binary cycle power plants operate on water
at lower temperatures of about 225-360F (107-182C). These plants use the
heat from the hot water to boil a working fluid, usually an organic compound with
a low boiling point. The working fluid is vaporized in a heat exchanger and used
to turn a turbine. The water is then injected back into the ground to be reheated.
Geothermal Direct Use
Its direct use is producing heat directly from hot water within the earth.
Geothermal hot water can be used for many applications that require heat. Its
current uses include heating buildings (either individually or whole towns), raising
plants in greenhouses, drying crops, heating water at fish farms, and several
industrial processes, such as pasteurizing milk.
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear power is generated using Uranium, which is a metal mined in various
parts of the world.

Nuclear power stations work in pretty much the same way as fossil fuel -burning
stations, except that a "chain reaction" inside a nuclear reactor makes the heat
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instead. The reactor uses Uranium rods as fuel, and the heat is generated by
nuclear fission: neutrons smash into the nucleus of the uranium atoms, which
split roughly in half and release energy in the form of heat. Carbon dioxide gas or
water is pumped through the reactor to take the heat away (it's around 600
degrees Celsius in there), this then heats water to make steam. The steam drives
turbines which drive generators. Modern nuclear power stations use the same
type of turbines and generators as conventional power stations.
Technological Hazard

Definition

A hazard originating from technological or industrial conditions, including
accidents, dangerous procedures, infrastructure failures or specific human
activities, that may cause loss of life, injury, illness or other health impacts,
property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic
disruption, or environmental damage.
Technological hazards are substances which could affect human health or the
environment by contamination and their effects on animals and plants.

Technological hazards are an increasing source of risk to people and their
environment. This is an effect of the globalization of production, an increase of
industrialization and a certain level of risk of accidents connected with
production, processes, transportation and waste management.

Different Types of Technological Hazards

Examples of technological hazards include industrial pollution, nuclear radiation,
toxic wastes, dam failures, transport accidents, factory explosions, fires, and
chemical spills.
Technological hazards also may arise directly as a result of the impacts of a
natural hazard event.
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There is a certain probability that the expanding genetic technology
(gentechnology) will pose more problems of this kind in future.
Another form of related threat is evident today by the transfer of biologically-
active substances or species to places where they can destroy the natural
established equilibrium. Few more examples are:
1. Accidents and releases where radionuclides or radiation are involved.
2. Release of chemical substances in accidental conditions to the environment.
3. Activities which could lead to a release of biological substances, or
organisms.
4. Release of chemicals to the atmosphere by explosion.
5. Release of chemicals into water (groundwater, rivers etc.) by tank rupture,
pipeline rupture.
6. Chemicals dissolved in water.
7. Oil spills in marine environment.
8. Satellite crash (radionuclides)

9. Radioactive sources in metallurgical processes.


10. Contamination by waste management activities

11. Soil contamination

12. Groundwater contamination by waste dumps (slowly moving contamination)


13. Releases and contaminations as a consequence of military actions (e.g.
depleted uranium)

14. Releases as consequence of the industrial use of biological material (e.g.
viruses, bacteria, fungi)


15. Dam failures can result from natural events, human-induced events, or a
combination. Failures due to natural events such as hurricanes, earthquakes,
or landslides are significant because there is generally little or no advance
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warning. The most common cause of dam failure is pro-longed rainfall that
produces flooding.

16. Hazardous materials (HAZMAT) events - uncontrolled releases of
hazardous materials from fixed sites or during transport. HAZMAT releases
pose short- and long-term toxological threats to people and to terrestrial and
aquatic plants and wildlife. Toxic materials affect people through inhalation,
ingestion, or direct contact with skin.
17. All areas where chemicals are fabricated, processed, stored, or disposed at
fixed sites may be exposed. Communities close to highway, railroad, pipeline,
air, and water transportation systems are at risk from HAZMAT events that
occur during transport.
18. Telecommunications failures - failures of data transfer, communications, or
processing brought about either by physical destruction of computers or
communications equipment or a performance failure of software.

19. Nuclear accidents mean uncontrolled releases of radioactive materials at
commercial power plants or other nuclear reactor facilities or during the
shipment of materials. It generally refers to events involving the release of
significant levels of radioactivity or exposure of workers or the general public
to radiation.


Nuclear accidents are classified in three categories:
a) Criticality accidents involve nuclear assemblies, research, production or
power reactors, and chemical operations. While such accidents have been
few, they have resulted in fatalities, radiation exposure, and release of
radioactivity to the environment.

b) Loss-of-coolant accidents result whenever a reactor coolant system
experiences a break or opening large enough so that the coolant inventory
in the system cannot be maintained by the normally operating makeup
system. Loss-of-coolant accidents have not been triggered by natural
disaster events.

c) Loss-of-containment accidents involve the release of radioactivity and
have involved materials such as tritium, fission products, plutonium, and
natural, depleted, or enriched uranium. Loss-of-containment accidents
have not been caused by natural disaster events.






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Nature of Technological Hazard

The occurrence of technological disasters is not as predictable as that of natural
disasters. Consequently technological disasters generate more uncertainty than
do natural ones. The nightmarish conceptualization of technological mishaps
may come from uncertainty of the nature and the extent of their effects.
Technological disasters tend to pose long-term threats.
Taking into consideration other possible effects of accidental releases of
hazardous materials, including their progressive accumulation in plants, animals,
fish or entire ecosystems, they can now more easily be distributed to very
different regions of the world. Hence, the emergence of increasing risks of
technological hazards has to be seen on a global dimension. Transboundary
effects, may however, become a consequence of an accident.
Technological hazards are increasing at an alarming rate in developing countries.
In their pursuit of capital investment and development, they attract toxic
industries and adopt nuclear technologies to spur growth without adequate
safeguards and locational considerations.


Hazards of Industry

Definition
Industrial hazards are hazards which occur when one strives for commercial gain
in quick time.
Types
Chemical hazards
Mechanical hazards
Biological hazards
Physical hazards
Nuclear hazards
Ergonomic hazards
Psychological hazards
Safety hazards

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Chemical hazards

The chemical industry is massive throughout the globe, manufacturing a huge
quantity of chemicals annually. At present four and a half million chemicals are
registered with the 'Chemical Abstracts', and thousands of new chemicals are
created every year. The chemical industry faces multiple risks involved with
production, transportation, storage, usage and disposing off the effluents
containing residual chemicals. The incidence of chemical emergencies and
disasters are on increase throughout the world. Risks involved within these types
of industries are higher due to the involvement of larger amounts of materials
involved.
From the technological hazards points of view, 1984 was the worst year, where
three major disasters took place in the world. In these three disasters, about
3,500 people died. These disasters were:
o Bhopal (India,2/3.12.84) - more than 2000 deaths, 34,000 eye
infections 2,00,000 people left the city. Release of toxic gas from
the factory in the urban area.
o Mexico City (Mexico, 19.11.84) -452 deaths, 31,000 homeless and
3,00,000 , evacuated from the site. LPG explosions in a high
density residential area near the industrial site.
o Cubatao (Brazil, 25.2.84) - 500 deaths in the petroleum spillage
and fire in an illegally built town near the industrial site.
Mechanical hazards

Unguarded machines.

Biological hazards

A biological hazard, also known as a biohazard, is an organism or a by-product
from an organism that is harmful or potentially harmful to other living things,
primarily human beings. Common types of biological hazards include viruses,
medical waste, or toxins that were created by a particular organism or
microorganism.
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There are four levels of biohazards
o Level 1 consists mainly of bacteria and other microorganisms,
which pose little risk in the case of exposure and can be warded off
through the simple use of gloves or a mask. They can generally be
disposed of in their own separate trash container without worry and
are easily decontaminated.
o Level 2 biohazards consist of viruses and bacteria that can have a
limited detrimental effect on humans, for example they may cause a
disease such as salmonella poisoning, hepatitis, measles, Lyme
disease and more. People working in the presence of these
biological hazards will usually exercise a substantial amount of care
in their handling and disposal with proper hand, eye and body
protection.
o Level 3 are much more serious, since contact with them can be
fatal if left untreated. Examples of biohazards at this dangerous
level are anthrax, West Nile Virus, malaria, typhus and more.
People that aid victims of biological hazards at this level must be
well trained and use very specific safety equipment and clothing.
o For level 4 biohazards, there are no known treatments, and are
generally fatal, and are easily spread through contact and through
the air. Someone working in the vicinity of level 4 biohazards like
the Ebola virus or dengue fever, for example, must use an airtight
Hazmat suit with his or her own oxygen supply.

Physical hazards

Physical hazards are those substances which threaten your physical safety. The
most common types of physical hazards are:
Fire
Explosion
Chemical Reactivity
Excessive noise
Excessive vibration
Inadequate lighting
Protruding objects
Tripping hazards
Exposure to radiation
Extremely hot or cold surfaces/substances
Inadequate guarding on equipment or machinery
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Slippery surfaces
Inappropriate or damaged tools
Exposed electrical source

Nuclear hazards

The nuclear power industry was developed because initially, it seemed to offer a
relatively dependable and inexpensive source of energy. The history of nuclear
industrial development is about half a century old. After a few accidents in this
industry like Chernobyl (former USSR), the industry is being considered as a
major hazardous one. Majority of developing countries are using nuclear power
increasingly to get rid of continuously increasing need of imported sources of
energy. According to the International Atomic Energy Agency (1AFA), developing
country's present share of world's installed nuclear power plants is about 7.0%.
Besides, the in-plant 'nuclear plant' problems, risks are associated with the
transportation and disposal of nuclear wastes over long distances.
Ergonomic hazards

Ergonomics (human engineering) is a way of thinking and planning work.
Ergonomic hazards occur when the type of work, body position and working
conditions put strain on the body. They are the hardest to spot since one does
not always immediately notice the strain on his/her body or the harm these
hazards pose. Short-term exposure may result in "sore muscles" the next day or
in the days following exposure, but long term exposure can result in serious long-
term injuries. Ergonomic hazards include:

Poor lighting
Improperly adjusted workstations and chairs
Frequent lifting
Awkward movements, especially if they are repetitive
Repeating the same movements over and over
Having to use too much force, especially if has to do frequently.

Psychological hazards

Stress and violence

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Safety hazards

Slipping
Improper machine guarding
Equipment malfunctions


EXAMPLE OF INDUSTRIAL HAZARD: The Textile Industry

The textile industry has been condemned as being one of the worlds worst
offenders in terms of pollution. It requires a great amount of two components:
o Chemicals: as many as 2,000 different chemicals are used in the
textile industry.
o Water: a finite resource that is quickly becoming scarce, and is
used at every step of the process. The water becomes full of
chemical additives and is then expelled as wastewater; which in
turn pollutes the environment.

Traditionally produced fabrics contain residuals of chemicals used during their
manufacturechemicals that evaporate into the air we breathe or are absorbed
through our skin. Textile industries discharge millions of gallons of effluent each
year, full of chemicals such as formaldehyde (HCHO), chlorine, heavy metals
(such as lead and mercury) and others, which are significant causes of
environmental degradation and human illnesses. The industry effluent is also
often of a high temperature and pH, both of which are extremely damaging. Many
textile manufacturers use dyes that release aromatic amines (e.g., benzidine,
toluidine). Dye effluents may contain heavy metals, ammonia, alkalai salts, toxic
solids and large amounts of pigments - many of which are toxic. About 40
percent of globally used colorants contain organically bound chlorine, a known
carcinogen. Mordants (the substance used to "fix" the color onto the fabric) such
as hromium are very toxic and high impact.

Improvement of working condition in Industry

Working conditions refers to the working environment and aspects of an
employees terms and conditions of employment. This covers such matters as:
60
o The organisation of work and work activities;
o Training, skills and employability;
o Health, safety and well-being;
o Working time and work-life balance.
o Pay is also an important aspect of working conditions.

Automation can reduce manufacturing costs. There is no machine as flexible as
a human being. Which is the reason that manual handling will continue to exist.
Workers may not have precise information about their working conditions in the
first place. The normal rule is that an employer cannot change the terms and
conditions of employment without the consent of the employee. Todays
workplace is faced with accelerating changes in technology. Economic and social
developments are also changing the daily life of workers. Factors causing
deviation from a perfect working condition include elements such as:
o Broken or malfunctioning machinery
o Incorrect working materials
o Incorrect work procedures

The main contributory factors causing deviation from proper work procedure are:
o Technical equipment : Lack of equipment or faulty design leading to
a sequence of unexpected events which finally result in an
accident.

o People: Peoples performance can increase the risks of having an
accident. Consequently all work should be planned from the point
of view of the worker. The employer has the primary responsibility
for the planning and layout of the workplace. Important factors
include:
Job experience: It is the first stages of a new job or a new
procedure that are usually the most critical. The same
applies when a person changes jobs.
Age: Older people are more easily injured when falling. In
general, eyesight and hearing decline with age.

Working conditions are constantly changing. New jobs, products, materials, tools
and working methods are being introduced all the time. These changes mean
that our experience and the standards of safety we have built up in the past must
be reviewed and brought up to date. Machinery and equipment should be safe
61
during all operating conditions and have effective safety guards at all dangerous
points. When machinery or equipment is purchased, it should meet safety
requirements. The first requirement is that the machine should be constructed in
such a way that it is not necessary to add extra protection. Careful servicing of
machines is most important from the point of view of job safety. We all must
increase our knowledge of the chemical risks in the workplace, in particular with
regard to the possible long-term effects of chemicals. Ergonomics (human
engineering) is a way of thinking and planning work. An increasing amount of
manual work is now being done by machines. This increase in mechanisation
and automation means that:
o The pace of work has increased
o Individual work assignments have become more diversified
o At times uninteresting.

Human beings have not changed very much during the course of recorded
history. While machinery and working routines are changing, people are not. This
means that technology is increasingly exceeding peoples ability to adapt, both
physically and mentally. Many recent jobs require the repetition of simple
operations or just the monitoring of a production process. Many of our most
common illnesses result from inappropriate people-work relationships. More and
more attention is now focused on the work itself and how work is scheduled. In
accordance with recent technological and social changes, some new patterns of
working time are spreading, taking into account individual needs. These may
differ from country to country. Examples are:
o Flexible hours: within certain limits, workers fix their own work
schedules from day to day (usually all workers must be present
during core periods)

o Part time work: certain workers work fewer hours than others

o Staggered hours and so on: different firms or units adopt different
starting and finishing times.

With regard to the workers, musculoskeletal disorders (MSD) are a major issue in
terms of the economic and health burdens. In the EU, MSDs are the biggest
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cause of absence from work in practically all member states. Many of the
physical risk factors associated with MSD are often the result of inefficient and
poorly designed work practices. Other risk factors that need attention have to do
with the temporal pattern of the load during the day. Aspects of this time pattern
or rhythm may clearly affect the worker, both mentally and physically. These
are:
o Work rest schedules
o Task variation
o Cycle time
o Work pace

When a participatory ergonomics and a lean manufacturing process are
integrated, it may be possible to improve productivity and prevent injuries and
illnesses to a greater extent possible than if either one is performed in isolation.
With some ergonomic work place modifications resulted in some clear effects.
There appeared to be no need for the company to invest in factory expansion.
On the same factory area, it appeared to be possible to produce about twice as
much when applying the new assembly concept. Increased time percentage of
direct work (also addressed as work intensification) may well increase the risk for
musculoskeletal injury. Also, monotonous work in the production industry has
been associated with more health problems in the upper extremities and elevated
sick leave rates. The theory behind this is that the long periods of time of
monotonous assembling activities without interruption of other kinds of (indirect)
activity, give body structures not enough opportunities to recover during the day.
An increase in volume flexibility can be achieved by adding two extra workers
and applying an alternating work rest scheme, and thus, without a costly
reconfiguration of the line. Two extra workers and the implementation of an
alternating work/rest scheme resulted in a 1216% higher line output. The
operators experienced less physical load, particularly in the alternating scheme
with the highest number of breaks and highest total break time. Most companies
focus either on
o Technological innovations
o Organizational structures
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o Enhancing human resources.

The best performance will be realized when all three factors are involved.
Corporate success can be enhanced by balancing technological, organizational
and human factors in the production process