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I. INTRODUCTION
Manuscript received Septembr 12, 2006; revised April 19, 2007. This work
was supported in part by the National Institutes of Health (EB001826) and in
part by the U.S. Army Research Ofce (46850-CI). The associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and approving it for publication was Dr.
Gaudenz Danuser.
B. Li is with the C. L. Brown Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904 USA (e-mail:
bingli@virginia.edu).
S. T. Acton is with the C. L. Brown Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering/Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville,
VA 22904 USA (e-mail: acton@virginia.edu).
Color versions of one or more of the gures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TIP.2007.899601
(1)
where and are weighting parameters representing the degree
of the smoothness and tautness of the contour, respectively, and
and
are the rst and second derivatives of
with
denotes the external energy, the value of which
respect to .
is small at the FOI, such as edges [16]. Typical external energies
for seeking the edges are given as
for a gray-level image
[1]
(2)
(3)
is a 2-D Gaussian function with standard deviawhere
tion
denotes linear convolution, and denotes the gradient
operator. If the image is a binary image, where the FOI are ones
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(9)
identity
matrix,
and
are
matrices representing the positions
and the external forces of snaxels at time , respectively. is
cyclic pentadiagonal matrix used to compute the
an
internal force. Note that, since
is a cyclic symmetric
pentadiagonal positive denite matrix, we could use either
Cholesky decomposition [21] or the algorithm proposed
efciently.
in [22] to solve
where
is
the
B. External Forces
A number of research groups have generalized (7) via replacing the standard external force by the sum of other forces
generated from the image and/or the contour [16], [20], [23].
Instead of a standard energy minimization problem, the solution of the snake is formulated as a force balance equation. Different external forces have been proposed to improve the performance of snakes. The external forces can be generally classied
as dynamic forces and static forces [16]. The dynamic forces
(10)
where is an edge map derived from the image, and is a parameter controlling the degree of smoothness of the GVF eld.
The edge map is typically the additive inverse of an external
energy such as that given in (2)(5). The GVF eld outperforms the distance forces by providing a large capture range and
the ability to capture boundary concavities [16]. The generalized GVF (GGVF) eld, a generalization of the GVF formulation, improves the ability to capture narrow boundary concavities [17]. Although the GVF eld has these desired properties,
there are still several unsolved problems, such as the ambiguous
relationship between the capture range and the parameters, the
sensitivity to the parameters and noise, especially impulse noise,
and expensive computational cost.
The calculation of the external force can be broken down
to two independent steps: the formation of edge map from the
image, and the computation of the external force from the edge
map. Although the quality of the edge map is a critical factor in
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snake performance, this paper focuses on how to obtain a desirable external force eld given an edge map, which is likely to be
corrupted by noise. We propose a new class of edge-based static
forces called vector eld convolution (VFC) in this paper. This
new external force is calculated by convolving a vector eld
kernel with the edge map [19]. The novel static external force
has not only a large capture range and ability to capture concavities, but also reduced computational cost, superior robustness
to noise and initialization, exibility of changing the force eld.
We demonstrate these desirable properties by comparing VFC
with GVF in Section IV. (Note that we can always combine VFC
with a region-based static or dynamic force model.) The fundamental difference between the distance forces, the GVF forces
and the VFC forces lies in the method with which the homogeneous regions are lled.
III. VECTOR FIELD CONVOLUTION SNAKES
Vector eld convolution snakes are active contours using the
VFC eld as the external force. By replacing the standard exin (8) by the VFC eld
ternal force
, the iterative snakes solution is
(11)
This equation can be solved numerically using identical nite
difference approach of standard snakes given in Section II-A.
A. Vector Field Convolution
A new class of static external forces called vector eld convolution (VFC) is introduced in this section. We rst dene a
in which all
vector eld kernel
the vectors point to the kernel origin
(12)
where
and
(13)
except that
at the origin, where
is the distance from the origin. If the origin is considered as the
FOI, this vector eld kernel has the desirable property that a free
particle placed in the eld is able to move to the FOI, such as
edges. Note that the kernel origin is not the origin of the image
or the edge map.
The VFC external force
is given by calculating the convolution of the vector eld kernel
and the edge map
generated from the image
(14)
Since the edge map is non-negative and larger near the image
edges, edges contribute more to the VFC than homogeneous regions. Therefore, the VFC external force will attract free particles to the edges. If we represent the vector eld kernel using a
is approximated
(17)
where denotes the preferred kernel radius. An example discrete vector eld kernel is demonstrated in Fig. 1. To calculate
the VFC eld, each component of the discrete vector eld kernel
is convolved with the edge map. The discrete linear convolution
has been well studied and can be accelerated by the fast Fourier
transform (FFT) and the inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT)
[28]. Furthermore, if we treat the vectors as complex numbers
instead of two separated real numbers, we could save the computational expense roughly by a factor of two without using a specialized FFT for real numbers [29]. In our implementation, the
are normalized as unit vectors to encourage
external forces
the contour evolves at a constant speed for an uniform time step
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(19)
where
. In
(21)
Fig. 3. (a) Synthetic edge map includes an impulse, a strong linear edge, and
a weak linear edge from left to right, respectively. Streamlines generated from
(b) the GVF eld, the VFC elds using m (x; y ) with (c)
= 1:7 and (d)
=
1:1, and (e) the mixed VFC eld that mixes (d) with the standard external forces.
The streamlines converging to the strong edge are colored dark.
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when placed in a force eld, are used for illustrating the force
eld [16]. The GVF eld calculated from this edge map is illustrated in Fig. 3(b), where we can see that the strong edge and
the impulse noise share the area between them equally. A similar scenario happens for the strong and weak edges. This phenomenon is usually undesirable in practice because snakes are
designed to capture strong boundaries, which may or may not
be the FOI.
The VFC eld overcomes this problem because strong edges
contribute more to the VFC eld than weak edges and noise. As
shown in Fig. 3(c), the capture range of the strong edge is signicantly increased in the VFC eld using magnitude function
with
. The majority of areas between the noise
and the weak edge, and even half of the area on the left of the
noise belongs to the capture range of the strong edge. Although
the inuence of the strong edge decreases as the particles are
further away, the accumulated force of the strong edge is still
able to overwhelm the force generated from the noise and the
weak edge even if the particles are close to them. On a discrete
grid, a possible extreme case is shown in Fig. 3(d). As the inuence of the strong edge increases (because is reduced to 1.1 in
this example), the right capture range of the noise is less than one
pixel. As a result, the strong edge appears to dominate the whole
image in the resulting discrete VFC eld. Although the elimination of noise is desirable, weak edges are sometimes preferred
to be preserved in practical applications, otherwise this might
cause the leakage problem. To solve this dilemma, we propose
to mix the VFC eld with the standard external force, i.e., the
is
gradient of the edge map . The mixed VFC eld
dened as
(24)
The steady-state solution is achieved iteratively from the initialization
. On a discrete grid, the Laplacian operator can be approximated by
(25)
Substituting (25) into (24) gives an iterative solution in the form
of the following convolution:
(26)
where we assume
without loss generality. According to
by
the GVF stability restriction, must be not larger than
. We can expand (26) further, obtaining
making
(22)
where is a threshold that determines the edges to preserve,
which is similar to the smoothing parameter
in GVF.
Threshold selection methods for gray-level images, such as the
Otsu method [30], can be employed to determine the threshold
by treating
as a gray-level image. The mixed
VFC eld of Fig. 3(a) is shown in Fig. 3(e), where the weak
edge is preserved and the noise has a diminished impact on the
VFC eld, which might be prevailed over by the internal force.
The mixed VFC eld can be viewed as the standard external
force with homogeneous regions lled in by the VFC eld.
(27)
where is integer,
denotes the sequential convolution of
. The gradient of edge map can be approximated by
(28)
where
(23)
(29)
Using a different discrete gradient approximation, such as the
. Therefore,
Sobel operator, will result a slightly different
(27) can be rewritten as
(30)
By comparing (30) with the corresponding VFC (14), we can
see that the GVF eld in homogeneous regions of the image is a
special case of VFC with kernel . The standard external force,
i.e., the gradient of edge map , is also a special case of VFC,
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=p
Fig. 4. Streamlines generated that mimic the GVF eld for the edge map of
.
Fig. 13 using mixed VFC led with
Fig. 5. Top (bottom) row, from left to right: (a) convergence of the GVF (VFC)
snake, (b) streamlines generated from the GVF (VFC) eld, and (c) magnied
GVF (VFC) eld within the concavity.
Fig. 6. (Dashed lines) Initial curves and (solid lines) the VFC snake results are
superposed with the edge maps.
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Fig. 9. (a) Noise-free image with (dashed line) the snake initialization. Example noise corrupted images with (b) 10- and (c) 0-dB SNR. (a) SNR = ;
(b) SNR = 10 dB; (c) SNR = 0 dB.
2 N image.
D. Noise Sensitivity
To evaluate the noise sensitivity of GVF snakes and VFC
snakes, we add impulse noise to the U-shape image in Fig. 5.
Fig. 8 exhibits the noisy image superposed with initial snakes
plotted in dashed lines. The GVF snake in Fig. 8(a) fails to
converge to the U-shape because it is distracted by local impulse noise. Although a more proximal initialization provides
an improved result in Fig. 8(b), the GVF snake does not capture
some boundary features precisely, such as the concavity and the
bottom right portion, which are distorted by the Gaussian lter.
Alternatively, nonlinear lters may be applied to the edge map
to eliminate noise, such as the feature weighted external energy
[32].
Conversely, the VFC snake converges to the desired features
without using a Gaussian (or similar) lter, as shown in Fig. 8(c).
Although the noise outnumbers the edges in this example, the
forces originated from the noise counteract each other and are
overwhelmed by the forces generated from the true edges. Note
with
is used in this
that magnitude function
example. If increases, the VFC snake may not converge because the inuence of the edges is not strong enough to overcome the noise. As mentioned before, a smaller is desired for
a higher noise level. To quantify the accuracy of the results, the
root mean square error (RMSE) of the snake result is calculated.
The error of a point on the snake is dened by the minimum distance between the point and U-shape in the noise-free image.
As we see in Fig. 8, the VFC snake yields the smallest RMSE.
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Fig. 10. Average RMSE of GVF and VFC with different parameters at different SNR levels using (a) nonltered edge map, and Gaussian ltered edge maps with
(b)
1 and (c) = 3. (d) Comparison of ve selected snakes. The RMSE at each level is averaged over 50 synthetic images generated by randomly adding
Gaussian noise to the noise-free image.
Fig. 11. Ellipse represents a synthetic cell with (dashed lines) initial snakes
and (solid lines) results using (a) GVF and (b) VFC; streamlines generated from
(c) the GVF eld and (d) the VFC eld.
where
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Fig. 13. MR image of a human ankle with (dashed lines) initial snakes and
(solid lines) results using (a) GVF and (b) VFC; streamlines generated from
(c) the GVF eld and (d) the VFC eld.
Fig. 12. Isosurface rendering of a 3-D star-like object in (a) a noise-free image
and (b) an impulse noise corrupted image with 6 dB SNR. The deformation
of the VFC active surface using (a) as edge map after (c) 0, (d) 20, and (e) 40
iterations. The deformation of the VFC active surface using (b) as edge map
without ltering after (c) 0, (f) 20, (g) 40, and (h) 60 iterations.
(36)
Examples of VFC active surfaces, a 3-D extension of VFC
snakes, are illustrated in Fig. 12. We generated a 3-D star-like
object in a
voxel image, which is shown in Fig. 12(a) using
isosurface algorithm [33]. An active surface is initialized as a
sphere far away outside the object, the deformation of which
is shown in Fig. 12(c)(e). The converged surface, as shown in
Fig. 12(e), is smoother than the isosurface rendering as a result
of the internal force inuence in the active surface. Furthermore,
impulse noise is randomly added to the image, which results
dB SNR, i.e., the noise is twice as much as the edges. The
noise corrupted image, shown in Fig. 12(b) using isosurface algorithm, is used as the edge map for the VFC calculation without
any ltering. With the same initialization, the VFC active surface overcomes the heavy noise and converges to the boundary
correctly, as revealed in Fig. 12(c) and (f)(h). By comparing
Fig. 12(e) with Fig. 12(h), we can see that the upper left arm is
slightly distorted because of the presence of the noise. The 3-D
VFC eld used in these examples is calculated using (34) with
. These examples demonstrate the feasibility of extending
the VFC eld to higher dimensions and the outstanding robustness to noise of VFC.
G. Real Images
We apply the VFC snakes to noisy magnetic resonance (MR)
images of human ankles. External energies given by (2) and
Fig. 14. Ultrasound image of a mouse heart with (dashed lines) initial snakes
and (solid lines) results using (a) GVF, (b) DDGVF, and (c) VFC eld.
(a)RMSE = 29:20, (b) RMSE = 5:26, and (c) RMSE = 2:68.
Fig. 15. (a), (b) Two views of VFC active surfaces segmentation result of the
pericardium border (red) and endocardial border (green) deformed from (c) the
initial surfaces. Two slices of the MR image of human heart is shown for reference.
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