AE Guide PC57.127-D10.0 12-29-06

IEEE PC57.127/D10.
0, December 29, 2006

Copyright 2006 IEEE. All rights reserved.
This is an unapproved IEEE Standards Draft, subject to change. 1

Draft Guide for the Detection and Location of
Acoustic Emissions from Partial Discharges in Oil-
Immersed Power Transformers and Reactors

Sponsored by the
Transformers Committee
of the
IEEE Power Engineering Society

Copyright 2006 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
Three Park Avenue
New York, New York 10016-5997, USA
All rights reserved.

This document is an unapproved draft of a proposed IEEE Standard. As such, this document is subject to change.
USE AT YOUR OWN RISK! Because this is an unapproved draft, this document must not be utilized for any
conformance/compliance purposes. Permission is hereby granted for IEEE Standards Committee participants to
reproduce this document for purposes of IEEE standardization activities only. Prior to submitting this document to
another standards development organization for standardization activities, permission must first be obtained from
the Manager, Standards Licensing and Contracts, IEEE Standards Activities Department. Other entities seeking
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Licensing and Contracts, IEEE Standards Activities Department.

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Abstract: This guide is applicable to the detection and location of acoustic emissions from partial discharges and
other sources in oil immersed power transformers and reactors. It is intended to provide a means of associating the
relative magnitude and position of partial discharges and other sources with the acoustic signals obtained by
strategically located transducers.
Keywords: acoustic emission (AE), attenuation, burst, gas-in-oil analysis, low-amplitude discharges, partial
discharge (PD), power transformers, reactors.
IEEE PC57.127/D10.0, December 29, 2006
Copyright 2006 IEEE. All rights reserved
This is an unapproved IEEE Standard subject to change
2
Introduction

This introduction is not part of IEEE xxxxxx, Guide for the Detection and Location of Acoustic Emissions from
Partial Discharges in Oil - Immersed Power Transformers and Reactors. The Guide is an expansion of PC57.127
Trial Use Guide for the Detection of Acoustic Emissions from Partial Discharges in Oil-Immersed Power
Transformers. It has been expanded to include more theory and signal interpretation information, newer techniques
for detection and the concepts for location. Active workers in the field are constantly trying to improve their
methods. More effective methods may appear in the future.

Participants

At the time this guide was completed, the Working Group on Acoustic Partial Discharge Tests in Transformers had
the following membership:

John W. Harley, Chair

Donald Ayers
Ron Barker
Ray Bartnikas
Barry Beaster
Jeff Benach
Tord Bengtsson
Paul Boman
John Bosiger
Carl Bush
Alvaro Cancino
William Carter
Yunxiang Chen
Bill Chiu
Roy Colquitt
Jerry Corkran
John Crouse
Alan Darwin
Ron Daubert
Fred Elliott
Don Fallon
Norman Field
Michael Franchek
Jim Fyvie
Robert Ganser
Andreas Garnitschnig
Richard Graham
William Griesacker
Sergio Guerrero
Ernst Hanique
Tom Harbaugh
Peter Heinzig
Keith Highton
Thang Hochanh
John Holland
Anthony Jonatti
Steve Jordan
Samer Khaled
Vladimir Khalin
Emil Kowal
John Lackey
Robert Langan
Mike Lau
Eberhard Lemke
Raymond Lortie
Richard Lowe
Andre Lux

Tamyres Luiz Machado
Jim McIver
Martin Navarro
Van Nhi Nguyen
Arturo Nunez
Mark Perkins
Paul Pillitteri
Bertrand Poulin
Gustav Preininger
George Reitter
John Runski
Dirk Russwurm
Ewald Schweiger
Hemchandra Shertukde
James Smith
Brian Sparling
Charles Sweetser
Ed Tenyenhuis
Subhash Tuli
Albert Walls
Barry Ward
Eduardo Garcia Wild

Others who were active in the writing of this guide are:

Pierre Boss
Ed Cromer
Michel Duval
George Forrest
Valery Godinez
David Goodwin
Lars-Erik Juhlin
Stanley Lindgren
Adrian Pollock
Karen Weissman

The following persons were on the balloting committee:

(To be supplied by IEEE Standards Project Editor at time of publication)

3

Patents

Attention is called to the possibility that implementation of this standard may require use of subject matter covered
by patent rights. By publication of this standard, no position is taken with respect to the existence or validity of any
patent rights in connection therewith. The IEEE shall not be responsible for identifying patents or patent applications
for which a license may be required to implement an IEEE standard or for conducting inquiries into the legal
validity or scope of those patents that are brought to its attention. A patent holder or patent applicant has filed a
statement of assurance that it will grant licenses under these rights without compensation or under reasonable rates
and nondiscriminatory, reasonable terms and conditions to applicants desiring to obtain such licenses. The IEEE
makes no representation as to the reasonableness of rates, terms, and conditions of the license agreements offered by
patent holders or patent applicants. Further information may be obtained from the IEEE Standards Department.

A Patent Letter of Assurance has been filed with the IEEE by the patent holder of the material presented in Clause
6.7 Three sensor system.

4

Contents

Introduction ..... 2

1. Overview .. 6
1.1 Scope . 6
1.2 Purpose .. 6
1.3 Safety warnings .. 6

2. Definitions.. 7

3. Detection and measurement of PD background information ... 8

4. Introduction to acoustic PD systems ... 9
4.1 The all-acoustic system . 9
4.2
4.3
The acoustic system with an electrical PD trigger
The on-line (continuous) acoustic system .
9
10

5. Acoustic signal and transmission characteristics . 10
5.1 Acoustic signal .. 10
5.2 Acoustic signal propagation from source to tank wall 12
5.3 Acoustic signal propagation within the tank wall 12
5.4 Velocity of sound in oil . 13

6. AE systems: equipment specifications .. 14
6.1 Introduction ... 14
6.2 Acoustic systems that record single events ... 14
6.3

6.4
6.5
6.6
Digital signal processing (DSP) workstations that record acoustic data
over extended periods ..
On-line (continuous) acoustic PD monitoring systems
External sensor ..
Internal sensor ... ..

14
14
15
15
6.7
6.8
Three sensor system ..
Band-pass filter ... .
16
16

7. AE testing ... 16
7.1 Personnel qualification and certification ... 16
7.2 Field vs. factory test differences. 17
7.3 General considerations on the application of sensors 17

8. AE field test procedure . 18
8.2 Test setup .. 19
8.3 Sensor placement and initial scan . 19
8.4 Monitoring techniques ... 20
8.5 Locating the source of the signal... 20
8.6 Reporting and follow-up 21

9. Factory test procedure using an electrical trigger .. 21
9.2 Initial sensor placement . 21
9.3 Measurements and changing of sensor placement 24

5

10. Characterization of AE signals
10.1 Introduction .
10.2 General alternating current systems.
10.3 Acoustic systems that record single events
10.4 DSP workstations that record data over extended periods ...
10.5 On-line (continuous) acoustic PD systems ......
10.6 HVDC transformers and reactors ..
10.7 Characteristics of PD from static electrification ....
10.8 Acoustic activity from thermal faults, the core, mechanical noises and
other sources...........................................................................................
10.9 Comparison between electrical and acoustic signals

25
25
25
26
29
29
30
30

31
31
11.

12.
Integrating AE results with data from oil analysis ..

Acoustic activity interpretation ..
33

33

Annex A (informative) Bibliography 35

Annex B (informative) Signal processing . 39

Annex C

Annex D

(informative) Wavelet signal processing theory

(informative) Tutorial: detection and location of AE from PD

40

43

6

IEEE Guide for the Detection and Location of
Acoustic Emissions from Partial Discharges in
Oil-Immersed Power Transformers and Reactors

1. Overview

1.1 Scope

This guide is applicable to the detection and location of acoustic emissions from partial discharges and other sources
in oil immersed power transformers and reactors. Both electrical sources (partial discharge) and mechanical sources
(such as loose clamping, bolts or insulation parts) generate these emissions. There are descriptions of acoustic
instrumentation, test procedures, and interpretation of results. When this guide is used with oil-immersed reactors, it
must be understood that interpretation of signals may be different because of the construction of the reactor.

Accuracy of location depends on the type of fault, configuration of tank, type of instrumentation and experience.

1.2 Purpose

This guide is intended to provide information that may be helpful in planning, installing and operating acoustic
monitoring equipment and in meaningful interpretation of resulting data. Users are intended to be persons
knowledgeable in this field such as utility engineers, consultants, academics and manufacturers.

1.3 Safety warnings

The safety warnings in this subclause apply only to work done on transformers installed in the field, not to factory
testing. Refer to factory test codes for safety warnings for these situations.

Partial discharge (PD) location should only be attempted by those technicians and engineers trained in working on
high-voltage transformers and knowledgeable of the risks associated with this work.

WARNINGS

1. The transformer tank must be connected to a low resistance ground to limit the extremely high
voltages being induced into the ground circuit and the tank if a high voltage to ground failure
occurs. The personnel risk is very high if the transformer fails to ground. Even when grounded
properly, the voltage on the tank to a different ground source may be LETHAL at the instant the
failure occurs.

2. If the transformer is being energized or de-energized, or there is another type of power system
voltage, all personnel should maintain a reasonable distance from the transformer and
equipment electrically connected to the tank due to the possibility of a failure. It is recommended
that acoustic measurement equipment connected to the tank be electrically isolated from the
transformer tank, e.g., by optical means or by high-voltage electrical insulation, when measuring
during transient events to eliminate the danger to the equipment or operators.

3. It is preferable to make all connections to the tank with the transformer de-energized, but in no case
should the transformer voltage be above normal voltage while the sonic measuring devices are
installed. Personnel must not access areas where high voltages are within minimum approach
distance, such as on top of energized transformers or in bushing compartments.

7
4. The transformer ground circuit must never be changed (connected or disconnected) while the
transformer is energized. Even with the transformer de-energized, it is possible to have circulating
currents in substation ground circuits; therefore, appropriate care should be exercised when
connecting or disconnecting ground circuits.

2. Definitions

For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply. The Authoritative Dictionary of IEEE
Standards Terms [B33] may be referenced for terms not defined in this clause.

2.1 Acoustic couplant: A material used at the structure-to-sensor interface to improve the transmission of
acoustic energy across the interface during acoustic emission monitoring. Note: see Clause 6.5.

2.2 Acoustic emission (AE): The phenomena whereby transient elastic waves are generated by the rapid release
of energy from localized sources within a material, or the transient waves so generated. Note: see Clause 5.1.

2.3 AE burst: a group of AE oscillations constituting a transient signal. Note: see Clause 5.1.

2.4 AE burst rate: denotes the actual number of discrete AE events or bursts per unit time, usually one second,
or per cycle of the ac voltage wave.

2.5 AE oscillation: An oscillation produced by a resonant piezo-electric crystal when perturbed by a shock wave,
which could be caused by a partial discharge.

2.6 AE oscillation rate or count rate: The number of AE oscillations that exceed the counter threshold level in a
time interval, often one second, or a number of cycles, depending on the instrument being used. Note: see
Clause 5.1

2.7 Acoustic impedance: The decisive factor for determining reflection and transmission properties when
passing from one acoustic medium to another. The acoustic impedance is denoted Z and defined as density ()
times the propagation velocity (v), Z = v.

2.8 Barkhausen effect and magnetostriction noise: Noise associated with the deformation of magnetic domains
in the core of a transformer. Note: see Clause 10.8a.

2.9 Critical angle: The largest incidence angle (from normal) for which a wave can enter a medium that has a
higher propagation velocity.

2.10 Direct acoustic (oil-borne) path: Path of propagation from the PD acoustic signal source directly (straight
line) to the sensor location on the tank wall, without obstruction such as windings, core, or major
blocking/bracing.
2.11 Pressure waves (also called longitudinal waves): These waves consist of alternate compression and
rarefaction forces in the direction of propagation. They occur in both liquids and solids.

2.12 Shear waves (also called transverse or bending waves): A shock wave in the oil impinging at normal
incidence on the tank will generate motion in the tank wall that is perpendicular to the propagation direction
similar to a vibrating string. Shear waves require an acoustically solid material for effective propagation so do
not exist in the oil; they exist only in the steel.

2.13 Speed of sound in steel: Longitudinal wave about 5200 m/s; transverse wave about 3200 m/s respectively.

2.14 Structure-borne path: Propagation of the PD acoustic signal through the transformer structure.

8
3. Detection and measurement of PD background information

Since PD cannot be measured directly, its energy by-products such as electrical transients, chemical changes,
electromagnetic emissions, vibration, sound, light, and heat must be measured. Each of these energy by-products,
when measured, has advantages and disadvantages for identifying PD. The measurement methods are as follows:

a) Radio frequency (RF) - VHF: the VHF measurement of radio waves is in the frequency range of 30 MHz -
300 MHz. This VHF measurement is usually associated with aerial antennas, but not exclusively. Some
window type receiver devices may also monitor the VHF range. The signal attenuation and noise reduction
are similar but less compared to the UHF frequency.

b) Radio frequency (RF) - UHF: the UHF measurement of radio waves is in the frequency range of 300 MHz -
3 GHz. These measurements are often performed using a window style UHF receiver. UHF tests are less
affected by external noise. The Corona type of PD emits only up to a frequency of approximately 300MHz.
Signals are strongly attenuated when they pass through the bushings or travel longer distances within the
oil. Cell phone and TV stations operate in the UHF band and might introduce strong noise. Discharges
directly in the oil have an upper frequency limit of only a few hundred Kilohertz and can not be detected.

c) RF current transformers (RFCT): RFCTs are designed to measure up to several tens or hundred MHz. They
can be placed on ground returns and/or bushing taps. The RFCT by itself is generally considered non-
intrusive; however, the RFCT may require an outage to be installed. It can be used both for off-line and on-
line measurement states.

d) Coupling capacitor (CC): the CC sensor interfaces directly with the voltage terminal. This is the method
described in IEC 60270 [B36]. This is a common factory test method. Results are measured in pC. This
measurement works well under a controlled noise-free environment, but may not work well in a field
environment.

For field measurements, this method can utilize either a user-supplied capacitor or the leakage current from
a bushing tap, using the condenser layered bushing as the coupling capacitor. When the user supplies an
external reference capacitor for on-line measurements, the measurement is considered intrusive. However,
when a coupling capacitor is used, there is generally no limitation put on the frequency measurement range.

e) Acoustic emission (AE): consists of one or more ultrasonic transducers that are sensitive to the AE
generated by a PD source. Acoustic sound sources are wide-banded (> 1MHz). Due to the propagation
characteristics of the insulation medium and apparatus structure, ultrasonic AE is measured in the 20 kHz
to 500 kHz frequency range.

f) Ultra violet light (UV): detects UV light generated by corona, external PD on surfaces, and arcing. This
method generally detects external events within line of sight. With the help of daylight blocking filter and
very sensitive cameras, UV measurements can be obtained in direct sunlight.

g) Dissolved gas analysis (DGA): In the case of PD in voids or gas bubbles, the main gas formed is hydrogen
together with significant amounts of methane (typically 10%) and minor amounts of the other gases.
Variable amounts of the carbon oxides may also result from partial discharges in cellulose, although
usually in lower quantities than the other gases. [B17, B18].

In the case of discharges of the sparking-type in oil or in paper, significant amounts of all the hydrocarbons
(including acetylene) are formed in addition to hydrogen.

h) Power factor tip-up: PD produces a power loss, which is a function of applied voltage. If PD is present,
losses increase and the power factor changes with applied voltage. The power factor difference between
applied voltage levels is known as "tip-up".

This guide focuses on the detection and location of PD using AE techniques. These techniques are sometimes
combined with one or more of the above PD detection and measurement methods.

9
4. Introduction to acoustic PD systems

PD detection and location work is carried out in the factory and in the field, the latter being done with the
transformer either connected to the grid or supplied by a separate power source.

Acoustic PD systems are most often used when PD has been identified as a result of other diagnostic procedures,
such as dissolved gas analysis and electrical PD measurement.

There are two general categories of acoustic location systems: all-acoustic systems and acoustic systems with an
electrical PD trigger. In addition, on-line (continuous) acoustic monitoring systems are being used primarily to
detect and trend emissions. Typical implementations of each of these types of systems are given below along with
the respective advantages and limitations.

4.1 The all-acoustic system

The first category, the all-acoustic system, consists of one or more ultrasonic transducers that are sensitive to the AE
generated by a PD event. The detection and coarse location of one or more sources can be accomplished by moving
one or more externally mounted sensors to different locations on the transformer tank. A more precise location of a
PD source may be determined by the relative arrival times of the acoustic signals at each of the sensors. No voltage
or current readings are required on the transformer. This makes the all-acoustic system a suitable tool for source
location on operating transformers in the field.

The acoustic transducers can be mounted on the exterior of the transformer tank to detect the acoustic signal as it
hits the tank wall, or inside the transformer to detect the signal in the oil.

Benefits of the externally mounted sensors include the ability to reconfigure the sensors as necessary to obtain a
clearer acoustic signal, the flexibility to move the system to another transformer, and the ease of retrofitting existing
transformers. The disadvantage of the external configuration is that it is more sensitive to external noise sources.

Benefits of the internally mounted sensors may include a clearer, louder measurement with a better signal-to-noise
ratio. Disadvantages are that installation of the sensors is invasive to the transformer and, once installed, the sensors
can not be moved around to achieve a clearer line of sight to the source, nor can they be easily removed and installed
on another transformer.

4.2 The acoustic system with an electrical PD trigger

The second category, the acoustic system with an electrical PD trigger, pairs the array of acoustic sensors described
above with a current or voltage measurement device that detects the PD signal electrically. The electric signal is
usually considered as detected instantaneously. When using this assumption, the arrival time of the electric signal is
used as time zero for the PD event. The difference in arrival times of the electric signal and an acoustic signal is the
propagation time between the PD source and that sensor location. PD location is based on the absolute arrival time
at each sensor, as opposed to the all-acoustic system described above which uses the difference in arrival time
between sensors.

The assumption of instantaneous detection of the electric signal is correct when it appears e.g. at the bushing tap of
the transformer. At the most this delay is in the range of a few microseconds and therefore can be neglected.
However, an acoustic system with an electrical PD trigger is processing the electrical signal first. Here the
processing time may be taken into account in order to decrease location error. Table 1 shows the time lags due to the
analog processing time measured in three different electrical PD detector types.

10
Table 1 - Time lag in electrical PD detectors

Type of detector Time-lag to t
0
Signal rise time
(10-90%)
Approximate location
error in oil
Wide-band with active
Integrator (100-400 kHz)
0.2 s 1.2 s Negligible (< 2 mm)
Narrow-band at 1 MHz
With 9 kHz bandwidth
16 s 35 s 22 mm-70 mm (1 in. ~3 in.)
Narrow-band at 1 MHz
With 4.5 kHz bandwidth
16 s 50 s 22 mm-95 mm (1 in. ~4 in.)

The numbers are provided only as an example. Other detectors from different manufacturers may have different time
lags since this property is not specified in the standards. It can be seen that a narrow-band detector may introduce a
time lag that may be taken into account if very accurate location measurements are desired.

One advantage of the combined system is that the electrical measurement provides confirmation that the acoustic
sensors are locating a PD event as opposed to another acoustic noise source. Furthermore, the electrical signal is a
convenient trigger that can be used to start the data acquisition at the acoustic sensors.

The major disadvantage of the combined system is that it may be difficult to obtain a clean electric PD measurement
due to electrical noise in the field. Hence, the combined acoustic-electrical PD locator system is more suitable for
use in the factory or plant than in the field.

4.3 The on-line (continuous) acoustic monitoring system

The main purpose of permanently installed on-line acoustic monitoring systems is to provide an early indication of
an incipient fault to a remote location. These systems usually consist of multiple sensors, amplifier and data
acquisition/processing modules. The sensors are placed at locations where faults may be anticipated based on past
experience or highest probability of problems occurrence. The data acquisition/processing systems are able to
transmit collected data and/or warning alerts to locations outside the substation.

The data is often limited to activity levels rather than specific waveforms. Location information is often limited to
knowledge of which sensor is most active.

Some continuous monitoring systems use the signal from a split CT around the transformer case ground or an RF
signal from a sensor inside the transformer to identify the AE signal as an internal PD.

Warning alerts caused by level of activity above a baseline or trend of activity are usually reason to take gas samples
and perhaps perform more extensive acoustic or other testing.

5. Acoustic signal and transmission characteristics

5.1 Acoustic signal

The energy creating the acoustic signal is from PD and mechanical and thermal sources inside and outside
transformers and reactors.

Figure 1a shows a waveform from an acoustic sensor mounted on the outside of a transformer tank. It is typical of
one burst of PD. The sharp rise of the wave front indicates that a direct wave has impinged on the inside tank wall
within the critical angle for a pressure wave.

The horizontal axis shows time in microseconds. The burst had a length of 144 microseconds from the first threshold
crossing to the last threshold crossing. The vertical axis is a dimensionless indication of amplitude. The number of
acoustic bursts in a unit of time, usually one second, is a measure of acoustic activity.

11

Figure 1a - Typical acoustic emission burst

Figure 1b is a detail of the waveform in Figure 1a. There are 16 oscillations (also called counts) at or above the
indicated threshold of 100. The oscillations are shown below.

Oscillations: 1 2 3 4 5 6789-10 11-12-13-14 15-16

Figure 1b Oscillations in an acoustic emission burst

AE detection systems may count bursts and/or oscillations.

In order to count bursts, the oscillatory portion of the decaying burst must be removed by means of a demodulation
circuit. This ensures that each emitted burst is recorded as a single discrete event. The bursts can then be recorded at
a preset magnitude level over a one second time period. Also, a distribution of all the discrete AE burst magnitudes
can be obtained by means of a pulse height analyzer, again over a one second time period. If the PD pulses occur
faster than the ring-down time of the acoustic transducer or the time window used for pulse qualification in some
automated systems, errors in burst rate count and burst height distribution will occur.
12
5.2 Acoustic signal propagation from source to tank wall

Active PD sources in oil-filled transformers produce AE signals that propagate away from the source in all
directions. The acoustic signals travel through the intervening material to eventually arrive at the transformer tank
wall. The distance traveled in a particular medium is dependent on the time that it takes for an acoustic signal to
complete this journey as shown in the equation below:

distance traveled = acoustic wave speed x travel time

Consequently, sensors placed at different locations on the tank wall, i.e. at different distances from the source, will
experience different signal arrival times. For the case of the all-acoustic system, it is possible to detect the
difference in signal arrival time at one sensor relative to another. This in turn allows for the estimation of the
difference in the two propagation path distances. For the case of the combined acoustic-electric system, the time
delay between the source and the sensor can be detected, and the absolute path length between the source and a
given sensor can be determined. Each of these system types requires a slightly different procedure to locate the
source, as described in the sections on Operating Procedures, Clauses 8 and 9.

Acoustic PD source location commonly assumes that the acoustic signal travels a direct, straight-line route from the
source to the sensor. Unfortunately, this is not always the case as the acoustic field inside the tank is very complex
due to wave reflection, diffraction in different materials and other parameters. For example, if there is an
obstruction blocking the line of sight between the source and the sensor location, the sound may travel around the
obstruction. This results in a longer propagation time that would imply a greater distance between the source and
the sensor than actually exists. Alternately, the sound may travel directly through the obstruction at a wave speed
that is greater than in the oil. The resulting arrival time would be earlier, which would imply a shorter distance
between the source and the sensor than actually exists. To help avoid these misinterpretations, it is important to
confirm the estimated source location by repeating the distance calculations with several sensor locations.

5.3 Acoustic signal propagation within the tank wall

The propagation of the acoustic waves within the transformer wall is complex. However, using experimental
evidence based on acoustic signals about 100 kHz and wall thickness about 10 mm, wave propagation velocity can
be assigned a constant value and wave types can be regarded as similar to compression and shear waves. This
empirical approach is used in this document.

Structure-borne propagation paths within the tank wall present a further technical challenge. As the acoustic wave
hits the tank wall, its frequency characteristics remain the same, but its mode of propagation and propagation speed
change. In the example in Figure 2, the sensor is located on the far side of the tank, away from the source.

Figure 2 - Illustration of typical propagation paths for the acoustic PD signal.

Primary reflection wave propagation can take place within the confines of the tank as shown. The speed of sound for
this wave depends on the media encountered by the sound wave.

Acoustic
sensor
PD Source
Transformer
tank
Direct acoustic path
Structure-borne path
Primary
reflection wave
wave
13
Acoustic waves hitting the nearby tank wall will create an alternate propagation path via the tank wall to the sensor
on the other side. The wave speed in metal is greater than in oil. Therefore the wave traveling this structure-borne
path may arrive at the sensor earlier than the wave traveling the direct acoustic path. If the distance calculations were
based on the arrival time of the structure-borne wave using the wave speed in oil, this would imply an incorrect
distance between the source and the sensor. It is crucial that distance calculations are based on the direct acoustic
path. It is critical to confirm the estimated source location by using a variety of sensor locations.

Another way to distinguish the structure-borne waves from the oil-borne waves is to analyze the mode of vibration.
Fluids, such as oil, will only support pressure waves. Solids, such as steel, can support many types of wave motion.
Waves in the oil give rise to both pressure waves and shear waves in the tank wall.

Source
Tank wall
Detector
Direct wave
Pressure (Longitudinal) Waves
Shear (Transversal) Waves
Structure-borne waves
shear wave
Crit ical angle for:
pressure wave

Figure 3 - Illustration of the longitudinal and transversal waves in the enclosure and how they are
created from direct waves.

NOTE: the wavelengths in Figure 3 are not to scale.

Two wave fronts will be seen in these cases, as illustrated in Figure 3. The shear wave has the largest amplitude and
can be identified in this way. The pressure wave is faster and may arrive at the detector first.

The problem of structure-borne waves is reduced significantly if the acoustic sensor is located inside the tank.

5.4 Velocity of sound in oil

For the calculation of distance of the PD source from the sensor, 1413 m/s at 20 C is typically used. Corrections to
the speed of sound for temperature and moisture content are not generally made to increase accuracy because the
uncertainties due to material propagation are usually much larger.

Table 2 shows estimates of the velocity of sound in oil at other temperatures. The velocity will be different if there
are other materials in the wave path and may change depending on the properties of the oil.

Table 2 - Velocity of sound in transformer oil vs. temperature

Temperature of oil - C Velocity m/s
50 1300
80 1200
110 1100
14

6. AE systems: equipment specifications

6.1 Introduction

Many different types of instrumentation are available for detection and location of AE. Several types of typical AE
systems and sensors are described here that have been shown effective in certain transformer arrangements;
however, other systems may be equally or more effective, depending on the transformer physical parameters and the
location of the PD.


A typical system consists of the following components.

a) A digital detection system. This may consist of one or more standard 4-channel digital oscilloscopes with
sampling rate for each channel greater than 1 mega-sample/second and memory depth greater than 5000
samples. Data acquisition units available for computers could be used if they fulfill these requirements.
Features such as averaging, peak detection, zoom, measurements and storage are very useful.

b) Sensors: As discussed in Clauses 6.5, 6.6 and 6.7 below.

c) Cabling and power supply units for the sensors.

6.3 Digital signal processing (DSP) workstations that record acoustic data over extended
periods

Transportable DSP workstation systems are used to automate the AE acquisition and interpretation process. These
systems identify, qualify and locate AE sources using the signals from sensors in Clauses 6.5 and 6.6 below. The
systems combine the acquisition and saving of multiple AE signals with the capability to

a) Qualify the signal as PD by determining the fit of the AE waveform to parameters such as rise time,
duration time, and asynchronicity with the excitation frequency, e.g. 60 Hz.

b) Provide a relative measure of activity level by determining the energy level at the transducer face. This is
done by counting the number of bursts and the area beneath the burst envelope that is above the threshold
setting. Note this does not provide the actual level of PD energy.

c) Calculate the location of signal source(s).

Results of tests can be displayed as graphs such as point plots, line graphs, bar graphs or cluster graphs with multiple
parameters or waveforms or the results of summations of data. This same data is used to generate reports that give
the hardware and software setup information, acquisition activity and location of the source(s) of the PD.

6.4 On-line (continuous) acoustic PD monitoring systems

There are two general types of systems for continuously monitoring PD.

a) Permanently installed on-line acoustic monitoring systems to detect and trend AE signals and send that
information to a remote location. Data gathering personnel are not usually present during normal
operation. These systems typically consist of multiple sensors, which are placed at locations where faults
may be anticipated based on past experience or highest probability of problems occurring, and amplifier
and data acquisition/processing systems that are able to transmit collected data and/or warning alerts to
locations outside the substation. They usually do not perform remote location analysis of the AE. Supply
of power from the station DC source or another uninterruptible supply may be specified. For long-term
robustness, the systems require protection of inputs, outputs and grounds similar to electronic relays.

15
A test to establish the baseline data of acoustic activity on the transformer is performed during the
installation process. This test provides information to establish the best hardware and software settings for
permanent monitoring. It is helpful for gain settings to be the same as adjacent transformers in order to
compare readings if signals are thought to be the result of network disturbances.

Permanent mounting of sensors is desirable for long term installations. This may be accomplished with a
thin coating of suitable epoxy and a mechanical holder. The epoxy should be chosen to avoid broken
bonds due to differential thermal expansion between the sensor and the wall. The bonding agent is usually
a suitable couplant.

b) Systems that include acoustic sensors and a high frequency current transformer installed on the case
ground connection or a special radio frequency transducer mounted inside the transformer. These systems
utilize the concurrence of an acoustic event and an electrical or radio frequency signal to confirm that the
acoustic signal is PD. In some systems, the time difference is used to give a measure of location.

6.5 External sensor

The sensor mounted on the external surface of the transformer tank is a piezo-electric displacement transducer
operating in its compression mode. Different investigators are using sensors with a sensitive region ranging from
about 20 kHz to 500 kHz.

It has been shown [B10] that the main frequency of a partial discharge of about 150 pC magnitude is 100 kHz.
Users typically choose sensors with resonant frequency (for longitudinal waves) of either 60 kHz or 150 kHz. For
larger discharges, frequencies should decrease. Also, attenuation affects high frequencies more than low. These
factors favor the sensor with the 60 kHz resonant frequency for factory and laboratory use. In the field, however,
numerous noises or harmonics of noises are encountered in the 20 kHz to 60 kHz frequency range. Since the sensor
is sensitive to pressure waves in its frequency range that may not be from a PD source, these noises may lead to false
readings. A number of users favor the 150 kHz resonant frequency sensor for field applications for this reason.

Being a piezo-electric device, the sensor will also respond to varying electromagnetic fields such as those found in
substations. To minimize this effect, the transducer can be either a "differential" type utilizing two crystals
(mounted out of phase for noise reduction) or a shielded single crystal transducer with an integral pre-amplifier
circuit. The latter is the preferred and most common configuration because its comparatively high amplitude, low
impedance output is less susceptible to degradation due to noise pick-up in the connecting cables.

Acoustic couplant gel or grease should be applied to the face of the transducer or matching piece just prior to test.
Gels or solids that retain high viscosity at the transformer wall at operating temperature are preferred because low
viscosity couplants will not transfer shear stresses. Couplants produced for ultrasonic non-destructive testing
purposes are generally suitable. Gelled glycerin and silicone grease are particularly efficient and are recommended.
Silicone grease can be difficult to remove from the tank surface.

6.6 Internal sensor

The internal AE sensor or waveguide is a device immersed in the oil that couples acoustic energy from the oil to an
externally mounted sensor. An example of a waveguide would be a solid fiberglass rod inserted through a seal into
the transformer tank with a sensor mounted on the external end of the rod. Careful attention must be given to
maintaining dielectric properties and dimensions. The waveguide is less directional than external tank wall-mounted
sensors because the impedance of the steel tank wall is not a factor. It is less sensitive to external noise such as
storms or loose fittings. [B25].

A new technique under development uses an optical interferometric technique. A laser light source is coupled to the
sensing head through an optical fiber. The sensing head consists of an air gap and a thin silica glass diaphragm.
The optical signal is a function of the air gap length. Variations in the length, caused by an acoustical pressure wave,
are proportional to the intensity of the acoustic signal.

16
6.7 Three sensor system

A transducer system has been developed to aid optimization of sensitivity and rejection of non-PD signals [B9]. It
consists of three relatively closely placed acoustic sensors mounted in a rigid movable frame. An electric detector
may be used to sense the time of origin of the PD, which allows determination of the total transit time of the wave
front. This system is intended to be operated by an experienced person. In searching for possible PD signals and
their origin, the detector frame is moved to selected positions on the transformer tank. At each position, a set of
different trigger and time frame settings are studied on the evaluation unit, which may be a digital oscilloscope.
Suitable algorithms in the evaluation unit determine the direction and possibly the distance to the discharge source.

6.8 Band-pass filter

The use of a band-pass filter is optional. Its purpose is to negate as many of the effects as possible of signals that are
not associated with PDs. These include vibrations caused by the magnetostrictive action of the core (Barkhausen
noise), pumps and fans. Most of these fall below 30 kHz; however, the Barkhausen noise emanating from the core
has sometimes been found to be in the 50 kHz range. Hence, a 100 kHz high-pass section with a rapid, roll-off
response characteristic is needed. The reasonably generous band-pass (200 kHz) allows for variations between
different transducers, in so far as their resonant frequencies are concerned.

The filter is a band-pass type with lower and upper cutoff frequencies of FL and FH. These are frequencies at which
the response to a constant sinusoidal input voltage has fallen by 3 dB from the maximum value. When used with a
150 kHz sensor, FL should be about 100 kHz and FH should be about 300 kHz. The roll-off characteristics of the
filter should be a minimum of 48 dB/octave (240 dB/decade) for the high-pass section. This means that, relative to
the signal of interest (150 kHz), a 50 kHz signal would be attenuated by 48 dB. The low-pass filter should roll off at
not less than 24 dB/octave (120 dB/decade) so that a 600 kHz signal would be attenuated by 24 dB.

7. AE testing

7.1 Personnel qualification and certification

Formal qualification and certification for personnel doing acoustic testing and interpretation of test data is available.
One such program is given by the American Society for Nondestructive Testing [B5].

17
7.2 Field vs. factory test differences

AE testing in factories or field situations has many differences. Some of the specific ones are shown in Table 3:

Table 3 - AE testing: field vs. factory differences

Field Factory
Ambient Noise sources Limited control; e.g. noise from rain or
hail. Signal processing or post test
analysis can reduce or eliminate noise
in some cases.
Controllable
Cooling Pumps May be required by system operating
requirements.
Can be shut off
Weather Limited control, e.g. noise from rain.
Signal processing or post test analysis
can reduce or eliminate noise in some
cases.
Testing done indoors
Power Supply Isolation, Filtering, and/or UPS
required
Clean power available
Grounding Single point grounding for test object
and equipment needs to be established.
Appropriate grounding provisions
built into test bay.
Equipment Access Precautions needed for working near
energized facilities.
Precautions needed for working near
energized facilities.
Transformer Design Generally limited knowledge of what is
inside the tank.
Full design information available.
Test Voltage Limited adjustment range unless a test
power supply is taken to the
transformer location
Full control of voltage levels
Gas blanket (air or nitrogen) Use care that sensors are mounted
below oil level. Also, bubbles may be
present during certain operating
conditions.
Use care that sensors are mounted
below oil level.
More information appropriate to the two environments is included in Clauses 8 and 9.

7.3 General considerations on the application of sensors

Transducer placement and mounting are critical to avoid attenuated or misleading signals [B6]. Some things to
consider include the following:

a) The contact between the transducer and the transformer tank is critical. Simply placing a transducer on
the transformer tank surface often produces a very weak signal. It is advisable to wipe the area free of
dirt, oil, bugs, etc. and polish it with a mild abrasive or abrasive cloth before placing the transducer.

b) An acoustic couplant is essential for enhancing the mechanical and acoustical coupling between the
transducer and the tank surface. It should be evenly applied to the clean mounting surface of the
transducer before placement.

c) A sound transmitting epoxy may have to be used if the mounting location is non-magnetic.

d) Transducers mounted on the tank walls may detect both direct and wall-borne signals. Those mounted
on a bolted cover or other gasketed surface may receive the direct signal more clearly, but the wall-borne
signals may be distorted or dissipated because of the gasket.

e) If possible, avoid locations where there is magnetic or non-magnetic tank shielding, which will cause
extra signal attenuation

18

f) On transformers built with double wall construction, transducers should be located on the welded ribs that
span between the two tank walls to provide a strong signal. The air in the cavity between the walls
attenuates acoustic signals.

g) If possible avoid locations above gas spaces. This adds extra impedance in the transmission path, which
produces additional attenuation. Signals may be difficult to resolve.

h) Avoid mounting sensors on tank stiffeners unless the tank has a double-skin wall

i) For safety reasons, do not locate sensors in areas of high voltage

j) Provide sufficient spacing between sensors to insure independent signals. Distance depends on sensor
model

k) Verify sensor operation, either the entire system or each sensor. Amplifiers should be set for similar
sensitivity for all sensors.

l) An acoustic verification rod may be helpful in determining an initial location for a sensor. The rod is
made of a solid sound-conducting insulation material, typically wood or fiberglass. It is used by placing
one end against the transformer tank, the other end against ones ear and listening for sounds that could
indicate PD.

m) Avoid the ends of transformers that have cores with unwound return limbs.

n) Aluminum or stainless steel walls are non-magnetic. Sensors may have to be placed using epoxy.

o) Do not mount sensors on control boxes

p) LTC operation contains a high electromechanical energy that usually propagates through the entire
transformer. Actions should be taken in order to identify operations during the test and distinguish them
in post-test analysis to identify the source of AE.

q) Shell-form transformers: locate the sensors on top (above the core) or bottom (below the core).

r) Transient voltage protection must be applied to the input of test instruments/devices.

s) Extraneous electrostatic and magnetic signals may cause false indications and damage equipment.

8. AE field test procedure

8.1 Introduction

AE testing is usually done in response to gas-in-oil test results or noises that may indicate partial discharge activity.

In most cases, the transformers are monitored while carrying load. This requires safety precautions when placing
the transducers, assuring that minimum approach distances are not compromised. Refer to Clause 1.3 Safety
warnings.

19

8.2 Test setup

Approximately two to three hours are usually required to prepare for monitoring after arrival at a site. This will
depend on number of sensors to be installed and accessibility to the unit, power source, etc. If a test power supply is
being used, extra time will be needed to setup and check out the power supply.

Set up the test equipment at a convenient location for access to the transformer and the station service source.

Establish a common point ground for all of the test equipment and the transformer.

The transducers are connected to the test equipment with coaxial cables. Cable routings should be chosen to
minimize interference pickup from bus work and grounding connections in the test area. Verify proper operation of
the monitoring system.

An operational test should be followed in order to assure the same sensitivity of all sensors. Many users verify
transducer sensitivity by breaking the lead of a Number 2 pencil against the tank close to the transducer. Users
advise this is limited to tanks with 19 mm (3/4") maximum wall thickness. Another technique is to activate an
acoustic transducer to create a signal into the tank and measure the output of the other sensors. The signals recorded
by the various transducers should be compared to see if they are reasonable and consistent.

8.3 Sensor placement and initial scan

Unless on-line PD monitoring is being used, there is usually no indication of where to look for the noise source.
Therefore, a scan covering the complete transformer is the first step.

a) For a three-phase core form transformer, install one sensor in the general area of the bottom connection of
each bushing. Place additional sensors at approximately the center of each winding limb on the high and
low voltage sides of the tank. If extra sensors are available, place them on the tank ends. See 7.2 m).

b) Similarly, for a single-phase core form transformer, install one sensor in the general area of each
bushing bottom connection. Place additional sensors at approximately the center of each limb of the
windings on each of the four sides of the transformer tank. See 7.2 m).

c) If the transformer has a preventive autotransformer inside, consideration should be given to placing one
or two transducers close to its location.

d) Using the same sensor locations and software settings when testing identical transformers permits
establishing ambient baseline data for that particular design. The sensors may have to be moved to
improve reception of signals from a specific source.

e) Sufficient couplant gel is to be applied to the face of the transducer to ensure efficient transmission of
the AE signal from the tank wall to the sensing crystal. Too much couplant will not be harmful (though
wasteful), whereas too little couplant can seriously inhibit the transducers sensing capabilities.

f) Magnetic shielding blocks the signal from the sensors. The location where shielding is installed is
usually obtained by referring to pictures or notes from past experience with the transformer or from the
manufacturer.

g) In the case of transformers indicating PD, a high frequency split-core CT or ammeter (Rogowsky coil
type) around the transformer case ground can be used as a direct signal to the digitizer. This can be used
as the trigger transducer to indicate time zero.

The face of the transducer with its film of couplant should be brought into contact with the transformer tank wall
with only sufficient pressure applied in order to get a good signal and hold it in position. It is necessary to hold the
sensor steady so that no signals are generated due to relative movement between the sensor and tank wall. This can
be achieved by means of a magnetic clamp, adhesive tape or epoxy.

20

The time period for the initial scan is dependent on the acoustic activity rate. Some users monitor for about four
hours before changing transducer placement. This basically assures the emission patterns are consistent and
repeatable. If activity rates are low or erratic overnight monitoring may be required.

8.4 Monitoring techniques

When the transformer is energized from the power system, voltage levels are fairly constant making inception and
extinction levels of acoustic activity very difficult to determine.

Techniques for varying system conditions to help characterize the AE source include:

a) Varying transformer loading to see if the acoustic activity is load related

b) Raising or lowering the bus voltage several kV by tap-changing and/or capacitor/reactor switching

c) Moving the transformer on-load tap-changer(s) up or down a step at a time to see the impact on the
acoustic activity

If the transformer is energized from a test power supply, the test voltage can be raised and lowered at will for
determination of acoustic activity inception and extinction levels.

Signal sensitivity is unique to each particular AE monitoring system. Trigger level settings depend on the normal
operating noise on the transformer to be tested (this depends on core type, pump/fan operation noise, etc.). The best
initial settings are the least sensitive settings that give a clear AE pattern (avoiding the noise coming from the core,
pumps/fans or other sources). The settings can then be optimized during the signal location process.

A three dimensional layout can be constructed, for instance, using a convenient corner of the tank for zero
coordinates. For tanks with rounded corners, consider squaring them off for reference. After sensor locations are
plotted, the time delay in each transducer signal can be used to estimate the source location. Using the maximum
number of sensors possible improves the accuracy and usability of this approach.

8.5 Locating the source of the signal

An approximate source location can be estimated based on relative timing of signal arrivals at the various
transducers and assumptions about the speed of sound in oil. This is not a foolproof method because of the different
types of material (insulation, steel, copper, oil, etc.) in the paths between the signal source and the various
transducers. Also, there may be more than one signal source in the transformer.

Reposition transducers to focus on the area of the transformer tank where the suspected source is located and
continue the monitoring process. The sensors can be arbitrarily close as long as a time difference between them can
be measured.

Sometimes, even when transducers have been relocated to a suspected area, only one sensor detects the acoustic
activity. This can happen either because the source detected is very low in intensity or highly attenuated or because
there is a problem with the instrumentation. Care should be taken not to automatically disregard this activity as
noise.

The signal source location can be confirmed by a set of consistent signal timings. A clear consistent picture of the
signal characteristic helps to identify the source type.

21
8.6 Reporting and follow-up

Comparison of actual problems and the predictions from acoustic monitoring are important for building the
knowledge base on the response of a particular monitoring system. This greatly enhances the usefulness of acoustic
monitoring as a diagnostic tool.

The investigation report should include information on the test setup, test procedures, test waveforms (if any), and
predicted signal sources based on experience, internal assembly drawings and/or photographs of the transformer
under test.

Follow-up reporting may include comparison of the actual problem and the predictions from the investigation.
Useful information includes:

a) What was found

b) Where was it located

c) Differences between predicted and real locations

d) How the problem was corrected

Acoustic monitoring after repair allows comparison of before and after acoustic signatures and allows establishing
the new baseline data of the transformer.

9. Factory test procedure using an electrical trigger

9.1 Introduction

An important difference between the factory test and the in-field test is the advantage of being able to use an
electrical PD signal to trigger the acoustic data acquisition. This electrical trigger, occurring virtually
instantaneously as the PD emissions leave their source, provides a convenient "time-zero" mark to use to measure
the time differential between this signal and the acoustic signals, and hence calculate the distance from the acoustic
sensors to the PD source.

The input of the electrical PD detector is typically connected to the bushing capacitance tap. The output is
connected to one of the channels of the acoustic location system. It is recommended to use an electrical apparent
charge detector rather than a radio-influence voltage (RIV) meter since the frequency range of the former is much
closer to that of the AE than the latter. However, either can be used for the trigger. The AE sensors are connected to
the transformer tank wall. The outputs of the sensors are connected to the acoustic location system for viewing the
acoustic signal and its time delay from the electrical signal.

9.2 Initial sensor placement

The initial placement of the AE sensors onto the tank wall can make the difference between an efficient location of
the PD source and a more time consuming one. Guidance in making an informed estimate of where to initially place
the sensors can come from the Induced Voltage Test. This test, in most cases, will indicate which phase of the
transformer contains the PD source. If so, the sensors should then of course be placed in the area of the problem
phase. Caution should be exercised because there has been at least one experience [B51] where the induced voltage
test indicated the PD to be located in one phase and the acoustic test located it on a different phase, the latter being
verified through internal inspection. A typical example would be a delta winding where each bushing is connected to
two phases.

22

Another source of information is to examine the transformer internal assembly drawings and photographs if
available. They may show likely areas of PD sources, and indicate whether the problem may be on the LV or HV
side, or an end wall, and whether it is towards the top, middle, or bottom of the tank. An example of a simplified
HV-Side transformer assembly is shown in Figure 4. A search for the problem PD source within such an assembly
can include placing sensors along the windings, over each de-energized tap-changer, and/or along the high-voltage
leads connecting each HV winding to its respective bushing.

Figure 4 - Example of HV-side of three-phase transformer assembly

Ideally, initial placement of sensors would resemble one of the three arrangements shown in Figures 5a, 5b, and 5c.
Figures 5a and 5b are for the case when the problem phase is known; Figure 5c for when it is not known.

Figure 5a - Sensor locations with PD source in center phase. Typically sensors are located on
each side wall.

23

Figure 5b - Sensor locations with PD source in outer phase. Typically sensors are located on each
side wall and on the end wall.

Figure 5c - Sensor locations when phase of PD source is not known. Sensors are located initially
on one side wall.

In the above figures, the top, middle, and bottom of the suspect phases are tested in an effort to obtain general
overall coverage of each phase. In actual practice, however, often the most convenient placement of the sensors is
not possible due to obstructions such as radiators, tank stiffeners, on-load tap changers, and control cabinets. Figure
6 shows the plan view of an actual transformer tank having all of the aforementioned obstructions.
24

Figure 6 - Transformer tank plan view

Some creativity is therefore required, and the actual sensor placement may be significantly different from the
arrangements shown in the previous figures. For example, due to the presence of radiators or internal wiring trays,
the sensors for one phase might need to be placed on the opposite side-wall than the other two phases.

Mounting the sensors on manhole or other covers may provide an AE signal path that is clear of tank wall - carried
signal if the cover is isolated from the tank by flexible gaskets. The transformer oil must be in contact with the
inside surface of the cover for the sensor to be effective.

Shell form type transformer arrangement requires special mention owing to the shielding used inside the tank walls.
It may only be possible to place sensors on the top of the tank or in areas where there is no shielding.

9.3 Measurements and changing of sensor placement

With the sensors in place, a simple check may be performed to ensure that they are indeed operational. Using low
signal amplification setting, this check can be accomplished by gently tapping your fingertip on the tank wall
immediately beside one of the sensors. This will create an acoustic signal, which should be detected by the sensor
and displayed on the oscilloscope. Use this procedure to check each sensor in turn.

Now, the first set of AE measurements is ready to be taken. To do so, energize the transformer in the same manner
as during the routine Induced Voltage Test. Increase the voltage slowly until the electrical apparent charge detector
measures sustained PD activity, or until the full test voltage level is reached that can be safely sustained
continuously. (Do not raise the voltage level beyond this amount, as a higher voltage level, though possibly
producing greater PD activity, unduly stresses the transformer insulation). At this voltage level, and with a medium
acoustic signal amplification setting, the oscilloscope trigger sensitivity level must be calibrated to the
corresponding electrical PD detector signal. Now, for every half-cycle of the voltage wave, the oscilloscope will be
triggered to begin data acquisition from both the electrical PD detector and the acoustic emission PD sensors.
"Time-zero" will be the instant in time that the data acquisition is triggered to begin. As many sensors as the
oscilloscope will allow should be displayed at once. Data that invites analysis can be "frozen" on-screen and stored
in memory using the digital oscilloscope.

The interpretation of the acoustic signals displayed on the oscilloscope is done according to Clause 10.1 of this
guide. If none of the sensors indicate PD activity, increase their signal amplification slightly and repeat the test. If
there are still no clear signs of activity, the sensors will have to be moved manually, perhaps by a displacement of
half a meter either vertically or horizontally, and retested again. Another suggestion is to move some of the sensors
to the opposite side of the tank. This is a trial-and-error process that continues until at least one of the sensors
indicates the presence of PD activity. Again, this process can be expedited with the examination of the transformer
internal assembly drawings and photographs.

25
When one or more of the sensors shows activity, assuming in the simplest case that only one problem PD source is
present, the rest of the sensors may be manually moved into the vicinity of the active area. The objective is to obtain
AE signals from all sensors, and to position them so as to minimize the time differential between "time-zero" and
the beginning of the acoustically detected PD signal. Ideally, this minimum time difference will correspond to a
maximum number of individual oscillations in the signal as measured by the counting circuit; however, this may not
necessarily be so (refer to Clauses 4.2 and 5 for calculation of the distance from the sensors to the PD source).

Using this procedure for sensor placement and AE measurement, the PD source can often be located to within 25 cm
or less.

10. Characterization of AE signals

10.1 Introduction

Characterizing whether an AE signal is PD is usually done by considering factors such as length of the burst,
movement of the AE signal relative to the excitation frequency and rise time of the first oscillation to cross the
threshold.

Partial discharges obtained by conventional electrical methods use a threshold to predict severe activity. This level
is generally about 300 pC to 500 pC. Because of variations in the acoustic signal caused by distance and interfering
materials, there is no similar threshold for acoustic systems. A strong signal buried deep within a winding may be
very weak by the time it reaches the acoustic sensor. Also, differences in amplifier gain settings cause differences in
magnitude.

10.2 General alternating current systems

In general, two types of PD activity (other than zero) may be encountered: continuous and sporadic.

By continuous, it is meant that PD bursts are present all the time, though they may have varying AE amplitude. This
type of signal is typical of that produced by an energetic PD source.

Sporadic activity can be further subdivided into two types.

a. Sporadic AE from a continuous PD source: this is characterized by activity that is present most of the time,
but short quiescent periods are also encountered. This type of signal may be produced by exposed sources
on conductors and connectors, defects in insulation, worn tap changers, foreign objects or ungrounded
hardware.

b. Sporadic PD with lengthy quiescent periods (perhaps minutes) followed by short periods of very high
activity: this type of signal has been found to be associated with floating static shields, streaming
electrification or other types of static discharges (see Clause 10.7) and bad contacts in tank wall shielding.
Often short-lived arcs are associated with this type of fault, and these produce very energetic AE signals
during active periods.

As previously described, it is often possible to determine the position on the tank wall where the transducer is
closest to the PD source. This does not give information as to the distance into the tank (from that location) to the
source. However, observing the signal on an oscilloscope (a digital transient recorder is recommended), it is possible
to form an opinion regarding this. For example, the burst shown in Figure 1a has suffered very little attenuation.
This is evidenced by the high rise rate of the leading edge of the burst envelope, resulting in the characteristic
"arrow head" shape. To achieve this, the propagation path is almost entirely in oil with little solid insulation
involved.

26

If the PD signal propagates through layers of solid materials (iron, copper, insulation, etc.), the resulting attenuation
not only affects the overall amplitude, but also modifies the burst envelope by "rounding off" the leading edge. In
the extreme, the burst envelope becomes "egg-shaped" or "ellipsoid-shaped" as shown in Figure 7 [B41]. By
utilizing this phenomenon, it may be possible to estimate whether the source lies close to the surface or is buried
well within the insulation system.

Figure 7 Typical AE burst showing effect of attenuation

The waveform beyond 200 microseconds is from reflections of the signal.

The user should always be aware that the responding characteristics of the sensor may at times be more in evidence
than the forcing characteristics of the PD signal.

Some experts use signal length of 40 microseconds to 1 millisecond as an identification criterion for PD.

PD usually has a correlation to the excitation frequency, e.g. 60 Hz, waveform, but is not synchronized to this
frequency. Typically, there is a slight "jitter" back and forth from a constant position on the waveform.


The frequency range of a signal is between 50 kHz and 350 kHz. In [B10] the main frequency for an approximate
150pC discharge is about 100 kHz with the expectation that for larger discharges, frequencies will decrease.

The amplitude and time duration depend on the physical size of the transformer tank and the location of the sensors
and their actual separation from the estimated PD source.

The subsequent attenuation of the signals is due to the heterogeneous structure of the transformer core/coil
assembly. Attenuation of the signal inside the tank affects high frequencies more than low. The attenuation of the
signal also creates a lack of correlation of scaling factor between the acoustic signal and electrically measured
apparent charge.

27

Some examples of signals are shown in the figures below.

Figure 8 - A laboratory recorded direct PD signal (bottom) and its power spectrum (top)

The signal in the lower trace of Figure 8 is in the time domain; the x-scale is seconds. The signal in the upper trace is
in the frequency domain; the x-scale is hertz (Hz). The sensor used has its main sensitivity in the range 20 kHz to
120 kHz, which is clearly visible in the spectrum. Note the sharp initial rise in the time frame; maximum amplitude
is reached in the first oscillation. The second, more dilute, burst at about 0.7 ms is due to reflection.

ttd1
-0.7E-03 -0.6E-03 -0.4E-03 -0.3E-03 -0.2E-03 -0.1E-03 0. 0.1E-03 0.2E-03
0.
0.5
FFT:ttd1
0. 0.2E+06 0.3E+06
0.5
1.

Figure 9 - A laboratory recorded signal with clear signs of propagation in the tank wall, together
with its power spectrum

The time frame signal (lower trace, scale is seconds) in Figure 9 shows a typical two-step behavior. The longitudinal
wave arrives first with lower amplitude than the transversal wave that comes about 0.04 ms later. The frequency
content (upper trace in Hz) will be slightly dependent on the wall thickness, length of wall path etc., but is mainly
unchanged from a direct signal as it is dominated by the sensor response which extends up to about 120 kHz.
direct PD signal
-0.1E-03 0. 0.1E-03 0.3E-03 0.4E-03 0.5E-03 0.6E-03 0.7E-03 0.8E-03
-0.2
-0.1
0.
0.1
0.2
0.3
FFT:direct PD signal (frequency domain)
-0.1E+06 0. 0.2E+06 0.3E+06 0.4E+06
0.1
0.2
0.3
28

time domain
-0.001 -0.5E-03 0. 0.5E-03
0.
0.05
FFT entire signal
0. 0.5E+05 0.1E+06
0.05
0.1
FFT noise
0. 0.5E+05 0.1E+06
0.05
0.1

Figure 10 - A weak time domain PD signal together with power spectra for entire signal (middle)
and for the noise part (top)

Comparison of the two FFT frequency domain spectra in Figure 10 reveals that the PD signal main amplitude is
below 75 kHz. This is because the source is under paper insulation, which attenuates higher frequencies. The signal
is just slightly larger than acquisition system noise.

Signal
-0.4E-03 -0.2E-03 -0.1E-03 0. 0.1E-03 0.2E-03
0.
0.01
Signal 256 averages
-0.2E-03 -0.1E-03 0. 0.1E-03
0.
0.01

Figure 11 - A clear signal with indications of wall propagation (bottom). These indications are
confirmed by averaging (top)

Averaging can be a very effective method to reduce noise, as illustrated in Figure 11. The trigger was in this case set
on the high amplitude oscillation in the acoustic signal. A stable trigger and a high sample rate are required for
averaging. Several independent averages should always be performed to avoid chance coincidences. If applicable,
averaging is often the most effective method to reduce noise. Note, for example, the very weak indications of a
signal appearing around -0.3 ms in the upper trace. Such observations are often the key to a successful localization.

29

signal
-0.003 -0.002 -0.001 0.
0.
0.1
FFT:signal
0. 0.1E+06 0.15E+06
0.1
0.2
0.3

Figure 12 - A PD signal that has passed from the high-voltage side to the low-voltage side of a
transformer

The wave front in the lower trace of Figure 12 is not sharply rising; it grows slowly (note time scale) and starts
roughly at -1.5 ms in the figure. The power spectrum in the upper trace shows a strong peak around 35 kHz,
indicating the passage of the signal through considerable amounts of attenuating material.

10.4 DSP workstations that record acoustic data over extended periods

Transportable DSP workstation systems process and graphically display the bursts from AE sensors and a number of
signal characteristics vs. time, cumulative time or each other in two and three dimensional formats. This is done for
multiple sensors simultaneously. Signal characteristics include amplitude, signal energy, PD hits, signal duration
(microseconds), PD hits vs. the phase of the power frequency voltage, where phase information is available, and rise
time.

Software in these systems may take advantage of known PD characteristics in order to reduce false indications of
PD. Characteristics include:

a) Signal may be asynchronous relative to the excitation frequency, e.g. 60 Hz. If the signal is synchronous
with the excitation frequency, e.g. 60 Hz, it is often noise [B68]

b) Length of the burst

c) Rise time of the first oscillation that crosses the threshold.

Software with a PD locator algorithm uses data collected by the system and three dimensional details of the
transformer tank to generate the best estimate of the PD location. This software may use wavelet transform methods
to estimate the PD location (Annex C).

10.5 On-line (continuous) acoustic partial discharge monitoring systems

Monitoring systems that send information to remote locations are usually intended to alert maintenance and
engineering personnel to possible problems, which can then be followed by more extensive field tests. The systems
often have less processing capability than DSP workstation systems and may not be able to characterize whether the
AE signal is PD. The information transmitted is usually limited to number of counts per unit time and a measure of
energy that is undefined.

30
10.6 HVDC transformers and reactors

PD detection and location devices are used in the same way during high voltage direct current (HVDC) transformer
and reactor factory and field measurements as they are with normal ac equipment tests. If the transformers are
energized without having the converter operating, there is no extra background noise and PD measurements are the
same as ac equipment. However, in field measurements:

a) EMI interference may be higher in an HVDC substation, requiring additional shielding of instrumentation,
cables and wires. Due to commutation transients there is significant high frequency voltage difference
between different parts of the ground system.

b) The background noise level in HVDC transformers in operation is much higher than in normal ac
transformers and reactors due to the fast transients at converter operation (e.g. valve commutation). Higher
trigger thresholds may compensate for this. If noise levels are too high, acoustic monitoring for PD is not
useful.

c) Acoustic monitoring during inverter operation may be more difficult than rectifier operation because of the
fast transients from high capacitive currents at valve firing.

d) A sensor of 150 kHz resonant frequency may reduce the noise level compared to one of 60 kHz resonant
frequency, but it will also reduce the sensitivity to PD sources under paper.

Sensor location notes cited in other parts of this Guide should be observed. In addition, the acoustic signal may be
attenuated in the area around the valve winding bushing turrets, possibly caused by the extra insulation barriers used
around the bushing connection for resistivity grading. Better results in this location may be obtained by looking
down into the turret by mounting the sensor on the bushing flange mounting surface.

10.7 Characteristics of PD from static electrification

The failures of a number of large power transformers have been attributed to accumulation of charge and subsequent
flashover discharge. Field tests have indicated a correlation of the charge buildup, accompanied by an increasing
level of PD activity, with oil temperatures below approximately 40 C and relatively high oil velocity [B16, B22,
B47]. This phenomenon is called static electrification.

It was expected that gases consistent with PD and flashover discharge would be formed; however, DGAs taken
during the field tests [B47] did not indicate any increase in levels of hydrogen or other gases. This was probably
because of the relatively short period of time and sporadic occurrences of the static electrification.

External sensor placement is mostly toward the top of the transformer using care to avoid internal shielding.
However, the high energy discharges of advanced static electrification can be detected by sensors located at almost
any location clear of shielding. These discharges can sometimes be heard as loud bangs by persons standing near the
transformer.

Static electrification discharges can be detected by acoustic methods well before they become damaging [B22].
Field test experiences [B22, B52] have shown that the most critical situations where static electrification can occur
is during start-up or lightly loaded operation in cold weather. Acoustic activity due to static electrification is
gradually reduced as oil temperature is increased. It practically stops after reaching 50 C.

31
10.8 Acoustic activity from thermal faults, the core, mechanical noises and other sources

AE techniques have typically been used only for the detection and location of PD/arcing in power transformers
when an indication of a problem is pointed out by other techniques (usually gas-in-oil). However, it has been
observed through the years that transformers without gassing history and/or no indication of an electrical problem
produce acoustic activity when monitored over a fixed period of time [B52]. These signals must be differentiated
from PD signals for the results to be effective. Some examples and their characteristics follow.

a) Core magnetostriction noise (Barkhausen effect): the primary frequency occurs at twice the power
frequency; the amplitude of this signal in both half cycles is about the same. Over fluxing may create
considerable noise, which may have harmonics that reach to the 30 kHz to 40 kHz frequency range or above.

b) Pumped liquid noise: the discharge from oil circulating pumps may interfere with PD signals with
transducers placed low on the transformer tank. They usually have no correlation with the 50 Hz or 60 Hz
waveform.

c) Loose nameplates, pipes hitting each other, fan noise, etc. may sometimes have repeatable waveforms close
to PD signals. The length of the signal is often much longer than the PD signal, which is characteristically
under 150s.

d) Loose shielding connections in the transformer tank wall may cause large PD indications, but not be
detrimental to transformer operation. The location of the signals should be considered and correlated with
transformer design drawings.

e) Wiring from the sensors to the amplifiers, if not properly shielded, will pick up spurious PD signals. Look at
every possible source before concluding there are major problems inside the transformer.

f) Trucks, environmental noises (thunderstorms, rain, snow, hail, wind, etc.), and miscellaneous events near the
transformer tank may activate the acoustic sensors. These are random signals lasting longer than 1 ms.

g) Switching and load tap changer movement are random signals.

h) Thermal faults may cause random signals [B21, B46]

The correlation of additional parameters of the transformer during the test (current, voltage, pump/fan current, oil
temperature, winding temperature, phase angle, etc.) with the AE data may assist in identification and separation of
the different acoustic sources detected during a test [B45]. A sensor isolated from the transformer tank may be used
as a reference for some environmental noises. If possible, a correlation with electrical PD detection can aid in
distinguishing between PD and noise signals.

10.9 Comparison between electrical and acoustic signals

A PD exhibits, besides other phenomena, a fast transient electrical pulse and an acoustic "bang". Depending on the
location of the PD and the coupling path between the event and the detector, the electric or acoustic signal can be
used to detect the PD. Both methods have different detection ways and sensitivities for unwanted signals (noise).

The acoustic PD detection is most useful for events within the line-of-sight of the acoustic transducers. This limits
the detection range, but also the amount of noise.

The electric PD detection covers a wider area, including e.g. bushing and tap changer. External noise will also be
detected and is difficult to remove. The correlation between instrument reading and actual discharge magnitude is
better than with the acoustic method. Several international standards exist that define the instrument response, which
is the readout in pico-Coulomb or micro-Volt, allowing a better comparison between manufacturer and in-field
measurements.

32

Table 4 gives a rough overview of the comparison of electrical and acoustic PD signals.

Table 4 - Comparison of electrical and acoustic PD signals

Source Electrical
Detection
Acoustic
Detection
Remark
PD generated within the transformer
PD on the outside of the winding Yes Yes Best use for acoustic detector, location
(triangulation)
PD within the winding Yes unlikely Strong acoustic attenuation inside the
winding.
RIV-detector signal affected by circuit L-C
resonance
PD between winding and core Yes difficult acoustic signal reflection at the core
required
PD between core and tank Yes Yes PD location is often difficult
Arcing / tracking of the oil surface Yes Yes
Arcing / tracking of the bushing
surface in the oil
Yes Yes
PD in the bushing Yes possible
a
PD in the de-energized tap changer Yes Yes
PD in the on-load tap changer Yes Yes
b
sensor placement on LTC compartment

Noise sources
PD outside the transformer, (e.g.
corona on busbar, PD in switchgear)
Yes No
c

Strong tracking / leader discharge Yes possible
c,

d

Nearby lightning strokes Yes possible
c,

d
unlikely single events
Nearby car ignition Yes No
c
no relation to phase angle
Switched electronic power supplies Yes No
c

Radio stations, transmitter Yes No Electrical noise filter (band-stop) or shift in
RIV frequency required
Weather (rain, sleet, snow, hail) No Yes
Other events
Moisture / Degradation in the oil No No Use other diagnostic methods to supplement
the PD detection (PF, DGA, etc.)

a
Field tests have proven [B42] that acoustic detection of PD in the bushing can be achieved if acoustic sensors are
placed on the grounded flange of the bushing, close to the capacitance tap. See SAFETY WARNING Subclause 1.3.
b
Several cases have been reported [B41 B51 where PD/Arcing and/or tracking (carbon paths) have been detected
inside LTC compartments, either on the insulating support bars or on the diverter switch cylinder.
c
Successful electrical PD detection requires noise suppression (e.g. gating together with an external noise antenna)
and observation of the PD - phase pattern (fingerprint)
d
Very strong electrical signals can couple into the transducer or amplifier if the detector is not sufficiently screened

33
11. Integrating AE results with data from oil analysis

Although AE data is useful in its own right, it becomes even more so when used in conjunction with dissolved gas-
in-oil data. For example, if the problem has been present for some time, as is typical of situations that develop in the
field, good correlation should be expected between gas analysis and AE data. As with any diagnostic tool, a baseline
reading should be established before or at the start of monitoring AE signals. The increase and rate of increase of
combustible gases from the baseline dissolved gas analysis (DGA) reading, in combination with events that occur on
the transformer, then become relevant diagnostic data.

PD and/or arcing in the presence of oil produce hydrogen (H
2
) and other gases. PD and the generation of H
2
due to
PD, are the earliest (first) warning signals of most incipient faults known to the industry.

If DGAs show a continuing increase of H
2
in combination with AE signals emanating from a source determined to
be in a specific area, there is a good possibility that the partial discharge is taking place in the specific area. Refer to
IEC 60599 [B37 and IEEE Standard C57.104 [B34 for more information.

The two sources of data can often supplement each other in yet other ways. For instance, sometimes the breakdown
of constituents in the gas analysis is so complex that, although it is obvious that a significant problem is involved, it
is not possible to determine whether the cause is due to PD or is thermal in origin. The AE system responds to
internal signals produced by PD, arcs or gas bubbles. Thermal phenomena that are below the threshold of causing
gas bubbles can produce acoustic signals [B21, but with different characteristics than the signals produced by PD.
Therefore, the existence of any AE signal having the characteristics associated with PD together with the continuing
increase or acceleration of hydrogen gas, verify the existence of PD in oil. The absence of AE activity in this case
may indicate that the problem is located in an area where the signal is highly attenuated. If AE signals continue
and/or increase, with no further increase or acceleration of H
2
or other combustible gases, the AE signals may be due
to components external to the transformer tank. As the combination of information produced by these two
techniques is so advantageous, it is particularly recommended that gas analysis results be taken into account when
interpreting AE data.

When evaluating transformers on the shop floor, the same good correlation between dissolved gas and PD is
normally obtained after HV dielectric tests and temperature rise tests. AE technique provides essentially real time
data relative to activity occurring at that instant. Oil analysis on the other hand is to some extent historical in nature.
Depending on the location of the source and the activity level of PD, there may be a delay of seconds to much longer
time periods before gassing is observed. It cannot be assumed that because there is gas there is PD and vice versa.
Normally, RIV or Apparent Charge detection is carried out in the factory and this provides an alternate database for
correlation with AE data in the signal interpretation process.

12. Acoustic activity interpretation

In the laboratory it may be possible to correlate AE characteristics with electrical PD (picocoulomb) levels.
However, this correlation can not be used in the field due to the external disturbances and effects of attenuation in
both the acoustic and electrical signals. This means that no absolute value of PD activity can be determined from
AE measurements made in the field.

It is important to verify whether the acoustic signal is due to internal partial discharges or if it is caused by some
other source such as mechanical noise. To make this verification requires expertise of the investigator and other
evidences such as the presence of indicating combustible gases or electrical PD. Data processing technology may
also be helpful. This can be performed by separating the acoustic signals based on the particular characteristics of
each individual source (amplitude, duration, energy, counts, etc.).

In general, a more intense PD source will typically produce a higher AE magnitude and count rate than a weak
source. This is because at the site of an intense discharge there may be multiple locations or perturbations that are
producing higher energy PD and AE. It is necessary to consider the transformer design when making acoustic
measurements on transformers.

34
a) Some transformers do not have tank wall shielding or directed flow barriers and have tank wall thickness 6
mm or less. A given partial discharge will probably produce more acoustic energy at the transducer location
if the transformer has 6 mm tank wall thickness or less than if the transformer has 10 mm tank wall
thickness and tank wall shielding.

b) The locations of the PD likely to lead to failure may be in areas where the attenuation of the PD signal is
high. These would include areas within the windings and in the high-low spaces. The attenuation is caused
by the acoustic signal not having a clear path out of the winding, thicker tank walls, tank wall shielding, the
presence of more insulation barriers, directed oil wraps, etc. A source that is likely to lead to failure may
be attenuated to the point that the PD count rate is low or nonexistent.

c) The acoustic energy at the sensor reflects a combination of magnitude and repetition rate of the PD, the
distance it is away from the transducer and the effect of intervening materials. The AE characteristic that
warrants the need for further investigation varies depending on the size of the transformer as well as the
magnitude and type of PD. The data obtained from acoustic tests is not sufficiently definitive to warrant its
use as either acceptance or go/no-go criteria and should not be used for such.

Since the value of many power transformers is high and the cost of a catastrophic failure is great, the detection of
any internal PD in such transformers should be a cause for further investigation. By taking into account the type of
signal obtained, the behavior of the discharge with time, the approximate location of the emitting source and an
estimate of the level of the activity involved, acoustic measurements can be used as a means of identifying the
potential source, cause and severity of PD problems.

The acoustic measurement alone does not provide an estimate of the severity of the problem. A database and grading
system based on case histories of similar problems may help with this analysis. Also, it can indicate the need for
more frequent samples of oil for combustible gas measurements or other advanced diagnostic measurements which,
when combined with the acoustic data, will often provide the means for identifying the cause and severity of the
problem.

35
Annex A (Informative)

Bibliography

Since the early 1950s, there has been much activity in the area of ultrasonic/acoustic emission detection of partial
discharges. The following bibliography is intended to give a broad overview of the subject and provide references
for further study.

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36
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Transformers and Shunt Reactors.
[B36] IEC 60270 High-voltage test techniques partial discharge measurements
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Analysis.
[B38] Kawanda, H., Honda, M., Inoe, T. and Amemya, T., "Partial Discharge Automatic Monitor for Oil-Filled
Power Transformers," IEEE paper no. 833M424-8, PES Summer Meeting 1983.
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Sensors," IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 266-270, 2003.
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transformers," EPRI 2000 Substation Equipment Diagnosis Conference VIII, February 20-23, New Orleans,
Louisiana.
37
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IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, Vol. 8, No. 5, pp. 34-43, 1992.
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Transformers," Proceedings Doble Client Conference, March 30-April 3, 1998, Boston MA.
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38
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[B72] Young, R.K., "Wavelet Theory and Its Applications," Kluwer Academic Publishers, MA 1994.
39
Annex B (Informative)

Signal processing

To evaluate the source of a PD signal, it is necessary to establish its physical disposition or location within the
confines of the transformer. A technique [B51] that is sometimes utilized is based on the presumption that the sensor
location resulting in the highest AE oscillation or count rate would be closest to the source. This is not always true
because of the attenuation that can be caused due to passage of the sound wave through different insulation materials
and copper. Even under most favorable circumstances this technique can only indicate the general zone wherein the
source may probably lie. For more accurate location more precise solutions need to be used. Some of the techniques
are:

a) Time domain: finding the start of a candidate signal in the time domain is the simplest and most reliable
approach.

b) Cross-Correlation: this requires two channels of data from two acoustic sensor locations, with the data in
one channel artificially delayed with respect to the other channel of data. One then attempts to evaluate the
Cross-Correlation of these data by multiplying the corresponding data points. When the artificial time delay
is equivalent to the real time delay between the two data channels a maximum occurs which indicates the
possibility of source location after corresponding mathematical manipulations are conducted. This method
is hampered by the necessarily different wave forms recorded at different locations.

c) Signal Enhancement: averaging is a very powerful technique for recovering repetitive signals from random
noise when there is a stable trigger. In this method, randomness in the signal is reduced to almost zero
amplitude while the true repetitive portion of the signal remains unaffected. However, as AE signals vary in
amplitude, the degree of enhancement obtained is usually less than that predicted by theory.

d) Fast Fourier Transform: the signal can be analyzed in the frequency domain by using suitable Fourier
techniques [B49, B58]. This can result in corresponding power spectral densities which can be manipulated
mathematically to get the estimate of the time delay and then correspondingly the source location.

e) Wavelet Transform: the signal can be analyzed in the frequency as well as the time domain using suitable
wavelet transform techniques [B63, B64, B72]. This can result in corresponding wide band cross ambiguity
functions with better estimation of the time delay and correspondingly better source location accuracy.
These estimated time delays in conjunction with proper signal characteristics (amplitude, signal-to-noise
ratio and shape) yield better PD source location accuracy. Use of suitable location algorithms is illustrated
in Annex C.

40
Annex C (Informative)

Wavelet signal processing theory

Incipient faults generally occur due to the breakdown of a small part of the transformer insulation, generally caused
by the inclusion of moisture or a cavity. This activity results in an instantaneous shunting of a small partial
capacitance of the entire insulation. The discharge of this partial capacitance reconfigures the distribution of charges
within the insulation instantaneously causing a short current pulse. This activity can continue in a sequence for a
while setting up a train of pulses. These pulses can have a particular shape, size and frequency depending upon the
spatial arrangement of the inclusion.

In the following analysis, wavelet transform techniques are used with data from external sensors to estimate the
spatial location of the incipient fault.

sensor 0
r
0
(t)
sensor 1
r
1
(t)
sensor3
r
3
(t)
0 0
, s
1 1 ,
s
2 2 ,
s
3 3 ,
s
sensor 2
r
2
(t)
n n
s
,
sensor n
r
n
(t)
PD SOURCE

x(t)
sensor i
r
i
(t)

Figure C.1 PD source with sensors located on the external surface of the transformer tank

Let the PD source be located as shown in Figure C.1. The different sensors are located at different positions on the
transformer tank, shown in Figure C.2. Let r
i
(t) be the measurements received at the n sensors consisting of the
signal
i
corrupted by Gaussian noise n
i
(t), independent and identically distributed, with mean zero and variance
sigma square [B58, B59, B60, B61, B62, B63, B64].

) ( ) ( t n
s
t
x
s
t r
i
i
i
i
i
i
+

=

= + x t n t
i i
( ) ( ) (1)

where

jwt
e
t
e t x
2
) (

= (2)

i
and s
i
are the times taken by the signal to go from the source to sensor i.
is the wavelet kernel used to describe the signal ) (t x , which is sinusoidally varying and symmetrically
decreasing.

41
Then the wavelet transform of the reference measurement received at sensor 0 and the measurement at sensor i is
given by

dt
s
t
r t r
s
s r W
i i r

0
) (
1
) , (
0
(3)

dt
s
t
x t x
s
s x W
i i x

0
) (
1
) , (
0
(4)
W x s
s s
W x s
s
s
s
s
x i
i
i
x
i
i
i
0
0
0
0 0
( , ) ,

=
+
(5)
Since W x
x
will have a maximum value at (s,) = (1, 0), equation (5) will have a peak when
s
s
s
i
=
0
and =
i
i
s
s
0
0
(6)
( ) x t x
t
s
i
i
i
=

and ( ) x t x
t
s
0
0
0
=

(7)
If = t t
0
(8)
then ( ) t t
i i
=
0
(9)
Hence ( ) ( )
( )
x t x t x
t
s
i i
i
i
= + =

0
0
(10)
and ( )
( ) x t x t x
t
s
0 0 0
0
= + =

(11)
Now ( ) x t
0
and ( ) x t
i
are scaled and delayed versions of ( ) x t . In the new time domain, using the scale/delay
property of WT, equation 5 will have a peak when
s
s
s
i
=
0
and =
i 0
(12)

42

(x,y,z)
PD
sensor 1
(x
1
,y
1
,z
1
)
sensor 0
(x
0
,y
0
,z
0
)
sensor 2
(x
2
,y
2
,z
2
)
sensor n
(x
n
,y
n
,z
n
)
x
y
z
(0,0,0)

Figure C.2 Representation of 3-D transformer tank with sensor locations for calculation of PD
source location coordinates

If the speed of sound in oil is C meters/second, then, in Figure C.2,
2 2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) (
i i i i
C z z y y x x = + + (13)
From the above equation the location of the PD source (x, y, z) can be easily estimated.
43
Annex D (Informative)

Tutorial and case studies for detection and location of AE from PD

D.1 Introduction

Acoustic detection systems can be used to detect and/or locate PD in transformers.
a) AEs are transient elastic waves in the range of ultrasound, usually between 20 kHz and 1 MHz, generated
by the rapid release of energy from a source
b) PDs are pulse-like and cause mechanical stress waves (acoustic waves) to propagate within the transformer
c) If the stress waves propagate to the transformer tank wall, they may be detected with a transducer that is
tuned to the right frequency
d) PD sources can be located by measuring the relative time of arrival of acoustic waves at multiple transducer
locations

As shown in Figure D.1, sensors, generally attached to the outside of the transformer tank, detect the stress waves
caused by PD. This acoustic wave is converted to a voltage signal by the sensor, which is processed and displayed,
and combined with other signals or otherwise processed to aid in interpretation of the acoustic disturbance.

Figure D.1 A PD source emits stress waves that are detected by a sensor on the tank wall. This
signal is processed to validate that it is PD and to determine the location.

44
The advantages of the acoustic system are:

a) It can be used when the transformer is on-line
b) It can be used during transformer applied voltage or induced voltage tests
c) It is non-invasive
d) Some commercial systems can differentiate between actual PD and other acoustic noises
Problems in interpretation of signals can be caused by the different velocities of propagation in steel, oil and
insulation. Blocking of signals may be caused by magnetic shields and other obstructions.

D.2 Types of systems

Many different types of acoustic PD systems are in use to detect and/or locate PD. These generic systems include:

a) Digital oscilloscopes with the ability to display multiple channels of waveforms
b) Automated workstations with or without electrical PD triggers
c) On-line continuous monitoring systems

D.3 Sensors
The sensors most often used in AE applications have a sensitive range centered at about 60 kHz or 150 kHz. The
higher frequency sensor is often chosen for field work because of fewer potentially interfering noises.

D.4 Acoustic PD systems are often used in the following situations:

a) When DGA indicates the possible presence of PD
b) When static electrification is suspected
c) When electrical PD is detected, for confirmation and source location
d) As a diagnostic warning tool for suspect or very important transformers
e) For PD detection during factory impulse testing

45

D.5 Case Studies

Case 1
During induced voltage test in the lab, PD activity in a 3-phase 250 MVA 400/121/10.5 kV auto transformer
manufactured in 1998 was measured by the analog electrical method. Location was carried out using the acoustic
method with a workstation-type automated instrument. Results of the location test are shown in Figure D.2. After
partial dismantling of the transformer, an internal flashover was located in phase A; see Figure D.3. Insulation
between the upper stress ring of the 110 KV winding and the upper yoke was broken. The accuracy of the three-
dimensional location was in the range of 0.3 0.5 meters.

Figure D.2 Views of the workstation screen showing PD hits vs. time and the location of the
source of PD in the transformer tank
Acoustic Emissions from Partial Discharge

Figure D.3 Internal flashover

46

Case 2
DGA results recorded in Table D.1 showed high hydrogen levels in a three-phase 330 MVA, 400/115/35 kV
autotransformer manufactured in 1976. Unstable PD activity was detected during a 14-hour acoustic testing period.
A workstation-type automated instrument indicated location as shown in Figure D.4. Using design drawings, the
fault was located near the core cooling duct of phase A. After consideration of DGA results and PD signals, it was
decided to keep the transformer in service.

Table D.1 DGA history of the transformer with PD activity
DGA history

3D location

Figure D.4 Acoustic activity and three-dimensional PD source location in a 330 MVA,
400/115/35 kV transformer

47
Case 3

Single phase Autotransformer: 500/230/13.8 kV, ONAN/ONAF/ONAF, 146/194/243 MVA, core form.

After two years in operation of three sister units that are part of the same bank, Phase C started gassing. A steady
increase in hydrogen started being detected in February 2005. The other two phases remained stable.

Representative dissolved gas analysis values, shown in Table D.2 below, indicate the existence of partial discharge
activity.
Table D.2 - Dissolved gas analysis values

The utility Asset Management Engineers decided to perform an acoustic emission test in order to determine the
location of the gassing site. This test was performed in May 2005.

The autotransformer was monitored continuously for five days. During this period of time it was observed that
significant acoustic activity was detected. This activity was sporadic (only active at certain periods of time); see
Figure D.5.

Figure D.5 - Plot showing the time (horizontal) when the acoustic activity produces locatable events (vertical)
for a portion of the test.

As can be observed on the above figure, if the test had been done with fewer sensors or for a shorter period of time,
the fault might have not been detected. On the other hand, an on-line continuous monitoring system might have
allowed detection of this fault earlier and provided more information about its trends.

When analyzing the other data collected during the test, it was observed that the AE was detected when load was at
minimum value; see Figure D.6. This behavior suggested a source only active when the voltage was at its maximum
value.

2 hours
1 hr 13 m
2 hr 59 m
1 hr 29 m
3 hr 25 m
Fault active
DATE

H2

CO

CO2

CH4

C2H6

C2H4

C2H2

TDCG

05/31/
05
192

187

728

17

5

3

0

404

48

Figure D.6 - Load current versus acoustic activity.

In order to verify that hypothesis, the voltage profile of the transformer was requested from the utility. It was
observed that the fault was active when the system reached the maximum voltage values; see Figure D.7.

Figure D.7 - Voltage profile

Load current
Line indicates when acoustic
activity produced locatable
events
AE starts AE ends
Secondary voltage
Values for
May 23
49
After five days of continuous monitoring, two areas where the acoustic activity occurred inside the transformer were
obtained. These areas are presented as three dimensional plots. From the average coordinates and correlation to pre-
tanking photographs, the possible areas of concern were at the bottom and top core yokes; see Figure D.8.

Figure D.8 - Three dimensional plots vs. construction photographs showing two clusters of acoustic activity

Cluster
1
Left

HV
Bushing/control

Tertiary
bushings
side

X1 Bushing
side

Cluster
2

Left
side
HV
Bushing/control

Tertiary
bushings
side
X1
Bushing
side
50

Additional tests were planned and an overhaul was being planned after the summer. The transformer failed on July
2, 2005.

Internal inspection indicated that the predicted locations were right on the areas where the degradation was
observed; see Figure D.9.

Figure D.9 - Internal inspection findings after unit failed.

D.6 Conclusions

Detection and location of PD using acoustic measurements is not a perfect science. All PD systems require
knowledge of how the system is recording and processing data in order to interpret data correctly. Remote operation
of these systems is difficult.
a) High level PD can be detected and located. It is difficult to detect low PD levels.
b) PD sources in outer parts (leads, etc.) can be detected and located more easily than PD in inner parts. PD
within the winding block might be impossible to detect or location might be false even at high levels of
activity.
c) The correlation is weak between measured and real PD level due to attenuation
d) For exact location, detailed design drawings are needed
e) Correlation to on-site operating parameters is needed to separate PD from other acoustic sources, e.g.
mechanical noises, rain, hail.

Core damage at bottom of center limb (cluster1) Upper core
damage (cluster 2)

AE Guide PC57.127-D10.0 12-29-06

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