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Bruno Miguel Loureno Pinto

Historical information of the Portuguese Protected Areas



and its implications for management










Dissertao apresentada para obteno do Grau de Doutor
em Engenharia do Ambiente,
pela Universidade Nova de Lisboa,
Faculdade de Cincias e Tecnologia








LISBOA
2008


II









































We should, perhaps, learn that diversity is something to be cherished. Differences
produce change: new species and new ideas. Uniformity of habitats or cultures or
language make life uninteresting and ultimately unsustainable (Beeby, A. and Brennan,
A.M., 1997. First ecology. Chapman & Hall, London).

III

Acknowledgements

First of all, I want to thank my supervisors Dr. Maria Rosrio Partidrio and Dr. Marc
Hockings. Their advice and encouragement helped me in the very slow process of
research and achieving its objectives. I would also like to thank Dr. Carlos Aguiar for its
informal supervision in the chapter of the historical ecology and for his generous offer
to participate as co-author in two Portuguese publications about this subject.

I am also grateful to Dr. Simon Davis and Dr. Pim Van der Knapp for their
contributions in chapter 3; to architect Gonalo Ribeiro Telles, architect Fernando
Pessoa, Dr. Almeida Fernandes, Eng. Macrio Correia, Dr. Jos Marques Ferreira,
architect Henrique Pereira Santos, Dr. Lusa Toms, Dr. Lurdes Carvalho, architect
Nuno Lecoq, Dr. Pedro Castro Henriques, Dr. Lus Vicente, Dr. Ana Fernandes, Dr.
Lusa Schmidt, Eng. Mrio vila Gomes, Dr. Henrique Costa Neves, Dr. Jorge
Palmeirim, Dr. Maria Pitta Groz, Dr. Paulo Oliveira, Dr. Miguel Lecoq, Dr. Maria Joo
Santos, Dr. Margarida Fernandes, Dr. Fernando Tempera, the ICNB, the Servio do
Parque Natural da Madeira, the Jardim Botnico da Madeira and the Direco de
Servios da Conservao da Natureza dos Aores for their contributions in chapter 4.; to
Dr. Francisco lvares, Dr. Henrique Carvalho, Eng. Miguel Pimenta, Dr. Jos Brito, Dr.
Cludia Soares, Dr. Lus Moreira, Dr. Jos Lus Rosa, Dr. Marisa Quaresma, Dr. Jos
Teixeira, Dr. Pedro Sarmento, Dr. Joana Cruz, Eng. Lus Silva and Dr. Armando
Loureiro for their contributions in chapter 5.

Thank you to all my friends and colleagues who not only gave useful suggestions and
comments on my work, but also a lot of encouragement in the most difficult periods of
this PhD thesis. I particularly thank Maria Joo Santos, Miguel Lecoq, Margarida
Fernandes, Gil Proaktor, Sofia Loureno, Maria Dias, Filipa Filipe, Ana Borges (aka titi
Piri), Rita Ferreira, Pedro Lcio, Adriana Crespo, Helena Vicente, Mariana Oliveira,
Flvio Barros, Graciete Silva, Carmen Quaresma, Eveline Moura and the Invisible Man,
who has always been there.

Thank you also to Isabel Neves for her support and encouragement during the last two
years of this dissertation.

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I am also grateful to the Fundao para a Cincia e Tecnologia (FCT) for giving me a
PhD scholarship, to the Universidade Nova de Lisboa- Faculdade de Cincia e
Tecnologia (FCT-UNL) for receiving me as a PhD student and to the Instituto de
Conservao da Natureza e Biodiversidade (ICNB), Liga para Proteco da Natureza
(LPN) and Instituto Portugus de Arqueologia (IPA) for the provided information and
possibility of contact with experts.

I would also like to acknowledge the library of Oeiras, the library of Cascais and the
National Library for their warm reception. Thanks are also due to Radiohead,
Thindersticks, Clap Your Hands Say Yeah, Arcade Fire, Tom Jobim, Miles Davis,
Charles Mingus, Vivaldi, Bach and Rachmaninov for their great music, which
accompanied me many times through this long journey.

A very special thank you to my parents, Antnio and Olvia Pinto and to my brother Rui
Pinto, who always gave me their love and support in every stage of this thesis.


V

Abstract

The historical information is often dismissed as having importance for the management
of Protected Areas. However, the management of these areas is influenced by factors
such as the history of the role of natural and human induced changes in ecosystems, the
influence of different international models of management for Protected Areas and the
local population trend of threatened species. The main aim of this dissertation was to
assess if the historical information is useful for the management of the Protected Areas,
using the Portuguese case as study object. There was three lines of research, with the
following goals: 1) Investigate the historical ecology of the Portuguese territory during
the Holocene; 2) Describe the main episodes of the history of the Portuguese Protected
Areas; 3) Explore the possibilities for fauna monitoring in these areas using existing
monitoring information. For the first goal, the main changes of the vegetation and fauna
in northern Portugal during the Holocene were reviewed, using literature from
paleoecology, archaeology, history, writings from travellers and naturalists, maps of
agriculture and forestry and expert consultation. For the second goal, the history of the
Portuguese Protected Areas was reviewed using legislation, technical reports, books,
academic thesis, periodic publications and other relevant documents, which was
complemented with semi-structured interviews to former and current technical staff of
the State Agencies, one former leader of an environmental NGO and two journalists
working with environmental issues. For the third goal, it was assessed if fauna species
classified of priority importance have been conserved in three Portuguese Protected
Areas using expert opinion. Recommendations for future biodiversity monitoring
exercises were also done. According to the obtained results, it is suggested that the
ecosystems in Portugal have a long history of both natural and human-induced changes,
in which the anthropogenic influence probably became the main factor in the last 5000
years. It is also suggested that the initiative of creation of Protected Areas in Portugal
usually came from the environmental State agencies, which in some cases had to
persuade local authorities and populations that the establishment of these areas would
bring benefits to the region, and that the management objectives of these areas have
changed along time. Additionally, it is suggested that threatened fauna species were
generally conserved in three studied Protected Areas and that future biodiversity
monitoring exercises in these areas use existing monitoring schemes. Therefore,
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considering that it was possible to draw recommendations to improve the management
of the Portuguese Protected Areas, this dissertation suggests that the historical
information can indeed be useful for their management.

Key-words: History; Historical ecology, Environmental history, Protected Areas,
Biodiversity monitoring; Management; Portugal.







VII

Sumrio

A informao histrica no geralmente considerada como tendo utilidade para a
gesto das reas Protegidas. No entanto, a gesto destas reas influenciada por
factores como a histria das perturbaes humanas e naturais nos ecossistemas, a
influncia de diferentes modelos internacionais de gesto de reas Protegidas ou a
tendncia populacional local de espcies ameaadas. O principal objectivo desta
dissertao foi determinar se a informao histrica tem utilidade para a gesto de reas
Protegidas, usando Portugal como caso de estudo. Esta dissertao teve trs linhas de
investigao, com os seguintes objectivos especficos: 1) Investigao da ecologia
histrica no territrio Portugus durante o Holocnico; 2) Descrio dos principais
episdios da histria das reas Protegidas Portuguesas; 3) Investigao sobre as
possibilidades de monitorizao da fauna, usando a informao ecolgica existente.
Para o primeiro objectivo, foi feita uma reviso da literatura usando sobretudo estudos
de paleoecologia, arqueologia, histria, obras de viajantes e naturalistas, mapas
florestais e agrcolas e consulta de especialistas. Para o segundo objectivo, a
investigao incidiu sobre a legislao, relatrios tcnicos, livros, trabalhos acadmicos,
publicaes peridicas e outros documentos relevantes, que foram complementados
com entrevistas a dirigentes e tcnicos das agncias de ambiente, um antigo lder de
uma ONG de ambiente e duas jornalistas que trabalham habitualmente com questes
ambientais. Para o terceiro objectivo, foi avaliado se espcies faunsticas classificadas
como prioritrias nas Directivas Aves e Habitats foram conservadas em trs reas
Protegidas Portuguesas entre 1996 e 2005, usando a opinio de especialistas. Foram,
tambm, feitas recomendaes para futuros programas de monitorizao da
biodiversidade nestas reas. De acordo com os resultados obtidos, sugerido que os
ecossistemas em Portugal tm uma longa histria de mudanas naturais e humanas,
tendo esta ltima sido provavelmente o principal factor condicionante da evoluo dos
ecossistemas em Portugal nos ltimos 5000 anos. Tambm sugerido que a iniciativa
de criao das reas Protegidas em Portugal partiu sobretudo do Estado, que em alguns
casos teve de convencer as autarquias e populaes locais que o estabelecimento destas
reas traria benefcios sua regio, e que os objectivos de gesto destas reas mudaram
ao longo do tempo. Para alm disso, sugere-se que as trs reas Protegidas estudadas
foram eficientes na conservao de espcies faunsticas ameaadas e recomenda-se que
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futuros sistemas de monitorizao da biodiversidade usem a informao e os programas
de monitorizao existentes. Por ltimo, e tendo em conta que as trs linhas de
investigao tiveram implicaes na gesto das reas Protegidas Portuguesas, esta
dissertao sugere que a informao histrica tem utilidade na gesto de reas
Protegidas.

Palavras-chave: Histria; Ecologia histrica; Histria ambiental; reas Protegidas;
Monitorizao da biodiversidade; Gesto; Portugal.




IX

Abbreviations

MAB- Man and Biosphere Program

UNESCO- United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization

PA- Protected Areas

IUCN- International Union for Conservation of Nature (today, called the World
Conservation Union)

SAM- Strategic Adaptative Management

JNCC- Joint Nature Conservation Committee

SSSI- Sites of Special Scientific Interest

WWF- World Wide Fund

SNPRPP- Servio Nacional de Parques, Reservas e Paisagens Protegidas

SNPRCN- Servio Nacional de Parques, Reservas e Conservao da Natureza

EU- European Union

EC- European Commission

ICN- Instituto de Conservao da Natureza

ICNB- Instituto de Conservao da Natureza e Biodiversidade

BP- Before Present

LPN- Liga para a Proteco da Natureza

EASAC- European Academies Science Advisory Council

NGO- Non-Governmental Organization

SPEA- Sociedade Portuguesa para o Estudo das Aves

SNIG- Sistema Nacional de Informao Geogrfica







X



Table of Contents

Page

Acknowledgements.III
Abstract................................................................................................................V
Sumrio..VII
Abbreviations..IX
Table of contents..X
List of Figures...XIII
List of TablesXIV

Chapter 1. Introduction.1

1.1. Introduction...1
1.2. Personal motivation for the dissertation....1
1.3. Objectives of the dissertation2
1.4. Organization of the dissertation4

Chapter 2. Background to the dissertation......6

2.1. Summary...6
2.2. The importance of Protected Areas...6
2.3. The historical and ideological context of Protected Areas9
2.4. Current understanding about the functioning of ecosystems...19
2.4.1. Definition of ecosystem.20
2.4.2. Ecosystems and energy..20
2.4.3. Stability and diversity in ecosystems.21
2.4.4. Ecological succession in forest ecosystems...21
2.4.5. Natural disturbances in forest ecosystems.22
2.4.6. Human-induced changes in forest ecosystems..24
2.4.7. Catastrophic regime shifts.24
2.5. Current understanding about the historical ecology in Europe25
2.6. Human activities in Protected Areas27
2.7. Previous biodiversity monitoring programmes in Protected Areas.28

Chapter 3. Historical ecology of Portugal during the Holocene...33

3.1. Summary..33
3.2. Brief historical ecology of northern Portugal during the Holocene.33
3.2.1. Introduction...33
3.2.2. Methods.35
3.2.3. Results...40
3.2.4. Discussion.62
3.3. Natural vegetation in Portugal.69

XI
Chapter 4. History of the Portuguese Protected Areas.71

4.1. Summary..71
4.2. About the Protected Areas in Portugal 71
4.3. The history of Protected Areas in Portugal and its implications for conservation...73
4.3.1. Introduction...73
4.3.2. Methods.74
4.3.3. Results...76
4.3.3.1. In the mainland...76
4.3.3.2. In the archipelago of Azores..87
4.3.3.2. In the archipelago of Madeira.....92
4.3.4. Discussion..98
4.3.5. Conclusion...........105
4.3.6. Synthesis of the interviews..107

Chapter 5. The monitoring of the fauna in the Portuguese Protected Areas.135

5.1. Summary.135
5.2. The conservation of threatened fauna species in three Portuguese Protected Areas.
An assessment based on expert opinion135
5.2.1. Introduction..135
5.2.2. Study Areas..137
5.2.3. Methods...138
5.2.4. Results..141
5.2.5. Discussion147
5.2.6. Conclusion...149
5.3. The use of past biodiversity monitoring information in future monitoring
programmes in the Portuguese Protected Areas....152
5.3.1. General recommendations for biodiversity monitoring programmes..152
5.3.2. Future biodiversity monitoring programmes...155

Chapter 6. Implications of the historical information in the management of the
Portuguese Protected Areas...159

6.1. Summary.159
6.2. Implications for the management of the Portuguese Protected Areas159
6.2.1. Past management objectives159
6.2.2. Current management objectives...161
6.2.3. Future management options.162
6.2.4. Relationship with the population.164
6.2.5. Biodiversity monitoring programmes..165
6.2.6. Conclusions..167

Chapter 7. Final considerations.....................................................................168

7.1. Final considerations................................................................................................168
References.....................................................................................................................171

Annex 1. Mission of the Instituto de Conservao da Natureza e Biodiversidade
(ICNB)..........................................................................................................................203
XII

Annex 2. Legislation about the national network of Protected Areas (Law-Decree 19/93,
23/01/1993)...204

Appendix 1. Aguiar, C., Pinto, B., 2007. Paleo-histria e histria antiga das florestas de
Portugal continental- at Idade Mdia. In: Silva, J.S. (Ed.)., Floresta e Sociedade. Uma
histria em comum. rvores e Florestas de Portugal. FLAD, PUBLICO, LPN, pp. 15-
49 [in portuguese, as co-author]206

Appendix 2. Aguiar, C., Pinto, B., 2007. A paisagem vegetal e o uso do territrio ao
longo do tempo. In Equipa Atlas (Eds.): Atlas das Aves Nidificantes em Portugal (1999-
2005). Instituto da Conservao da Natureza e da Biodiversividade, Sociedade
Portuguesa para o Estudo das Aves, Parque Natural da Madeira e Secretaria Regional do
Ambiente e do Mar. Assrio & Alvim, pp. 48-50 [in portuguese, as co-
author]...234

Appendix 3. Pinto, B., 2005. Protected Areas issues accessible to decision-makers.
Book review of Protected Areas and Biodiversity: an overview of key issues edited by
Molongoy, KJ and Chape, S. Impact assessment and project appraisal 23, 155...244















XIII

List of Figures

Page

Figure 2.1. Growth of terrestrial Protected Area coverage worldwide in millions of
hectares..7

Figure 3.1. The Mediterranean Basin, Iberian Peninsula, and central
and north Portugal...35

Figure 3.2. Main land uses of north Portugal based on the Corine Land Cover 200036

Figure 3.3. Summary pollen diagram from Charco da Candieira (Estrela mountain),
Late Glacial and Early Holocene part, of Knaap and Leeuwen (1997), redrawn67

Figure 3.4. Summary pollen diagram from Charco da Candieira (Estrela mountain),
Holocene, of Knaap and Leeuwen (1995), redrawn68

Figure 4.1. Evolution of the number of staff in the mainland environmental agency
(ICNB).81

Figure 4.2. Protected Areas in mainland Portugal...87

Figure 4.3. Protected Areas in the archipelago of Azores..92

Figure 4.4. Protected Areas in the archipelago of Madeira....98

Figure 5.1. Location of the three studied Protected Areas in northern Portugal...138













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List of Tables

Page

Table 2.1. Five models of management of Protected Areas15

Table 2.2. Definition of concepts related with models of Protected Areas.16

Table 3.1. Synthesis of the main periods, human impacts, vegetation, fauna and climate
changes63

Table 4.1. Characterization of four main models in the Portuguese PA applied between
1971 and 2008.77

Table 4.2. Protected Areas of national interest (excluding classified sites and natural
monuments) created in mainland Portugal between 1971 and 2008...99

Table 4.3. Protected Areas (excluding natural forest reserves and natural monuments)
created in the Azores between 1971 and 2008......102

Table 4.4. Protected Areas of national interest (excluding classified sites and natural
monuments) created in Madeira between 1971 and 2008.103

Table 5.1. Population trend and causes for population trend of the species assessed in
the Peneda-Gers National Park142

Table 5.2. Population trend and causes for population trend of the species assessed in
the Montesinho Natural Park.144

Table 5.3. Population trend and causes for population trend of the species assessed in
the Malcata Mountain Nature Reserve..146

Table 5.4. List of the literature references used in the present assessment for each
Protected Areas..151

Table 5.5. List of consulted experts divided by taxonomic groups
and Protected Areas...152

Table 5.6. Suggested classes of habitat and corresponding classes of Land Use Map
(COS).158






1

Chapter 1. Introduction

1.1. Introduction

Protected Areas are essential elements for biodiversity conservation in situ, but they are
also responsible for other important functions such as the protection of watersheds, soils
and coastlines, the recycling of water and air and activities of sustainable exploitation of
natural resources (e.g. Gaston, 1996; Gaston and Spicer, 2004; Hockings et al., 2006).
Many Protected Areas are also home to local populations with traditional cultures and
associated knowledge that need to be conserved (Thomas and Middleton, 2003).

The management of Protected Areas usually does not take into account the historical
information relative to each of these areas. However, several authors have recently
suggested that this type of information can contribute for a more appropriate
management of the Protected Areas (e.g. Jepson and Whittaker, 2002; Davenport and
Rao, 2002 Mulder and Coppolillo, 2005; Kalamandeen and Gillson, 2007; Hockings et
al., 2006; Blondel and Aronson, 1999; Mcneill, 2003; Willis et al., 2004).

This dissertation looks at the historical information in search for a more complete and
adequate vision of the conceptual issues involved in the management of Protected Areas
and their implementation in practice, using the Portuguese case as a study object.
Although it is acknowledged that the historical information has value for its own sake,
this dissertation approaches the usefulness of this type of information (Black and
MacRaild, 2000; Marwick, 1989).

1.2. Personal motivation for the dissertation

The original motivation of this dissertation was to study how to assess the management
effectiveness of the Portuguese Protected Areas. At this stage, the main purpose of the
investigation was to understand how to assess if biodiversity was being effectively
conserved and if the welfare of local populations was being considered in the
management of these areas.
2

However, the approach to the assessment of the management effectiveness brought
other questions that also required answers. For example, on the basis of complex
questions such as what are we managing Protected Areas for? were questions such as
How were the natural ecosystems, prior to the introduction to the agro-pastoral way of
life?, What was the human impact on biodiversity along time? or Should traditional
management practices be maintained in order to conserve biodiversity? (Watkins and
Kirby, 1998; Bowman, 2002; Mcneill, 2003; Pereira et al., 2005).

On the other hand, the search for the management objectives in the Portuguese
Protected Areas also raised issues about the models and principles behind their
management. Again, the complex question what are we managing Protected Areas
for? had underlying simpler questions such as what are the management models for
these areas?, what is the origin of these models? or did these models changed along
time?.

Therefore, what started as a simple search for the assessment of the management
effectiveness of Protected Areas became a search in the past for a wider understanding
about the management of these areas. The broadening of the issues explored in this
dissertation had as consequence the reduction of effort in solving the original problem,
but this adaptation of the main object of research was hopefully worth it.

1.3. Objectives of the dissertation

The main aim of this dissertation is revealed in the following research question: Is the
historical information useful for the management of Protected Areas?.

The research uses the Portuguese Protected Areas as a study object and is structured in
three key lines of research: 1) a research study on the historical ecology in Portugal
during the Holocene; 2) a research study on the history of the Portuguese Protected
Areas and; 3) a research study on the past fauna monitoring information in the
Portuguese Protected Areas.

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The investigation of the historical ecology and the history of the Portuguese Protected
Areas were chosen because they were considered important for a discussion about the
conceptual issues related with management objectives. The investigation of the past
fauna information is justified as a preliminary study for the implementation of a
biodiversity monitoring programme for these areas in the future.

Each level constituted an independent line of research that was pursued separately, but
global contributions for the management of the Portuguese Protected Areas and the
relationship between them are explored at the end of the dissertation.

The main goal and specific objectives of the three lines of research were:

1) Investigation on the historical ecology of the Portuguese territory during the
Holocene;

1.1.) Describe the process of vegetation change;

1.2.) Describe the extinction of mammal and bird species;

1.3.) Relate vegetation and fauna changes with natural and human induced
changes;

1.4.) Assess the implications of the historical ecology in the management of the
Portuguese Protected Areas.

2) Investigation on the main episodes of the history of the Portuguese Protected
Areas;

2.1.) Identify the principles associated in the creation and management of the
Portuguese Protected Areas in the mainland, Azores and Madeira, relating them to the
international models found in the literature;

2.2.) Study the implementation of models in the creation and management of
these areas along time;
4

2.3.) Assess the implications of the history of the Portuguese Protected Areas in
their management.

3) Investigation on the use of past fauna information in the monitoring of
biodiversity in the Portuguese Protected Areas.

3.1.) Assess recent changes of threatened fauna species in three Portuguese
Protected Areas;

3.2.) Identify the main causes for these changes in threatened fauna species;

3.3.) Assess how the past biodiversity monitoring information and existing
monitoring schemes can be used in future biodiversity monitoring programmes for the
Portuguese Protected Areas.

1.4. Organisation of the dissertation

This dissertation is composed by seven chapters, two annexes and four appendixes,
which include one accepted article, one article in revision and two published book
chapters. Each of the main chapters follows the structure of the articles, which are
divided in summary, introduction, methods, results, discussion and, in some cases,
conclusion.

In relation to the contents, Chapter 2 aims to provide a conceptual basis for the subjects
that are discussed in the remaining dissertation. More specifically, this chapter focuses
on the importance and history of Protected Areas, the functioning of terrestrial
ecosystems and reviews previous biodiversity monitoring programmes in Protected
Areas Worldwide.

In Chapter 3, the main aim was to collect and synthesize the most relevant information
concerning the historical ecology of Portugal. This chapter integrates an article accepted
in the journal Environment and History entitled Brief historical ecology of northern
Portugal during the Holocene. Further information on this subject can be found in
5
Portuguese in the Appendix 1 (Book chapter entitled Paleo-histria e histria antiga
das florestas de Portugal continental at Idade Mdia) and Appendix 2 (Book chapter
entitled A paisagem vegetal e o uso do territrio ao longo do tempo). This chapter
also includes the section Natural vegetation in Portugal, which looks at the definitions
of what can be considered natural vegetation in Portugal and on the facts that support
the idea of a natural vegetation composed of a mixed landscape of closed and opened
vegetation.

Chapter 4 focuses the history of ideas and main historical events behind the
establishment and management of the Portuguese Protected Areas and its implications
for future management. The chapter begins with a section entitled About the Protected
Areas in Portugal which intends to present briefly the study object. Afterwards, the
chapter continues with an article in revision in the journal Environment and History
entitled History of the Protected Areas in Portugal and its implications for
conservation.

In Chapter 5, the main goal was to review the past fauna monitoring information and
how this information could be used in current and future biodiversity assessments. This
chapter begins with a manuscript to be submitted entitled The conservation of
threatened fauna species in three Portuguese Protected Areas. An assessment based on
expert opinion, in which the main aim was to assess if threatened fauna species have
been conserved in three Portuguese Protected Areas between 1996 and 2005. The
second part of this chapter includes suggestions for future monitoring exercises in the
Portuguese Protected Areas, in which there is an integration of the current biodiversity
monitoring schemes and information.

In Chapter 6, implications for the management of the Portuguese Protected Areas are
drawn from other chapters. This chapter aims to integrate and relate previous
contributions for the improvement of the management of these areas.

Finally, Chapter 7 presents the global conclusion of this dissertation and the main
implications for management for each of the three main subjects that were studied.
6

Chapter 2. Background to the dissertation

2.1. Summary

This chapter aims to review a wide range of subjects that are considered important as a
conceptual background to this dissertation. Current ecological understanding has
recognized that most ecosystems are dynamic due to ongoing processes of disturbances
such as the climate, fire, herbivory, wind throws or floods. There is also a growing
recognition that many terrestrial ecosystems have been shaped by both natural and
human factors and that the continuation of traditional human activities may be
important for biodiversity conservation. However, the idea of a static pristine nature still
persists among some natural scientists, with the result that most disturbances are
assumed to be negative for biodiversity conservation, especially in the case of human
action. The creation of the Yellowstone National Park as the Worlds first Protected
Area in 1872 also contributed for this idea that human action should be reduced to
minimum levels in the Protected Areas, since the presence of native people living in this
area was not acknowledged for a long time. Considering that this Yellowstone model
of Protected Area was applied in different regions of the World, there were numerous
cases of exclusion of native and traditional populations and serious conflicts with park
management authorities. More recently, initiatives such as the Man and Biophere
Program (MAB) created by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) and subsequent models for Protected Areas have helped to
change this view, recognising that local populations have the right to live in these areas.
Finally, from a literature review about biodiversity monitoring programmes in Protected
Areas Worldwide, it is suggested that these programmes are usually done using three
different approaches: expert consultation, monitoring of specific ecological elements
and monitoring of ecosystems.

2.2. The importance of Protected Areas

A Protected Area (PA) can be defined as an area of land and/or sea especially
dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and
associated cultural resources, and managed through legal and other effective means
7
(IUCN, 1994). The Yellowstone National Park was created in the United States of
America (USA) in 1872 as the Worlds first PA and the concept became widespread
since then (see Figure 2.1.). Recent information from the World Data Base on PA
recorded about 100 000 PA in the World, which cover approximately 18 million square
kilometres and represent about 11.5% of the terrestrial surface of the planet (Chape et
al., 2003). The establishment of marine PA has lagged behind terrestrial conservation
efforts, but already represent more than 1% of the marine environment (Primack, 2006;
Chape et al., 2003).



Figure 2.1. Growth of terrestrial Protected Area coverage worldwide in millions of
hectares (Ervin, 2003).

According to the current understanding, one of the most important functions of PA is
biodiversity conservation in situ. The value of biodiversity can be divided into four
basic categories: goods, services, information and spiritual (Mulder and Coppolillo,
2005).

In relation to goods, biodiversity is responsible for the production of food, building
materials, fuel, fibres, industrial products, etc. Moreover, natural products have long
been recognized as an important source of therapeutically effective medicines, and more
than 60% of the Worlds human population relies almost entirely on plant medicine for
primary care (Harvey, 2000).
8

Biodiversity is also responsible for ecosystem services which are crucial to human well-
being such as carbon recycling, soil fertility maintenance, climate and surface
temperature regulation, watershed flows, nursery habitat for fishes and waste
assimilation capacity (Perman et al., 1999; Gaston, 1996; Gaston and Spicer, 2004).
Unfortunatelly, these services tend not to be economically priced despite their
unquestionable value (Gaston and Spicer, 2004; Chee, 2004). In other activities such as
recreational harvesting and ecotourism, the economical value of biodiversity can be
directly appreciated. For example, it is estimated that 9 million people went whale-
watching in 1998, with expenditures on just this activity of approximately 1 billion US$
(Hoyt, 2000).

In what concerns the value of information provided by biodiversity, diverse gene pools
represent a form of insurance against ecological collapse, since the greater is the extent
of diversity, the greater the resilience of ecological systems (Perman et al., 1999). The
information value lies not only in the estimated 5 to 15 million species which are
known, but also in species which are yet to be discovered (Mulder and Coppolillo,
2005). Ecosystems with reduced human influence also provide information as
blueprints for habitat reconstruction, design reconstruction, design principles for new
ecosystems, environmental baselines for monitoring threatened systems, and wonderful
teaching laboratory for ecologists of the future (Mulder and Coppolillo, 2005).

Finally, as regards spiritual significance, biodiversity has an aesthetical, intellectual and
cultural value that enriches our lives (Sutherland, 1998; Perman et al., 1999). This
explains the inspiration it provides for artists and engineers, the interest of scientists and
the growing industries of rural and nature tourism.

In addition to the value of biodiversity conservation, PA are also home to human
communities with traditional cultures and knowledge, which also require protection.
Therefore, the management of PA with resident populations should take into account
the social and cultural values that exist in the region (Thomas and Middleton, 2003).

Since human population and economic activities are expected to increase in the next
decades, it is likely that the volume of waste will also tend to grow. The development of
9
new technologies may enable us to extract more economic activity from a given unit of
natural resource, to discover new resources and to be more efficient in waste treatment
and recycling processes (Perman et al., 1999). Nevertheless, new technologies may
require several years or even decades to achieve market penetration and significantly
influence negative ecological trends. Therefore, PA may represent an increasingly
important role in the future through the preservation of stocks of renewable resources
and waste assimilation capacity of ecosystems (Perman et al., 1999).

2.3. The historical and ideological context of the Protected Areas

Humans have been setting aside areas for conservation for a long time. Examples of
such areas include the sacred groves in India, which date back to the pre-agrarian
hunter-gathering era, the hunting and forest grounds in Europe that were created in
Medieval times and the protected forests in Japan, that were established more than 500
years ago (Holdgate, 1999; Phillips, 1999; Eagles et al., 2002; Davenport and Rao,
2002; Margules and Pressey, 2000).

As previously said, the modern history of PA began in 1872 with the creation of the
Yellowstone National Park (Mulder and Coppolillo, 2005). After the public enthusiasm
about a report of an expedition to this area, a second expedition was composed by a
group of natural scientists, photographers and artists with the purpose of collecting
scientific records, photographies and paintings of its natural wonders (Wright, 1996;
Bensusan, 2006). Also, the Northern Pacific Railroad whose route to Montana would
greatly benefit by the creation of this new tourist attraction lobbied in Congress for the
legislation of Yellowstone as a National Park. Hence, the combined efforts of
conservationists, politicians and businessmen resulted in the creation of the Yellowstone
National Park as the first modern PA in 1 March 1872, which aimed to be a public
park or pleasuring ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people (Wright, 1996).

However, the creation of this area implied the removal of indigenous people such as the
Crow, the Blackfeet and the Shoshone. Five years after its creation, the Shoshone began
to fight with the park authorities, which resulted in the death of 300 people (Diegues,
2004; Bensusan, 2006). These events are linked with the original notion of National
Parks as large areas of wilderness free of all human influence. As stated above, this
10
view ignored the existence of indigenous people in the area prior to the establishment of
this National Park (Kalamandeen and Gillson, 2007; Bensusan, 2006; Sarkar, 1999;
Chase, 1987). Currently, there are evidences that the landscape of Yellowstone showed
signs of long-term human influence at the time of its designation (Schullery, 1997).
Romantic writers such as Thoreau and Muir had an obvious influence in this notion of
wilderness, since they emphasized the importance of pristine nature, and assumed that
humans had a negative role on the pristine landscape. Therefore, the popular perception
of the Worlds first National Park was of an empty, pristine area free from human
influence that did not correspond to the reality (Kalamandeen and Gillson, 2007; Sarkar,
1999; Bensusan, 2006; Chase, 1987; Huff and Varley, 1999).

In the following years, however, this initial model of PA (known as the Yellowstone
model) was adopted in other regions of the World. In 1879, the government of New
South Wales (Australia) founded the Royal National Park, which became the Worlds
second PA, aimed to provide a natural recreation area for the urban population (Chape
et al., 2003). In 1883, three railway workers of the Canadian Pacific Railway found
several hot springs, which originated conflicts over who had the right to develop the
region for commercial interests. Instead, the Canadian Prime-Minister decided to create
the Banff National Park in 1885, which was seen by the railway companies as an
excellent way to stimulate passenger growth through tourism (Marty, 1984). In 1894,
the Maori trusted the management of several religious sites (called tapus) to the New
Zealand government, in the condition that these lands would be maintained in the same
state, thus creating the Tongagiro National Park (Phillips, 1999).

As more parks were created, it became necessary to coordinate the management of these
areas. In 1911, Canada created the Worlds first park agency, which was called the
Dominion Parks Bureau (Mulder and Coppolillo, 2005; Phillips, 1999). In the USA,
several park supporters convinced the president that the under funding of American
parks and their general disorganization needed to be resolved. This boosted the creation
of the National Parks Service in 1918 (Phillips, 1999). Interestingly, the first director of
this organisation instructed his employees to look for scenery of supreme and
distinctive quality or some natural feature so extraordinary or unique as to be of national
interest in order to expand the parks system. Therefore, the concepts of wilderness and
11
aesthetic interest prevailed in the creation of these areas in this country (Mulder and
Coppolillo, 2005).

In 1928, the first international park was created in North America, when a group of
Canadians resolved to connect Waterton national park in Canada to Glacier national
park in the USA. This established protection in a total area of 410 000 hectares which
was renamed as the Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park (Marty, 1984).

Almost simultaneous to the application of the Yellowstone model was the creation of
areas of Wise use of natural resources (see Table 2.1. and 2.2.). This idea began with
the initiative of the US president Theodore Roosevel to establish forest and game
Reserves both in his country and in the US African colonies, which was followed by the
British, German and French colonial governments in several regions of the World
(Jepson and Whittaker, 2002). According to Kalamandeen and Gillson (2007), the
Yellowstone and Wise Use models perceived humans as potential threats to
nature, and thus, aesthetic and economic concerns resulted in the same practical
conservation outcome, that of establishing PA, free from human inhabitation and where
consumptive uses of natural resources was forbidden or strictly controlled.

In the first half of the 20th century, the application of the concept of PA following the
Yellowstone model continued to grow. In Africa, some of the forest and game
Reserves established for Wise use in the transition to the 1900s were later converted
into national parks. For example, the creation of the Kruger national park in 1926
included the Sabie game reserve that was initially established in 1898 (IUCN, 1994). In
Asia, colonial governments founded the Angkor national park in Cambodia in 1925, and
the Corbett national park was created in India in 1936. In independent Asian countries,
Japan established its first three national parks in 1934 (Setonaikai, Unzen-Amakusa and
Kirishima-Yaku) (MEGJ, 2007) and China began the classification of areas with the
creation of Dinghushan nature reserve in 1956 (Zhigang, 2001).

In Europe, there were initiatives for the creation of PA using the Yellowstone model.
For example, a German professor of forestry called Hugo Conwentz conducted a series
of lectures in European cities between 1903 and 1908 to promote his concept of
Naturdenkal (which means nature monument) (Jepson and Whittaker, 2002). In
12
Sweden, his lecture for the Swedish Anthropological and Geographical Society in 1904
entitled The dangers that threaten the natural landscape and suggestions for
Protection was in the origin of a proposal by a member of the Parliament demanding
protecting measures for Swedens nature. After several years of delay, the Swedish
government legislated two laws of nature protection and established the first nine
European national parks in 1909 (SEPA, 2005).

In Amsterdam, Conwentzs lecture in 1904 happened in the same year of the plans to
drain the wetland of Naardermeer, which originated the foundation of the Society for
the Protection of Natural Monuments (Natuurmonumenten) and the establishment of
the nature reserve of Naardemeer in 1906 (Jepson and Whittaker, 2002). In 1913, the
French government created the first national park of the country which was called De
la Brarde. In Switzerland, the Swiss national park was established in 1914 with the
aim of serving as a sanctuary, in which nature was protected against all interference
from humans (Chape et al., 2003). In Spain, the national parks law was enacted in 1916,
inspired by pioneer examples of the USA, Sweden and Switzerland. Influenced by the
European Romantic ideals, the first Spanish national parks were the forest mountains of
Covadonga and Ordesa (Mendoza, 1998).

In some European regions, the human occupation was so dense that the areas where the
Yellowstone model could be applied were scarce. Moreover, the growing
industrialization and rural abandonment motivated popular initiatives for the
conservation of traditional rural landscapes, which were considered to have natural,
cultural and historical value. The solution for the implementation of this new
Landscape model was the creation of non-governmental organizations, which
acquired lands to establish private PA (see Table 2.1.). For example, in England, the
National Trust was founded in 1895 and bought the first lands of Wiken Fen in 1899,
thus establishing the first PA of the country (Mulder and Coppolillo, 2005). In
Germany, the association Verein naturschutzpark was formed in 1909 and was
responsible for the establishment of the Lunenburg Heide, an area of traditional
agriculture that was created in 1909 and legally recognized as a PA in 1921. These areas
sought to maintain and protect established farming systems and villages as integral
components of the rural landscape (Mulder and Coppolillo, 2005).

13
In relation to the international movements for nature protection, it is important to refer
that the International Office for Nature Protection was created in 1928. After the World
War II, international organizations began to develop their action in the environmental
area. For example, the UNESCO promoted a meeting in Fontainebleau in 1948 that
resulted in the creation of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
(Jepson and Whittaker, 2002; Phillips, 1999). In 1959, the Economic and Social Council
of the United Nations created the first list of the Worlds national parks and reserves.
The creation of the first international treaty in 1900 for the conservation of the fauna in
Africa marks the beginning of global legislation for nature conservation. This treaty was
later replaced by the London Convention in 1933, which promoted the creation of
national parks and the protection of several fauna species (Jepson and Whittaker, 2002).

In Portugal, the Peneda-Gers National Park was created in 1971 as the first Protected
Area in the country. This area was considered a national symbol for nature protection,
its main objectives being the development of tourism, education and scientific studies.
Between 1971 and 1972, four reserves located both in the mainland and islands were
also created: the Nature Reserves of Arrbida, National Forest of Medos, Selvagem
Island (Madeira archipelago) and Pico Mountain (Azores archipelago). The change of
the political regime in 1974 reintroduced democracy and brought the creation of the
National Service of Parks, Reserves and Protected Landscapes in 1975, which
boosted the creation of PA in the subsequent years (e.g. Pessoa, 1978; Fernandes, 1998;
Henriques et al., 1990).

The variable application of terms such as national park and nature reserve in
different regions of the World meant that a more generic term was needed. Therefore,
the IUCN introduced in 1978 the concept of Protected Area and developed a
classification that included different designations of conservation units such as national
park, nature reserve or protected landscape (IUCN, 1994; Mulder and Coppolillo,
2005).

In response to the negative effects of the implementation of the Yellowstone model
on the traditional and indigenous peoples, the UNESCO launched the Man and
Biosphere Program (MAB) in the late 1960s, which had the purpose of studying the
way in which humanity affects the biosphere. Additionally, the MAB examined how the
14
conservation of environmental resources could be achieved alongside their utilization
for human benefit (Mulder and Coppolillo, 2005). The concept of Biosphere Reserve
was introduced by the MAB in 1971, in order to reduce the rate of species extinction
and compensate local people using traditional land management. In 1985, the debate
about populations in parks was already broad, which raised awareness for the role of
humans in the PA (Bensusan, 2006).

The International PA movement was deeply influenced by the National Parks Service in
the USA, which organized and held the two first World Parks Congress in 1962 and
1972 (Phillips, 1999; Diegues, 2004). These two World National Parks Congresses,
which were held in 1982 and 1992, emphasized the relationship between people and PA
(Bensusan, 2006). Therefore, there has been a greater involvement of local populations
living in PA, which are seen today as key players in the management of these areas
(Hockings et al., 2006; Mulder and Coppolillo, 2005; Phillips, 2003). After the first
forum on Biodiversity held in Washington in 1986 and the creation of the Convention
on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1992, the management of PA began to consider not
only the objective of nature conservation, but also the conservation of biodiversity
(Sarkar, 1999).

In some PA, there is an assumption that all human action is negative for biodiversity
conservation, which is often not the case (e.g. Sarkar, 1999; Moreira et al, 2005). For
example, Conservation Internationals biodiversity hotspots considers the criteria of
percentage of pristine habitat lost, even though in some cases such as the Mediterranean
basin, biodiversity is higher in areas with moderate human intervention (Tucker and
Evans, 1997; Bengtsson et al., 2000; Blondel, 2006).

The growing recognition of this interface between the human and ecological systems
and the replacement of the balance of nature by the flux of nature model are the
origins of the ecosystem management approach (Gillson et al., 2003; Kalamandeen and
Gillson, 2007; see Table 2.1. and 2.2.). In contrast to other conservation approaches, the
ecosystem management is based on the idea that nature is in flux, instead of balance,
and includes people in the ecosystems (Grumbine, 1994, 1997; Yaffee, 1999).

15
Table 2.1. Five models of management of Protected Areas (adapted from Kalamandeen
and Gillson, 2007)

Model

Main goals Preferred human
Activities
Yellowstone or
Wilderness



Preservation of wilderness for
recreation and science

Tourism, education and
scientific studies

Wise use



Sustainable use
of natural resources
Hunting and forestry

Landscape



Conservation of traditional
rural landscapes
Traditional agro-pastoral
activities, tourism and
education
Biodiversity
conservation



Maintenance of biodiversity Activities compatible with
conservation, with special
focus on tourism and
education
Ecosystem
management



Maintenance of ecological
processes
Activities compatible with
conservation, with special
focus on tourism and
education

The primary aim of the ecosystem management is to protect ecosystem structure and
function by adaptive management, in order to maintain both biodiversity and adaptive
capacity (Grumbine, 1994, 1997). This model of management is still very limited to the
USA, but there are other regions of the World that are beginning to adopt it. For
example, the management of the Kruger National Park uses threshold of potential
concern as upper and lower limits of different environmental variables in the
ecosystems. When these values are not within the stipulated limits, managers take
action until the environmental variables reach these values (Biggs and Rogers, 2003).

In conclusion, the history of the PA is characterised by the application of different
models, which differ in important aspects such as the role of local populations. At
present, there are over 100 000 PA, which exist in approximately 80% of the countries
of the World (Chape et al., 2003). Although these areas are managed according to
16
different objectives, there is currently a greater acceptance of the needs of the local
populations that live in these areas (Mulder and Coppolillo, 2005; Hockings et al., 2006;
Margules and Pressey, 2000).

Table 2.2. Definition of concepts related with the five models of Protected Areas

Wilderness ideal

Wilderness: This concept was defined in the US Wilderness Act of 1964 as an area
where the earth and the community of life are untrammelled by man, where man
himself is a visitor who does not remain. It is widely used to define large blocks of
land which have been minimally affected by human activity and that have low human
population density (Terborgh, 1999). According to Noss (1995), wild areas have the
following values: 1) they provide a standard of relatively healthy and unmodified land;
thus they serve as benchmarks or control areas for our management experiments; 2)
they serve as habitat refuge for species sensitive to human persecution or disturbances,
such as large carnivores and fur-bearers; 3) they provide a source of humility, a
reminder that Nature remains more powerful than we are and is ultimately
unconquerable; 4) the wild species they contain have intrinsic or existence values.

Naturalness: One of the definitions of this concept is the degree to which a thing is
natural, but its application in practice is ambiguous (Noss, 1995). The major problem
lies in the distinction between what are considered natural and unnatural human
activities and ecosystems (Comer, 1997; Haila, 1997; Hunter, 1996, 1997; Huff and
Varley, 1999; Wright, 1999). Several authors resolved this issue by considering that the
relative naturalness of an area can be measured according to the amount of changes
imposed by all human activities (Anderson, 1991; Angermeier, 2000). For example,
Anderson (1991) proposed three criteria to assess the relative naturalness of an area: (1)
the extent to which an area would change if humans were removed; (2) the amount of
cultural effort- energy and other inputs - required to maintain an artificial state; (3) the
proposition and relative abundance of native versus exotic species. Despite the
difficulties in defining naturalness, this concept still persists because of its great
aesthetic and spiritual meaning and is considered useful as a benchmark for the
management and restoration of areas (Angermeier, 2000; Noss, 1995).

17
Ecological integrity: The first definition of the concept is found in the statement by
Aldo Leopold (1949): A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability
and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise. The task of
measuring this concept was successfully taken by Karr (1981), who developed an index
of biotic integrity for streams. This index compared the species composition and trophic
structures of a stream in relation to other streams assumed to be healthy (Karr, 1981,
1991). More recently, ecological integrity was defined as an ecosystems undiminished
ability to continue its normal path of evolution, its normal transition over time and its
successional recovery from perturbations (Westra et al., 2000). Despite the fact that the
US Clean Water Act, the US-Canada Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement and the
Canada Park Service Act include references to ecological integrity in their statements of
purpose, the fact is that this concept is not frequently applied in day-to-day
environmental decision-making (Westra et al., 2000).

Wise use ideal/ Ecosystem management ideal

Ecological sustainability: The simplest definition of sustainability is the ability to
maintain something undiminished over a period of time (Ll and Noorgard, 1996).
Later, the notion of sustainable development was established as the development
which gives response to the needs of the present, without compromising the possibility
of future generations to give response to theirs (Brundtland, 1987). These definitions
are in the origin of the notion of ecological sustainability, which can be defined as
meeting the human needs without compromising the health of the ecosystems and has
been proposed as the guiding conservation concept for areas inhabited by humans and
with economic exploitation (Callicot and Mumford, 1997; Andreasen et al., 2001).
Considering that ecosystem health is the normal occurrence of ecosystem processes, the
notion of ecological sustainability assumes that a minimum number of species are
present, so that ecosystems can maintain their ecological function and stability along
time (Callicot et al., 1999; Andreasen et al., 2001; Callicot and Mumford, 1997).

Ecosystem health: One of the definitions of the concept is the occurrence of normal
ecosystem processes and functions, i.e. as they occurred historically (Callicot et al.,
1999). These ecological processes include the primary production of biomass, nutrient
recruitment, retention and cycling, and disturbance regimes (Callicot et al., 1999;
18
Rapport et al., 1999). The use of this concept is related to the accumulating evidence
that human-dominated ecosystems have become highly dysfunctional. Therefore,
ecological health can also be defined as the absence of signs of ecosystem distress, an
ecosystems ability to recover with speed and completeness (resilience), and/or the lack
of risks or threats pressuring the ecosystem composition, structure and/or function
(Rapport et al., 1998, 1999).

Carrying capacity: This concept can be divided in ecological carrying capacity which
is defined as the number of visitors that can be sustained without affecting an areas
ecological function (Hawkins and Roberts, 1997) and social carrying capacity, which
has been defined as the level of use before a decline in users recreational experience
ensues (Hillery et al., 2001). The notion of carrying capacity was developed to express
the exact level or threshold beyond which human action would determine irreversible
changes on ecosystems, physical systems and later on social and cultural developments
(Mercer, 1981; Sowman, 1987). However, this various empirical studies started
revealing a fair amount of consensus in both natural and social sciences that this was
usually a futile research (Mercer, 1981), for reasons of the great complexity of both
natural and social systems, as it would be impossible to assign to a site a single figure
for its capacity (Mercer, 1981; Goldsmith, 1974). Interestingly, this last author pointed
out that part of the impossibility of assigning measures for ecological carrying capacity
was due to the disagreement on basic baseline definitions such as naturalness,
diversity or richness for a certain area.

Landscape ideal

Landscape: Among the many definitions of the concept, there is one, which is
frequently quoted from Humbolt (1945): the totality of all aspects of a region, as
perceived by man (Ermischer, 2004). According to Ermischer (2004), this definition
includes the sum of all aspects- natural, cultural, geographic, geologic, biologic, artistic-
and focuses on the human perception as the defining element of the concept. The
definition presented in the European Landscape Convention is an area, as perceived by
people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or
human factors, which also enhances the importance of the human perspective in this
concept (European Council, 2000; Djeant Pons, 2005).
19

Biodiversity conservation ideal

Biodiversity: This concept can be defined as the variety of living organisms, the
genetic differences among them, the communities and ecosystems in which they occur
and the ecological and evolutionary processes that keep them functioning, yet ever
changing and adapting (Noss and Coperrider, 1994). Some authors argue that the
concept of ecological integrity should replace the concept of biodiversity in policy
directives, because the number of species can be artificially increased by the
fragmentation of the dominant vegetation cover, the introduction of exotic species,
genetic engineering or other technological processes, which in any case reduces
integrity (Angermeier and Karr, 1994). There is no universally accepted methodology of
measurement of biodiversity that allows the integration of elements across levels within
the hierarchy (e.g. phyla and species) or across hierarchies (e.g. species and genes).
Nevertheless, species richness is frequently used as a measure, because it is thought to
capture much of the essence of biodiversity, despite the fact that not all species of a
single ecosystem will ever be identified and counted (Gaston and Spicer, 2004).

2.4. Current understanding about the functioning of ecosystems

The balance of nature paradigm is based on the assumption that ecosystems are in
equilibrium and tend towards a climax state. In this case, the prevention of human
disturbance would lead to a functioning and stable habitat (Gillson et al., 2003).
However, this idea is gradually being replaced by the flux of nature paradigm, which
assumes that spatial and temporal variability in ecosystems are the norm, reaching
alternative stable states defined according to internal and external conditions of the
ecosystem (Gillson et al., 2003; Kalamandeen and Gillson, 2007). In this section, the
current ideas based on this new paradigm are reviewed, since they are considered
relevant for a wider understanding about the functioning of ecosystems and the
management of PA.




20
2.4.1. Definition of ecosystem

An ecosystem can be defined as a community of organisms and associated physical
environment, which is a conceptual rather than a physical entity with hard boundaries
(Noss, 1995). Examples of ecosystems include a temporary lake, a forest or a culture in
a Petri dish (Odum, 1971). Since ecosystems are in constant evolution because of their
change of organisms and environmental conditions, the concept has been considered
ambiguous (Sagoff, 2000). Despite this inherent ambiguity, ecosystems are, in fact,
systems, because their components are dynamically interactive and a functional change
in one element has an impact on the rest of the system (Partridge, 2000).

2.4.2. Ecosystems and energy

At first glance, the living systems seem to defy the second law of thermodynamics,
according to which entropy should be maximized and disorder should reign. However,
all organisms are continually evolving new order from disorder (Kay, 2000; Kay and
Regier, 2000). The solution for this apparent contradiction rests in the non-equilibrium
dynamics, which states that organisms stay alive in their organized state by taking
energy from outside itself and processing it to produce a lower entropy, more organized
state, while exporting entropy to the larger encompassing system. Therefore, life can be
seen as one of the means of dissipating solar and geothermic energy. This energy is
passed to the living components of the ecosystem initially by photosynthetic fixation,
which stores the energy into molecules usable by organisms (Dickinson and Murphy,
1997). As ecosystems mature, they tend to gradually develop more complex structures
and processes, in order to increase the dissipation of energy. Indeed, the measurement of
surface temperatures in different terrestrial ecosystems has shown that, when all other
variables are constant, more developed ecosystems can dissipate more energy (Westra et
al., 2000). Other processes such as meteorological and oceanographic circulation will
also dissipate solar energy (Kay, 2000).

The theory of Gaia views the Earth as a living and evolving system, with a capability
for self-regulation that results from the interaction between organisms and the
environment (Lovelock, 1988, 1991). This idea holds in the observation that the
atmosphere of our planet is a chemically unstable mixture of gases that remained
21
constant during the last 3.6 billion years and the Earths capacity to regulate factors
such as temperature and climate (Lovelock, 1988, 1991).

2.4.3. Stability and diversity in ecosystems

Stability can be defined as the property of a system to continue without change once it
has been impacted (high persistence), to suffer small changes in its biomass when its
impacted (low variability) and to undergo only small changes when a variable is
permanently changed (high persistence) (Pimm, 1991). This important characteristic of
ecosystems is thought to be positively correlated with the diversity of species (McCann,
2000). Several authors suggest that the loss of keystone species can lead to bigger
impacts than the loss of species at random (Sol and Montoya, 2001; Dunne et al.,
2002; Worm and Duffy, 2003; Allesina and Bodini, 2004; Loreau et al., 2001). For
example, beavers are generally considered keystone species, because their browsing and
damming activities induce significant alteration in the structure and composition of the
habitats where they live (Donkor and Fryxell, 1999; Nolet and Rosell, 1998; Gurnell,
1998). Therefore, the nature of the species present, rather than just the number of
species alone, determines the stability of ecosystems (Sol and Montoya, 2001; Allesina
and Bodini, 2004).

Nevertheless, the decrease of the number of species implies a lower probability of the
existing autochthonous species to respond to variable environmental conditions and the
capability of functionally replace extinct species (McCann, 2000; Johnson et al., 1996;
Loreau et al., 2001). In this sense, biodiversity can be considered as analogous to a
library, which provides not only a wide range of possible paths for future development
of ecosystems, but also a catalogue of learned repertoires for responding to future
changes (Kay, 2000).

2.4.4. Ecological succession in forest ecosystems

Ecological succession can be defined as natural change in the structure and species
composition of a community (Dickinson and Murphy, 1998). As succession develops,
colonizing species are generally replaced by a more stable community of competitors
(Box and Fujiwara, 2005; Burrows, 1990; Emborg, 1998).
22
In 1916, Clements presented a model of vegetation succession as a fixed path to an
equilibrium point called climax. This late successional stage was considered the only
outcome of succession, which suited best the environmental conditions of the site.
However, other scientists observed that vegetation succession was more unpredictable
than Clements predicted. Therefore, Gleason put forward the alternative view that
vegetation succession can take different paths, which lead to one of many possible
climax states (Pickett and Candenasso, 2005). Today, the idea, which prevails, is that
ecological succession can indeed take different paths, depending on abiotic conditions
such as soil characteristics, climate or sun exposure, and biotic conditions such as
species composition and abundance. This can be partly explained by the chaotic
behaviour that environmental events exhibit, becoming increasingly more unpredictable
over time (Gleick, 1989). Moreover, natural and human-induced disturbances have an
important role in the ecological succession of ecosystems (Sprugel, 1991; Burrows,
1990).

2.4.5. Natural disturbances in forest ecosystems

Disturbance can be described as an event that alters the structure of vegetation or the
substrate where vegetation is growing, thus having an effect on ecological succession
(Turner et al., 1998). Since the 1970s, ecologists began to recognize the frequency and
scale of natural disturbances, which are seen today as an important part in the disruption
of the established vegetation and creation of sites available for its renovation (Pickett
and Candenasso, 2005; Emborg, 1998). Different forests are characterized by different
natural disturbances, because their scale, intensity and frequency vary between forest
types (Bengtsson et al., 2000; Turner et al., 1998).

Natural fires result from lightning, spontaneous combustion of vegetal accumulations
and sparks produced by falling boulders or landslides (Pickett and Candenasso, 2005).
Some types of forests burn naturally in more intensive and infrequent stand-replacing
fire regimes, whereas others have frequent, low-intensity understory fire regimes and
still others experience a range of burning intensities (Arno and Allison-Bunnel, 2002;
Herrando et al., 2003; Malamud et al., 1998). Natural fires open canopies and are
important in the life cycle of many plant species, influencing both seed pools and
vegetative propagules on the soil (Venevsky et al., 2002).
23

Herbivory by wild herbivores can affect succession rates and trajectories in different
ways, depending on the community of species present in the ecosystem. Herbivores that
feed preferentially on late-successional species tend to retard succession. On the other
hand, herbivores which prefer earlier successional stages can accelerate succession
(Persson et al., 2000). Herbivory also influences competition between plant species,
thus potentially modifying the structure and composition of the vegetation of the
ecosystem. Wind throws can vary from large-scale disturbances operating at the
landscape-level, to small perturbations operating at the scale of an individual tree
(Ulanova, 2000).

The fall of trees as a consequence of wind throws affects forest ecosystems by the
creation of gaps of light in the canopy, the increase of available nutrients in the forest,
the increase of wood on the ground from fallen trees and the creation of pit-and-mound
topography resultant of the uprooting (Everham and Brokaw, 1996; Ulanova, 2000).

Floods of rivers in forest ecosystems have direct effects such as changes in the
dynamics of seed dispersal, plant establishment, nutrient cycling and scouring. In the
case of large floods, there are also indirect effects such as the alteration of substrates,
which can promote the uprooting of plants and the deposition of sediments and organic
debris (Pickett and Candenasso, 2005).

Forest ecosystems have the ability to adapt and incorporate these and other natural
disturbances, which can become part of their development. Adaptation of ecosystems to
natural fires include plants with rapid life-cycles, rapid post-fire resprouting and the
coating of trunks with bark resistant to fire (Dickinson and Murphy, 1998). Natural
disturbances promote the opening of gaps in the canopy of forest ecosystems, producing
succession patterns responsible for the mosaic of age classes and communities.

Therefore, mature forests usually contain different patches of open and closed
vegetation, which promote a wide range of microenvironments that sustain biodiversity.
These open gaps will be colonized by early-successional species and develop towards
late-successional stages, until subsequent disturbances disrupt ecological succession and
24
bring them back to earlier successional stages (Pickett and Candenasso, 2005; Kay and
Regier, 2000; Dale and Adams, 2003).

2.4.6. Human-induced changes in forest ecosystems

Most of the forest ecosystems that exist today have been subject to a wide range of
human impacts. The hunting of large herbivores and predators, grazing of domestic
herbivores and wood extraction are examples of such impacts (Bengtsson et al., 2000;
Western, 2001; Goudie, 2000). Ecological succession has been directly influenced by
human-induced changes in the atmosphere, geomorphology, ground and surface water,
soil and vegetation. Although the effects of some human actions may only be evident in
the long-term, other actions such as the extinction of native plant species or the
introduction of exotic species have changed succession in these ecosystems (Bengtsson
et al., 2000).

Human actions are usually also responsible for changes in the extent and intensity of the
natural disturbances, which influence indirectly the development of forest ecosystems.
For example, 90% of all forest fires in Siberia, 97% of fires in Mexico and 98% of fires
in the Mediterranean region are thought to be caused by humans (Caldararo, 2002;
Tucker and Evans, 1997). On the other hand, fire suppression can lead to an overly
dense tree growth, which leads to fires of extreme severity that are difficult to control
(Arno and Allison-Bunnel, 2002; Malamud et al., 1998; Goudie, 2000).

Finally, it is important to state that several authors consider that human actions have
partially replaced the role of natural disturbances in forest ecosystems. For example, the
mosaic of habitats throughout Europe, in which a major part of the European
biodiversity holds, is somewhat dependent on activities such as grazing by domestic
herbivores, traditional agriculture and small-scale human-induced fires (Bengtsson et
al., 2000; Vera, 2000; Svenning, 2002; Sutherland, 2002).

2.4.7. Catastrophic regime shifts

Ecosystems generally develop from simple to more diverse and complex states, which
may happen along one of many possible paths. In this process of development, the
25
populations of the ecosystem will normally fluctuate around some trend or stable
average. However, ecosystems can occasionally have catastrophic regimes shifts as
consequence of natural and/or human-induced changes and flip into an entirely new
state (Kay, 2000; Kay and Regier, 2000; Maurer, 1999).

These dramatic regime shifts can be caused by large external changes, small external
changes in which a critical threshold is passed, internally-generated fluctuations or a
blend between internal and external processes (Scheffer and Carpenter, 2003). For
example, the vegetation of the Sahara region suddenly collapsed into a desert about
5500 years ago, due to the interactions between atmosphere and vegetation (Foley et al.,
2003). Therefore, the green Sahara and the desert Sahara can be seen as alternative
stable states which the ecosystem can adopt in different situations. As another example,
in the Huron Natural Area (Canada), there is a closed soft maple swamp in a wetland
community, in which the amount and duration of the water flow can radically alter this
state. In this case, a natural drying event could change this area into an upland forest or
a grassland with associated vegetation structure (Kay, 2000).

2.5. Current understanding about the historical ecology in Europe

Discussions about the management of PA often focus on the role of both natural and
human-induced changes in the ecosystems (Mcneill, 2003; Griffiths, 2002; Bowman,
2002). This dualism have also motivated the birth of the disciplines of Environmental
History (from the humanities) and Historical Ecology (from the sciences), as meeting
points of different areas such as archaeology, geography, history and ecology (Mcneill,
2003). Current themes in these disciplines include methodological approaches (e.g.
Butzer, 2005), the putative degradation of the Mediterranean Basin (e.g. Grove and
Rackham, 1993, 2001; Naveh and Carmel, 2003) and management implications drawn
from these studies (Egan and Howell, 2001; Foster, 2000, 2002).

In north-western Europe, several authors have proposed models for the natural
vegetation prior to the establishment of agro-pastoral societies. The classical view is
that the natural vegetation in this area consists of closed forests (Peterken, 1996). This
idea was recently opposed by Vera (2000), which stated that the natural vegetation
consists of a mosaic of large and small grasslands, scrub, solitary trees and groups of
26
trees, in which the indigenous fauna of large herbivores is essential for the regeneration
of the characteristic trees and shrubs of Europe. The wood-pasture can be seen as the
closest modern analogy for this landscape. According to this author, the fauna
composition of north-western Europe in the beginning of the Holocene included the
aurochs (Bos primgenius), tarpan or European wild horse (Equus przewalski gmelini),
European bison (Bison bonasus), red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus
capreolus), elk (Alces alces), European beaver (Castor fiber) and wild boar (Sus
scrofa), which were responsible for the opening of the vegetation.

Based on a literature review about the paleoecological literature regarding vegetation,
vertebrates and invertebrates, Svenning (2002) proposed that the pre-agricultural
landscape of this area was predominantly closed forest, but with localized longer-lasting
openings that would be maintained by wild herbivores and natural fires. Bradshaw et al.
(2003) also proposed a forest matrix with mostly closed habitats, but argued that the
open areas would result from the accumulative effects of fire, herbivory, seasonal
flooding and wind throws. Mitchell (2005) also refuted the hypothesis of Vera (2000)
that herbivores alone maintained opened habitats, arguing that factors such as fires and
wind throws would also be responsible for the existence of such areas. Other authors
have proposed that the pre-agricultural landscape in this area would be mainly closed
forests with occasional openings, based on the fact that a majority of forest species
prefer or require a mix of closed and opened habitats (e.g. Nilsson and Ericson, 1997;
Bengtsson et al., 2000).

In relation to the natural vegetation in the Mediterranean, the Ruined landscape or
Lost Eden theory states that human-caused deforestation and overgrazing resulted in
the degradation and desertification of the Mediterranean landscapes (e.g. Mcneill,
1992). More recently, Grove and Rackham (2001) proposed that the Ruined landscape
theory is incorrect. According to these authors, the Mediterranean vegetation should
be understood on its own terms and using its own categories, rather than misinterpreted
as degraded forms of a once-universal forest of tall, timber-quality trees. Whilst
acknowledging that some Mediterranean landscapes can indeed be degraded, one of the
main points of these authors is that savannah-like landscapes are fairly characteristic of
this region. They also argued that landscape changes were primarily a consequence of a
climatic change that was reinforced by human impact.
27

Other views about the changes of the Mediterranean landscapes include the idea that the
reality almost certainly lies between these two extremes (Blondel, 2006). Several
studies consider humans as sculptors of the Mediterranean landscape, showing that the
long human occupation of this region had profound consequences in the composition
and dynamics of the current biodiversity (Blondel and Aronson, 1999; Bondel, 2006;
Grove and Rackham, 1993). According to Blondel (2006), this human occupation began
more than 50 000 years ago, but took significant proportions after the Neolithic, with a
general beneficial effect in the biodiversity. Other authors have argued for a co-
evolution between humans and the Mediterranean landscapes, based on the antiquity of
human disturbance such as fire and the hunting of large mammals (Naveh and Carmel,
2003).

Despite these disagreements, there is a general consensus that both human actions and
natural changes were important in the development of the terrestrial ecosystems of
North-Western Europe and the Mediterranean. Future research will hopefully continue
to establish the relative importance of these factors in driving changes in ecosystems.

2.6. Human activities in Protected Areas

In the context of the previous sections, the management of PA benefits from the
acknowledgement of the importance of past and current human actions in the
development of ecosystems. Since most European areas have a long history of human
impact, the ecosystems have been so modified that the species and habitats that exist
today often need some form of human action to be maintained (e.g. burning, coppicing,
grazing of domestic herbivores, etc.) (Primack, 2006; Blondel, 2006).

Therefore, habitat management actions may be necessary to guarantee that diverse
successional stages are present. Human actions can also be important in the recovery of
highly endangered species (Sutherland, 1998). For fauna species, there are a variety of
techniques that include supplementary food, providing breeding sites, removing
predators, restricting disturbance or reintroducing species. For plants, this can include
pollinating, weeding to remove competitors, fencing to exclude herbivores and
collecting seed and planting out seed or seedlings (Sutherland, 2000). Moreover,
28
management may focus on the control or complete removal of exotic species, which are
recognized as a serious threat in many PA (Primack, 2006).

In relation to the human populations, it was already mentioned that there has been an
effort to approach the management of these areas to the sustainable use of natural
resources. Moreover, biodiversity conservation may actually depend on the continuation
of human activities such as traditional agriculture and animal husbandry (e.g. Sarkar,
1999).

Nevertheless, there have been several conservationists which question this vision of
enabling populations in PA in regions of the World such as South America and Africa,
arguing that only strict nature preserves can adequately protect biodiversity (Terborgh,
1999; Terborgh and Schaik, 2002; Redford and Ritcher, 1999). The basis of their
arguments is that the survival of species such as top carnivores and mega herbivores is
not compatible with human activities (Terborgh and Schaik, 2002).

Part of the solution for these divergences may lie in the possibility of establishing PA of
different categories, as well as zoning these areas, which can include the classification
ranging from areas of strict protection to areas of multiple uses. In the zoning of a PA, it
is usually necessary to find a compromise that people are willing to accept, which
guarantees the sustainable use of natural resources in the long-term (Primack, 2006).
Certain human activities are incompatible with the maintenance of biological diversity
within a PA. Therefore, activities such as commercial harvesting of game and fish,
intensive harvesting of natural plant products, illegal logging and farming and
recreation are usually regulated by park authorities, in order to guarantee biodiversity
conservation (Primack, 2006).

2.7. Previous biodiversity monitoring programmes in Protected Areas

Since most of the PA today has the aim of biodiversity conservation in situ, ecological
assessments can directly assess the effectiveness of management actions by measuring
their outcome. Therefore, biodiversity monitoring is considered one of the most
important tests of PA management effectiveness (Hockings et al., 2006, Cifuentes et al.,
29
2000; Harwell et al., 1999). This section reviews biodiversity monitoring exercises in
PA located in different regions of the World and at global scale.

In Canada, Woodley (1993) presented a framework for biodiversity monitoring in
Canadian PA, based on measures at the species-population, community and landscape
scales. This framework was applied to the Fundy National Park, comparing eight
indicator measures with desired or expected values drawn from the literature. Following
this framework, Zorn and Upton (1997) presented an Ecological Integrity Monitoring
Plan for both Bruce Peninsula and Fanthom Five National Parks, based on a suite of
ecological indicators. The criteria for the choice of these indicators was done at different
levels of organization and also considered practical issues like operational capabilities
of both PA (Zorn and Upton, 1997). However, due to financial constraints, only Bruce
Peninsula National Park developed an ecological monitoring plan, with a much lower
number of indicators than originally planned (Zorn et al., 2001). More recently, Canada
has established a national ecological monitoring and assessment network, which has the
main objectives of understanding what changes are occurring in the ecosystems and
why these happen (Environment Canada, 2003).

In the USA, the project Park Vital Signs Monitoring, which is currently underway,
aims to establish a framework for inventory and monitoring of approximately 270 Parks
with significant natural resources. In this project, parks are asked to provide a summary
of the understanding of the park system, including conceptual models that help to focus
on important elements (NPS, 2004). Some of the PA in the USA benefit from long-term
data, whereas others are collecting baseline information necessary to establish
appropriate monitoring programmes (Busch and Trexler, 2003, Stohlgren et al., 1995).
The list of ecological indicators to be monitored is specific for each area and is drawn
from different levels. At the national or park network scale, there is also a set of
ecological integrity and threat-specific indicators such as air quality, water quality, soils,
exotic, threatened and endangered species, which are going to be monitored in a
standardized way, thereby allowing comparisons and synthesis of data across large areas
(NPS, 2004).

In South Africa, research in the Kruger National Park since the 1950s has resulted in a
comprehensive knowledge of how ecosystems function in this area (Biggs and Rogers,
30
2003). This facilitated the development of an approach known as strategic adaptive
management (SAM), which defines thresholds of potential concern for key
components of ecological heterogeneity. When a threshold is reached, previously
defined management actions takes place, until it returns to standard values. Ecological
indicators are represented at several stages (species, ecosystem and landscape levels) as
theme areas that are monitored regularly (Biggs and Rogers, 2003). Other elements of
ecological importance such as fire, grazing or erosion are also considered. In the first
attempt to implement SAM, a large number of thresholds were established and future
monitoring is expected to reduce the number of ecological indicators into what is
considered necessary for adequate management (Biggs and Rogers, 2003).

In Australia, Hockings (1998) developed a study about the management effectiveness of
Fraser Island and recommended the monitoring of several ecological aspects such as the
condition of vegetation, fauna and human impacts. It was also proposed that
measurements of ecological indicators were regularly compared to desired outcomes in
order to assess management effectiveness. This monitoring programme has been
implemented, although in a more simplified form than the original plan (Hockings, com
pess). In the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, there has been ecological research about
specific threats such as sea dumping or line fishing, but also long-term monitoring of
key species and habitats across this area (Day et al., 2003). In an attempt to move
toward a more holistic evaluation, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority is
defining a small number of Key Performance Indicators, which are derived from its
management objectives. These indicators include factors such as pollution levels, reef
condition, fisheries condition and number of visiting tourists and aim to provide a
broad-brush approach that can be periodically assessed and reported at the PA scale
(Day et al., 2003, Gribble and Roberston, 1998, Haynes and Wagner, 2000).

In the United Kingdom, the Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) has
implemented a framework called Common standards monitoring in all Sites of
Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) (JNCC, 1998; Alexander and Rowell, 1999). This
framework consists on the monitoring of the specific features used for nomination of the
sites as SSSIs. For species, this includes the measurement of variables such as
population size, structure, habitat requirements or distribution. For habitats, indicators
may be area covered, key species or supporting processes (JNCC, 1998). Each feature
31
should be monitored every year, but certainly every three years, and if it changes to the
extent that falls outside a previously defined threshold, then this acts as a trigger for
remedial action or further investigation (JNCC, 1998, Alexander and Rowell, 1999).

In Spain, an ecological monitoring programme has been recently implemented in the
Galachos del Ebro Nature Reserve (Mezquida et al., 2005). This includes a
comprehensive set of ecological indicators for meteorology, hydro-geology and fluvial
dynamics, water quality, species, habitats / ecosystems, landscape, human activities and
recreation. Three levels of detail for indicators were defined, which are applied
according to the available resources. For some of the 101 indicators which comprise the
total set, it was possible to define acceptable baselines drawn from sources such as
historical data and European Union Directives. In other cases (e.g. species-level
indicators), these baselines will have to be assessed after several years of monitoring
(Mezquida et al., 2005).

Global approaches tend to replace the direct measurement of ecological indicators by
the opinion of experts. For instance, in a study involving 93 PA in 22 tropical countries
from Central and South America, Africa and Asia, questionnaires were used to collect
information on land-use pressure, local conditions and management activities (Bruner et
al., 2001). The majority of parks were considered successful at stopping land clearing
and, to a lesser extent, effective in reducing logging, hunting, fire and grazing (Bruner et
al., 2001). Also following a qualitative approach, the World Wide Fund (WWF) used
questionnaires directed to PA managers, in order to assess management performance in
almost 200 forest PA in 34 different countries in Europe, Asia, Africa and Latin
America (Dudley et al., 2004). The analysis of the results showed that those reserves
with an effective monitoring and evaluation programme were also generally assessed as
having more effective biodiversity conservation outcomes (Dudley et al., 2004). In
Central America, an assessment system for PA was implemented in six countries
(Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua and Panama), in which PA
managers defined optimum scenarios in five major aspects of management, where the
natural resource management was included (Courrau, 1999). It was proposed that these
aspects were monitored and classified from 1 (worst) to 5 (best) every six months by
groups of interest in each PA, to review and qualify their status based on their current
condition (Courrau, 1999).
32

More recently, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment assessed the indirect and direct
drivers of change in ecosystems and their services, the current condition of those
services, and how changes in ecosystem services have affected human well-being
(MEA, 2005). Although this global assessment did not specifically focused on
biodiversity in PA, the results obtained were also important for the conservation of
these areas.

In conclusion, there has been a considerable effort to implement biodiversity monitoring
programmes in PA throughout different regions of the World in the last years, which is
coherent with the acknowledgement of the importance that this type of information can
play in enabling effective conservation management (e.g. Hockings and Phillips, 1999;
Mulongoy and Chape, 2004; Hockings et al., 2006; Harwell et al., 1999). According to
this literature review, biodiversity monitoring systems in PA are usually done using
three different approaches: (1) Expert consultation: in the cases where resources are
scarce such as global initiatives, this approach has the advantage of low cost and ease of
data collection, but the disadvantage of assuming the experts have an accurate view
about the state of the ecosystems; (2) Monitoring of specific elements: in the case where
resources are more abundant such as the United Kingdom Common standards
monitoring programme, indicators of specific values which are considered of higher
importance and/or more threatened are periodically assessed; (3) Monitoring of
ecosystems at different levels: this approach of choosing a comprehensive set of
ecological indicators such as the Canadian ecological monitoring and assessment
network brings a wider view of the state of the ecosystems, despite the fact that the
costs of such programmes are generally high.

33

Chapter 3. Historical ecology of Portugal during the Holocene

3.1. Summary

This chapter reviews the main changes of the vegetation and fauna in Portugal during
the Holocene. Although the studied area was northern Portugal, it is thought that most
of the main conclusions can be applied to all the Portuguese territory. Using literature
from paleoecology, archaeology, history, writings from travellers and naturalists, maps
of agriculture and forestry and expert consultation, it is possible to conclude that the
ecological history of Portugal shows a trend for forest regression, with periods of
recovery of the vegetation related with the decrease of human pressure on natural
resources. The deforestation process began in the high plateaus of this region, extending
later to the heavier and more productive soils of the valleys. In the beginning of the
Holocene, the climate seems to have been the most important factor of change in this
area, but human impact probably became preponderant in the last 5000 years. In what
concerns the fauna, natural herbivory was probably reduced with the extinction of
species such as the wild horse, the aurochs and the European beaver and partially
replaced by human action. Nevertheless, the high resilience of ecosystems has enabled
their sustainability along eight millennia and also for the recovery of the vegetation and
fauna in the last decades. It is also concluded that, despite the ambiguity of the concept
of natural, the beginning of the Holocene is potentially representative of such concept.
Considering the past and present vegetation and fauna information, it seems likely that
the vegetation during this period was a mosaic of closed and opened vegetation.

3.2. Brief historical ecology of northern Portugal during the Holocene

3.2.1. Introduction

Mediterranean ecosystems have a long history of both human and natural impacts that
had profound consequences in the existing biodiversity (e.g. Blondel and Aronson,
1999; Blondel, 2006). The use of fire by humans in the region which dates back to the
Middle Pleistocene probably changed the cycles of natural fires and the vegetation even
before the Holocene (Naveh and Carmel, 2003). Despite the difficulty of distinction
between natural and human-induced changes in the evolution of the Mediterranean
34
ecosystems, it is consensual that human action increased drastically with the
introduction of the agro-pastoral way of life in the Neolithic (Naveh and Carmel, 2003;
Bengtsson et al., 2000).

The classical view of the role of human action in the shaping of Mediterranean
landscapes is the so-called Ruined landscape or Lost Eden theory, which argues
that humans were responsible for the degradation and desertification of this region (e.g.
Mcneill, 1992). More recently, this theory was contested by Grove and Rackham
(2001), which stated that landscape changes were primarily a consequence of climatic
change, that were reinforced by human impact. Other authors offer an intermediate
position between these two extremes, arguing for example that excessive precipitation
events are unlikely to cause significant soil erosion without prior direct or indirect
human impact on the vegetation (Butzer, 2005).

Although there is a general idea about the history of changes in the Mediterranean
basin, we still lack detailed information about the process of transformation and the
implications they can have in the future management of this region. Moreover, this
information is often scattered through different scientific areas such as paleoecology,
archaeology, history or ethnography. Considering that the long and complex history of
interaction between Mediterranean ecosystems and humans should benefit from the
integration of natural and social sciences, the combination of different sources of
information can potentially provide more appropriate explanations for the
environmental history of the region (Butzer, 2005; Naveh and Carmel, 2003; Dinis et
al., 2006).

The objective of this study is to review the main episodes of the historical ecology of
northern Portugal during the Holocene. More specifically, this study aims to (1)
describe the process of vegetation change; (2) review the extinction of mammal and bird
species; (3) relate vegetation and fauna changes with the human history and climate
change events; (4) discuss and relate these changes with other Mediterranean areas. This
study takes an interdisciplinary approach through the integration of different sources of
information. The choice of northern Portugal as a study area is related with the greater
familiarity of the first two authors with this area. Although this is a peripheral area in
the Mediterranean region, the history of human impacts shares many common episodes
35
with others closer to the core of this region. Despite the limitations inherent to the
condensation of more than 10 000 years of history into a relatively short text, it is
expected that this review can open the path to more interdisciplinary accounts to the
historical ecology of Portugal and also provide useful information for the future
management of this area.

3.2.2. Methods

Study area




Figure 3.1. The Mediterranean Basin, Iberian Peninsula, and central and northern
Portugal, showing locations discussed (Palynological studies in: a- Knaap and Leeuwen,
1995, 1997; b- Allen et al., 1996; c- Ruiz-Zapata et al., 1995; d- Munoz-Sobrino et al.,
2004; e- Munoz-Sobrino et al., 2005; f- Munoz-Sobrino et al., 1996; g- Ramil-Rego et
al., 1998; Mateus, 1992).

36



Figure 3.2. Main land uses of northern Portugal based on the Corine Land Cover 2000

In this study, northern Portugal was defined as the region limited by the Douro river in
the south, the Spanish border in the north and east and the Atlantic ocean in west,
covering an area of approximately 18 000 km
2
(See Figures 3.1. and 3.2.). The western
half of northern Portugal is characterized by granite or schist old erosion platforms, with
E-W or ENE-WSW wide valleys filled with fluvial and colluvial deposits (Costa et al.,
1998). Steeper landforms appear towards east and culminate in the granites of the
Galaico-Portuguese Mountains (1545 m max. alt.).

Physiography exercises a strong influence on macroclimate, vegetation and present land
uses in northern Portugal. The barrier effect of the Galaico-Portuguese Mountains
causes a drop in the precipitation from more than 3000mm/year to less than
400mm/year in a 100km transect. Consequently, along these mountains there is an
unusual sharp boundary between Euro-Siberian and Mediterranean Phytogeographic
Regions and between temperate and Mediterranean macrobioclimate and agricultural
systems.

In the northwest predominates a temperate macrobioclimate

(Agroconsultores and
COBA, 1991) with a sub-Mediterranean influence, revealed by a significant summer
drought (> 1 month). The lowland tree layer is composed of Quercus robur and
37
Quercus suber and above 800-900m altitude, natural forests are dominated by Quercus
robur and Quercus pyrenaica, sometimes enriched with Betula celtiberica. Main actual
land covertypes are agriculture, plantations of Pinus pinaster and Eucalyptus globulus,
tall scrublands of Cytisus striatus and Adenocarpus lainzii and mixed low shrublands of
Ulex sp. and Erica sp. Lowland agricultural systems are based on corn, Lolium
multiflorus pastures, vineyards and horticulture. Milk production is frequently the main
source of income of rural families.

In the mountains, chestnut orchards are fundamental to local economies, particularly in
Mediterranean territories. In temperate mountains, semi-natural pastures and low
scrublands (mainly U. minor-E. Umbellata) are grazed by small regional cattle breeds.
Instead, in the Mediterranean mountains and plateaus, heath lands are managed with fire
to provide food for sheep and goat regional breeds. The regional Mirandesa cattle
breed only grazes on semi-natural pastures, located in concave geomorphologies,
formerly occupied by Fraxinus angustifolia forests. The Mediterranean vegetation is
composed of Quercus pyrenaica and, in sunny steep slopes, Quercus rotundifolia.

Quercus suber is the dominant tree species in zonal soils in sub-humid areas. Under a
dry ombroclimate in deep granitic soils or pediment deposits under NPV includes cork
Quercus suber, Quercus rotundifolia and Juniperus oxycedrus trees. In deep dry
valleys, there are still observable stretches of the former Quercus rotundifolia and
Juniperus oxycedrus forests. The most important cultivated plants in the Mediterranean
areas are vines, olive trees, almond trees and wheat. Marginal lands are frequently
covered with thick low scrublands of Cistus ladanifer. There is a generalized pattern,
frequent with other Mediterranean territories

(Naveh and Leiberman, 1990), of
agricultural land contraction in more fertile soils around the villages or valley bottoms,
whilst marginal abandoned lands with shrub vegetation are submitted to severe cyclic
fires.

In relation to the population, north Portugal follows the national trend for the
concentration in the coastal regions. Population density in the northeast is generally low
(below 50 inhabitants per km
2
) with a trend to decrease and agro-pastoral activities
occupy most of the active population. In the northwest, the population density is higher
38
with a tendency for increase, and human activities in the region are usually in the
industry and services (INE, 2005).

Sources of information

This study reviews the main changes of the vegetation and fauna in northern Portugal
during the Holocene, using literature from paleoecology, archaeology, history, writings
from travellers and naturalists, maps of agriculture and forestry and expert consultation.
The information used is described below in more detail. All the dates mentioned in the
text were obtained from radiometric dating using
14
C without calibration or estimated
dates, except in the case of the climatic data taken from Desprat et al. (2003) concerning
dating using
14
C with calibration, which are referred as cal.

The proxy evidence provided by charcoal data collected in Portuguese archaeological
sites and northwest Iberia palynological surveys are the main sources of information for
northern Portugal palaeoenvironmental reconstructions. Pollen records similarities in
northwest Iberia are higher inside the same actual biogeographical units (Ramil-Rego et
al., 1998). For eastern areas, the most reliable palaeopalynological information comes
from the Spanish Secundera mountain (Allen et al., 1996). However, these were used
with caution for Mid and Late Holocene paleoenvironmental reconstitutions, because
northern Portugal continental mountains have a plateau morphology and are much lower
than Secundera mountain. For these reasons, pollen data from Estrela mountain (central
Portugal) was also used in this study, especially in periods after the Neolithic (See
Figures 3.3. and 3.4.; Knaap and Leeuwen, 1995, 1997). Present-day vegetation ecology
was also a fundamental component in the interpretation of pollen data. The uniform
assumptions it involves are more speculative when pollen data or charcoal deposits are
scarce or absent, like in the lowlands of northern Portugal.

The paleoecological literature was also used to assess Holocene climate changes in the
study area, through the information drawn from Allen et al. (1996), Ramil-Rego et al.
(1998) and Desprat et al. (2003), in which pollen data was used to characterize the
climatic changes.

39
Since northern Portugal has little information concerning the paleofauna due to the
predominance of acid soils in which bone preservation is difficult, some of the
presented data is relative to archaeological studies conducted in central Portugal.
Nevertheless, there is information about rupestrian drawings, historical paintings and
archaeological data, which refer to northern Portugal. Since most of the paleofauna
studies focus on mammals and birds, this review also addresses only these two groups.
Other studies in archaeology such as the excavations in a rock-shelter during the
Neolithic or the human occupation during the Roman times were also consulted (e.g.
Sanches, 1997; Lemos, 1993, 1997). History books and papers were used to collect
information related with Portuguese forest such as demographic variations and human
activities such as agriculture, animal husbandry, hunting pressure, etc.

Writings of travellers, naturalists and hunters

Literary descriptions of northern Portugal that were considered in this review include
writings from classical authors and books from the XVI to the early XX century (e.g.
Link, 1803). Some of these books were particularly useful, since they were written by
naturalists whilst living or travelling through the study area.

In few cases where books
are written in an apologetic tone to please a patron, the information they contain was
discarded if there was no confirmation of its validity through other sources (e.g. Leo,
1735). Between the XIX and XX century, there are also several descriptions in the press
of hunting trips to the mountain areas of this region, which were used as source of
information.

Historical and present-day studies of agriculture, forestry, fauna and ethnography

Previous studies about the forest and agriculture in Portugal for specific periods such as
between the XIV and XVI centuries and between the XIX century and the present were
used in this review. Other studies about subjects such as the ship construction during the
Portuguese Expansion were also consulted (e.g. Devy-Vareta, 1985, 1986; Radich and
Alves, 2000). In relation to the cartographic information, the map from Higounet (1996)
in Williams (2000) of the major forest areas in Europe between the V and XI centuries
and the Portuguese map of agriculture and forestry from 1910 were both used for a
general assessment of the land uses of northern Portugal in these two different time
40
periods. Previous studies about the historical information of the fauna in Portugal,
present-day studies of vegetation, fauna and ethnology were used in what concerns the
more recent past (e.g. Pinheiro, 1987).

Finally, ethnographical studies concerning
mountain villages in northern Portugal were also consulted to enable a more socio-
economic perspective of the exploitation of the natural resources (e.g. Catry 1999;
Cabral et al., 2005; Dias 1948, 1953).

3.2.3. Results

-Transition from the Late Pleistocene to the Holocene

The last glacial maximum in the Iberian Peninsula is estimated to have happened
between 20 000 and 18 000 yr BP (XIX and XVII millennium BC). At the end of this
period, the higher mountains of northern Portugal were permanently, or at least, most of
the year, covered with ice. Perpetual snows persisted about 1100-1200 metres in the
Peneda-Gers mountains (NW Portugal) and extensive ice sheets accumulated in lower
altitudes in more continental areas such as Montesinho mountain (NE Portugal)
(Guerreiro, 1981; Ruddiman and MacIntyre, 1981). The areas under greater sea
influence were more humid than continental ones and sheltered more tree communities.

Climatic conditions in northern Portugal began to improve at about 16 000 yr BP (XV
millennium BC) and triggered a period of deglaciation with an approximate duration of
3000 years.

Between 13 000 and 11 000 yr BP (XII and X millennium BC), during the
Late-glacial Interstadial, there was an accentuated increase of the temperature and
precipitation, which promoted the expansion of tree taxa and the regression of steppe
vegetation (Coud-Gaussen, 1981; Coud-Gaussen and Denfle, 1980). This trend
occurred earlier and was more pronounced in the more oceanic and humid western
mountains and plains because the arboreal lowland vegetation was already significant.
During this period, there was a short peak of expansion of Betula sp., before the
expansion of Pinus sylvestris, which was followed by the increase of Quercus robur.
Between 11 000 and 10 000 yr BP (X and IX millennium BC) (Younger Dryas), there
was a contraction of the tree line and an increase of the representation of herbaceous
and shrub species in the mountains, with higher representation of other species in pollen
41
assemblages of continental territories (see Figure 3.3. and 3.4.).

Precipitation decrease
had a higher influence in these vegetation changes than temperature (Allen et al., 1996).

As previously described, the physiognomy of northern Portugal is characterized by deep
valleys, which apparently served as refuge areas for the vegetation during the cold and
dry periods. These areas were also important for the mammalian fauna, which probably
moved along the valleys, as well as mountain tops. The oldest Palaeolithic engravings in
the valleys of Foz Ca (border area between central and northeast Portugal) is estimated
to be dated from 22 000-20 000 yr BP (XXI and XIX millennium BC), and represent
wild goats (Capra sp. and Rupicapra rupicapra), the aurochs (Bos primigenius) and the
wild horse (Equus caballus).

Recent findings of Palaeolithic engravings along the river
Sabor (NW Portugal) represent aurochsen and wild horses (Muoz-Sobrino et al., 2004;
Ramil-Rego et al., 1996 a,b; Cardoso, 2002). The presence of both C. pyrenaica and C
ibex in Portugal is not certain, since the bones of these species are very difficult to
distinguish (Zilho, 1997).


The Late-glacial Interstadial had an impact in the fauna composition. According to
archaeological records from central Portugal, this period of transition brought the
reduction and probable extinction of alpine species such as the chamois (Rupicapra
rupicapra), which were replaced by woodland-adapted species such as the European
beaver (Castor fiber), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa)
(Cardoso, 2002). However, it seems likely that a species of wild goat (Capra pyrenaica)
continued to exist in the higher mountains of northern Portugal throughout the
Holocene, since it became extinct in the Peneda-Gers mountains in 1890 (Mendes,
1968; Vasconcelos, 1980). Other herbivore species such as wild equids (Equus caballus
antunesi and possibly Equus hydruntinus) and the fallow deer (Dama dama) became
extinct before the beginning of the Holocene (Antunes, 1993; Arajo, 2000; Burke et
al., 2003). Between 13 000-11 000 yr BP (XII and X millennium BC), the composition
of hunted mammalian paleofauna became largely dominated by the red deer (Cervus
elaphus), but other species such as the wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), aurochs, roe
deer and wild boar are also found in archaeological sites. It is interesting to notice that,
in the Foz Ca Palaeolithic engravings, the red deer also became much more common
during the Epipaleolithic (Baptista and Gomes, 1995; Aura et al., 1998).

42
In relation to the effect of human actions, NW Iberia pollen analysis does not allow for
the distinction between natural changes in the vegetation and human actions, which
apparently indicates that they had a small influence in the vegetation. However, it is
known that the new tools and a more efficient social organization of the Upper
Palaeolithic human populations enabled an increased human influence upon their
environment. It is also unclear if human hunting contributed to the process of regression
and/or extinction of mammal species, which preceded the Holocene in northern
Portugal. Several authors refer that the extinction of the chamois and the decline of
species such as wild horse and aurochs were a consequence of the arboreal colonization
before the Holocene (e.g. Aura et al., 1998). On the other hand, it has also been
suggested that extinctions during the Late Pleistocene were due to the combination of
both anthropogenic action and climatic changes (Antunes, 1993; Barnosky et al., 2004;
Burney and Flannery, 2005).

-The Early Holocene

In the beginning of the Holocene, climate warming resumed the replacement of steppe
and shrub vegetation in the mountains. Pollen data usually shows an initial peak of
Pinus sp. and Betula sp., followed by a definitive expansion of Quercus sp. (Muoz-
Sobrino et al. 2004, 2005; Allen et al., 1996; Ramil-Rego et al., 1998; Knapp and
Leeuwen, 1995, 1997; Mateus, 1992) (See Figure 3.3. and 3.4.). The definitive
domination of the forest was a rapid event due to the plateau morphology of northern
Portugal highlands. In the NE valleys, steppes with dispersed Juniperus sp. and/or Pinus
sp. were replaced by Quercus rotundifolia and Quercus suber forests. Forced by the
competitive exclusion with Quercus sp., Pinus sylvestris was pushed to higher altitudes
until it became extinct in the Portuguese mountains. Although climate warming is
pointed as the most likely cause for the regression of this species, soil pedogenesis, the
shortening of the recurrence period through human-induced fires and the reduction of
the distribution to other areas due to an increase of the rainfall are also pointed as
possible explanations (Honrado, 2003; Figueiral, 1995; Figueiral and Carcaillet, 2005).

In the archaeological sites of the Mesolithic located in the coastal and fluvial areas of
the valleys of the rivers Tagus and Sado (central Portugal), it was found that species
such as red deer (Cervus elaphus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), and, to a lesser extent,
43
aurochs (Bos primigenius) and the wild horse (Equus caballus) continued to be hunted.
Since there is a scarcity of human occupation in the interior of Portugal during this
period, it has been proposed that the vegetation and fauna changes in the transition to
the Holocene forced humans to alter their subsistence strategies, increasing the
exploitation of aquatic resources around coastal and fluvial areas and an abandonment
of the densely wooded interior (Zilho, 1993, 2000; Aura et al., 1998). An alternative
explanation is a shift from big game to smaller mammals and ultimately fish and birds
due to an increased exploitation of environmental resources (Davis, 2005).

Finally, a
third explanation for this lack of human sites is that these were not yet discovered due to
biases in preservation or research (Zilho, 2000; Cardoso, 2002).

The changes in the landscape and fauna in the transition to the Holocene probably have
lead to changes in hunter-gatherers strategies, in which vegetation management
gathered an improved importance (Muoz-Sobrino et al., 2005; Arajo, 2000; Bicho,
1994). These vegetation management actions could be done using primitive tools and/or
fire, as a mechanism to create open areas with herbaceous and shrub vegetation, which
favoured the presence of steppe birds (e.g. red partridge) and large herbivores such as
wild horses and aurochs, to improve the observation of wild animals and hunting
activities and to increase the distance of wild mammals observation (Blanco et al., 1997;
Muoz-Sobrino et al., 2005; Brown, 1997; Arajo, 2000).

Several sources of evidence indicate that before anthropogenic disturbance became
important, in Mediterranean (Grove and Rackham, 2001) and Central European

(Vera,
2000) biotopes with forest potentiality persisted a diverse mosaic of sucessional stages
in a forest matrix. In a sub-Mediterranean or Mediterranean climate territory with a
strong relief such as northern Portugal, converged a complex panoply of disturbance
types fire, landslides, herbivory, tree diseases, tree decrepitude etc. that promoted
the development of heterogeneous vegetation mosaics in ecological homogeneous areas.
These mosaics certainly varied from almost continuous fine-grained forests to
heterogeneous vegetation complexes, where climax forests coexisted in a shifting
mosaic with various types of herbaceous, low shrub and tall shrub communities and
secondary forests (see Chapter 3.3. for details). Since there is evidence of small-scale
anthropogenic deforestations in Estrela mountain more than 8500 years ago, human
44
actions also contributed to this diverse mosaic of successional stages (Knaap and
Leeuwen, 1995,1997).


-From the Neolithic to the Bronze Age

The maritime pioneer colonization model states that the Neolithic in Portugal had its
origin in the colonization by small seafaring groups of agriculturalists coming from the
Mediterranean region in the VI millennium BC (Zilho 1993, 2000). The introduction
of this agro-pastoral way of life is coincident with the beginning of the Optimum
Climate, when the temperature and humidity reached a peak (Allen et al., 1996).

The
Neolithic groups probably expanded from the coastal areas of south Portugal and were
rapidly established in the interior regions, thus competing and overcoming the existing
groups of hunter-gatherers. The first agro-pastoral communities practised an itinerant
agriculture. In the Buraco da Pala, a rock-shelter in Mirandela (NE Portugal), wheat,
barley and broad bean were recovered from the first phase of human occupation. This
occupation had a seasonal character and was used for domestic consumption, occurring
between the end of VI/ beginning of V millennium BC to the end of the IV millennium
BC (Sanches, 1996, 1997).

The consolidation of the agro-pastoral system in northern Portugal during the IV
millennium BC implied the deforestation of significant areas.

The trend for the fixation
of the human communities is probably related to the increasing dependency of
productive activities, which originated a broad-scale increase of settlements at the end
of this millennium (Jorge, 1988, 1990, 1999; Sanches, 1997). Deforestation and farming
activities during this period are well documented by abundant stone axes, adzes and
grindstones found in several archaeological sites (Figueiral and Sanches, 2003).
Moreover, palynological studies of mountains in northwest Iberia also show that the
significant deforestation started around mid-IV millennium BC. In this process, human-
induced fire combined with animal husbandry and, to a lesser extent, the use of
primitive tools were used extensively, such as described in other Mediterranean regions
(e.g. Grove and Rackham, 2001). Therefore, the megalithic culture that build impressive
stone structures throughout northern Portugal during the IV millennium BC was also
responsible for the beginning of large-scale deforestation in this area (Jorge, 1990).

45
In the III millennium BC (i.e. beginning of the Bronze Age), palynological studies show
an intensification of the deforestation in northern of Portugal (Muoz-Sobrino et al.,
1996). In the Estrela mountain (central Portugal), large fires with possible human origin
are recorded around 4300 yr BP (III millennium BC) which devastated and changed the
vegetation in this area, followed by the first sign of cereals in the pollen archives
(Knaap and Leeuwen, 1995; See Figure 3.4.). About 1000 years later, there was a new
and more intense deforestation event in this area, which is synchronic with the intense
regression of arboreal species in the mountains of northwest Iberia, recorded between
3500-3000 yr BP (II millennium BC) (Muoz-Sobrino et al., 2004; Allen et al., 1996;
Ramil-Rego et al., 1998). In a similar pattern, this was also accompanied by the
beginning of the cereals in the palynological records.

According to the secondary products revolution, the continuous expansion to new
agricultural areas is related to the increase of the population and the beginning of the
use of animal traction and plough in the agriculture (Cardoso, 2002; Diamond, 1997;
Sanches, 1996). Although there is still no direct evidence of this technological change in
northern Portugal, there are arguments which support this hypothesis. For example, in
the III millennium BC, the referred rock-shelter of Buraco da Pala started to be used for
large-scale storage of cereals, which point to an increase of the agricultural production
and human population. Moreover, there is also direct evidence of animal husbandry
during this millennium- essentially ovines, caprines, bovines, suines and, to a lesser
extent, equines- in a reasonable number of archaeological sites of northern Portugal.
The III millennium BC is also characterized by the diversification of the economic
activities which can be consequence of the human population growth, since artefacts
such as net / loom weights and arrowheads found in archaeological sites suggests
fishing / weaving and hunting in the region (Sanches, 1997; Figueiral and Sanches,
2003).

The location of settlements of mid-mountain in areas of irregular terrain during the
transition from the III to the II millennium BC indicates a complementary use of the
mountain and the valley areas (Sanches, 1996; Jorge, 1990). Climate warming may have
promoted the valley transhumance in these regions. This period of transition is also
characterized by the growth of the production of bronze artefacts and the increase of
processes of social differentiation. Therefore, there is a diversification of human
46
settlement systems, which in the beginning of the I millennium BC resulted in
settlements located in higher areas with natural and artificial conditions of defence and
other settlements in lower areas, where an intensive agriculture was practised
(Bettencourt, 1995; Figueiral and Sanches, 2003; Diamond, 1997).



In relation to the vegetation, the beginning of the Neolithic brought the large-scale use
of human-induced fire, animal husbandry and the use of primitive tools, which were
essential in the process of deforestation, providing an active management of the
ecological succession and a stabilization of the herbaceous vegetation (Figueiral and
Sanches, 2003). A recent study which shows the increase of the biomass burning in
Europe since the V millennium BC corroborates the wide use of human-induced fires
throughout this region during the Neolithic (Carcaillet et al., 2002). The agriculture
practiced in these deforested areas was characterized by short periods of cultivation and
the use of fire and domestic animals to control vegetation succession and soil
fertilization

(Cortazar, 1988), with prolonged periods of abandonment, which enabled a
partial restoration of the forest; in E. Boserups terms, a long fallow cycle, with no crop
rotation nor the use of organic fertilizers system.

This incipient agriculture began in northern Portugal in the central planes of Trs-os-
Montes, Minho and Douro (preferably above 700 metres a.s.l.), extending later to the
valleys, where the forests were more resilient and had more biomass (Jorge, 1990). The
spatial enlargement of these agricultural practices and the probable shortening of the
rotation periods promoted significant changes in the landscape. Several authors argue
that extensive open areas were normal features in the study area as early as the Bronze
Age, at least in hill tops and plateau areas, and existed side-by-side with wooded areas,
which were mostly located in valleys (Figueiral and Sanches, 2003; Figueiral and
Bettencourt, 2004; Jorge, 1988). The relative abundance of forests in the valleys of
northeast Portugal as late as the 1920s seem to indicate that winter pastures were never
a limiting factor for the regional animal husbandry. These arguments are reinforced by
the fact that written accounts of Roman authors describe the landscape when arriving to
the Portuguese territory as deforested in mountain areas (Lautensach, 1988, 1989). On
the other hand, pre-historic settlements in northern Portugal are more frequent in higher
altitudes, which seems to reflect a more intense human occupation of the mountains
(Jorge, 1990). Nevertheless, there are temporary settlements of lower implantation in
47
the end of the Bronze Age in the Minho region (NW Portugal) that were abandoned in
the Iron Age, where an intensive agriculture was practised (Cardoso, 2002).

In relation to the hunting, several archaeological sites in the Ca area (border of central
and northern Portugal) from the Neolithic and Bronze Ages showed that, besides
domestic animals such as goats and sheep, there was also consumption of wild animals
such as wild boar and red deer (Monteiro-Rodrigues, 2000, 2002; Valente, 2004). The
aurochs and the wild horse probably became extinct in Portugal in the Bronze Age. In
the case of the domestic horse, some authors argue it was introduced in Portugal
between the Late Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages whereas other suggest that humans
domesticated wild horses in the Iberian Peninsula during this period (Antunes, 1993;
Cardoso, 2002; Levine, 1999). Deforestation probably also had a detrimental effect in
species which are more dependent of forest-type habitats such as the roe deer and the
brown bear (Ursus arctos) and may have benefited other species which prefer more
open habitats.

Since there is no detailed information about the composition and abundance of the wild
and domestic herbivores during this period, it is difficult to speculate about the changes
of the herbivory effect in the natural vegetation. Nevertheless, it seems likely that the
extinction and/or regression of herbivores such as the wild horse, aurochs and roe deer
and the probable reduction of the forests and associated herbivores had as consequence
a general decrease of the natural herbivory pressure in the vegetation (Gordon et al.,
2004; Pykala, 2000). Therefore, the role of creation and maintenance of open habitats in
the forests of northern Portugal in which natural herbivory played an important role
before the Neolithic was replaced and enhanced by human activities such as
deforestation, human-induced fires and animal husbandry (Bengtsson et al., 2000;
Naveh and Carmel, 2003; Grove and Rackham, 2001; Perevolotsky and Seligman,
1999).

-From the Iron Age to the Middle Ages

The proto-History in northern Portugal is characterized by successive invasions of Indo-
European people, which came to the region since the II millennium BC. Although there
is little information about the influence of these people, it is known that some of these
48
immigrations had a significant impact in the vegetation of the region, such as the arrival
of the Celts in the first half of the I millennium BC (Fabio, 1992; Lautensach, 1988,
1989).

However, considering that there may have been a cold period between 975-250
cal BC, reduction of the arboreal vegetation in the northwest Iberia during this period
cannot be attributed exclusively to climatic changes or to the action of these Indo-
European people (Ruiz-Zapata et al., 1995).

In the end of the Bronze Age (i.e. transition to the I millennium BC), there is a
systematic abandonment of the open settlements in northern Portugal and an exclusive
use of fortified settlements (Martins, 1997; Lemos, 1997). Despite their heterogeneity, it
is thought that most of the Iron Age people in northern Portugal depended on cattle
raising, which was complemented with itinerant or semi-permanent agriculture and
hunting and recollection activities. Considering that cattle raising implies extensive
grazing lands, this certainly contributed to the increase of the deforestation in northern
Portugal. The classic author Strabo describes these people as savages living in lands of
poor soils feeding essentially on cattle meat and oak acorns. The numerous stone statues
of pigs and bulls in the northeast of Portugal dating from the pre-Roman and beginning
of Roman periods, which served as stone marks in the landscape, reinforces the
importance of cattle raising and grazing lands in this area (Fabio, 1992; Cardoso,
1994,1997; Lemos, 1997; Alvarez-Sanchs, 2000).

The high number of fortified settlements found in the northeast of Portugal (more than
500) are indicative of an enormous human pressure on natural resources during this
period. Since there was a judicious spatial distribution of their settlements, defensive
structures with fortifications and the descriptions of pillage activities, it seems likely
that there was intense competition over resources (Silva and Gomes, 1994; Lemos,
1997; Cardoso, 1994; Jorge, 1990). Human pressure was increased by the use of iron
tools and probably had as consequence a more efficient soil mobilization and the
destruction of forests, especially in the areas around settlements. In the case of
agriculture, it is known that the native Lusitanians (which shared large affinities with
the Iron Age people that inhabited northern Portugal) used plough farming for
cultivation of crops such as wheat, flax, grapes and olives. There was also an intense
exploitation of a wide range of vegetation from the Late Bronze Ages to the Roman
period, used as fuel, building material and food. According to descriptions of several
49
classical authors, the mountains of northern Portugal were already deforested by the
time of the Roman invasion (Martins, 1997; Oubia, 2003; Figueiral, 1996; Lautensach,
1989; Cardoso, 1994, 1997; Guerra, 1995).

The conquest of the Portuguese territory by the Romans extended between the II and the
I century BC and brought drastic changes to the agriculture. The Roman pax, the
integration on a greater economical space, the technical development and the
demographic growth were factors which contributed to the general increase of the
agriculture, which was probably also favoured by the Roman Warm Period (250 cal
BC-450 cal AD) (Martins, 1997; Lautensach, 1988, 1989). Among the technological
innovations brought by the Romans, the introduction of the Roman plough and the
generalization of iron tools promoted the expansion of the agriculture to the heavier and
more productive soils of the valleys, which implied the assortment of forest and swamp
areas. Other factors such as the introduction of crops such as rye, the adoption of the
system of policulture, the use of agricultural rotations and organic fertilizers also had a
major impact in the land use. Considering that the traditional diet of the Romans
consisted of cereals, wine, olives and, to a lesser extent, dry legumes and meat and other
animal by-products, the Roman domination also implied the change to a more cereal-
based diet, which was maintained in the Portuguese territory during subsequent
centuries (Fabio, 1992; Alarco, 1987).

Although the irregular terrain and ethnic diversity of northern Portugal contributed to
the resistance to the beginning of the Roman domination, their implantation during
more than five centuries had an impact in the human population in this territory.

In
relation to the distribution of the population, an archaeological study in the northeast of
Portugal showed that, from 246 proto-historic settlements, only 75 presented signs of
Romanization and that 151 new settlements were created during Roman occupation
(Fabio, 1992; Alarco, 1987; Lemos, 1993).

The reasons for these changes are related
with the fact that Romans promoted or forced local people to descend from fortified
settlements of mountains and to create new villages in accessible areas such as plains,
which had more socio-economic purposes (Alarco, 1987). Despite uncertainties about
the characteristics of Roman settlements in northern Portugal, it seems likely that small
properties dedicated to agricultural activities predominated. However, there are also
archaeological evidences in this region of large agricultural properties (called villae)
50
located near Braga, Chaves and the river Lima. The effect of the Romanization in
mountain and temperate areas was mostly done indirectly through the economic
integration. In conclusion, the Roman domination had a major impact in the forests of
the Portuguese territory, in which the major developments in the agriculture promoted
the deforestation that was extended to the valleys (Leguay, 1993; Fabio, 1992,
Lautensach, 1988, 1989). In this respect, it is interesting to notice that the Romanization
and the fall of the Empire matches peaks of regression and progression of the arboreal
vegetation in several palynological studies in NW Iberia (Ramil-Rego et al. 1998).

After the political instability of the III and IV centuries AD, the disintegration of the
Roman Empire in the Portuguese territory in the beginning of the V century opened the
way to the Germanic domination between the V and VIII centuries, which brought
pillages and general instability and motivated the reoccupation of the mountains and
other less accessible places. These events contributed to the gradual degradation of the
administrative organization and agrarian exploitation systems of the Roman times. The
abandonment of many rural areas during this period had as consequences the drastic
reduction of the agricultural and animal husbandry productions, which is possibly also
related to the Dark Ages Cold Period (450-950 cal AD). This resulted in successive
famines and epidemics and the consequent toll in the human populations.

Palynological
information in Estrela mountain (Central Portugal) shows a growth of the Betula alba,
which indicates a recovery of the forest cover in this area

(Mattoso, 1992a; Fabio,
2004, Lautensach, 1988, 1989; Leguay, 1993; See Figure 3.3. and 3.4.). During the
short periods of political stability, the economy of the region was probably based on the
animal husbandry, which was more important to the Germanic than to Romans,
associated with a semi-sedentary or itinerant agriculture (Mattoso, 1992b; Beirante,
1993).

The Muslim invasions in the beginning of the VIII century and the subsequent wars of
Christian Reconquest with the Asturian armies, the associated years of scarce
production and consequent famines, maintained a reduced population in northern
Portugal. The weak Muslim presence probably disappeared around mid-VIII century,
but the Asturian armies that regularly invaded the area did not have conditions to
maintain their domination for long periods of time. The general insecurity of the
populations, especially in the beginning and end of this historical period, promoted
51
itinerant agriculture, animal husbandry and hunting and recollection practices.

This
probably resulted in the continuation of the forest recovery in this area, which is
indicated by the maintenance of the Betula alba and Quercus in the palynological
diagram of Estrela mountain (See Figure 6; Mattoso, 1992a; Fabio, 2004).

According to Higounet (1966) in Williams (2000), the main forest areas in the
Portuguese territory between the V and the XI centuries were located between the Tagus
and Guadiana rivers (south of Portugal), whereas the north of this territory had a smaller
forest area. The explanation for this fact may be that there were was a higher human
pressure of northern Portugal before the Roman Invasions. The definitive Christian
Reconquest of northern Portugal by the Asturian kingdom in the XI century brought
relative political stabilization to this area, the migration and the recolonization of this
territory, which resulted in the increase of the population and the foundation of new
settlements (Mattoso 1992a; Fabio 2004).

During the XI century, the promotion of the
agriculture, which is attested by several documents, had as consequence the regression
of the forests. In the palynological study of Estrela mountain (central Portugal), there is
a gradual regression of the Quercus sp. and Betula alba in the Middle Ages, which is
coincident with an increase of the shrub land (Ericaceae sp.) and agricultural areas
(Cerealia sp.) (Beirante, 1993; Coelho, 2004; Mattoso, 1993; see Figure 3.3. and 3.4.).
This information is coincident with the assumption that the growth of the agro-pastoral
activities implied the deforestation of Portugal during the Middle Ages.

In relation to the fauna between the Iron Age and the Asturian invasions, an
archaeological study about the Iron Age in the Aboboreira mountain (NW Portugal)
revealed the existence of bones of deer and wild pig, whereas several historical
paintings in the northeast Portugal represent the hunting of red deer (Cardoso, 1997).

The battles between the first Portuguese king and the king of Leon and Castilla over
territories in the north of Portugal and Galiza (NW Spain), were gradually resolved in
the XII century as the Christian Reconquest progressed to the south and, in the XIII
century, frontier agreements with neighbours guaranteed long-term political stability to
Portugal (Coelho, 2004). In this century, the increasing population of this area had a
preference of valleys near rivers where the terrain was more suitable for agriculture,
with the consequent assortment of forests and swamps located in the valleys and the
52
funding of new villages (Coelho, 2004; Mattoso, 1993; Andrade, 1994, 1997; Maurcio,
1997; Taborda, 1932; Devy-Vareta and Alves, 2007). The numerous letters of privilege
conceded by the first kings of Portugal in this area are a clear incentive for the peopling
of this region. In the area north of river Mondego, these assortments are mainly
motivated by the creation of numerous monasteries, but also by several nobles and
military orders. These monasteries had an important role in the conservation of the
forest, since they were responsible for the tree plantation and surveillance in these areas.
In the mountains, the human occupation was probably much more scarce and unstable,
with communities dedicated to the transhumance and, to a lesser extent, agriculture. For
example, several villages of Peneda-Gers mountains (NW Portugal) had the obligation
of delivering large amounts of acorns, chestnuts and to raise pigs to offer to the king,
which indicates that there were still significant areas of oaks and chestnut-trees in these
mountains (Maurcio, 1997; Andrade, 1994, 1997; Beirante, 1993; Almeida, 1978;
Fernandes, 2004).

The population growth and the political stabilization in northern Portugal after the
Christian Reconquest, enhanced by the Medieval Warm Period in the XII and XIII
centuries, resulted in the drastic increase in the rate of deforestation. Historical
documents show frequent disputes for agricultural lands, which caused the occupation
of marginal areas and increased soil erosion. This hypothesis is reinforced by the fact
that there is a high increase of the sediment release to the Portuguese coast in the XII
century in the Aveiro region (central Portugal) (Abecassis 1955 in Dinis et al. 2006).
One of the factors which contributed to the deforestation around cities and villages in
this period is that wood continued to be widely used by the increasing population as
fuel, fertilizer and in the construction of houses and objects. In the XII century, there are
records of wood exportation from the north of Portugal to other European countries,
which ceased in the XIII century. Moreover, this period is characterized by the growth
of the external maritime commerce and shipbuilding and the beginning of the wood
importation from Spain, France and England to the Oporto and Gaia ports (NW
Portugal). The transition from exporter to importer of wood is probably related with the
progressive scarcity of the forests in the region, which is reinforced by the fact that their
communal use since the X century was replaced in the XIII century by divisions of
forests between neighbours and restrictions for cutting trees. Nevertheless, there were
still extensive forests in northern Portugal during this period, especially in the
53
mountains and monastery enclosures of the region (Devy-Vareta, 1985, 1986; Almeida
1978).


In relation to the hunting between the XI and XIII centuries, species such as wild boar,
wild rabbit, red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer, brown bear and wolf (Canis lupus) are
commonly referred in documents of the XIII century. Hunting was especially frequent
in the mountain regions of the study area, to satisfy the needs of the local populations
but also to fulfil the rights that were due to the king. The wild rabbit was an important
species, because its fur sustained the national pelt industry and was one of the most
exported Portuguese products. In the law of price-fixer published in 1253, the price of
several species of wild animals and birds and several restrictions for their capture are
referred, which means that they had significant economic importance (Maurcio, 1997;
Andrade, 1994; Almeida, 1978; Aristides and Ablio, 1988).

In a process similar to other European countries, the population growth recorded in
Portugal during the XIII century could no longer be supported by existing resources,
which resulted in the gradual food scarcity and an underfed population. Therefore, the
end of the XIV and the XV centuries were marked by a demographic crisis, which was
enhanced by the proliferation of the Black Plague in Portugal since 1348 and
consecutive years of reduced agricultural production before and after this date (Sousa,
1993). This period is also characterized by social convulsions, wars and frequent
episodes of food scarcity and outbreaks of Black Plague. In the particular case of
northern Portugal, the northeast is considered well populated in the inquiries of 1290
and 1321, but with reduced population in the inquiries of 1422. This idea of population
scarcity is reinforced by complains in 1439 of the delegates of the king about the low
population of Trs-os-Montes region (NE Portugal), the requests of installation of
shelters for outlaws and privilege of reduction of taxes (Magalhes, 1993; Sousa, 1993;
Alves, 1983; Lobo, 1903).

The general reduction of the population had as consequence the abandonment of the
agricultural fields during these two centuries and the decrease of the rhythm of
assortments. Following a similar pattern to previous historical periods, the decrease of
the agriculture promoted once more the expansion of the animal husbandry, which may
have contributed to the increase of human-induced fires. Indeed, several authors refer
54
that these fires were very common in the XV century, with the purpose of pasture
renovation, coal production and even to capture wild rabbits (Fernandes, 2004; Sousa,
1993; Lobo, 1903).

The wood scarcity in the larger population agglomerations in the XV century is evident
by the complains of constant cutting of trees in the monastic enclosures in the Oporto
region and the implementation of laws to maintain the remaining forest and to promote
the regulation of the exploitation, such as the forbidding of wood extraction, prevention
of human-induced fires, the creation of forest guards and the obligation to plant trees.
During the mid-XV century, the Portuguese Expansion continued to promote the
development of the naval construction and an increase of the wood importation from
other European countries (Devy-Vareta, 1985, 1986; Lobo, 1903; Baeta Neves, 1980).
In the second half of this century, there was a recovery of the population density and
inherent increase of the agricultural production. Therefore, this period is characterized
by a new episode of intense deforestation, with the purpose of expanding areas destined
for agriculture. This growth of the agriculture also brought a conflict for space with the
animal husbandry, which tended to became once again more restrict over time (Silva
and Hespanha, 1993; Dias, 1998; Fernandes, 2004; Sousa, 1993; Oliveira Marques,
1986).

There were also special laws in the XIV and XV centuries to protect hunting areas, in
some cases with negative consequences to the local populations. This resulted in
temporary authorizations to hunt species in problematic areas throughout the XIV and
XV centuries and in the popular protest to the king in 1371 against the increase of
hunting grounds, due to the damage in the agriculture caused by the brown bear and
wild boar. In the specific case of northern Portugal, there is a letter of the king D.
Afonso V dated from 1466, in which he expresses his indignation for the excessive
hunting in this region and orders the people to stop hunting in the lands of the Crown
and other nobles. Moreover, the mountains of Peneda-Gers (NE Portugal) has large
numbers of hunting guards in the XV century, which indicates that this area was
commonly used as hunting ground (Oliveira Marques, 1986; Baeta Neves, 1967;
Almaa, 2000; Lobo, 1903).

55
In relation to the fauna, the XIV and XV centuries are characterized by the extinction of
the European beaver (Castor fiber). The presence of this mammal in Portugal has been
documented through fossil record, written records and toponimic studies. This species
was limited to the central west and northwest part of Portugal and was already rare in
the XIII century. Since the last known reference to this species in an official document
of 1446, it is likely that the European beaver became extinct in Portugal in the XV or
XVI centuries (Antunes, 1989, 1993; Almaa, 2000). There are also references to the
presence of a small equid called zebro (probably Equus hydruntinus or Equus
hemionus) in the Law of the price-fixer published in 1253, official documents and
toponimic of both Portugal and Spain between the XIII and XIV centuries. This equid
may have become extinct in the Iberian Peninsula between the XV and XVI centuries,
but these scarce evidences are not enough to confirm its presence (Aristides and Ablio,
1988; Almaa, 2000; Antunes, 1989, 1993, Simon Davis, com pess.).

The brown bear (Ursus arctos) is referred in the Law of the price-fixer and other
documents of the same period, but it seem likely that it became rare since the XIV or
XV century. The red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) also became rare and probably extinct
during this period, due to the extensive deforestation in the country. In the case of the
birds, there are references to the protection of species for hunting and falconry such as
red partridge (Alectoris rufa), wild ducks, doves, and falcons (Antunes, 1993; Almaa,
2000).

The regression of several fauna species during the XIV and XV centuries are probably
related with the deforestation and hunting pressure which characterizes most of the end
of the Middle Ages in northern Portugal. However, it is too simplistic to attribute these
events to the human actions during these centuries. Instead, it seems more appropriate to
consider these changes in the fauna as a consequence of the long history of human
intervention, in which the XIV and XV centuries are the final chapters.

-From the XVI to the XIX centuries

In the end of the XV century, there was a demographic expansion in northern Portugal,
which was maintained throughout the first half of the XVI century. In the last third of
the XVI century, Portuguese populations were affected by several episodes of famine
56
and epidemics, probably related with an inter-annual climatic instability associated with
the Little Ice Age (Mattoso, 1992

a,b; Dias, 1998). The food crisis in the end of the XVI
century was so severe in regions such as Trs-os-Montes (NW Portugal) that the king
decided not to collect tax on the large amounts of cereals imported from abroad.

In fact,
one of the main motivations for the Portuguese Discoveries was to find colonies with
good conditions for wheat cultivation. In this scenario of a country with food shortage
and overseas expansion, the development of the cattle raising competed with the
agriculture, which was not favourable to the assortment of uncultivated land or the
increase of the agricultural areas (Silva and Hespanha, 1993; Dias, 1998; Serro, 1993;
Alves, 1983; Ferro, 1992).

In relation to the deforestation, there was a wide use of wood in the Minho region (NW
Portugal) in the naval industry, civil construction and other industries, which increased
with the Portuguese Expansion. In the mid-XVI century, the scarcity of wood was not
fully compensated by the wood importation, which in some cases originated the
limitation of one activity to the benefit of others. For example, in order to maintain the
plantation of vineyards which required wood stakes, the Town Hall of Viana do Castelo
(NW Portugal) limited the naval and civil industry in determined periods of the second
half of the XVI century. During this period between the XV and the XVI centuries, the
assortments reduced the size of the forests, which still existed. According to a
description of mid-XVI century from Joo de Barros, the scarcity of trees was more
acute in the northeast, whereas the northwest still had frequent tree areas. The
explanation for this fact probably lies on the soil and climate conditions, at least in the
valleys, which are more favourable for the development of trees and to forest resilience
in the northwest (Dias, 1998; Serro, 1993; Silva and Hespanha, 1993; Devy-Vareta,
1986; Barros, 1919).

Despite the fact that ship building continued to have some impact in the deforestation of
northern Portugal, this was probably reduced in comparison with other uses of wood.
The scarcity of wood justified the implementation of the Law of Trees in 1562, which
promoted the reforestation of uncultivated land or private properties with oak, pine and
chestnut trees. In the interior regions of northern Portugal, the reforestation of
uncultivated lands competed with the exploitation of cattle, honey, shrubs and other
products. Considering that there were also inefficient enforcement mechanisms and
57
little orientation about the reforestation process, this law encountered local resistance
and one of the ways to address this problem was to increase the wood importation from
abroad (Costa, 1993; Devy-Vareta, 1986; Rego, 2001; Boxer, 1977; Silva and
Hespanha, 1993; Dias, 1998).

Between the end of the XVI century to mid-XVII century, maize was introduced in
Portugal as a new cultivated crop and became increasingly important to agriculture due
to its reduced growing time, greater yield and harmonization with other crop cultures
and cattle-raising. Nevertheless, the transition to the XVII century is characterized by
the food scarcity and the consequent decrease of the population. Several authors refer to
the excessive area of uncultivated lands as one of the reasons for the lack of cereals in
the country (Devy-Vareta, 1986; Rebello da Silva, 1869). In fact, Portugal does not
have good biophysical conditions for cereal cultivation, which would be revealed in the
XX century during the Wheat campaign.

Descriptions of northern Portugal in documents from the XVII and XVIII centuries
refer to the cutting of trees, agricultural areas and the large extension of uncultivated
areas, where the extensive cattle-raising was practiced (Devy-Vareta and Alves, 2007).
The development of the Portuguese colonies during this period was done in detriment of
the reorganization of the country, which is evident in the maintenance of a low
population density in the interior of northern Portugal and the persistence of an
agricultural model of self-subsistence. For example, it is known that many people from
the Minho region (NW Portugal) emigrated to Brasil, which resulted in the lack of
manpower for agriculture and the imposition of more restrictive rules for emigration in
1720. Despite the increase of the agricultural production in the end of the XVII century,
the lack of cereals continued to exist throughout the XVIII century, because the growth
of the production was not proportional to the increase of the consumption levels in both
Portugal and Brasil. Since mid-XVIII century, the scarcity of forestry products increases
with the competition between the different industries and the population growth. The
Ecclesiastical Inquiries of 1758 already describe northern Portugal as a mostly
deforested area (Menezes, 2001; Pinto et al., 2001; Serro, 1993).

In the transition from the XVIII to the XIX century, there are also several descriptions
of Trs-os-Montes (NE Portugal), which refer it as a deforested region which was
58
especially dedicated to the agriculture and animal husbandry of cows and horses
(Mendes, 1995; Menezes, 2001; Link, 1803; Oliveira and Costa, 1996). According to
the first reliable and detailed description of the Prussian botanist Count of
Hoffmannsegg, it is evident that this area was mostly deforested in the end of the XVIII
century, with occasional oak forests in the more steep and inaccessible areas, in excerpts
such as In the area surrounding Vila Flor (), the usual landscape is resumed.
Cultivated fields in a territory without trees and full of rock outcrops which are
unpleasant to see. In the case of the Minho (NW Portugal), the botanist described it as
an agricultural area with dense population, with some pine and cork oaks in the coastal
areas and oak forests mostly located in the low and mid-altitude mountain areas
(Ferreira, 1994; Link, 1803). Other documents refer to the predominance of the chestnut
trees and oaks in the interior northern Portugal and plantations of pine trees in the more
coastal regions (Pereira, 1910; Amorim, 1973; Taborda, 1932; Link, 1803; Ferreira,
1994; Barros, 1919; Mendes, 1968).

In the beginning of the XIX century, the French invasions, civil wars and political
convulsions had a negative effect in the population, agriculture and animal husbandry,
but the rest of this century is characterized by the developments brought by the end of
the Old Regime, the modernization of the country through the agricultural and industrial
revolutions and the population growth. In 1834, enclosures were abolished and the
forest grounds surrounding convents and palaces become the only areas of forest
protection in the country. In the second half of the XIX century, the agricultural area in
northern Portugal increased significantly, which implied the reduction of uncultivated
common land and the regression of the animal husbandry. Nevertheless, some areas in
northern Portugal such as Trs-os-Montes (NE Portugal) still had about half of their
area occupied by uncultivated common land in the late XIX century, where the animal
husbandry prevailed (Rego, 2001; Radich, 1996). Several authors continued to describe
the general deforestation of northern of Portugal and to point the reforestation as the
best solution to reduce the area of uncultivated common lands (Rego, 2001; Radich,
1996; Radich and Alves, 2000; Coutinho, 1877, 1882; Leal, 1875). In this respect, it is
curious to notice that most of the wood used in the construction of the Portuguese
railroad was imported from abroad, with occasional exceptions for wood extracted in
the centre and south of the country (Pinheiro, 1987). The growth of the knowledge
about forestry, the creation of the Forestry Services and the arborisation mainly with
59
Pinus pinaster of Peneda-Gers and Estrela mountains marks the evolution of the
vegetation in northern Portugal in the end of the XIX century (Rego, 2001).

In what concerns the hunting between the XVI and the XIX centuries, since Lisbon and
the nearby cities were the new political centres of the country, the north of Portugal
became too distant to be regularly used as hunting ground by the king and his escort.
For example, in a letter from 1525 to the inhabitants of Miranda do Douro (NE
Portugal), the king allows hunting all year to the population, arguing that it was too far
to be used by members of the courtship (Alves, 1983). In the XVII century, the kings
Filipe II and Filipe III ordered and reinforced the interdiction to hunt with rifles, due to
the intense pressure in the hunting species brought by this new hunting tool. In 1733,
the king D. Joo V imposed the death penalty to the individuals caught hunting in
enclosures that resisted arrest. The abolition of enclosures in 1834 implied the abolition
of faunal protection in these areas (Rego, 2001).

The brown bear (Ursus arctos) was already rare in the XIV and XV centuries and
probably became extinct when the last individual was shot in the Peneda-Gers
mountains in 1650. The wild goat (Capra pyrenaica) also existed in northern Portugal
until the end of the XIX century and also probably became extinct with the capture of
the last wild goat in Peneda-Gers mountains in 1890. Several descriptions of the fauna
in northern Portugal between the XVII and the XVIII century consider the red deer
(Cervus elaphus), the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and the wild boar (Sus scrofa) as
common species in this area. However, there was a regression of the red deer and, to a
lesser extent, of the roe deer and the wild boar since the end of the XVIII (Baeta Neves,
1967; Vasconcelos, 1980; Antunes, 1993; Costa, 1706; Ferreira, 1994; Leal, 1875;
Balbi, 1822). At the end of the XIX century, the red deer was considered extinct in
northern Portugal and the roe deer only persisted in the Peneda-Gers mountains. In the
case of the birds, there is a document of 1744 which confirms the existence of the
cappercaille (Tetrao urogallus) in the Peneda-Gers mountains, which is also reinforced
by the frequent toponimic references to this species in this area. This species probably
became extinct between the XVIII and XIX centuries (Pimenta and Santarm, 1996;
Catry, 1999; Dobson, 1998; Mendes, 1968).


60
-From the XX century to the present

The demography in the study area during the XX century is characterized by the almost
constant migration from the rural areas to the major cities of the coastal areas such as
Lisbon, Oporto and Setubal, and abroad, motivated by the search of employment and
better living conditions. The consequences of this migration were the abandonment of
the agriculture, which in some cases increased the conversion of the agricultural fields
into forestry areas (Rosas, 1994; Radich and Alves, 2000). In the transition to the XX
century, there was extensive topographical work, motivated by the publication of the
first national map of agriculture and forestry in 1910. According to this map, northern
Portugal had a low percentage of native forest, which was mostly located in more
inaccessible areas such as steep hills along the waterways (DGA, 1910). This period of
transition is also characterized by the expansion of the forested area, which was mainly
directed to uncultivated common lands in the mountains.

In the end of the 1920s, there was an increase of forestation, which was stimulated by
the export of pinewood to England and the development of the Portuguese industry.
However, the solution for the problem of the uncultivated lands was still a motive of
discussion between economists and agronomists. In a first stage, the idea of an
agricultural country prevailed and the Wheat campaign was implemented. In the
northern of Portugal, the desire for self-sufficiency in cereals and the availability of
workmanship in the rural areas resulted in the increase of the rye and wheat to marginal
areas such as steep terrains. In a second stage, the idea of forestation (initially with
Pinus pinaster and later with Eucalyptus globulus) of the uncultivated land was
implemented from 1938 to 1995 and had its greatest influence in the mountains of
northern Portugal (Rego, 2001; Maurcio, 1997; Radich and Alves, 2000).

The change from an agricultural and cattle-raising society to an urban society implied
the reduction of agricultural workers and activities with consequences in the vegetation.
For example, there was an increase of wood fuel accumulation in the forest plantations
and, consequently, an increase in fires, which are still a serious concern at the present.
This abandonment is still one of the factors with more influence in the vegetation in
northern Portugal, since the scrubland area increased significantly in the last decades.
There is also a continuous, but very slow, expansion of the native forest. However, the
61
successional processes are blocked in many areas (at the human scale) due to the short
return cycle of fires, lack of soil depth, scarcity of nutrients in the soil and absence of
extensive areas of native trees which produce seeds that allow for a rapid recolonization
of the deforested areas. This is especially true in the mountains, where the resilience and
stability of the scrubland and the animal husbandry associated with the human-induced
fire keep these areas covered with pyrophyte scrublands (i.e. shrub encroachment).
Moreover, the regeneration of the vegetation does not imply a return to the primitive
vegetation, since there was a decrease of the elements such as soil fertility and humidity.
For example, there has been a recent increase of Quercus rotundifolia to the detriment
of species such as Quercus robur, Quercus pyrenaica, Quercus suber and Quercus
faginea (subsp. faginea).

In relation to the hunting, the first half of the XX century is characterized by the change
of focus from species which became locally extinct or rare in northern Portugal such as
the red deer (Cervus elaphus) and the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) to more common
species such as the wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and the red partridge (Alectoris
rufa) (Dias, 1948, 1953). The interest in these species was probably motivated by the
scarcity of larger herbivores, but also due to their probable increase due to the Wheat
campaign which was previously mentioned.

The creation of specific protection laws, protected areas and the agricultural
abandonment contributed to stopping the regression of species such as the wolf (Canis
lupus). In the case of the wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), a keystone species to this
area, diseases such as myxomatosis and HVD, habitat destruction and intense hunting
pressure contributed for its general low density in northern Portugal. However, there are
also cases of species such as the red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris), the red deer (Cervus
elaphus) and the wild goat (Capra pyrenaica) which expanded their distribution from
northwest Spain and were re-established in northern Portugal between the 1980s and
the 1990s. Although the abundance and distribution of the red deer and the wild goat at
present are still very limited, this is a positive sign for the future. In the case of the
birds, the presence of the grey partridge (Perdix perdix) is well documented in the high
lands of northern Portugal, but it probably became rare since the first half of the XX
century and extinct in the region between the 1950s and the 1960s. It is likely that the
bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) and the crane (Grus grus) occurred in northern
62
Portugal and became regionally extinct during the XX century. The eagle-real (Aquila
chrysaetus) also suffered regression until mid-XX century, occurring today in very low
density in this area (Cabral et al., 2005; Catry, 1999; Pimenta and Santarm, 1996).


3.2.4. Discussion

The ecological and historical information about the deforestation process from the
Neolithic onwards supports the idea of a spatial differentiation in northern Portugal,
beginning in the high plateaus of this region and extending later to the valley areas. This
evolution of the deforestation seems to be associated with changes of social systems
(e.g. growth of sedentarization with the location of communities in areas of mid-
mountain), greater integration of the agro-pastoral activities, development of tools and
techniques which allowed for the mobilization of heavier soils and possibly climatic
changes (higher climatic irregularity increases the risk of agriculture in the high planes
and promotes the agriculture in the valleys, where the temperature is more temperate)
(See Table 3.1.).

These changes in the vegetation in northern Portugal during the Holocene follow the
model suggested by Boserup (1965) of an increase (which can be intermittent) of the
area and intensity of the agro-pastoral use of the territory along time due to population
growth. Despite the limited information in this area, there is a general trend for forest
regression after the Neolithic, which was interspersed with periods of recovery of the
vegetation related with the decrease of human pressure on natural resources (Boserup,
1965; Perevolotsky and Seligman, 1999; Butzer, 2005).

For example, it is known that
the political-administrative instability and the reduction of human population during the
Germanic domination of this area between the V and VIII centuries enabled forest
recovery, which was probably extended to the period of conflict between Muslims and
Christians.

63
Table 3.1. Synthesis of the main historical periods, human impacts and vegetation and
fauna changes

Chronology Beginning
of the period
Human impact on natural
resources
Main vegetation
Changes
Main fauna
changes

Transition to the
Holocene



16 000 yr BP
(i.e. XV mil. BC)
Hunting and recollection. Expansion of the forest (initially, Betula
sp., followed by Pinus sp., replaced later
by Quercus sp.) and regression of steppic
vegetation.
Regression of alpine
species and
colonization of
woodland-adapted
species

Mesolithic



10 000 yr BP
(i.e. IX mil. BC)
Hunting and recollection
activities probably located
in coastal and fluvial
areas; Small-scale human
deforestations.
Gradual domination of the Quercus sp.
forests, with regression of the Pinus sp.
to higher altitudes; Mosaic of closed and
opened vegetation.


Regression of aurochs
and wild horse.

Neolithic

Late VI / Early V
millennium BC

Beginning of agro-
pastoral way of life.
Regression of forest due to deforestation
for agro-pastoral activities, which started
around mid-IV millennium BC.


Bronze
Age

Early III millennium
BC
Intensification of
agriculture and animal
husbandry.
Large-scale regression of forest in the II
millennium BC.
Aurochs and wild
horse become extinct;
probable regression of
forest species.


Iron Age


Early I millennium BC Invasions of Indo-
European people, with
reduction of agriculture
and increase of animal
husbandry.
Regression of the forest, probably due to
both climate change and actions of Indo-
European people.




Roman period
II / I century BC Roman invasion, with
large-scale expansion of
agricultural activities and
demographic increase.
Expansion of the deforestation to the
valleys, with assortment of forest and
swamp areas.




German period

Early V century AD German invasion, with
frequent episodes of
pillage and wars;
Demographic decrease.
Forest recovery.




Muslim
period


Early VIII century AD Muslim invasion, with
reduced presence after
mid VIII century; Scarce
population.
Continuation of the forest recovery.

Medieval
period

Early XI century AD Christian Reconquest,
increased farming and
demographic growth until
XIII century; Successive
famines and plagues since
the mid-XIV century and
demographic recovery
after mid- XV century.
Regression of the forest and expansion
of the agricultural and uncultivated
areas.





Extinction of beaver,
red squirrel and
possibly a small equid
Modern
Period
XVI century AD Cycles of demographic
growth and reduction;
expansion of agriculture
to marginal lands.
Regression of the forest and maintenance
of the agricultural and uncultivated
areas.
Extinction of brown
bear, cappercaille,
wild goat and red deer;
regression of roe deer
and wild boar.

Contemporary
Period




XX century AD Wheat campaign and
forestation with exotic
species in the
uncultivated lands;
Generalization of the
modernization of
agriculture; Rural exodus
to the major cities.
Shrub encroachment, slow forest
recovery and growth of the industrial
forestations
Extinction of grey
partridge and
regression of wild
rabbit;
Reestablishment of
wild goat, red squirrel
and red deer and
recent stabilization of
the fauna;
64

In what concerns the influence of the climate in the vegetation of northern Portugal, the
expansion of the forest in the transition to the Holocene and during the Mesolithic is
related to the climate warming, which was registered during these periods. Between the
Late Bronze Age and the Roman periods, human action seems to become the most
important factor conditioning the vegetation in this area, although the climate continued
to have a direct and indirect influence in the vegetation. For example, the colder periods
of the German, Muslim and late Medieval periods seem to be associated with the food
reduction, demographic decrease and political instability (e.g. Butzer, 2005).

A recent
study by Dinis et al. (2006) about the sediment deposition in three lagoons of central
Portugal also concluded that anthropogenic action was the most important factor
conditioning the vegetation in the last 5000 years. The authors also mention that there is
a relationship between the social evolution and the climatic trends, which shows that
climate continued to have a role in the deforestation of this area. On the other hand,
Desprat et al. (2003) have argued that the forest reduction near the Ria de Vigo (south
Galiza, NW Spain), since 975 cal BC suggests climate as the main cause rather than
anthropogenic action. One possible explanation for these apparently contradictory
results may be due to the local differences in the human impact, which could have been
less important in south Galiza than in other Iberian regions.

Concerning the fauna, the natural herbivory was probably reduced with the extinction of
species such as the wild horse, the aurochs and the European beaver. Considering the
long periods of regression of the forests in the area, it seems likely that the changes
brought by the agro-pastoral societies resulted in a reduction of woodland species and
an increase of species which prefer open habitats. In some cases, the forest regression
seems to be the main cause of species extinctions such as the brown bear, the red
squirrel and the cappercaille. In other cases such as the extinction of the wild goat, the
red deer and the grey partridge, the main cause was probably excessive hunting. The
recent trend is for the recovery of the fauna, which seem to have benefited from the
creation of Protected Areas, specific protection laws and expansion of species such as
red deer, wild goat and red squirrel from north-western Spain.

Based on the vegetation and fauna changes presented, it is possible to argue for a long-
term ecological transformation of northern Portugal during the Holocene (Butzer,
65
2005). In the beginning of the Holocene, the climate seems to have been the most
important factor of change in this area, but human impact probably became
preponderant in the last 5000 years. Nevertheless, the climate continued to have a
significant direct and indirect role in these changes, influencing factors such as the
rhythm of forest growth and demography. According to several authors, the positive and
negative feedback cycles between human actions and natural systems kept the
Mediterranean ecosystems resilient and may have, to some extent, replaced natural
disturbance regimes such as fires, herbivory, wind throws or land slides (Blondel and
Aronson, 1999; Blondel, 2006; Bengtsson et. al., 2000).

In this process, ecosystems
flipped into new alternable stable states, in order to incorporate the reduction of natural
disturbance and the increase of human-induced disturbance. However, the transition
from mature oak forests to the early to mid-successional vegetation which are common
in the present landscapes and the extinction of fauna species implied the loss of
ecological functions which were not fully compensated by human-induced actions
(Westra et al., 2000; Kay, 2000; Maurer, 1999).

For example, the European beaver is
generally considered a keystone species, because their browsing and damming activities
induce significant alteration in the structure and composition of the habitats where they
live (Donkor and Fryxell, 1999; Nolet and Rosell, 1998; Gurnell, 1998). This ability of
beavers to modify habitats was lost after the extinction of this species in the XV century
and not replaced subsequently by the existence of domestic herbivores in the area.

Despite these arguments in favour of the loss of ecological function during the
Holocene, it is acknowledged that the Mediterranean area maintains high resilience to
human action. Similar to other Mediterranean regions, the vegetation and the fauna of
northern Portugal have been slowly recovering in the last decades, which is reflected in
the gradual reoccupation of the forest and the reestablishment of several fauna species
which were locally extinct (Grove and Rackham, 2001). Moreover, Mediterranean
ecosystems have adapted to human action and the biodiversity they contain usually
cannot be maintained without it (e.g. Blondel and Aronson, 1999; Blondel, 2006;
Bengtsson et. al., 2000). For example, Perevolotski and Seligman (1999) have
demonstrated that the grazing of domestic animals is an efficient form of controlling
shrub encroachment, thus increasing the mosaic of habitats which are known to benefit
biodiversity.

66
This characteristic of high resilience has also been recently attributed by Butzer (2005)
to human communities, which have lived in the Mediterranean region over millennia. In
the case of northern Portugal, the ethnographical and historical information concerning
villages in the mountain ranges also reveal several trends, which can be interpreted as
socio-economic adaptations to limited natural resources. For example, the communal
organization, which was present in many villages, increased the efficiency of activities
such as cattle-raising and limited grazing and/or agricultural pressure on the communal
lands. The populations also promoted birth control through the traditions of marrying
only one of the siblings, late marriage, sexual abstinence and traditional methods of
fertility control. For example, in the village of Rio de Onor (NE Portugal), the number
of people was relatively stable, at least between 1796 and 1911. After the external
influence in the young men returning from the I World War, there was a loss of these
traditions that increased the number of people in the subsequent years and promoting a
socio-economic disequilibrium. Other strategies to avoid the overexploitation of natural
resources in this region include alternative sources of income and periods of massive
emigration (Dias, 1948, 1953; Guerreiro, 1981; Mendes, 1995).

In conclusion, the environmental history of northern Portugal confirms a long-term
impact of both natural and human-induced changes that characterizes the Mediterranean
region, in which anthropogenic influence became the main factor in the last 5000 years.
In the transformation of the ecosystems, they probably flipped along alternable stable
states in order to incorporate an increase of human action and a decrease of natural
disturbance, which implied a significant loss of ecological function. Nevertheless, the
high resilience of ecosystems has enabled their sustainability along eight millennia and
also for the recovery of the vegetation and fauna in the last decades.













67



Figure 3.3. Summary pollen concentration diagram from Charco da Candieira (Estrela
mountain) in calendar years BP, Late Glacial and Early Holocene part, of Knaap and
Leeuwen (1997), redrawn.

68


Figure 3.4. Summary pollen percentage diagram from Charco da Candieira (Estrela
mountain), in calendar years BP, Holocene, of Knaap and Leeuwen (1995), redrawn.
















69

3.3. Natural vegetation in Portugal

This section aims to define what can be considered natural vegetation in Portugal and
the facts which support the idea of a natural vegetation composed of a mixed landscape
of closed and opened vegetation.

The idea that the natural vegetation in the Portuguese territory were completely closed
forests has been adopted by geographers and botanists for a long time. For example,
Coutinho (1882) stated that forests exist before human action and deserts exist after
human action. However, more recent hypothesis which follow the line of research in
other European countries suggest that the natural vegetation in Portugal was a mixed
landscape of closed and opened vegetation, where the maintenance of these open areas
with shrubland and herbaceous vegetation are attributed to natural disturbance factors
such as fire, herbivory and wind throws (e.g. Moreira et al., 2005).

Since the concept of natural is ambiguous, it is difficult to reach a consensus about the
historical period to which it refers. For instance, some authors draw the line at the start
of agriculture (Demangeot, 1989), whereas others argue that all human activities until
the present are natural (Comer, 1997). Nevertheless, the historical ecology in Europe
shows a drastic change after the implementation of the agro-pastoral way of life in the
Neolithic (Grove and Rackham, 2001; Naveh and Carmel, 2003; Blondel, 2006).
Therefore, the vegetation in the beginning of the Holocene and before the Neolithic still
presented characteristics which can be considered closer to natural, despite the fact
that human impact in the Mediterranean region has, at least, 50 000 years (Naveh and
Carmel, 2003).

There are several evidences which support the hypothesis that the vegetation in Portugal
in the beginning of the Holocene was composed of a mixed landscape of closed and
opened vegetation. For example, there are several groups of plants adapted to peculiar
patterns of disturbance such as pyrophyte shrubland and grassland vegetation (Tucker
and Evans, 1997). Aguiar and Pinto (2007) also mention that the availability of
pyrophites in the pool of the local flora facilitated the fire and that disturbances such as
fire, herbivory and landslides still promote areas of open vegetation in the present.
70
Moreover, they refer that the effect of disturbances explains the high diversity that exist
among the arbustive and herbaceous vegetation.

In relation to the fauna composition in the beginning of the Holocene, it is known that
species such as the aurochs (Bos primigenius), the wild horse (Equus caballus) and the
Asian wild ass (Equus hemionus) require grassland-type habitats (Macdonald and
Barret, 1993; Antunes, 1993). Considering that these are grazing species, it seems likely
that they had an important role in the creation and/or maintenance of open areas
(Pykala, 2000). On the other hand, species such as the wild boar (Sus scrofa), the roe
deer (Capreolus capreolus), the red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) and the European beaver
(Castor fiber) are characteristic of tree-rich conditions (Macdonald and Barret, 1993;
Antunes, 1993). In the case of the carnivores, species which are known to have existed
during this period such as the brown bear (Ursus arctos), the iberian lynx (Lynx
pardina), the wildcat (Felis sylvestris), the pine marten (Martes martes) and the western
polecat (Mustela putorious) also require wooded conditions (Macdonald and Barret,
1993).

Therefore, the vegetation that existed in the beginning of the Holocene in the
Portuguese territory can be considered natural and the existing evidence about the past
and present vegetation and fauna composition suggest the existence of a mosaic of
closed and opened habitats during this period.

71

Chapter 4: History of the Portuguese Protected Areas

4.1. Summary

This chapter aims to review the main events of the history of the Portuguese Protected
Areas. This was done using legislation, technical reports, books, academic thesis,
periodic publications and other relevant documents, which was complemented with
semi-structured interviews to former and current technical staff of the State Agencies,
one former leader of an environmental NGO and two journalists working with
environmental issues. The creation of the first legislation and Protected Areas in the
early 1970s applied the Yellowtone model and was mainly due to the international
pressure of the Portuguese participation in the UN Conference of the Environment held
in Stockholm in 1972. After the Revolution of 1974, the number of PA grew and the
Landscape model replaced the previous model, thus aiming to maintain traditional
agricultural landscapes and associated cultural patrimony. In the mid-1980s, the
Nature conservation model began to be used, in which the studies about fauna and
flora were promoted and the conservation of traditional landscapes became less
important. It was also during this period that the implementation of PA in the mainland
became possible due to the existence of more resources for conservation. The early
1990s is characterized by the land acquisition by NGOs to establish private PA, as
well as the acquisition of areas of Laurel forest in the Madeira Natural Park as a strategy
to protect this habitat. The generalization of the concept of biodiversity and the
establishment of the European Natura 2000 network changed the ideal of the Portuguese
PA to the biodiversity conservation model. The main challenge in the near future will
be to appropriately manage this network, as well as to adapt it to the new knowledge
about the national biodiversity.

4.2. About the Protected Areas in Portugal

This section presents briefly some information about the Portuguese PA, in order to
contextualize this chapter. The agency that is responsible today for the management of
the mainland PA is the Instituto de Conservao da Natureza e Biodiversidade
(ICNB) (Law-Decree 137/2007), i.e. Institute for Nature and Biodiversity Conservation.
72
The ICNB is also responsible for the implementation of the classified areas of the
Natura 2000 network, as well as other issues related to the conservation of nature and
biodiversity (ICNB, 2007a,b; see Annex 1 for more details). The Direction of Services
of Nature Conservation of Azores and the Natural Parks Service of Madeira have
similar functions, although there are other regional governmental agencies such as the
Forestry Services, which are also involved in these issues.

The national network of PA includes areas (1) of national importance- National park,
Nature reserve, Natural park and Natural monument (2) of regional or local importance-
Protected landscape and (3) PA of private status- Site of biological interest (Law-Decree
19/93, 23/01/1993; see Annex 2 for more details). The mainland network covers
approximately 7.6% of the terrestrial surface (ICNB, 2007b). In the Azores, PA
represent about 5.82% of the terrestrial surface of the archipelago, whereas in the
Madeira archipelago, they occupy about 62% of its the terrestrial surface. There are also
few marine PA in the mainland, Azores and Madeira.

Besides the network of PA, there are also areas of special protection, designed
according to the Birds Directive (79/409/EEC), with the objective of assuring the
protection of the birds and the areas established according to the Habitats Directive
(92/43/EEC) relative to the national list of Sites. The totality of the PA and areas
established according to these two directives constitute the Portuguese network Natura
2000, which includes approximately 21.4% of the national territory, 20.6% of the
terrestrial surface of the Azores and 62.8% of the terrestrial surface of Madeira.

The problems that affect Portuguese PA are common to other areas in the World.
Historically, this region has been subject to intensive deforestation, grazing and fires,
which have affected virtually all Portuguese biodiversity (Blondel, 2006). Habitat
destruction and fragmentation are still current threats, usually through the opening of
roads, construction of dams, urban expansion and conversion of natural and semi-
natural areas to agricultural and forestry areas. Agricultural abandonment characterizes
most of the PA located in the interior of the mainland, which has as consequence the
expansion of shrubland, the increase of forest fires and a slow recovery of the native
forest (Mather and Pereira, 2006). Other factors that threaten the Portuguese PA include
inappropriate agricultural and forestry practices, overgrazing, overhunting and over
73
fishing, direct and indirect mortality of fauna, introduction of exotic species, pollution,
etc. (Cabral et al., 2005).

4.3. The history of Protected Areas in Portugal and its implications for conservation

4.3.1. Introduction

Protected Areas are considered the cornerstone of conservation efforts, covering
approximately 18 million square kilometres that represent about 11.5% of the terrestrial
surface of the planet (Chape et al., 2003).

Although the creation of the Yellowstone
National Park as the Worlds first Protected Area (PA) dates back to 1872, the modern
history of the Portuguese PA only began in 1971 (Law-Decree 187/71, 8/05/1971).

Initially, the Yellowstone model was adopted in the Portuguese PA, aiming to protect
the remaining wilderness areas from human disturbance.

This model originated from the Wilderness Movement of the United States of America,
in which human activities in PA were limited to tourism and scientific studies
(Kalamandeen and Gillson, 2007; Mendoza, 1998).

In Europe, this ideal emerged in
Hugo Conwentzs vision of Naturdenkmal (roughly translated as Nature monument) as
areas for the contemplation of nature that were free from human influence (Jepson and
Whittaker, 2002).

Although this concept became widespread across Europe, some
regions with dense human settlements had difficulties in the application of this model.
Moreover, the growing industrialization and rural abandonment in countries such as
England, France and Germany motivated popular initiatives for the conservation of
traditional rural landscapes (i.e. the Landscape model), which were considered to
have natural, cultural and historical value. The solution for the maintenance of these
landscapes was the creation of private PA through the purchase of lands by
environmental NGOs (Mulder and Coppolillo, 2005).

In Portugal, the change of political regime from dictatorship to democracy in 1974
brought the transition from the Yellowstone to the Landscape model (see Table 1).
The adoption of this latter model by the Governmental agencies implied the
maintenance of traditional human activities such as agriculture and animal husbandry in
these areas. In the mid-1980s, the management objective for the Portuguese PA
74
changed from traditional landscapes and associated cultural patrimony to the
conservation of fauna and flora (i.e. Nature conservation model) (Kalamandeen and
Gillson, 2007).

It was only after this period that most of the Portuguese PA began to
have a physical presence in the territory due to the growth of resources. In the mid-
1990s, the concept of biodiversity became increasingly important in Portugal, mainly
due to the ratification of the Convention of the Biological Diversity in 1992 and the
beginning of the process of definition and management of the Natura 2000 network,
thus introducing the Biodiversity conservation model. This new ideal adopts the
concept of biodiversity and uses a more systematic approach to the issues of
conservation.

Currently, the PA represent approximately 7.6% of mainland Portugal, 62% of the total
terrestrial surface of the archipelago of Madeira and 5.84% of the total terrestrial surface
of the archipelago of Azores. Considering that most of the mainland Portuguese
territory is included in the Mediterranean basin hotspot, the future of these areas is
important for biodiversity conservation at national and international levels (Meyers et
al., 2000).

On the other hand, conservation policy in Portugal faces the challenge of
managing the recently established Natura 2000 network with limited resources. This
transition in the management of the Portuguese PA calls for a reflection about the
history of these areas, in order to better understand the current conditions and to draw
lessons for conservation.

4.3.2. Methods

The overall approach of the present work was to provide a global vision of the history
of the PA in Portugal (mainland, Azores and Madeira archipelagos), from the initial
stages of conceptualisation to the practical issues of implementation and management of
these areas. More specifically, we aimed to (1) identify the founding ideas associated
with the creation and management of the Portuguese PA, relating them with the
international models described in the literature; (2) review the main historical events in
the history of these areas; (3) discuss the implications of this history for conservation. In
order to achieve these goals, we did an extensive review of the legislation, technical
reports, books, academic thesis, periodic publications, papers presented to conferences,
management plans and other relevant documents concerning the history of the
75
Portuguese PA. In complement, we did semi-structured interviews to former and current
staff of the mainland Government agency responsible for these areas (Gonalo Ribeiro
Telles, Fernando Pessoa, Almeida Fernandes, Macrio Correia, Jos Marques Ferreira,
Henrique Pereira Santos, Lusa Toms, Lurdes Carvalho, Nuno Lecoq, Pedro Castro
Henriques, Lus Vicente), in the Azores (Mrio vila Gomes) and Madeira (Henrique
Costa Neves) archipelagos, a former leader of an environmental NGO (Jorge
Palmeirim) and two journalists working in environmental issues (Ana Fernandes and
Lusa Schmidt). These interviews were important to collect information that does not
exist in written documents, but also to provide historical context and clarification to the
information of the literature review. Maps were done using the software Arc View
(version 3.2.; ESRI) and map files and other cartographic information were obtained in
the portuguese Atlas do Ambiente Digital, the Natural Parks Service of Madeira and the
Direction of Services of Nature Conservation of Azores. This study concerns
information that was available until December 2008.

4.3.3. Results

4.3.3.1. In the mainland

Before the modern Protected Areas

The first historical reference to the protection of natural resources in the Portuguese
territory is the last Visigoth code, which dates back to the VII century and included
protection measures for cork oaks and pine trees in different areas (Rego, 2001; Devy-
Vareta and Alves, 2007; Devy-Vareta, 1985, 1986).

During the Middle Ages, enclosures
served the hunting purposes of kings and their courtships, later becoming important for
forest protection. Also, areas surrounding monasteries, properties of nobles and lands of
military orders had some protection of natural resources. After the liberal reforms in
1824, royal and monastery enclosures were integrated into the single designation of
national forests, which were managed by the government through the General
Administration of the Forest (Devy-Vareta and Alves, 2007; Radich and Alves, 2000).


The forest engineers that were responsible for the reforestation of the country since the
end of the 1800s had a fundamental role in the birth of the protectionist movement in
76
Portugal. Influenced by a study period in the United States of America, the forest
engineer Francisco Flores proposed for the first time in 1937 the creation of a PA in
Portugal (Flores, 1937; Soromenho-Marques, 1998, 2005). Also, Portugal signed
international treaties in 1933 and 1938 for the protection of the African fauna and flora
and the creation of PA in the African colonies, which shows a commitment for nature
protection (Vaz, 2000; Soromenho-Marques, 1998, 2005; Jepson and Whittaker, 2002).

In the 1950s and 1960s, Angola and Mozambique enacted new legislation concerning
the establishment of PA, which enabled the replacement of forest and hunting reserves
by national parks and nature reserves an the establishment of new PA (Pereira, 2005).
For example, after the creation of new legislation in 1960 concerning the PA in
Mozambique,

the national park of Gorongosa was established in the same year, thus
replacing its previous classification as a hunting reserve. (Law-Decree 1982, 2/06/1960;
Law-Decree 1993, 23/07/1960).

The birth of the first Portuguese environmental NGO was also an important event in the
history of the Portuguese PA. In order to avoid the destruction of the vegetation in
Arrbida mountain, a small group leaded by professor Baeta Neves created the League
for Nature Protection (hereafter LPN) in 1948 (Fernandes, 1998; Baeta-Neves, 1971a).
This organization brought together an urban elite of natural scientists, which had a
limited influence during the first years of activity due to the small number of associates,
high rate of illiteracy in the country and political repression of the dictatorship (Vaz,
2000; Bugalho, 1998). Nevertheless, the LPN was able to prevent the destruction of the
vegetation in Arrbida and began to gradually influence the Portuguese society. For
example, this NGO pressured for the creation of national parks in areas such as Peneda-
Gers and Arrbida, but also in the African colonies of Portugal, thus promoting the
discussion of the issue of PA in the country (Vaz, 2000). Moreover, after the opening of
the dictatorship in the late 1960s, the European Council requested to the Portuguese
Government to form a National Commission of the Environment, to organize its
participation and associated initiatives in the United Nations Conference of the
Environment held in Stockholm in 1972, which was officially coordinated by the
Forestry Services and technically supported by the LPN (Gonalves, 1998; Moreira,
2004).

77
The international pressure of the European Year of Nature Conservation in 1970 and the
preparation of the UN Conference resulted in the approval of the first Portuguese law-
decree of nature protection 1970, which enabled the creation of the first PA (Law-
Decree 9/70, 19/06/70).

It was also at this time that the National Commission of the
Environment was given legal existence as the first Governmental organization for
environmental issues and that newspaper articles, radio and television programs about
nature protection in Portugal took off (Vaz, 2000; Schmidt, 1999a; Fernandes, com
pess).


The creation of the first Protected Areas

Discussions about the application of the new legislation of 1970 enhanced two opposite
views about what the Portuguese PA should be. Forest engineers wanted to implement
national parks and nature reserves where traditional human activities were reduced,
using the North American parks and African nature reserves as models (i.e.
Yellowstone model; See Table 4.1). On the other hand, landscape architects argued
that the concept of national park was inadequate for Portugal due to the long history of
human influence and proposed the creation of natural parks and protected areas to
preserve traditional rural landscapes, using some German, English and French PA as
models (i.e. Landscape model) (Pessoa, 1978; Baeta-Neves, 1970).


Table 4.1. Characterization of four main models in the Portuguese PA applied between
1971 and 2008



Yellowstone model Landscape model Nature conservation
Model
Biodiversity
conservation model
Period


1971-1974 1975-early 1980s Early 1980s-mid 1990s mid 1990s-present

Description
of the model of PA
Wilderness areas where
human activities
are tolerated


Traditional rural areas
where human activities
are promoted
Natural areas with compatible
human activities
Biodiversity
conservation sites of
EU importance, with
compatible human
activities
Prevailing
Value
Wilderness Traditional landscape Nature Biodiversity
Preferred Human
Activities


Forestry, tourism,
education, scientific
studies.
Traditional agro-pastoral
activities, tourism and
education.
Activities compatible with
conservation, with special focus
on tourism and education
Activities compatible
with conservation,
with special focus on
tourism and education
Conservation
of cultural values and
local development
Considered
Out of the scope of PA
Considered very important
function of PA
On first stage, considered out of
the scope of PA; on second
stage, used to increase support of
local populations.
Considered
out of the scope of PA
78

On a first stage, the idea of the forest engineers prevailed and the Peneda-Gers
National Park was created as a national symbol for nature protection, with the main
objectives of tourism, education and scientific studies (Anonymous, 1970; Baeta-Neves,
1971b; Law-Decree 187/71, 8/05/1971).

Between 1971 and 1972, five Nature Reserves
were created: Arrbida and the National Forest of Medos in the mainland, Caldeira do
Faial and Pico Mountain in the Azores archipelago and the Selvagens Islands in the
Madeira archipelago (Rego, 2001; Fernandes, 1998).

The change of political regime in 1974 reintroduced democracy and the creation of the
Secretary of State of the Environment, which included the National Service of Parks,
Reserves and Protected Landscapes (hereafter National Service) in 1975 that had the
main aim of implementing the Landscape model (Gonalves, 1998; Moreira, 2004).

New legislation enabled the creation of the categories of natural park and protected
landscape based on the German and French examples, and there was a reorganization
and reclassification of some of the existing PA (Law-Decree 550/75, 30/09/1975; Law-
Decree 613/76, 27/07/1976).

This National Service began with a multidisciplinary team of about twenty five officers
leaded by the landscape architect Fernando Pessoa. Since there were strong political
pressures for the extinction of this Service and several areas in immediate danger of
destruction, priority was given to the fast creation of PA (Pessoa, com pess.; Pessoa,
1978).

Besides this empirical knowledge of threatened areas, one of the most important
instrument of decision about where to establish these areas was a study published by the
LPN in 1973 entitled First inventory of the areas to protect in continental Portugal.
This classification considered the principles advocated by the International Biological
Program using the criteria of geology, fauna, flora and landscape (Vaz, 2000; Pessoa,
com pess).

Therefore, the first years of the National Service were characterized by
frequent meetings with local autarchies and populations in the areas considered for
classification (e.g. Estrela mountain, Tejo estuary, Ria Formosa, Montesinho mountain).
These initiatives were generally led by the Central Services of the National Service,
which shows the exogenous character that these areas had since their conception. When
the process moved forward, representatives of the local authorities and other
stakeholders were invited to seat in the committee directed by a National Service
79
officer, which purpose was the preparation and implementation of the PA. After their
establishment, there was an effort for the revitalization of the economic, social and
cultural life of the populations in usually depressed regions (e.g. promotion of
traditional products, opening of new roads, etc.) (Pessoa, 1990, 2001; Pessoa, com
pess.; Henriques et al., 1990).

Although this helped local populations to become
favourable to the PA, the later suspension of these activities brought some disillusion to
these populations (Pessoa, 1978; Henriques, com pess).

The only example of strong public support to the establishment of the Portuguese PA
was the creation of the Malcata Nature Reserve in the transition to the 1980s. After a
study of the ecology of the threatened Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) in the Malcata
mountain and the imminent destruction of the habitat, the LPN sent a report about this
to the Portuguese Secretary of State of the Environment and the World Conservation
Union (hereafter IUCN) in the beginning of 1979. Following this, the IUCN wrote to
the Portuguese Government and President and the intended forestation project in
Malcata was suspended (Palmeirim, et al., 1980; Palma, 2008). A national campaign
entitled Save the lynx and the Malcata mountain and the Iberian lynx leaded by the
LPN was directed at schools and resulted in the collection of more than 46 000
supporting signatures and the creation of the Malcata Nature Reserve in 1981
(Palmeirim, et al., 1980; Palma, 2008; Law-Decree 294/81, 16/10/1981).

Only almost
five years later, however, would this PA have its first administrative body, which can be
explained by the lack of resources for management and the opposition of local
authorities and populations to its establishment (Palmeirim, et al., 1980; Correia, com
pess).


The adoption of the Nature conservation ideal

After this initial dynamic period, the National Service began to have difficulties due to
the lack of resources and increased responsibilities with reduced political support
(Gonalves, 1998; Pessoa, 1978). Therefore, the number of PA was beyond its
management capacities and implementation was weak. In 1981, the National Service
was extinct and replaced by the National Service of Nature Conservation, and
renamed National Service of Parks, Reserves and Nature Conservation (hereafter
New Service) in 1983, reducing its functions of landscape and cultural conservation,
80
with the nature conservation objective to gain greater importance (i.e. Nature
conservation model; See Table 4.1) (Law-Decree 73/81, 7/04/81; Law-Decree 49/83,
31/01/83). Hence, initiatives such as the support of traditional activities and the
construction of the first ecomuseums were abandoned and actions such as studies of
fauna and flora in the PA were promoted (Riviere, 2001). In the beginning, the
reorganization and consolidation of the New Service implied that the establishment of
new PA was postponed (SNPRCN, 1989; Fernandes, com pess; Palmeirim, et al., 1980;
Law-Decree 294/81, 16/10/1981).

Capacity building was also a priority and included
revisiting international experiences that had a direct influence in the management of the
Portuguese PA (SNPRCN, 1989; Lecoq, com pess; Vicente, com pess).

For example,
the construction of visitor centres and actions of environmental education with children
in the early 1980s were partly inspired in the English nature reserves (Lecoq, com
pess).

PA were given more staff resources and the management of the Peneda-Gers
National Park passed from the Forestry Services to the New Service, all this meaning an
institutional strengthening and responsibility for the management of these areas
(SNPRCN, 1989; Fernandes, com pess).


By mid-1980s, the PA still lacked full implementation due to the scarcity of resources.
The following years, however, benefited from the growth of national political support
and the integration in the European Union (EU), which boosted significant advances in
the nature conservation policy (Soromenho-Marques, 1998; Moura, 1996; Ferreira, com
pess; Correia, com pess).

One action that increased the recognition of the New Service
was the major removal operation of illegal constructions in the Arrbida Natural Park
that run since 1986. The success of this operation widely publicized by the media was
followed by other similar operations in coastal areas located both inside and outside the
PA (Schmidt, 1999a; Schmidt, 1999b; Moura, 1996; Ferreira, com pess).

On the other
hand, the publication of the Environmental Policy Act

in 1987 (Law-Decree 11/87,
7/04/87) provided legal support for the New Service to extend its competences to other
domains such as forestry, agriculture and hunting. Additional resources were made
available to this agency through the increase in their annual budget and the approval of
projects of nature conservation, local/regional development and conservation of the
cultural patrimony in the PA, which were co-funded by the European Commission
(hereafter EC) (Ferreira, com pess; Correia, com pess; Gonalves, 1998; Moreira,
2004).

This increase of budget was also applied in the construction of headquarters and
81
visitor centres in several PA (e.g. Sintra, Montesinho, Estrela and Aire e Candeeiros),
but also in the hiring of staff, which enabled activities such as the beginning of
surveillance by rangers in these areas (Lecoq, com pess; Correia, com pess; Santos, com
pess; Pimenta, 2008; SNPRCN, 1989). Hence, the growth of staff in the New Service
from 118 in 1985 to 373 in 1986 can be explained by the growth of resources during
this period (See Figure 4.1.).

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Figure 4.1. Evolution of the number of staff in the mainland environmental agency
(ICNB)

Between 1986 and 1987, the LPN did a campaign to classify the area of the Sudoeste
Alentejano and Costa Vicentina (Correia, com pess; Palmeirim, com pess). Following
this, the vice-president of the New Service and the Secretary of State of the
Environment visited this region and contacted with local autarchies and other entities,
which were receptive to the idea of creation of a PA. At this time, there was also
support of international organizations, which gave political strength to the process.
After the discussion of the limits of the area, this initiative moved forward and this PA
was legally established in 1988. It was also during this period that the requests of local
autarchies for the creation of PA became more common. This is the origin of the
establishment of S.Mamede and Litoral Norte, in which the latter was threatened by
house construction interests (Ferreira, com pess.; Correia, com pess).
82

After Portugal became a member-state of the IUCN in 1989, there was a political
pressure to improve the management of the Peneda-Gers National Park, which resulted
in the increase of resources for management and the elaboration and approval of a
management plan for this area (Carvalho, 1991; Ferreira, com pess).

Due to the frequent
requests for PA classification that did not fit the existing legal framework, new
classification began to be prepared at this time and classification of new PA was halted.
In 1993, this new legislation was enacted (Law-Decree 19/93, 23/01/93)

introducing a
legal mechanism for the creation of network of PA at different levels: national, regional,
local and private, whereby the New Service only had responsibilities over areas of
national interest. The New Service was then extinct and replaced by the Institute of
Nature Conservation (hereafter Institute). Although Portugal ratified the Convention of
Biological Diversity in the same year, the term biodiversity was not used in the new
legislation or designation of this agency. Nevertheless, the national congress of PA held
one year later had the theme biodiversity as one of its main subjects, which is
indicative of the generalization of this new concept at this time (ICN, 1994).

The early 1990s also marks the beginning of the establishment of private PA by
initiative of NGOs. Despite the precedent purchase of an area of 3682 m
2
by members
of the NGO called Sociedade Broteriana for the creation of a botanical micro-reserve in
1980 (Paiva, 2008),

it was only in the 1990s that this alternative form of conservation
became significant. Hence, the Portuguese NGO Quercus and the Spanish association
Adenex developed a project between 1990 and 1993 co-financed by the EC for the
protection of the border area of Tejo International, which included the purchase of lands
in a total of 600 ha. Since then, these lands have been managed by Quercus as a private
reserve with the main objectives of nature conservation, sustainable agriculture and
environmental education. The political pressure of the Quercus for the creation of a PA
faced the occasional opposition of local populations and authorities mainly due to the
hunting interests in the region, but finally resulted in the establishment of the Tejo
Internacional Natural Park in 2000 (Quercus, 2005; Henriques, 2006). The LPN also
began a project co-funded by the EC in 1993, which included the land purchase as one
of the main actions for the protection of bird species in the region of Castro Verde. At
that time, paper pulp companies already owned several farms considered important for
the conservation of these species and wanted to sell them, since the Municipal Master
83
Plan of Castro Verde disapproved the production of eucalyptus. Therefore, the LPN
obtained independent estimates of these lands, offered to pay 70% of their value,
requesting that the other 30% would be donated by the owners (which corresponded to
the national co-financing of the project). The paper pulp companies and a private owner
agreed to sell, which meant that a total area of 1700 ha began to be managed as a private
reserve by this NGO.

Currently, the main aim of this reserve is to conciliate sustainable
agricultural practices with nature conservation, but also to develop scientific studies,
environmental education and ecotourism (Rocha, 2005).

Another important event at this time was the population control of the Yellow-legged
gull (Larus michahellis) in the Berlengas Nature Reserve. The drastic expansion of this
species due to anthropogenic influence was considered a threat to local biodiversity and
motivated a major action of population control between 1994 and 1996, which was
simultaneous to the closing of several coastal rubbish heaps (Vicente, com pess.;
Morais, com pess.). In this Operation Larus organized by the Institute, the staff of
Berlengas and approximately 30 rangers from other PA participated in the activities of
food poisoning, destruction of gulls eggs and collection of dead gulls, thus decreasing
the number of breeding gulls from 44 700 to 20 400 individuals. The annual destruction
of gulls eggs since 1999 has maintained the number of breeding gulls around 20 000
individuals, but these populations still have access to rubbish heaps and other resources
produced by human action (Vicente, com pess.; Morais, com pess). In 1994, there were
also protests of local populations and authorities to the restrictions imposed by the
management plan of the Sudoeste Alentejano and Costa Vicentina and its upgrade from
protected landscape to natural park. In this case, it was necessary to present a plan of
financial investments for the region, in order to achieve a more consensual acceptance
of these two proposals (Faustino, 1994; Fernandes, 1994; Ferreira, com pess; A.
Fernandes, com pess).

The recent history

Since the mid-1990s, the definition and establishment of the Natura 2000 network has
conditioned the history of the Portuguese PA. Between 1994 and 1997, the Institute
worked in partnership with universities to develop projects co-funded by the EC that
increased the knowledge about different aspects of the biodiversity in Portugal, thus
84
contributing for the definition of the Natura 2000 network (Santos, com pess.; Alves et
al., 1998; Brito et al., 1998; Alves et al., 1998). The existence of more resources also
enabled the growth of the Institute staff from 576 in 1995 to 878 in 1996 (see Figure 4).
In 1997, the first phase of nomination of the Natura 2000 sites was concluded and
approved in the national legislation, but these areas that covered 12.3% of the territory
were considered insufficient by several sectors of the Portuguese society (Palmeirim,
com pess). For example, the LPN presented several complaints and prepared shadow
lists of sites that led the EC to open infringement procedures against Portugal
(Palmeirim, com pess). On the other hand, the case of the construction of the bridge
Vasco da Gama and its effects in the Tagus estuary was also used by the Portuguese
NGOs to pressure the Government to increase the size of the Natura 2000 network. The
academic community also contributed in the increase of the size of the Natura 2000
network, either cooperating with national NGOs in the protests presented to the EC or
through individual initiatives.

After the end of the second phase in 2000, the total area
of the Natura 2000 network covered approximately 21.4% of the national territory.
Although this process had little public projection, the almost doubling of the area of the
Natura 2000 network shows the strength of both the civil society and the academia in
the national conservation efforts (Palmeirim, com pess).

In what concerns the PA, the need to focus on the goal of conservation in the second
half of the 1990s justified the reduction of investments in projects of local and regional
development and the conservation of the cultural patrimony (Gonalves, 1998; Santos,
com pess).

During this period, the cooperation between the Institute and universities
resulted in the new legislation for the creation of marine reserves and parks (Law-
Decree 227/98, 17/07/98), which was applied in the establishment of a marine reserve in
the Berlengas Nature Reserve and a marine park adjacent to the Arrbida Natural Park
(Law-Decree 30/98, 23/12/98; Law-Decree 23/98, 14/10/98). There was also an
important Resolution of the Council of Ministers that adopted the PA as regions of
priority public investment, but this was rarely put in practice (Resolution of Ministers
102/96, 5/06/1996; Schmidt, 1999a; A. Fernandes, com pess).

After public discussion, the Natura 2000 network was established, which meant that the
Institute assumed management functions of approximately 21.4% instead of 7.6% of the
national territory from 2000 onwards (Law-Decree 198/97, 28/08/97; Law-Decree
85
76/2000, 5/07/2000; ICN, 2007). Despite increased financial resources in the Institute in
the end of the 1990s, these were generally considered insufficient to face all the new
responsibilities (e.g. Toms, com pess; Freitas, 2008).

Moreover, the Institute suffered a
loss of institutional power during this period, which partially explains the discredit of
the agency, the difficulties in managing the Natura 2000 network (e.g. Palmeirim, com
pess; Freitas, 2008) and the decrease in the number of staff between 2002 and 2008 (see
Figure 4). In this process of transition, there was also a change in the objective of this
agency from Nature conservation to Biodiversity conservation and a transition from
an opportunistic approach

(sensu Pressey et al., 1993) to a more systematic approach
(sensu Margules and Pressey, 2000). The new Biodiversity conservation model
implied the application of criteria defined by the EU, thus imposing the objective of
representation of habitats and species considered important at European level (see Table
4.1.). It was also in 2000 that the NGO Quercus created the Fund for Nature
Conservation, which has been supporting the conservation projects such as the
acquisition of private lands for the establishment of a network of micro-reserves
throughout the country (Quercus, 2005; Quercus, 2008).

The first years of the new millennium were characterized by the continuation of
financial difficulties in the Institute (e.g. Fernandes, 2003; Fernandes, 2004). There was
also a threat of declassification of several PA, which failed to present management plans
within legal timeframes (e.g. Law-Decree 217-A/2004; Garcia, 2001). Hence, there was
an attempt of the Ministry of the Environment to share the responsibility of
management of the PA with the autarchies

(Law-Decree 221/2002, 22/10/2002;
Palmeirim, com pess) and a renewed effort in the elaboration and approval of
management plans. There was also an investment in the creation of the sectorial plan for
the Natura 2000 network and several studies about the fauna (e.g. update of the Red
Data Book, National atlas of breeding birds, National atlas of Reptiles and
Amphibians). In 2001, the National Strategy of Nature and Biodiversity Conservation
was published, but this was usually considered a political document with scarce
practical value for the achievement of its main objectives (Freitas, 2008; Arajo, 2003).

Since 2005, one of the main priorities of the Institute has been the restructuring of the
agency, in order to adapt to the new objective of biodiversity conservation (Carvalho,
com pess.; ICN, 2007; Menezes, 2005). After two years of preparation, this process
86
moved forward in 2007 with the changing of name to Institute of Nature Conservation
and Biodiversity and a new internal structure (Law-Decree 136/2007, 27/04/2007;
Law-Decree 530/2007, 30/04/2007). Hence, the PA and other Natura 2000 Sites were
grouped in regional and/or thematic areas, in which a regional director is responsible for
the management of several PA in simultaneous. In order to face its financial difficulties,
the Institute has tried to generate more money from its different services (e.g. nature
tourism in the PA) and searched for partnerships for biodiversity conservation projects
with the private sector, environmental NGOs and other stakeholders (Carvalho, com
pess; ICN, 2007). Other initiatives of the Institute were the approval of the sectorial
plan for the Natura 2000 network (Resolution of Ministers 115-A/2008, 21/07/2008),
the conclusion and approval of all management plans for PA (See Table 4.2.) and the
nomination of the Peneda-Gers National Park as a Pan Park.

The transition to the Biodiversity conservation model in the PA also brought the issue
of their effectiveness in representing the national biodiversity, which was focused in
two recent studies (Arajo, 1999; Arajo et al., 2007). The first study published in 1999
assessed if the mainland PA efficiently represented reptiles, amphibians, gymnosperms,
pteridophytes and bryophytes and concluded that 11% of this partial biodiversity was
not included. Nevertheless, it was found that PA provided a better representation than
choosing areas at random and that complementarity was the most efficient way to find
additional areas to fill the gaps of species representation (Arajo, 1999). In 2007, a
second study using a larger sample of biodiversity (dicotyledons, monocotyledons,
gymnosperms, pteridophytes, birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians) assessed if
current Iberian PA represented this biodiversity (Arajo et al., 2007).

The results
showed that these areas reasonably represented the plant and animal species considered,
but that it would be necessary to protect 36 additional areas to include all species.
Although these studies had limited consequences in the national policy of the
conservation in situ, they are crucial for future systematic re-evaluations of national
conservation priorities (Arajo, 1999; Arajo et al., 2007; Margules and Pressey, 2000).




87


Figure 4.2. Protected Areas in mainland Portugal (Legend: 1-Peneda-Gers; 2-
Montesinho; 3- Litoral Norte; 4- Alvo; 5- Douro Internacional; 6- S. Jacinto; 7- Estrela
mountain; 8- Malcata mountain; 9-Arzila marsh; 10- Aor mountain; 11- Tejo
Internacional; 12- Berlenga (terrestrial and marine); 13- Aire e Candeeiros mountain;
14- Boquilobo marsh; 15- S. Mamede mountain; 16- Sintra-Cascais; 17-Tejo estuary;
18- Costa da Caparica; 19- Arrbida (terrestrial and marine); 20- Sado estuary; 21- Sto.
Andr and Sancha; 22- Sudoeste Alentejano and Costa Vicentina; 23- Guadiana; 24-
Ria Formosa; 25- Castro Marim marsh and Vila Real Sto Antnio)

4.3.3.2. In the archipelago of Azores

The archipelago of the Azores consists of nine volcanic islands and several small islets,
forming three groups along a tectonic zone in the northeast of the Atlantic Ocean
(Santos et al., 1995; See Figure 4.3.). After the beginning of its colonization in 1432, the
first settlers frequently used fire and animal husbandry to prepare the land for
88
agriculture. Moreover, wood was widely used as fuel and in the development of the
local industry of naval construction and reparation. In this scenario of high rate of forest
destruction, it is not surprising that the small and low islands with limited wood
resources such as Santa Maria and Graciosa soon became deforested (Rego, 2001; Dias,
2007).

Despite imposed restrictions to the exploitation since the XVI century, the forest cover
of this archipelago continued to decrease, since the agriculture extended from the
valleys to the areas of mid-altitude and the wood exploitation and animal husbandry
increased in the higher regions of the interior of the islands. The growth of uncultivated
lands promoted the idea of reforestation with exotic species since the late XVIII
century, but the first forestations by the Forestry Services only happened in the 1950s,
using mainly the exotic Japonese cedar (Criptomeria japonica) (Rego, 2001; Dias,
2007).

In similarity to what happened in the mainland, the forest engineers responsible for the
reforestation of the archipelago were also the pioneers in the establishment of PAs in
Azores. Therefore, they created three Nature Reserves between 1972 and 1974
(Caldeira do Faial, Montanha do Pico and Lagoa do Fogo) with the main purpose of
flora protection, thus aiming to maintain a low human presence in these areas (Law-
Decree 78/72, 7/03/1972; Law-Decree 79/72, 8/03/1972; Law-Decree 152/74,
15/04/1974; Gomes, com pess.; Gomes, 1989). Although the Forestry Services did little
management and surveillance, these Nature Reserves were kept in good conditions due
to their difficult access and absence of local populations surrounding them (Gomes, com
pess).

After the Revolution of 1974 and the reintroduction of the democracy, the new
Constitution of 1976 enabled the establishment of the Regional Government of Azores
(Constitution of the Portuguese Republic, 2/04/1976). The creation of the new
Secretariat of Social Equipment within this Government included technical staff
working with environmental and nature conservation issues. On the other hand, the
establishment of the University of Azores during this period also stimulated research
about the natural resources of the archipelago, which was mostly focused on the marine
environment (Santos et al., 1995). Influenced by the new PA classifications, the
89
technical staff of the Secretariat of Social Equipment proposed the creation of three
Protected Landscapes (Lagoa das Sete Cidades, Monte da Guia and Monte Brasil) and
these areas were established in 1980 (Rego, 2001; Dias, 2007; Gomes, com pess.;
Gomes, 1989; Regional Law-Decrees 2/80/A, 7/02/1980; 1/80/A, 31/01/1980; 3/80/A,
7/02/1980). In the case of the Monte da Guia Protected Landscape, it is important to
refer that this was the first national PA to include a marine section, which was partially
a consequence of the political influence of the University of Azores (Tempera and
SECO, 1998; Santos et al., 1995). This was also the first area to have a preliminary
management plan (which was never formally approved) and regular surveillance by
rangers (Gomes, com pess).

In the early 1980s, the Environmental Services were created and began to work with
little resources and institutional power.

Although the reclassification of the three Nature
Reserves in 1982 stipulated that the Environmental Services assumed their management

(Regional Law-Decrees 14/82/A, 08/07/1982; 15/82; 09/07/1982; 10/82/A,
18/06/1982), these areas continued under the jurisdiction of the Forestry Services
(Gomes, com pess). At this time, the Forestry Services began to designate their own PA
within the Forestry Perimeters they managed, despite the opposition of the
Environmental Services (Gonalves, 1985). In 1987, these Services were able to create
legislation with new categories of Forest Reserves, which was applied in the
establishment of 17 Natural Partial Forest Reserves in 1988 (Gomes, 1989; Gomes, com
pess; Regional Law-Decree 15/87/A, 24/07/1987; Regional Law-Decree 27/88/A,
22/07/1988). Also, due to the pressure of the University of Azores, the Regional
Secretariat of the Agriculture and Fisheries created the Special Ecological Area of
Lagoa da Caldeira S. Cristo in 1989, which meant that a third State entity became a
protagonist in the creation and management of PA in the archipelago (Gomes, 1989;
Tempera and SECO, 1998; Gomes, com pess).

In the sequence of the entrance of Portugal in the EU, there were several studies about
the vegetation and fauna of the archipelago between 1986 and 1988, in order to
designate the regional Corine biotopes (Gomes, com pess). This was the first step in the
definition of important areas for nature conservation in the Azores and also helped to
prevent habitat loss and fragmentation in the designated areas (Gomes, 1989; Gomes,
com pess).

During this period, technical staff of the Environmental Services took the
90
initiative of creating the Botanical Garden of Faial in 1986, which promoted botanic
research, actions of habitat recovery and environmental education in the archipelago. In
what concerns the marine environment, the actions of the University of Azores helped
in the establishment of several PA with a marine section during the second half of the
1980s (Tempera and SECO, 1998; Saldanha, 1984; Santos, 1992; Santos et al, 1995).
Other consequences of the entrance in the EU were the application of the Birds
Directive between 1989 and 1991 and the Habitats Directive between 1996 and 1998,
which were used to collect more information and re-design areas to be protected in the
creation of the regional Natura 2000 network (Gomes, 1989; Gomes, com pess).

In 1990, the creation of the Regional Direction of the Environment increased the
political strength of the Environmental Services. Following this, some of the technical
staff presented several proposals for the creation of a Natural Park by island responsible
for the management of all the PA in each island.

However, these proposals were never
accepted due to institutional conflicts with the Forestry Services (Gomes, 1989; Gomes,
com pess).

Instead, it was decided to create the so-called Services of Island in 1998,
which included both the Forestry and the Environmental Services in all the islands
(except Corvo) and had the mission of addressing local environmental issues (Regional
Law-Decree 13/98/A, 12/05/1998; Gomes, com pess).

In the preparation for the establishment of the Natura 2000 network, several projects co-
financed by the EU developed by the University of Azores, the Environmental Services
and the Forestry Services during this period enabled a further increase of the knowledge
and protection of the natural values in the archipelago (Tempera and SECO, 1998).

For
example, the project entitled Conservation of the communities and habitats of marine
birds in the Azores leaded by the University of Azores and the Environmental Services
resulted in the designation of the Azorean Important Bird Areas (IBA), the formation
and hiring of rangers for some of these areas, the elaboration of management plans for
several Special Protection Areas (SPA) and the launching of a regional campaign to
protect the Corys Shearwater (Calonectris diomedea) (Monteiro et al., 1996; Gomes,
com pess).

Despite the positive impact of the creation of the Regional Secretariat of the
Environment in 2001, most of the Azorean PA still lacks implementation due to the
91
constant scarcity of resources. Moreover, the end of the Services of Island in this year
implied a further reduction of these resources, since most of them were transferred to
the Forestry Services (Pitta-Groz, com pess).

Nevertheless, the regional Natura 2000
network was approved in 2002 and included about 20.6% of the total terrestrial surface
of the archipelago, in which 17 Sites of Community Importance (SIC) also included
marine areas (Regional Law-Decree 18/2002/A, 16/05/2002).

After a joint effort of
several years leaded by the Environmental Services, the Forestry Services, the
University of Azores and the national NGO SPEA, the global management plan for this
network was approved in 2006 (Regional Law-Decree 20/2006/A, 6/06/2006).

In the last years, one of the most important events was the revision of the Regional
Network of the Protected Areas of the archipelago. Beginning in 2005, this process
aimed to uniform designations of PA according to the categories proposed by the IUCN
and to concentrate management functions in a territorial unit of island (Vilarigues,
2008). The new legislation was enacted in 2007 (Regional Law-Decree 15/2007/A,
25/06/2007)

and defines a Natural Park by Island, which is a local unit responsible for
the management of all the classified areas (e.g. PAs, Natura 2000 Sites; Important Bird
Areas; World Heritage Sites, etc.) until the exterior limit of the territorial sea. It also
creates a marine park for the whole archipelago, which manages classified areas located
beyond this exterior limit. Other recent events include several classifications on land
(for example, the Pico Island Vineyard Culture as a Cultural World Heritage Area in
2004 and the Graciosa and Corvo islands as Biosphere Reserves in 2007) and sea (for
example, several hydrothermal vents as OSPAR sites) (Ardron, 2008; Vilarigues, 2008)
and the creation of the Regional Natural Park of the Corvo (Regional Law-Decree
56/2006/A, 22/12/2006). Although the regional environmental NGOs had only a minor
role in the history of the Azorean PAs, they have also contributed in the last years for
the recent nomination of several natural monuments with geological interest, as well as
for the growth of actions of environmental education with the population (Braga, 2008).

On the other hand, national NGOs such as SPEA have been developing important
conservation projects and management plans, in cooperation with regional entities (Gil,
2005).

Currently, the process of reclassification and reorganization required by the
implementation of the Regional Network is underway and six of the nine islands already
92
have approved Natural Parks of Island (See Table 4.3.). This will hopefully bring
together the PAs of the archipelago into a single management framework and decrease
the historical conflicts between the Environmental and Forestry Services. Future
challenges include the creation of headquarters for each of these Natural Parks of Island,
the increase of the technical and ranger staff and the approval of management plans for
the majority of these PA (Regional Law-Decree 15/2007/A, 25/06/2007).




Figure 4.3. Protected Areas in the archipelago of Azores (in black- terrestrial areas; in
gray- marine areas, small islands and islets; 1- Figueiral and Prainha; 2- Baa da Praia;
3- Baa da Maia; 4- Baa de S. Loureno 5- Barreiro da Faneca and Costa Norte; 6-Baa
dos Anjos; 7- Ilhus das Formigas; 8- Sete Cidades; 9- Lagoa do Fogo; 10- Ilhu de
Vila Franca; 11- Cultura da Vinha da Ilha do Pico; 12- Montanha do Pico; 13- Caldeira
do Faial; 14- Monte da Guia; 15- Lagoa Caldeira S. Cristo (ecological area); 16- Lagoa
Caldeira S. Cristo (nature reserve); 17- Ilhu do Topo; 18-Corvo)

4.3.3.3. In the archipelago of Madeira

This archipelago is also located in the northeast if the Atlantic Ocean and is composed
by the volcanic islands of Madeira, Porto Santo, the sub-archipelagos of Selvagens and
93
Desertas and several small islets (Rego, 2001; Sequeira et al., 2007; See figure 4.4.). At
the time of its discovery in 1419, the Madeira Island was covered with thick Laurel
forest from the top of the mountains to the sea. The reference of historical sources from
the XV century to a gigantic fire in this island that lasted seven years is probably an
exaggeration, but it is certainly true that fire was frequently used for deforestation. The
native forest also decreased due to the massive wood exportation for the industry of
naval construction in the mainland and the growth of the agriculture and animal
husbandry. Again, the laws of forest protection and reforestation published since the
XV century did not avoid the deforestation of a significant part of the island in the
subsequent centuries (Sequeira et al., 2007).

After the establishment of the Forestry Services in 1952, the management of several
forestry perimeters in Madeira and Porto Santo brought some control to the animal
husbandry and use of fire on these islands (Andrada, 1991; Pestana, 2003; Sousa, 2003).
Moreover, these Services also promoted the reforestation of uncultivated areas, the
establishment of infrastructures associated with forestry activities (e.g. arboretums,
forestry houses, roads) and the creation of the Botanical Garden of Madeira in 1960
(Pestana, 2003; Jardim, 2008).

In the transition of the 1970s, the architect Fernando Pessoa suggested for the first time
the creation of a Natural Park in Madeira, as well as other conservation measures for the
archipelago (Pessoa, 1967; Pessoa, 1968).

Moreover, Pessoa also promoted the
protection of the native flora within the Forestry Services, which partially explains some
changes in this institution and the proposal for the creation of a National Park in
Madeira in 1972 (Andrada, 1991).

Also during this period, there was a decline of the
Corys Shearwater (Calonectris diomedea borealis) in the Selvagens islands due to the
intense hunting pressure by fishermen. At this time, an English naturalist (Mr.
Alexander Zino) rented the island, built a small house in the Selvagem Grande and
began to protect and study this species (Neves, com pess; Menezes et al., 2004).

Following this, the naturalist tried to buy the Selvagens islands with the financial
support of the international NGO World Wide Fund (WWF), with the objective of
establishing a private nature reserve. This pressured the Portuguese Government to buy
these islands in 1971 and to establish the Selvagens Islands Nature Reserve as the first
PA of the archipelago (Neves, com pess.; Menezes et al., 2004; Law-Decree 458/71,
94
29/10/1971). In the same year, the Government also bought the Desertas islands to its
English owners, but they remained without protection because the exploitation of the
natural resources was considered sustainable (Menezes et al., 2005a; Neves, com pess).

After the Revolution of 1974 and the establishment of the first Regional Government of
Madeira in 1976 (Constitution of the Portuguese Republic, 2/04/1976),

there was a
period of political instability that resulted in a succession of massacres of the Corys
Shearwater and the destruction of the mentioned house of the naturalist in the Selvagens
islands between 1976 and 1977. Hence, this PA began to have surveillance between
February and October, which corresponds to the breeding season of the species
(Granadeiro et al., 2006). Although there were already plans for the establishment of a
PA in the mountains of Madeira, the proposal presented by Fernando Pessoa in 1977 in
the Second International Congress of Macaronesic Flora pressured the process to move
forward. The first step in the preparation of the establishment of this PA was an intense
fieldwork between 1977 and 1979, which brought only minor changes to the presented
proposal (Neves, 1999; Neves, com pess).

The Natural Park of Madeira was created in 1982 with a total area of 56 700 ha, which
corresponded to approximately 2/3 of the island, and integrated several categories of
PA. Moreover, this Natural Park included several urban areas in the south of the island
and forest areas managed by the new Regional Direction of the Forests (Neves, 1999;
Neves and Valente, 1992; Andrada, 1991).The main explanation for this inadequacy of
design is that the original fieldwork underlying this PA dated back to the late 1960s,
with only slight changes in the late 1970s (Neves, com pess).

In the beginning, the
installation committee of the Park had to deal with the general indifference of the
populations and the fear of politicians to the reactions to the restrictions implied by the
establishment of this PA (Neves, 1999). On the other hand, the Regional Direction of
the Forests assured the surveillance and management during the long period of
installation of the Park, thus maintaining its institutional dominance on the island
(Neves, com pess.; Pestana, 2003).

After the approval of the regulation of the Park in 1985, the installation committee
invested on the definition of the regional Corine biotopes until 1990 (Neves, com pess).
On the other hand, a lobby promoted by a diver and naturalist (Mr. Jorge de Castro)
95
resulted in the creation of the marine PA of Garajau Partial Nature Reserve in 1986
(Freitas et al., 2004; Neves, com pess.; Saldanha, 1984; Regional Law-Decree 23/86/M,
4/10/1986). It was also during this period that the installation committee began to work
with the conservation issues of the Desertas islands. Hence, a project co-financed by the
Regional Government and the EU was developed between 1988 and 1990, with the
main aim of studying and protecting the threatened monk seal (Monachus monachus) in
these islands (Neves, 1989; Neves and Pires, 1999; Menezes et al., 2005a). The decline
of the seal was attributed to the introduction of mesh nets in the mid-1970s, which was
causing the regression of the local fishing resources that sustained this species and that
was also responsible for the death of individuals when accidentally captured in these
nets (Neves, 1989; Neves, com pess; Neves and Pires, 1999). The beginning of the
surveillance in these islands and the replacement of the mesh nets by environmentally
friendly fishing gear through EU financing had as consequence the recovery of the
monk seal, but the islands were classified as a Special Protection Area in 1990 to avoid
reactions of the fishermen to the designation of Nature Reserve (Neves, 1989; Neves,
com pess; Regional Law-Decree 14/90/M, 23/05/1990).

In the beginning of the 1990s, the installation committee of the Park continued to
develop different conservation projects in the Desertas islands (e.g. the eradication of
the exotic European rabbit) and also began to manage the Selvagens islands (Menezes et
al., 2004; Menezes et al., 2005a; Neves, com pess). In Madeira, the inclusion of the
Laurel forest in the European Network of Biogenetic Reserves in 1992 helped to push
forward the study of different aspects of this habitat, which was done in cooperation
with the Regional Direction of the Forests (Menezes et al., 2005b).

During this period,
there was also an acquisition of areas of well preserved forest within the area of the
Natural Park of Madeira and the eradication and/or control of exotic flora species
threatening this habitat, where were co-funded by the EU and the WWF (Neves, 1999;
Menezes et al., 2005b). Moreover, the actions of botanical conservation benefited from
the creation of the seed bank of the Botanical Garden of Madeira in 1994. The actions
of collection and propagation of seeds, botanical research and environmental education
promoted by this institution played an important role in the conservation of the flora of
the archipelago (Jardim, 2008).

96
The Natural Park of Madeira was finally established in 1993, but the Regional Direction
of the Forests continued to manage the Laurel forest within the Park (Menezes et al.,
2005b; Pestana, 2003; Sousa, 2003; Neves, com pess). Nevertheless, this Natural Park
assumed the management of the Selvagens Islands Nature Reserve (also classified as an
European Biogenetic Reserve in 1992), increased its presence in the Garajau Partial
Nature Reserve and in the Desertas islands (reclassified as Nature Reserve in 1995).
(Menezes et al., 2004; Freitas et al., 2004). The marine PA of Rocha do Navio Nature
Reserve was created in 1997 due to the political pressure of the autarchy of Santana and
the local populations to stop with the uncontrolled fishing with explosives and mesh
nets also began to be managed by this Service (Neves, com pess.; Freitas et al., 2004;
Regional Law-Decree 11/97/M, 30/07/1997). In what concerns the European policies,
the Natural Park of Madeira continued to increase the information for the application of
the Birds and Habitats Directives along most of this decade, which culminated with the
establishment of the regional Natura 2000 network (Neves, 1999; Neves, com pess).

In order to minimize the problems of the vastness of the Natural Park of Madeira and
deficient articulation with the local autarchies, the technical staff presented a proposal in
1999 for the reduction and redefinition of the zoning of this PA, but this initiative was
stopped due to political difficulties (Neves, 1999; Neves, com pess).

It was also during
this year that the Laurel forest of Madeira was classified as World Natural Heritage by
United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), which
increased the commitment of the Regional Government for nature conservation in the
archipelago and promoted the acquisition of more areas of Laurel forest in the Natural
Park (Neves, 1999; Freitas et al., 2004).

In 2001, the decision to create the Direction of Services of Nature Conservation within
the Regional Direction of the Environment brought a third entity in the Regional
Secretariat of the Environment and Sea, with functions of creation and management of
PA and nature conservation in the archipelago (Regional Law-Decree 31/2001/M,
15/11/2001).

Therefore, the new millennium has been characterized by an increase of
the political struggles and indefinition of jurisdiction and competences between the
Regional Direction of the Forests, the Regional Direction of the Environment and the
Natural Parks Service of Madeira (Neves, com pess).

Nevertheless, the three mentioned
entities have promoted a large number of conservation initiatives and projects in the
97
archipelago in the last years, which is indicative of their high operational capability. For
example, the Natural Parks Service of Madeira conducted a successful eradication
programme in the Selvagens Islands in 2002 to remove two alien mammals, the rabbit
and the house mouse, that is having a positive effect in the native flora and fauna
(Oliveira et al., in press; Zino et al., 2008).

Another example is the forbiddance of the
animal husbandry in the mountains of Madeira since 2003 by the Regional, which is
considered a very important measure for the maintenance of the native vegetation
(Regional Law-Decree 35/2008/M; Neves, com pess.; Oliveira, com pess). There were
also several conservation projects developed in partnership between national NGOs
such as SPEA and Quercus and entities of the Regional Government.

In what concerns the application of European policies, the process of definition of the
Regional Natura 2000 network leaded by the Natural Park of Madeira and with
technical assistance of the Botanical Garden of Madeira (representing the Regional
Direction of the Forests) resulted in the approval of 11 Sites of Community Interest
(SCI) in 2001 and 4 Special Protection Areas (SPA) in 2006 (Resolution of the
Regional Government of Madeira 1408/2000; Resolution of the Regional Government
of Madeira 921/2006). This network corresponds to approximately 62.8% of the total
terrestrial surface of the archipelago and is currently on stage of implementation.

The recent history is also characterized by an investment of the Natural Parks Service of
Madeira in the elaboration of management plans for PA and Natura 2000 Sites. In 2005,
a coordination group composed by the three mentioned entities of the Regional
Government was nominated with the goal of dividing the elaboration of the
management plans for the Natura 2000 sites between them (Oliveira, com pess). Finally,
the Marine Protected Areas of Porto Santo was approved in August 2008, after several
years of delay due to political disputes about its jurisdiction, and is currently on stage of
implementation by the Natural Parks Service of Madeira. Future steps include the
finalization and approval of management plans for the PA, the reformulation of the
Natural Park of Madeira and the finalization and approval of the sectoral plan for the
Regional Natura 2000 network (Regional Law-Decree 32/2008/M, 13/08/2008; Neves,
com pess; Oliveira, com pess).


98




Figure 4.4. Protected Areas in the archipelago of Madeira (Legend: in black- terrestrial
areas; in gray- marine areas, small islands and islets; 1- Madeira; 2 Garajau; 3-Rocha do
Navio; 4- Marine Protected Areas of Porto Santo; 5- Desertas Islands; 6- Selvagens
Islands).

4.3.4. Discussion

In similarity to what happens in other countries, the initiative of creation of the majority
of the Portuguese PA came from the Governmental agencies, which in some cases had
to persuade local authorities and populations that their establishment would bring
benefits to the region (see Table 4.2., 4.3. and 4.4.). Moreover, the Portuguese society
typically attributed little importance to the PA, although there is evidence that this has
gradually changed in the last years (Schmidt, 1999; Schmidt et al., 2000; Schmidt et al.,
2004).

Also, even in the mentioned case of the national mobilization for the creation of
Malcata Nature Reserve, this happened due to the major campaign leaded by the LPN
and the particular receptivity of the Portuguese society to discuss new issues after the
reestablishment of democracy.

99
Table 4.2. Protected Areas of national interest (excluding classified sites and natural
monuments) created in mainland Portugal between 1971 and 2008

Name of the PA Date of creation Date first
management
plan
approved
Main
initiative/pressure
for classification
Main natural values referred
in the legislation for
classification
Peneda-Gers National
Park

1971 1995 LPN Flora; fauna; landscape; soil;
water
Arrbida Natural Park 1971 (reclassified in
1976)
1980 LPN Flora (Mediterranean
vegetation); fauna (terrestrial
and marine); geology; landscape
Castro Marim marsh
and Vila Real Sto
Antnio Nature Reserve
1975 2008 Government Flora; fauna (birds and fishes)
Estrela mountain
Natural Park
1976 1990 Government Flora; fauna; landscape
Tejo estuary Nature
Reserve
1976 2008 Government Fauna (birds); habitat (estuary;
marshland)
Ria Formosa Natural
Park
1978 (reclassified in
1987)
1991 Government Flora; fauna (birds and fishes)
Montesinho Natural
Park
1979 (reclassified in
1997)
2008 Government Flora; fauna; landscape
S. Jacinto dunes Nature
Reserve
1979 (reclassified in
2004)
2005 Government Flora; fauna (birds); habitat
(dunes)
Aire and Candeeiros
moutains Natural Park
1979 1988 Local autarchies Landscape
Boquilobo marsh Nature
Reserve
1980 (reclassified in
1997)
2008 Government Flora (forests of Salix sp.); fauna
(birds)
Sado estuary Nature
Reserve
1980 2008 LPN Flora; fauna; habitat (as nursery
area); water
Malcata mountain
Nature Reserve
1981 (reclassified in
1999)
2005 LPN Flora; fauna (Iberian lynx and
other mammals, birds)
Berlenga Nature
Reserve
1981 (reclassified in
1999)
2008 Government Fauna (birds and fishes); habitat
(as nursery area); geology
Sintra-Cascais Natural
Park
1981 (reclassified in
1994)
1994 Government Flora; geology; landscape
Aor mountain
Protected Landscape
1982 2008 Government Flora (Margaraa forest);
geology; landscape
Alvo Natural Park

1983 2008 Government Fauna (birds, reptiles,
mammals); geology; landscape
Costa da Caparica
Protected Landscape
1984 2008 Government Geology; landscape
Litoral Norte Natural
Park
1987 (reclassified in
2005)
2008 Local autarchies Habitat (dunes); landscape
Arzila marsh Nature
Reserve
1988 2004 Government Flora (aquatic); fauna (birds and
mammals); habitat (marshland)
Sudoeste Alentejano and
Costa Vicentina Natural
Park
1988 (reclassified in
1995)
1995 LPN and
Government
Landscape
S. Mamede mountain
Natural Park
1989 (reclassified in
2004)
2005 Local autarchies Flora; fauna; geology; landscape
Guadiana valley Natural
Park
1995 2004 LPN and other
NGOs and
Government
Flora; fauna; geology; landscape
Douro Internacional
Natural Park
1998 2005 Government Flora; fauna (birds); geology;
landscape
Tejo Internacional
Natural Park
2000 2008 Quercus Flora; fauna
Sto. Andr lagoon and
Sancha Nature Reserve
2000 2007 Government Flora; fauna (birds and fishes);
habitat (lagoons and dunes)

100

Nevertheless, the civil society represented by environmental NGOs promoted the
creation of several PA in the mainland (e.g. Peneda-Gers, Arrbida, Tejo
Internacional). There are also cases such as Aire e Candeeiros, Litoral Norte, S.
Mamede and Rocha do Navio, in which the initial proposal of creation came from the
local autarchies, and few PA such as Selvagens Islands and Garajau that were created
due to the initiative of individual citizens. Finally, it is also important to acknowledge
that the academia played a significant role in the history of these areas, not only through
their action in the environmental NGOs, but also in other initiatives such as the
pressure for the creation of the marine PA in Azores or the increase of the mainland
Natura 2000 network.

In relation to the beginning of the creation of the Portuguese PA, it is interesting to
notice that it happened during the opening of the dictatorship and the reestablishment of
the democracy. This explains the initiative in the mainland of involving the populations
in the establishment of these areas, but this policy was gradually abandoned during the
1980s. Nevertheless, periods of political change can indeed represent windows of
opportunity for the establishment of these areas. After these periods, conservationists
should ideally seek wider acceptance of the PA within the population, in order to
maintain them stable across different political scenarios (Brandon et al., 1998; Rylands
and Brandon, 2005; Davenport and Rao, 2002; Dearden and Dempsey, 2004).

In what concerns the management ideals for these areas, they have been generally
changing along time, even considering there are different classes of PA with distinct
management objectives (Kalamandeen and Gillson, 2006; Henriques, 2006). The
exception were the Nature Reserves with little human activities such as the Boquilobo
marsh, S. Jacinto dunes, the Selvagens Islands in Madeira and the Natural Partial Forest
Reserves in Azores, in which the main objective of strict Nature conservation was
constant along their history. In the other PA, management objectives were initially
influenced by the Yellowstone model, which aimed to maintain the wilderness and
implied the reduction of the traditional human activities. After the reestablishment of
democracy, there was a transition to the Landscape model, with the main objective of
maintenance of traditional agro-pastoral landscapes and associated cultural patrimony.
In the mid-1980s, the Nature conservation model prevailed, which meant that the
101
main objective of the management of these areas became the conservation of natural
values, with compatible human activities. More recently, the introduction of the concept
of biodiversity and the establishment of the Natura 2000 network introduced the
Biodiversity conservation model, which seeks the representation of habitats and
species considered important at European level. In the Azores and Madeira archipelago,
the establishment of this network is contributing for the integration of the different
classes of PA into a single framework and will hopefully decrease conflicts between
State agencies that are responsible for these areas.

International influence was very important in the history of the Portuguese PA, and
increased after the integration of the country in the EU in the mid-1980s (Soromenho-
Marques, 1998; Soromenho-Marques, 2005). In other countries, international influence
also had a useful role in the creation and management of PA. For example, the USA
hoped that the creation of PA would improve its reputation in Europe (Davenport and
Rao, 2002), whereas the establishment of the Doana Park in Spain was partially due to
the influence of the WWF (Morillo and Gomz-Campo, 2000). In Portugal, besides the
mentioned importance of international models of PA and the concepts that sustain them,
this influence enabled the approval of the first national legislation of nature
conservation, the creation of several PA, the growth of resources for the management of
these areas, the funding of land acquisition and studies concerning habitats and species
with natural value, etc. Moreover, international pressure benefited from the contribution
of national NGOs, mainly in the cases in which these lacked political strength to
influence the Portuguese Government on their own.

In relation to the integration of the national PA into the Natura 2000 network, this
transition is mainly consequence of the global concern for an adequate representation of
biodiversity in situ. The choice of the Portuguese PA was opportunistic (sensu Pressey
et al., 1993), despite the fact that there were some cases in which criteria such as fauna,
flora, geology and landscape influenced this choice (Vaz, 2000; Pessoa, com pess).

Nevertheless, these areas were seldom the lands nobody wanted, as described in other
regions of the World (e.g. Pressey, 1994; Noss and Coperrider, 1994). Indeed, it is
interesting to notice that the establishment of PA such as Malcata, Litoral Norte,
Selvagens, Desertas and Rocha do Navio were reactive to immediate threats to their
conservation.
102
Table 4.3. Protected Areas (excluding natural forest reserves and natural monuments)
created in the Azores between 1971 and 2008

Island Name of the PA Date of
creation
Date first
management
plan
approved
Main
initiative/pressure
for classification
Main natural values
referred in the
legislation for
classification
Natural Park
of Island
approved
Baa da Praia Nature
Reserve

1987
----------------
University of Azores
and Government
Flora (marine); fauna
(marine); landscape
Baa dos Anjos
Nature Reserve

1987
-----------------
University of Azores
and Government
Flora (marine); fauna
(marine); landscape
Baa de S. Loureno
Nature Reserve

1987
-----------------
University of Azores
and Government
Flora (marine); fauna
(marine); landscape
Baa da Maia
Nature Reserve
1987
-----------------
University of Azores
and Government
Flora (marine); fauna
(marine); landscape
Barreiro da Faneca and
Costa Norte Protected
Landscape
2005
-----------------
Government Flora; fauna (birds);
geology; landscape
Sta. Maria






Figueiral and Prainha
Regional Nature Reserve
2005
-----------------
Government Flora; fauna; geology;
landscape
2008
Formigas Ilhus das Formigas
Regional Nature Reserve
1988
-----------------
University of Azores
and Government
Flora; fauna; habitat
(as nursery)

Sete Cidades
Protected Landscape

1980 2005 Government Flora; fauna;
landscape
Lagoa do Fogo Nature
Reserve

1974
-----------------
Government Flora; fauna;
landscape
S. Miguel


Ilhu Vila Franca
Regional Nature Reserve
1983
-----------------
University of Azores
and Government
Flora; fauna;
landscape
2008
Terceira

In discussion
Cultura da Vinha da Ilha
do Pico Regional
Protected Landscape
1996 2006 Government Landscape Pico


Montanha do Pico
Nature Reserve
1972 ----------------- Government Flora; fauna;
landscape
2008
Lagoa Caldeira S. Cristo
Ecological Area
1989
-----------------
University of Azores
and Government
Flora; fauna (cockle);
landscape
Lagoa Caldeira S. Cristo
Nature Reserve
1984
-----------------
University of Azores
and Government
Flora; fauna (cockle)
S. Jorge


Ilhu do Topo Nature
Reserve
1984 ----------------- Government Flora (marine and
terrestrial); fauna
(marine and terrestrial;
birds); landscape
In discussion
Caldeira do Faial Nature
Reserve
1972
-----------------
Government Flora; fauna;
landscape
Faial
Monte da Guia Protected
landscape
1980
-----------------
University of Azores
and Government
Flora (marine and
terrestrial, especially
Stolo mifera); fauna
(marine and
terrestrial); landscape;
habitat
2008
Graciosa

2008
Flores

In discussion
Corvo

Corvo Regional Natural
Park
2006 ----------------- Government Flora; fauna;
landscape
2008

103
The establishment of the Natura 2000 network in Portugal brought a more systematic
approach to conservation (sensu Margules and Pressey, 2000),

but the criteria of choice
of Sites and the absence of other areas were never appropriately explained (Palmeirim,
com pess). As said above, the action of the NGOs and the academic community was
important to correct some of the gaps of the initial proposal presented by the
Environmental agency in the mainland, but it will probably be necessary to reformulate
this network according to the future increase of the knowledge about biodiversity
(Arajo, 1999; Arajo et al., 2007). On the other hand, the new strategies of
conservation in situ such as land acquisition in existing PA (e.g. in the Natural Park of
Madeira) or to establish new private PA (e.g. the Nature Reserve of Castro Verde) are
also important to guarantee the maintenance of specific areas of exceptional natural
value, which are under threat and/or to serve as models of management for a certain
region (Neves, 1999; Rocha, 2005; Palmeirim, com pess). However, the acquisition of
large areas in Portugal as the main form of biodiversity conservation in situ would
require a large amount of resources and, therefore, would probably be difficult to
support financially.

Table 4.4. Protected Areas of national interest (excluding classified sites and natural
monuments) created in Madeira between 1971 and 2008

Island Name of the PA Date of
creation
Date first management
plan approved
Main
initiative/pressure
for classification
Main natural values
referred in the legislation
for classification
Selvagens Selvagens Islands
Nature Reserve

1971 2002 (not officially
approved)
Naturalist (Mr.
Alexander Zino)
Flora; fauna (birds);
oceanographic research.
Madeira Natural
Park


1982 In elaboration Government Flora; landscape
Garajau Partial
Nature Reserve

1986
----------------------------
Naturalist/diver
(Mr. Jorge de
Castro)
Fauna (fishes); habitat (as
nursery area)
Madeira
Rocha do Navio
Nature Reserve
1997 2004 (not officially
approved)
Autarchy of Santana,
but also local
populations
Flora; fauna (monk seal
and birds); habitat (as
nursery area)
Desertas Desertas Islands
Nature Reserve

1990
(Reclassified
in 1995)
2004 (not officially
approved)
Government
(Natural Park
Service of Madeira)
Flora (marine and
terrestrial); fauna (monk
seal, birds and fishes);
habitat
Porto Santo


Marine Protected
Areas of Porto
Santo
2008

----------------------------
Government
(Regional Direction
of Environment and
Natural Park Service
of Madeira)
Flora (marine and
terrestrial); fauna (marine
and terrestrial); landscape;
habitat

104

In relation to the management of PA in practice, the majority of the Portuguese PA were
created and managed with scarce resources throughout most of their history, which was
more severe in the archipelago of Azores. Again, the problem of lack of resources is not
exclusive of the Portuguese PA, since it compromises conservation goals in many
regions of the World (Terborgh, 1999; Dudley et al., 2004; Wilkie et al., 2001; Schellas,
2001; Heinen, 1996).

Since the late 1990s, the financial problems in the mainland
Environmental agency have increased and contributed to its general discredit and the
difficulties to manage the Natura 2000 network (Toms, com pess.; Carvalho, com
pess.; Freitas, 2008; Fernandes, 2003; Fernandes, 2004). Considering that recent studies
show that most of the Portuguese population in the mainland is unaware of the existence
of this network

(Schmidt et al. 2000; Schmidt et al., 2004) and that several experts argue
that the Portuguese Government is enabling the construction of the so-called Projects
of National Interest in the Natura 2000 Sites (e.g. Freitas, 2008; Sequeira, 2008), the
appropriate management of these areas seems to be compromised and should continue
to be addressed by the Portuguese conservationists.

All mainland PA with national importance have approved management plans, which is
mainly due to the large effort in the last years to conclude them (See Table 4.2.).
However, it should be said that the medium time between the creation of these areas and
the approval of their first management plan was approximately 20 years. Moreover, in
the Azores and Madeira archipelagos, the only PA with an officially approved
management plan were the Cultura da Vinha da Ilha do Pico and Sete Cidades, despite
the existence of few unpublished management plans (See Table 4.3. and Table 4.4.).
Finally, although there were recent efforts to monitor biodiversity at national level (e.g.
national atlases of breeding birds and reptiles and amphibians), the Portuguese PA still
lack mechanisms of biodiversity and performance monitoring (Arajo, 2003),

which are
important for the adequate management of these areas (e.g. Hockings et al., 2006).

Considering the history of the Portuguese PA, it is recommended that the national
environmental agencies promote initiatives to gain public support for biodiversity
conservation and, more specifically, for the maintenance of the PA. Other authors
studying the history of PA in the USA, Australia and South Africa have stated that the
105
popularity and public support of PA contributed to their conservation (Davenport and
Rao, 2002). In Portugal, public support to these areas could be promoted through a
greater investment in environmental education, ecotourism and rural tourism, outdoor
activities, advertisement or any other means that value them (Davenport and Rao,
2002).

Although there are positive initiatives in the last years such as the promotion of
the ecotourism in these areas (e.g. Resolution of Ministers 112/98, 25/08/1998; ICN,
2007),

there is also a recent decrease of environmental education actions due to financial
cuts of these activities since 2001 (Teixeira, 2003; Ramos-Pinto, 2004).

In what concerns the relationships with local populations, PA throughout the World
often have difficulties in approaching management issues. For example, in a study
concerning more than two hundred PA in thirty four countries, it was found that
management performance in activities related to people was weak, both in terms of
relations with local and indigenous people as well as tourism activities (Dudley et al.,
2004). Measures to improve this aspect in Portugal can include the continuation of
compensation to the restrictions imposed to human activities in the PA and greater
participation of the local populations in the management of these areas (e.g. Trakolis,
2001; Barros, 2007).

4.3.5. Conclusion

In this article, we have shown that the different models of PA applied in Portugal have
their origin in international conservation experiences and concepts, which have changed
along its history. One of the major points of change has been the role attributed to the
human populations in these areas, which obviously depend on the prevailing values that
each model aims to conserve. We also provide evidence that the Portuguese case
confirms the statements of previous authors that most of the problems that PA managers
face have their origin in the process of establishment of these areas (Brandon et al.,
1998; Rylands and Brandon, 2005; Davenport and Rao, 2002). For example, the lack of
public support and scarcity of resources for the management of these areas dates back to
their creation.

Nevertheless, a significant part of the Portuguese terrestrial territory is currently
protected and there has been a gradual growth of the marine PA. There were also
106
important advances in the national legislation and policies for conservation, which
increased after the integration of Portugal in the EU. Considering the lack of resources
for management in the last years, solutions will have to be sought to increase the
funding and staff of the PA and other Natura 2000 Sites, which have been considered
essential conditions for successful PA management (Dudley et al., 2004). In this
respect, it is argued that the increase of the public support to the Portuguese PA could
potentially help in the improvement of the management of these areas. Moreover, it is
also important to establish mechanisms of assessment of the management effectiveness
(Hockings et al., 2006). Other solutions for biodiversity conservation in situ such as
land acquisition and management by NGOs have also been applied in the last 15 years,
but this strategy is probably only applicable in restricted areas.

Finally, the integration of most of the national network of PA in the European Natura
2000 network represents one of the major historical events of conservation in the
country. The main challenge in the near future will be to appropriately manage this
network, as well as to adapt it to the new knowledge about the national biodiversity
(Arajo, 1999; Arajo et al., 2007).






















107
4.3.6. Synthesis of the interviews

Architect Gonalo Ribeiro Telles (Founder of the SNPRPP; Former Secretary of State
of the Environment; University teacher)

Q: Can you describe the idea of creation of the SNPRPP?
A: The SNRPP was conceived as a multidisciplinary team leaded by Fernando Pessoa
with the goal of establishing new protected areas in Portugal. It was a political struggle
against everything and everybody, during the troubled times after the Revolution of
1974. In the beginning, there was a group of competent people that truly supported the
idea of protected areas, but soon these valuable people abandoned the SNPRPP.

Q: Do you think that the creation of the SNPRPP after the Revolution of 1974
represented a cut from the nature protection policies that were done by the forest
engineers?
A: The forest engineers created the Peneda-Gers National Park inspired in the
American National Parks, in which there was no agriculture. In Portugal and other
Mediterranean countries, nature conservation depends on human actions. Experts from
abroad [from IUCN] that came to visit this protected area and decided to leave the 15
000 people that lived in Peneda-Gers and to acknowledge this area as a European
National Park. If people had been removed, it would not be possible to have nature
conservation, since agriculture modulates all the system of landscape. Prof. Caldeira
Cabral and prof. Baeta Neves were the pioneers of the ideology of nature conservation
in Portugal, but these ideas were submerged by the objective of forestation of the
country. Prof. Baeta Neves had the idea of national park and prof. Caldeira Cabral
brought the idea of European Natural Park from Germany, where he studied, and this
created conflicts between them.

Q: What was your idea of PA?
A: A PA should be managed for the conservation of the landscape that already existed
and it should be a model for the areas outside the parks. In my idea, it does not make
sense that a protected area follows a purely economic principle of production. In
Germany, there are areas in which people are paid to maintain the landscape through the
traditional agriculture. We wanted to manage the natural resources in a sustainable way
108
and, at the same time, to provide good quality of life to the local populations, in order to
maintain them. The policies of economic growth can lead to the destruction of the
culture, traditions and the impoverishment of the country in medium to long-term and
we wanted to invert this trend.

Architect Fernando Pessoa (First President of the SNPRPP; University teacher)

Q: Can you describe the beginning of the SNPRPP?
A: After the Revolution of 1974, prof. Ribeiro Telles thought that the pseudo National
Park of Peneda-Gers did not present credibility and wanted to change this policy.
Therefore, he called me to direct the SNPRPP. I introduced the concepts of Natural Park
and Protected Landscape in Portugal, influenced by a visit in 1966 to the Luneburger
Heide Park in Germany, which I did following the advice of prof. Caldeira Cabral.

Q: But the French Regional Natural Parks also influenced you?
A: At first, the Lunenburg Heide was seen as the model. Later, the model became the
French Regional Natural Parks, since the form of organization was considered easier to
adapt to Portugal. We took advantage of the generalized idea of democratic debate of all
the subjects, proposing the discussion of the creation of the first Natural Parks after
sessions with the populations and autarchies. During my presidency, there were visits of
the technical staff to the French natural parks, in which I had the opportunity to meet
Riviere and his idea of ecomuseums. I tried to implement this idea of the ecomuseums
in Portugal, but this was not achieved.

Q: What were the main objectives of the SNPRPP?
A: The creation of the SNPRPP aimed to establish a new dynamic in the policy if the
PA and to introduce the concepts of Natural Park and Protected Landscape. Portugal
does not have conditions for National parks and the Peneda-Gers should have been a
Natural Park. Besides this, there was an emphasis in the concept of landscape, because
it was evident that the people that worked with the conservation of the cultural
patrimony did not take the conservation of the rural patrimony into account. The social,
economic and cultural conditions in the majority of Portugal at the time were worrying,
but this also enabled the preservation of traditional landscapes, habits and traditions that
offered the possibility of conservation.
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Q: What was the composition of the SNPRPP?
A: The team of the SNPRPP initially had about 25 people from different areas. Some of
the technical staff came from the Forestry Services, but there were also agronomists,
sociologists, landscape architects and historians. When the PA began to be created,
there was an effort to integrate local people as protected area staff.

Q: What criteria were used to choose the PA?
A: We should have done a general study of the values in all the country, in order to
choose areas for conservation. However, this was a huge task that would have delayed
the process and there were areas of real danger of loss of the natural patrimony.
Therefore, it was decided to classify areas where it was necessary to intervene rapidly.
There was also an urgency to create as many protected areas as possible, since this
would make the political attempts to end with the SNPRPP more difficult and would
make the process of establishment of PA irreversible. One of the main instruments of
decision about where to establish these areas was a study done by the LPN in 1973
entitled First inventory of the areas to protect in Portugal continental.

Q: How was the process of establishment of PA?
A: Before the establishment, there was an intense dialogue with the autarchies and local
populations where it was aimed to establish a PA. If they revealed interest, the process
moved forward and their representatives were invited to become part of the installation
committee, with the purpose of preparing the establishment of the PA. A technician of
the SNPRPP directed this installation committee.

Q: How was the relationship with the local populations and autarchies?
A: It was good, because the parks had functions that helped to gain the support of the
local populations and autarchies. For example, the promotion of traditional activities
through State subsidies, and the organization of competitions and local markets of
traditional cheeses, sausages, cattle, etc. These activities aimed to promote the economic
revitalization of these areas. There was also an effort to provide local populations with
basic infrastructures such as roads, electricity and even the organization of cultural
events.

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Dr. Almeida Fernandes (Former president of the SNPRCN; University teacher)

Q: What were your priorities for the SNPRCN?
A: The SNPRPP had the objective of managing the parks and reserves, whereas the
SNPRCN aimed for the nature conservation in a broadest sense. One of the main
priorities was to organize internally this new Service [SNPRCN], since a lot of technical
staff left (mainly landscape architects) and I had to hire biologists. It was also necessary
to hire more staff to the PA, but everything had to be done in small steps due to the
scarcity of resources. The competences of the SNPRCN were always increasing, but the
money grew very little. Since there was an almost total ignorance about the fauna and
flora in the PA, I gave priority to these studies.

Q: Did you have a model for the PA?
A: The original model of PA in Portugal was German, and was brought by prof.
Caldeira Cabral, which studied in that country. But the French model was more similar
to the Portuguese case, so Fernando Pessoa adopted this. My main objective in the PA
was to harmonize the rural life with the nature conservation, so that local people could
accept better the management of these areas.

Q: What did you do to achieve this?
A: One of my major concerns was to meet regularly with the local authorities. Probably
the hardest cases were Estrela and Montesinho, since they had previous experiences
with the Forestry Services, which did not promote much dialogue. Also, the jurisdiction
of the Peneda-Gers passed from the Forestry Services to the SNPRCN and there was
an effort to integrate them. Another important objective was the creation of
headquarters and interpretative centers in the PA. It was not possible to establish the
ecomuseums proposed by Fernando Pessoa, due to little human and financial resources.
The engineers Macrio Correia and Carlos Pimenta gave a lot of support to the
SNPRCN and also helped in the contact with the local autarchies in the Algarve region.

Q: What were the main constraints for the management of these areas?
A: Besides the lack of resources, the fact that most of the PA were private property.
There were constant conflicts with the local populations and the environmental
education was supposed to help with this problem, but this process takes time. These
111
efforts in building a relationship with the local populations and autarchies, and the
development of programmes of environmental education were lost, because they were
considered less important.

Eng. Macrio Correia (Former technician and vice-president of the SNPRCN; Former
secretary of State of the Environment; President of autarchy)

Q: Could you briefly describe the process of classification of the Sudoeste Alentejano
and Costa Vicentina as a PA?
A: After the presentation of several studies of ecology done in this region, the LPN did
a campaign between 1986 and 1987 to classify this area. Following this, I took the
initiative with eng. Carlos Pimenta (which was secretary of State of the Environment) to
visit the area and contacted with local autarchies and other entities, which were
receptive to the idea of creation of a PA. Also, the support of international institutions
gave political weight to the initiative of establishment of this area. Therefore, the limits
of this PA were discussed and, after the elaboration of the legislation, the Natural Park
was created in 1988.

Q: Were you directly involved in the establishment of other PA? Can you briefly tell
their story?
A: Yes, I was involved in the relaunching of Malcata Nature Reserve, as well as other
PA. Almost five years after its creation, this PA still lacked infrastructures and staff. I
visited the area in June 1987 and there was a popular protest of the population of
Sabugal, which was convinced that the establishment of a Nature Reserve would imply
their complete exclusion from the area. After talks with the population and initiatives
such as the installation of greenhouses and the offering of plants, the population became
more receptive and accepted the establishment of this PA. Also, in the Litoral Norte, the
president of the autarchy of Esposende approached the SNPRCN to establish a
Protected Landscape, because there were natural values that were threatened by house
construction interests. In the same period, the president of the autarchy of Castelo de
Vide suggested the creation of the S.Mamede to the SNPRCN. Also, one of our
technicians took the initiative of creating a PA in the Arzila marsh. Finally, I was also
involved in the buying of headquarters in the PA of Sintra, Montesinho, Estrela and
Aire e Candeeiros.
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Q: What were your priorities for the SNPRCN during your management?
A: To organize this Service, to get more resources and to make it more popular and
dynamic. I also aimed to establish a physical presence in the existing PA. The growth of
the annual budget of the SNPRCN enabled some of these objectives.

Dr. Jos Marques Ferreira (Former technician and President of the SNPRCN/ICN;
Technician in the company guas de Portugal)

Q: What were your main priorities during the presidency of the SNPRCN/ICN?
A: When I assumed the presidency of the SNPRCN, most of the PA were just
legislation, with almost no physical presence in the territory. The priorities were the
growth of the financial and human resources and also of the institutional importance of
the SNPRCN, in order to create local institutions in each PA with an effective presence,
a technical staff in the territory.

Q: What was your ideal for the Portuguese PA and what are the differences in relation
to previous ideals?
A: The objective of nature conservation in Portugal is dependent of the support of the
local populations and institutions that exist in the PA. Since both nature conservation
and the cultural patrimony are a result of the human activity, it is important that the
populations are happy and to compensate the restrictions imposed by the PA to their
activities. Hence, there was a major concern for the welfare of the populations in order
to create a dynamic of relevance from the basis to the top. If the natural parks in
Portugal aimed to be an instrument of regional development, then the model of
Fernando Pessoa based on the regional parks of France would make sense. In fact, the
classification of PA of regional ambit that was created in 1993 follows this model, but
only the PA of national ambit should be managed by the SNPRCN.

Q: During your presidency, there was a growth of the financial and human resources of
the SNPRCN/ICN. How was this achieved?
A: After the nomination of the engineers Carlos Pimenta and Macrio Correia as
Secretaries of State, there was a strong political support to the SNPRCN. One action
that increased the importance of the New Service was the major removal operation of
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the illegal constructions in the Arrbida Natural Park that began in 1986. The success of
this operation was widely publicized by the media and enabled other similar actions in
coastal areas both inside and outside the limits of PA. Therefore, it was possible to
increase the governmental budget of the SNPRCN and to use EU funding for the
recovery of the local patrimony, construction of infrastructures and tourism, but also the
construction of headquarters and interpretation centres in the PA.

Q: What is the importance of the approval of the law-decree 19/93 for the PA?
A: This law had the objective of creating a network of protection at national, regional,
local and private levels, which was an answer to the numerous requests for classification
at the time. In the end of the 1980s, there were several requests of local autarchies and
other entities for the creation of PA and it became necessary to create other types of
classification. In the case of the regional, local and private PA, the State would be
involved in the process of classification, but not in the management.

Q: What were the main changes of the transition from SNPRCN to ICN?
A: This change follows the line of thought of broadening the nature conservation from
the PA to the remaining national territory.

Q: What were the main reasons for the popular protests of the local populations to the
management plan of the Sudoeste Alentejano and Costa Vicentina in 1994?
A: The priority for the establishment of management plans was for the PA where the
pressure for construction was higher. Therefore, it was decided to begin with Peneda-
Gers, Sintra-Cascais and Sudoeste Alentejano and Costa Vicentina. In this last area,
the local groups of interest revolted against the initial proposal of management plan and
the existence of this PA. This initiative was later supported by local autarchies. The
population felt that there were no compensations to the restrictions that were being
imposed and the feeling of injustice increased. The issue was only resolved when there
was a promise of public investment in the region.





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Architect Henrique Pereira Santos (Former vice-president of the ICN and technician of
ICN/ICNB)


Q: What were your priorities during your vice-presidency of the ICN?
A: To finish the Life projects that aimed to increase the knowledge about the natural
patrimony, to promote the discussion about the choice of the Natura 2000 network and
to elaborate management plans for these areas. The ICN also participated in the Expo 98
that had the oceans as theme and organized a series of meetings with experts in marine
biology, which resulted in the approval of new legislation for the creation of reserves
and marine parks and its application in the Berlengas and Arrbida. There was also a
great effort to work on the management plans of the PA and the control of the
administrative and financial problems of the ICN.

Q: Was there a reduction of the effort of recovery of the cultural patrimony in the PA?
A: Yes, because there was a need to focus on the management of the natural patrimony.

Q: The idea about the objectives of management of the Portuguese PA seems to have
changed along time. Do you agree?
A: The idea of PA holds on the singularity and exceptionality of certain areas such as it
happens in the case of Yellowstone. In parallel to this idea, the concept of biodiversity
has been developed, which is related with the notion of representation. In the ICN, there
is a division between the logic of the PA and the logic of biodiversity conservation,
which became stronger in Portugal and the rest of the World. After the revolution of
1974, the model of the Forestry Services was replaced by concept of Natural Park,
which integrates the local populations and approaches the concept of traditional
landscape. The PA were created without any local structures, According to logic of
imposition from the Central Services. The urban population often criticizes the PA
because they fail to be conserved and the local populations criticize the restrictions that
are imposed on their activities.

Q: What is the solution for this problem?
A: The solution maybe a better integration of the agro-environmental measures with
policies of nature conservation.
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Q: You have openly criticized the policies of Dr. Marques Ferreira in benefiting the
local populations that live in the PA. Why?
A: Because the ICN should be focused on its mission of nature conservation. At that
time, the ICN was not ready to deal with the growth of the budget and, therefore,
invested the money in infrastructures, which had no return. In some cases, the building
of interpretation centres and headquarters which are too big and unsustainable with the
current resources. The policies of Dr. Marques Ferreira increased the expectations of the
local populations in the functions of the ICN, which later became disappointed. But
there were also benefits in those policies, such as the increase of the resources in the
ICN.

Q: What were the main impacts of the management of the Natura 2000 network in the
management of the PA?
A: The management of the Natura 2000 network is responsibility of the Portuguese
Government, which includes the ICN, but also other entities. In the future, other
entities, even private, should take part of the function of nature conservation in
Portugal. The ICN should be focused on two main missions: nature conservation
through regulation or contract and communication with the public through visitation of
the PA.

Dr. Lusa Toms (Former technician of SNPRCN/ ICN; Former vice-president of the
ICN; Technician in the Ministry of Agriculture)

Q: What were the priorities of the ICN during the period of your vice-presidency?
A: There was a need to increase the knowledge of the natural patrimony and to
systematize this knowledge. The ICN needed to have information about the natural
values, its distribution and degree of importance, since the implementation of the
network Natura 2000 was beginning. It was also necessary to define the management
for these areas, which had to take into account the nature conservation and the
development. There was also an investment in the signalisation of the PA, the creation
of new legislation for the nature tourism and the elaboration of the management plans
for the PA.

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Q: How did you view the conservation of the cultural patrimony in the PA?
A: The PA were considered as a whole, since it was the human action that preserved the
natural values. Therefore, there was an idea of interaction between the natural and
cultural patrimony. But there were already other institutions such as the IPPAR that had
the specific function of conservation of the cultural patrimony.

Q: What were the main changes brought by the beginning of the management of the
Natura 2000 network?
A: Between 1998 and 1999, the budget of the ICN grew significantly, since the
functions of the ICN also grew. However, the growth of the budget was not proportional
to these new functions, since the area of direct jurisdiction of the ICN became almost
22% of the national territory.

Dr. Lurdes Carvalho (Technician of SNPRCN/ ICN/ICNB; Former vice-president of the
ICN/ICNB)

Q: What are the main priorities of the current presidency?
A: We want to consolidate the network of PA, to establish their management in a
network. We also want to finish the management plans for all the PA. Other priorities
are the re-organization of the ICN and the presidency of the EU.

Q: What are the differences of management between the PA and the remaining areas of
the Natura 2000 network?
A: The network Natura 2000 and the PA have the objective of biodiversity
conservation, but the PA have also the objective of local development, the maintenance
of the welfare of the local populations, the promotion of nature tourism and the
environmental education. The management of the network Natura 2000 will has to be
done in a partnership between the ICN and other entities.

Q: What characterizes the last years of action of the ICN?
A: The finalization of the Red Data Book, the Atlas of Birds and Reptiles and
Amphibians, the investment in the finalization of management plans for the PA, the
implementation of the Natura 2000 Network and their management plans. There was an
increase of the competences of the ICN since 1998, but the increase of resources was
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not enough for these new functions. For example, the number of vehicles of the ICN did
not increase. New functions of the ICN include the application of the Cites convention,
technical support to Zoos, and the concerns with the architecture in the PA.

Q: What should be done to address this problem of lack of resources?
A: Some information of the ICN given to other institutions should be charged. Houses
in parks and visitation should be better managed, to increase the profit. The ICN is
trying to create a brand called Parks of Portugal, which certifies all the products from
these areas. There is also an effort to improve the image and marketing of the parks. We
are also trying to create a fund for nature and biodiversity conservation. Finally, it is
important that the ICN creates partnerships with other institutions.

Arq. Nuno Lecoq (Fomer director of the S. Jacinto, Boquilobo, Ria Formosa, Castro
Marim and V.R. Sto. Antnio; Former technician in the Regional Direction of the
Environment; Technician of the Forestry Services)

Q: How did you learn to be a director of a PA?
A: In the beginning, the SNPRPP was composed of technical staff that had to learn
about these new subjects of PA and nature conservation. Therefore, it was very
important to visit PA in other countries. For example, in the end of the 1970s, me, Ana
Drei and Francisco Ribeiro Telles worked in a RSPB Nature Reserve that was private.
In my case, I took the idea of building headquarters and interpretative centres in the
reserves. At that time, there were also two or three meetings per year with all the PA
directors, in which there was a lot of discussion of problems. This was possible, because
it was just a dozen PA, now it would be much more difficult. This was a very important
period, in which the learning was intense, in which everybody believed in the cause of
nature conservation. There were also visits to the Spanish PA, which were more
advanced than ours. After 1986, with the entrance in the EU, the doors were opened to
Europe and even to the World. These experiences formed the directors of the PA and
there was a lot of talk about environmental education.

Q: What were your main priorities in the management of the PA?
A: Environmental education, investigation and management of natural resources.

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Q: What actions did you take to develop these priorities?
A: In the management of agriculture, the PA had to apply the law to prevent the
negative effects of the agriculture. This created resentment in the local populations,
because there was little compensation for these restrictions. In my view, the
environmental education is very important to achieve results, because it is very difficult
to work in conservation with these conflicts. From the 1990s onwards, the local
populations began to refuse the creation of PA and management plans because they
were more aware of the implications of the restrictions. In the areas that were already
established, the dialogue between managers and the population decreased. Directors
usually preferred to build an interpretive centre than to invest directly in the nature
conservation, since the land inside these areas is mostly private and conservation actions
required talking to land owners.

Q: What other problems did the managers of a PA had to face?
A: The establishment of PA was dependent of the benefits that were promised to the
local autarchies, such as the recovery of houses, farms, tourism, etc. After their
establishment, the restrictions began and people often revolted against them. The boom
of the tourism in the 1980s brought a lot of pressure to the coastal areas and other with
tourism such as Estrela mountain. It is also important to notice that the rangers only
began in 1987-1988, which means that most of the PA did not have surveillance during
several years.

Dr. Pedro Castro Henriques (Technician of SNPRPP/ SNPRCN/ICN/ICNB)

Q: Do you think the Revolution of 1974 changed the process of creation of PA in
Portugal? How?
A: The creation of PA prior to the Revolution of 1974 was controlled by the Forestry
Services, which did not include people in their systems of protection. After 1974, the
landscape architects that wanted that the local populations had a good quality of life and
that both the natural and cultural patrimony were conserved by the SNPRPP. The
farmers were seen as gardeners of the landscape, there was a romantic vision of
equilibrium between nature and people, in which the model were the French parks.
There was also the goal of creation of the ecomuseums, which motivated a visit of prof.
Riviere to Portugal. But the population felt bad about these traditional values, since the
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idea of progress and development was implemented after the Revolution of 1974. This
is also the reason why the idea of nature conservation was difficult to accept at this time
of political change.

Q: Can you comment on the choice of the PA to be classified in the beginning of the
SNPRPP?
A: The PA were chosen According to a list that was done by the LPN in the 1970s and
depended on circumstances such as the receptivity of local populations and autarchies to
the classification. During a long period, the nature conservation was not well accepted,
because Portugal had other concerns such as the decolonization from Africa, the
reestablishment of the democracy and the development of the country.

Q: How was the beginning of the functioning of the new PA in this period?
A: At the time, there were installation committees, which in most cases did not work
well, because it was difficult to organize meetings with the members and also due to a
lot of political discussion that was out of the scope of the management of the PA.

Q: From your experience, what is important for the appropriate functioning of PA?
A: I think this is very dependent with the directors, if they are good leaders or not. For
example, the architect Nuno Lecoq was a good director in S. Jacinto and this area
worked well during that period. Also, the local populations and local economic interests
are very important. For example, in Estrela mountain, the tourism company Turistrela
has a great influence in the management, in Tejo Internacional and Guadiana, the
associations of hunters influence the management.

Dr. Lus Vicente (Former director of the Berlengas Nature Reserve; University teacher)

Q: Could you describe briefly the process of classification of the Berlengas as a PA?
A: The architect Ribeiro Telles requested the architect Lecoq to direct that process and
he gathered entities such as the Association Friends of Berlengas, the General Direction
of Ports, the General Direction of the Navy, the General Direction of Fisheries, the
General Direction of the Tourism and the autarchy of Peniche. After several meetings,
this group decided to move the process forward and the law-decree was prepared and
approved.
120

Q: How did you learn to manage the Berlenga Nature Reserve?
A: Before I was invited to become the director, I worked there as a researcher in the
island and later as the scientific coordinator of biology students. I also did several visits
to Mediterranean Islands in Spain, France and Italy that were also nature reserves, such
as the Seas, the Iere archipelago, and read documents from the United Nations about
this subject. There were also meetings between PA directors twice a year, which were
also very important learning experiences.

Q: What were the main difficulties that you faced in the management of Berlenga?
A: The director of a PA should become a protagonist in the region. Also, it is important
that the director is willing to take responsibility for management actions. The most
difficult points of the management are unpopular measures such as restrictions to
prevent the exhaustion of natural resources. There were actions of the PA that were
important for the populations such as the supply of fresh water to the populations, the
equipments of the beaches in the region, wood passages in the dunes of Peniche and
even a concert of a rock band in Peniche. After the growth of resources in the late
1980s, it was possible to invest in human resources through the hiring of technical and
surveillance staff and also in boats and the construction of headquarters of the PA in
both Peniche and Berlenga. There was also an investment in an efficient system of
communication.

Q: Can you explain what the Operation Larus was?
A: The Operation Larus began in 1990, to control the growth of the gulls in the island
and to end with the coastal rubbish heaps. After the minister of the Environment
announced the existence of EU funds to end with these rubbish heaps, it was decided to
advance with the operation, which began in 6 of May of 1994. The poison that was used
was specific to gulls and degraded after 30 minutes of exposition to the sun. Rangers
from all over the country came to participate, it was a huge operation in which a lot of
resources had to be articulated and with good results.




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Q: What were the factors that were important for the success or failure of the
management of PA during the time in which you were director?
A: At that time, nature conservation was the fulfilment of a dream, since there was a lot
of dedication to the cause of nature conservation and respect between colleagues. There
was also an institutional contact that was much easier than today. After this first stage of
pioneering work, when it was necessary to formalize and consolidate the functions, the
ICN was not able to compensate adequately their staff. This second stage required
money and recognition, which began to fail since 1994-1995.

Dr. Ana Fernandes (Journalist working with environmental issues)

Q: What is your opinion about the functioning of the ICN in the last years?
A: The functioning of the ICN has been decaying in the last years mainly due to
financial difficulties. They have major areas of jurisdiction and most of the human
resources are occupied in bureaucratic work. The ICN would benefit from an
optimisation of the tourism of the PAs, but the taxation of the visits to these areas
would not be socially fair.

Q: From your experience covering the case of the discussion of the PNSACV in 1994,
what do you think it could have been done better?
A: The popular protests to the management plan began with the fishermen. When the
plan was done, the regional autarchies asked that the ICN included the fishing issue, but
after the protests of the fishermen and the rest of the population, they also supported
these public protests. Parks often represent a restriction to the welfare of local
populations. In 1998, a law was approved for the priority of public investment in the
PA, but this was never applied in practice.

Q: And in the case of the more recent protests of the fishermen to the management plan
in Arrbida?
A: In that case, I think the fishermen were used by people who own illegal houses to
contest the management plan. At the same time, the fishermen are also afraid to loose
their means of subsistence.


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Q: What are the reasons for the financial difficulties of the ICN in the last years?
A: The ICN has many duties and maybe the governments are not fully aware of all its
functions. The staff of the ICN is too busy with technical work, which maybe could be
shared with other public institutions. Therefore, the ICN does not have a proactive
attitude and the projects of nature conservation become secondary.

Q: What do you think about the implementation of the Natura 2000 network in
Portugal?
A: In the management of the Natura 2000, the money from the EU comes through the
agriculture. Since at the moment, there are only 8 Sites with management plans, only
these will get some money. It is difficult for the ICN to manage almost 22% of the
national territory, so maybe this area should be reduced or the zoning of different
degrees of restrictions. Also, the fact that the ICN has little credibility makes the
negotiations with other institutions very difficult.

Q: Do you think the media have been important to improve nature conservation in
Portugal?
A: Yes. The ICN owes a lot to the action of the media and the environmental NGOs,
since they were very important to stop a lot of things that the ICN could not. And the
ICN has benefited from a lenient attitude from the media, which usually has some moral
problems in trashing the ICN.

Dr. Lusa Schmidt (Journalist and Researcher working with environmental issues)

Q: In several publications, you state that the Revolution of 1974 interrupted the
dynamic of the environmental concern in the Portuguese society. Could you explain this
idea?
A: In 1971, the National Commission of the Environment did the first report about the
state of the environment in Portugal, preparatory legislation for environmental norms
and promotion of discussions about the spatial planning of the territory. All this was
suspended after the Revolution of 1974 and the National Commission of the
Environment reduced its action. Also, other issues such as the liberty and the justice
became more important after the Revolution. On the other hand, the SNPRPP is created
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in the Sub-Secretary of State of the Environment, which is a positive step for nature
conservation.

Q: But this is also the result of years of effort of the LPN and especially Baeta Neves,
during the years of dictatorship.
A: The LPN was a very demarked and specific elite, almost technical-scientific and with
no implementation in the Portuguese society. Comparing the Portuguese elite with the
English case, we notice that the formation of the elites in England include the nature
conservation and a vision about nature and landscape. The English urban middle-class,
which was subject to the Industrial Revolution, needs to have contact with natural areas
as a counterpoint to the urbanized areas, whereas in Portugal, the elites are disconnected
from nature conservation. At the time, the elites were reduced to few people with a
vision: Ribeiro Telles and Baeta Neves are good examples of this.

Q: In the past, you have been critical about the functioning of the Portuguese PA. What
were the main causes?
A: One of the reasons is the process of their creation. There was a political opportunity
to create these areas, but there should have been much more dialogue between managers
and the local populations. In some PA, there is little socio-economical information and
the scientific, economic and natural studies that exist are not accessible to the
population, which are not aware of the value of the PA. Besides, they have little
advantage living in the PA. There was little investment that should have happened
According to the law-decree approved in 1998. There is basically a restrictive discourse,
not a constructive and dynamic discourse, which could lead to the local development. In
the last years, the PA staff is disrespected, since there is a scarcity of means for
management.

Q: So what could have been done better in the process of establishment and
management of these areas?
A: It is necessary to take advantage of the breaches of the system and to leave anchors,
since the political change in 1974 represented an opportunity. Afterwards, there should
have been an intense work of reaching out to the people, giving them advantages of
living in the PA. Maybe this happened on a first stage, but afterwards it stopped.

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Q: Do you think the network Natura 2000 brought changes to the management of the
PA?
A: The REN [National Ecological Reserve] was, to a certain extent, an anticipation of
the idea of continuum that came later with the Natura 2000 network. I think the Natura
2000 network is counter producing to the PA. There was an affection of the population
to the idea of park and a certain notion of the landscape. After the implementation of the
Natura 2000, there is a generalized confusion about the concept of PA. The population
was becoming familiarized with the PA and the Natura 2000 is bringing entropy to the
system, its a mass without defined lines.

Eng. Mrio vila Gomes (Former technician in the Azorean Regional Government
from 1980 to 2000)

Q: Can you tell me about the initiative of creation and management of the first PA in
Azores, before the Revolution of 1974 (Caldeira do Faial and Montanha do Pico in 1972
and Caldeira do Fogo in 1974)?
A: The Forest Services created these areas, but they had no management or surveillance.
These are areas of difficult access at higher altitude, without local populations. In fact,
most of the population did not know they were PA. There was an attempt leaded by me
to pass the management of these areas to the Environmental Services, but this did not
happened.

Q: How was the relationship between the Forestry Services and the Environmental
Services along time?
A: There were always conflicts, which sometimes were quite serious. The Forestry
Services had dominance over a large proportion of the territory, which gave them a lot
of power. Besides this, they had better acceptance of the populations, since they
promoted the construction of roads and access ways, whereas the Environmental
Services were unknown people usually considered as nuisance.

Q: Can you describe the process of creation and management of the first PA in the
Azores after the Revolution of 1974 under the classification of Protected Landscape?
A: In the beginning of the 1980s, the Regional Government of Azores had about 6
technicians working in nature conservation issues, which had direct contact with
125
architect Fernando Pessoa. Therefore, the initiative of classification as Protected
Landscape came from the technical staff of the Regional Government. About the
management, there has always been little management of PA in Azores, with few
rangers and technical staff and typically no headquarters or interpretation centres.

Q: Did the entrance of Portugal to the EU in 1986 brought changes to the Azorean PA?
A: Yes. The EU had influence in three main aspects. First of all, the definition of the
biotopes Corine between 1986 and 1988, which required a huge effort. Since copies of
this work were given to local and regional autarchies in the archipelago, this
occasionally prevented the destruction of habitats by public constructions and roads.
The second and the third aspects were the application of the Birds Directive from 1989
to 1991 and the application of the Habitats Directive between 1996 and 1998. These two
processes enabled to collect more information about natural values in the archipelago, to
rethink nature conservation, to re-design areas to be protected, etc. In the case of the
Habitats Directive, the Azores archipelago worked in partnership with the Madeira and
the Canaries, since the Macaronesia was a pilot area for the implementation of this
Directive.

Q: What was the impact of the creation of legislation for the new category entitled
Natural Forest Partial Reserve in 1987 and its application in the creation of 17 areas?
A: This was initiative of the Forestry Services, which had no influence of the
Environmental Services. They were afraid that the Environmental Services would create
a network of PA and, therefore, they created their own legislation, which had no basis
on the national legislation. Afterwards, they defined 17 Reserves and also defined
Recreation Reserves at the same time. Some of the Forest Reserves made sense, but
they are too small to be viable. Nevertheless, the Environmental Services was obligated
to accept their existence and the PA in Azores became divided in the ones that were
managed by the Environmental Services and the ones that were managed by the
Forestry Services. There was no cooperation or exchange of information between the
two institutions, and the Environmental Services did not agree that the Forestry Services
managed these areas, since it was not included their designated functions.



126
Q: In 1989, you did a communication in the II Portuguese Congress of the PA alerting
for the problems of the PA in Azores. Can you talk about them?
A: One of the biggest threats to the Azorean PA in the 80s and 90s were the expansion
of pastures, which implied the destruction of important forests. The Forestry Services
opened a lot of roads and promoted the introduction of invasive plant species such as
the Japonese cedar (Criptomeria japonica). At the time of the congress, I said that
environmental education was very important and promoted it during several years, but it
stopped after a while. There was also a lack of people that worked with the flora and
fauna of the Azores, which meant that there was little knowledge in these areas. Later,
there was an effort by the University of Azores to improve this knowledge, which was
important to support the definition of the Natura 2000 network in the end of the 1990s.

Q: Can you describe that process of definition of the Natura 2000 network (terrestrial
and marine) in the Azores?
A: The main principle was to create only what was necessary and we tried to exclude
inhabited areas and areas of private property, in order to avoid future conflicts.
Therefore, the terrestrial network includes areas with little interest for agriculture such
as areas of altitude or coastal areas. We also created marine areas adjacent to the
terrestrial areas, if they had natural interest. Therefore, the terrestrial and marine part of
the network of the Natura 2000 is defined and approved, and there is also an approved
sectorial plan for this network. More recently, there was also the approval of legislation
for the creation of a Natural Park by Island, which is an old idea.

Q: How old is this idea?
A: There are, at least, three different proposals that I have done since the early 1990s,
which were never more than proposals. The Regional Directors generally agreed with
them and thought this was important to be done, but there were always political
problems. After the implementation of the Natura 2000 network, a major part of the
Forest Reserves were finally integrated as PA, which finally gave way to the
management by the Environmental Services.




127
Q: What was the role of the Environmental Services, academia, local NGOs and
populations in the creation of the Azorean PA?
A: Most of the areas were initiative of the Environmental Services. The academia was
often an absent partner in the nature conservation for many years, but there has been a
recent interest in the issue of the marine PA. The NGOs did not have strength, although
they have contributed more recently for the environmental education and also promoted
the classification of geological features. In relation to the population, they did not have
the initiative of creation of PA, although there were cases such as the classification of
the Lagoa das Sete Cidades in which they were very favourable.

Q: What was the impact of the creation of the Regional Direction of Environment in
1990, the creation of the Direction of Services of Nature Conservation in 1998 and the
creation of a Regional Secretariat of the Environment in 2001 in the management of the
Azorean PA?
A: The main change brought by the creation of these institutions is the imposition of a
logic that the environmental and nature conservation issues exist. Although there was
not much impact in the management of the PA, there was a small growth of resources.
Therefore, the impact could have been much higher, but was positive nonetheless.
Another important event for nature conservation in Azores was the creation of the
botanical garden of Faial.

Q: Can you briefly describe the history of this botanical garden?
A: Again, it was initiative of the technical staff of the Environmental Services. After the
construction of a regional market, there were lands that were not used and we took the
initiative of creation of a botanical garden, which was developed between 1985 and
1986. This botanical garden collected a wide range of native flora species and was
frequently visited by schools of the island and also by tourists from abroad, which
helped to confirm it as an important garden.

Q: Can you recapitulate the main events of the history of the Azorean PA?
A: To me, the main events were the creation of the first PA in the early 1970s by the
Forestry Services, followed by the creation of Protected Landscapes by the
Environmental Services in the early 1980s and the creation of the Forest Reserves in
1987. The entrance of Portugal in the EU brought the definition of the Corine biotopes
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and the application of the Birds and the Habitat Directives. More recently, the definition
of the Natura 2000 network and the new legislation for the creation of a Natural Park by
Island. One of the problems of this history was that most of the things happened too late
and there are still a lot of issues that are not dealt with. For example, the issue of
invasive species such as the bigleaf hydrangea (Hydrangea macrophylla) in the Caldeira
do Faial or the excessive tourist pressure in Pico mountain continue to be ignored. The
environmental education is also fundamental, but continues to be neglected. Also, the
choice of the Regional Director of the Environment is motivated by political reasons,
rather than sensitivity to the environmental issues.

Henrique Costa Neves (Former technician of the Forestry Services between 1978 and
1982; Member of the Direction and former director of the Natural Park of Madeira
between 1982 and 2002; Town councillor of Funchal)

Q: What was the importance of the Forestry Services for the beginning of the Nature
Conservation in Madeira?
A: In the early 1950s, the Forestry Services began to define and establish forest
perimeters in Madeira. The control of the destructive effects of the animal husbandry in
the native vegetation was a very important measure for the nature conservation in
Madeira. Moreover, these Services also established measures of fire prevention, opened
roads and were responsible for the large-scale forestation of the island.

Q: Can you describe the process of classification of the Selvagens islands as a Nature
Reserve in 1971?
A: During many years, the island was private and the Corys Shearwater was hunted by
fishermen. In the late 1960s, it was thought that the species was declining and an
English naturalist (Mr. Alexander Zino) constructed a small house in the Selvagem
Grande with permission of the owner, began to study the species and bought the hunting
rights to protect this species. In 1971, this naturalist tried to buy the Selvagens with
financing of the WWF, in order to create a Nature Reserve to protect the wildlife. The
Portuguese Government appealed to the right of preference and bought the islands,
classifying them as a Nature Reserve in the same year. After several massacres of the
population of Corys Shearwater and the destruction of the house of the mentioned
129
naturalist in 1975 and 1976, the islands began to have surveillance between February
and October (the breeding season of the species).

Q: Can you describe the main events that lead to the creation of the Natural Park of
Madeira in 1982?
A: The architect Fernando Pessoa presented a proposal for the establishment of a natural
park for the island in the II International Congress of Macaronesic Flora in 1977. The
Forestry Services wanted to create a National Park, but the objective of Natural Park
prevailed because it was more innovative and aimed to integrate the local populations in
the management. Between 1977 and 1979, there was an intense fieldwork in Madeira
that resulted in a revised proposal for the Natural Park of Madeira, which was approved
in 1982 and integrated the new national categories of PA (Natural Park, Protected
Landscape, etc).

Q: How were the first years after the creation of the Natural Park of Madeira in 1982?
A: The Natural Park had about 10 years in installation, with three different installation
committees. This happened because the Regional Government still had little sensitivity
to the environmental issues and also because there was some fear of the reaction of
populations to the restrictions imposed by the park. During this period, the Forestry
Services assured the surveillance, regulation and management of this area and the Park
Service only took over the management in 1993. When it was finally established, this
PA already included several urban areas in the south of the island, because it was based
in fieldwork dating back to the late 1960s, with only slight changes from the late
1970s. In 1999, there was a proposal to reduce the area of the Natural Park to the
Natura 2000 Sites, but this initiative was stopped mainly due to political changes.

Q: What was the impact of the entrance of Portugal in the EU in 1986?
A: The entrance in the EU was very important. Between 1985 and 1990, it implied the
designation of the Corine areas and also the beginning of several LIFE programmes.
After this, the application of the Birds and Habitats Directive and, more recently, the
designation of the Regional Natura 2000 network. Since the European policies required
an intense effort and the Natural Park of Madeira already had legal support, the creation
of a management plan for the park was delayed.

130
Q: Can you describe the main events that lead to the creation of the Nature Reserve of
Desertas in 1995?
A: The Portuguese Government bought these islands to English owners in 1971, but
since its natural resources were not under threat, there was no need of creation of a PA.
After 1975, Madeira fishermen came from Angola and brought the mesh nets, which
caused a decline of the fishing stocks and the death of monk seals in the Desertas. The
EC was sensitive to this problem and co-financed the programme entitled Urgent
measures for species threatened of extinction that I coordinated between 1988 and
1990, which focused on the monk seal in the Desertas islands. This project enabled the
study of the habitat of the monk seal in the islands, estimated its population in 6 to 8
individuals, and also involved the construction of a surveillance station and the
placement of surveillance staff. Although this project began to educate the fishermen to
the conservation issues, the area was classified as Special Protection Area in 1990 to
avoid reactions to the classification as Nature Reserve. In that same year, there was a
replacement of the mesh nets by less destructive fishing gear obtained through EU co-
financing. In 1995, this area was reclassified as a Nature Reserve.

Q: What were the motivations for the creation of the Nature Reserves of Garajau in
1986 and the Rocha do Navio islet in 1997?
A: In Garajau, the naturalist and diver eng. Jorge de Castro was able to promote a
regional lobby, which had as consequence the classification of this area as a marine
Nature Reserve. In the first years, diving companies assumed the management of this
reserve, but in 1993 the Natural Park of Madeira began to take over the management. In
Rocha do Navio, the autarchy of Santana and local populations acted to control the
fishing with explosives and mesh nets and were able to promote the creation of a marine
PA.

Q: What other factors were important in the creation and management of PA in
Madeira?
A: The Botanical Garden of Madeira was always a partner of the Park Service and the
marine biology station has a long history of research in the Desertas and Selvagens
islands. There was also a great receptivity of the urban populations to the existence of
these areas, which increased in the last 8 to 10 years due to the growth of the tourism,
after the classification of the Laurel forest as World Natural Heritage by UNESCO.
131

Q: What was the impact of that classification?
A: It reinforced the commitments of the Regional Government in the protection of this
ecosystem, increased the pride of the population in the regional biodiversity and the
recognition of the value of the conservation actions that were happening in the
remaining PA. Moreover, this classification enabled the acquisition of more areas of
Laurel forest through EU funding, which are under the jurisdiction of the Regional
Government.

Q: What characterizes the recent history of the PA in this region?
A: In the 1980s and 1990s, there were little conflicts between the Forestry and
Environmental Services. However, in the last years, the lack of leadership of the Natural
Park of Madeira resulted in the weakening of its competences and a growth of influence
in favour of the Forestry Services. This created conflicts between the two institutions,
and also with the Regional Direction of the Environment. There is also some stagnation
in the development of the nature conservation projects in the region.

Dr. Jorge Palmeirim (Former president and member of the direction of the LPN;
University teacher)

Q: What was the importance of the LPN and other NGOs to the history of the PA in
Portugal?
A: First, the LPN promoted the creation of PA in the Portuguese colonies of Angola and
Mozambique; in Portugal, it begins with the protection of Arrbida and later with the
campaign for the creation of Peneda-Gers. In the late 1970s, the LPN launched the
campaign Save the lynx and the Malcata mountain, with the support of the SNPRCN
and the Forestry Services. The campaign was done mainly in schools and collected
about 46 000 signatures that resulted in the creation of the Nature Reserve of Malcata.
The LPN also promoted a campaign for the creation of the Sudoeste Alentejano and
Costa Vicentina. The NGO Quercus promoted the creation of the Tejo Internacional.
More recently, the creation of the Guadiana was, to a certain extent, a compensation for
the construction of the Alqueva dam. This intended to reduce the resistance of the EU to
the project, which was due to the intervention of the NGOs.

132
Q: And for the definition of the Natura 2000 network?
A: The importance was greater. Both in the case of SCI and of SPA, the area initially
designated by the ICNB was insufficient. There were promises of further designations,
but they only materialized after complaints submitted by LPN, and shadow lists of sites
that it prepared, led the EC to open infringement procedures against Portugal. The last
phase of the LPN campaign for more SPAs was focused on sites to protect the
Bonnellis eagle and steppe birds. SPEA was also very active campaigning for the
designation of new sites for steppe birds. Overall, the action of the NGOs roughly
resulted in the doubling of the area of Natura 2000. This action of the NGOs had little
public projection, but it was perhaps the national campaign for nature conservation that
had the best results.

Q: Considering the current difficulties of management of the Natura 2000, do you think
it was good to classify 21.4% of the area of the country?
A: It is necessary to have a long-term perspective. A lot of people criticized the creation
of PA due to the impossibility to manage such a large area, but if we look today at an
aerial photography of Sintra-Cascais and Arrbida, we can see the limits of these PA
because much less urbanization took place inside them. Hence, these areas do not
protect as much as they should, but they do fulfil their basic function. In the case of the
Natura 2000, there was an historical opportunity to classify these areas, which would
not be repeated years later.

Q: What was the importance of the academic community to the history of the PA and
the Natura 2000?
A: The academics were mainly active through the LPN, but they were also important in
occasional episodes. For example, at the time of the discussion of the Natura 2000
network in the EC, the academics contributed in the protest to the initial proposal of
classified areas, which was led by the NGOs. There were also individual initiatives of
academics that resulted in the classification of some Sites.

Q: What do you think about the weak initiative of the population to create PA in
Portugal?
A: In my view, this is mainly due to the low educational level of the population
(especially in the interior of the country), but this is gradually changing. For example,
133
most of autarchies rejected the classification of areas as Natura 2000, but some were
favourable to it. For example, the autarchy of Castro Verde always supported the
initiatives of the LPN in the region.

Q: Can you tell the story of the land acquisition by the LPN in Castro Verde?
A: In 1993, when I became president the LPN, the EC had just approved the project of
Castro Verde, which included the land acquisition as one of the measures to protect
several bird species in this area. However, since the LPN was coming out of a serious
internal crisis and it was necessary to obtain a very large amount of money for the
national co-financing (30% of the value of the project), the decision to advance with the
project was very bold. Some of the farms that were of interest to us were owned by
paper pulp companies that intended to produce eucalyptus in them, but the Municipal
Master Plan of Castro Verde did not approve this. Since we knew that these companies
wanted to sell the farms, the LPN obtained estimates of their market value using an
independent evaluator indicated by the ICN and the representatives of the EC. Using
those estimates as a reference we then offered to pay for 70% of their value, requesting
that the owners would donate the other 30%. After hesitating, the paper pulp companies
agreed, thus solving the difficult issue of the national co-financing. In another case, a
property was bought by 70% of its value and the remaining 30% was donated by the
landowner, in exchange for the right to use the land for eight years, although following
our management requirements.

Q: Do you think that land acquisition is an important tool for conservation in Portugal?
A: Only in specific cases. Portugal and the rest of Europe have a long history of human
intervention in the territory and nature conservation in this region often implies the
continuation of human activities. On the other hand, nature conservation should be done
in large areas, in which the strategy of land acquisition by privates would not be
possible due to the scarcity of resources. Nevertheless, this can be an important tool in
specific areas of exceptional natural interest under the risk of destruction, or to serve as
models of management for a certain area. These were the main objectives for the land
acquisition in Castro Verde.



134
Q: What is your opinion about the last years of performance of the ICNB?
A: I think there is a general consensus that there was a decline since the mid-1990s,
when its responsibilities were increasing with the creation of the Natura 2000.
Therefore, this network came as an unwanted child that the Ministry of Environment
unsuccessfully tried to pass to the autarchies, which in general did not have capacity or
will to manage them. Another serious problem was the loss of institutional power of the
ICNB at this time, when it needed to be strong to negotiate with the autarchies, the
Ministry of Agriculture, etc. As a consequence of this crisis, the technical and
administrative staff of the ICNB is suffering from a general lack of motivation.

Q: What were the main changes for conservation brought by the establishment of the
Natura 2000 in Portugal?
A: In general, this was a positive change, since the Habitats Directive has precise
objectives and periodic assessments that were never present in the PA. However, the
ICNB has very limited resources for its management.

Q: What could have been done better in the process of creation of the PA?
A: If there was a more detailed knowledge about the natural values of the territory, the
selection and micro-delimitation of areas could have been better. In the Natura 2000,
there was an effort to increase this knowledge, but it was still insufficient, since there
were important areas that were left out and areas in the Natura 2000 that should not
have been classified. The maturation of this network in the future should address these
cases through the zoning of the sites and the classification of new areas.



135

Chapter 5. The monitoring of the fauna in the Portuguese Protected
Areas

5.1. Summary

This chapter aims to review past fauna monitoring information in order to assess if
threatened fauna species were conserved in the Portuguese Protected Areas and to
provide recommendations for future biodiversity monitoring programmes in these areas.
More specifically, it is assessed if fauna species classified of priority importance in the
Birds and Habitats Directives have been conserved in three Portuguese PA in the last
ten years (1996-2005). After the application of a simple method of assessment using
expert opinion, it is concluded that threatened fauna species were conserved in the three
studied areas. Although there is a significant number of species which could not be
assessed due to lack of information, adequate habitat management measures financially
supported by the European Union seem to have minimized the negative effects of the
agricultural abandonment in the local biodiversity. Finally, recommendations for the
management of the studied areas and suggestions for future biodiversity monitoring
programmes in the Portuguese Protected Areas are discussed.

5.2. The conservation of threatened fauna species in the Portuguese Protected Areas. An
assessment based on expert opinion.

5.2.1. Introduction

Europe encompasses a great diversity of habitats and species which are the result of a
long history of both natural and human-induced processes (Blondel and Aronson, 1999;
Blondel, 2006). However, recent anthropogenic action has promoted biodiversity losses
at a dramatic rate, thus creating the need for actions to protect its remaining natural
heritage (Arajo, 2003). The objective of halting biodiversity loss by 2010 which was
assumed by the European Union is an important step forward, but the difficulties of its
assessment include a lack of clarity about the meaning of biodiversity and how to
measure it, lack of political commitment to biodiversity monitoring in member states
136
and gaps in knowledge and data (Gaston, 1996; Gaston and Spicer, 2004; EASAC,
2005). Nevertheless, information on the European Directives 79/409/EEC (Birds
Directive) and 92/43/EEC (Habitats Directive), which are important political
instruments for biodiversity conservation in Europe, are expected to have an important
contribution to monitor the progress towards this 2010 target and beyond it (EASAC,
2005).

In Portugal, the first law for nature conservation approved in 1970 enabled the creation
of first national PA (Law-Decree 9/70, 19/06/70). In the late 1990s, the network of
Portuguese PA already represented 7.6% of the national continental territory. In the
present, the network of Natura 2000 includes the all the PA and other Natura 2000 sites
in a total of 21.4% of the mainland terrestrial surface (ICN, 2007). Although these areas
have several short-term biodiversity monitoring studies which are generally directed to
fauna species, there are no systematic monitoring programmes which enable a direct
assessment of the management effectiveness in achieving biodiversity conservation. For
example, the wolf (Canis lupus) has been monitored in the Montesinho Natural Park
and the Peneda-Gers National Park for more than ten years, but the direct comparison
of studies between different years is difficult due to different methodological
approaches (Pimenta et al., 2005).

The overall goal of this work was to assess if fauna species classified of priority
importance in the Birds and Habitats Directives have been conserved in three
Portuguese PA in the last ten years (1996-2005). The specific objectives of this work
were to:

1. Derive a method based on expert opinion that enables the rapid assessment of
threatened fauna species at local level;

2. Apply this method to three Portuguese PA, which had biodiversity monitoring of
fauna species during the considered ten years of management;

3. Discuss implications of the present study for biodiversity conservation.


137
5.2.2. Study Areas

This study was conducted in three Portuguese mountain PA, which are also classified as
Natura 2000 sites: the Peneda-Gers National Park, the Montesinho Natural Park and
the Malcata Mountain Nature Reserve (See Figure 5.1.). These areas were chosen
because they have more biodiversity monitoring data on fauna species in the last ten
years.

The Peneda-Gers National Park was created in 1971 as the first Portuguese PA and is
located in the northwestern Portugal near the Spanish border. This park has an area of
approximately 72 000 ha, where there is a predominance of granitic rocks and
occasional schist and quartz outcrops, with altitudes varying between 75 and 1550 m.
The vegetation is mainly composed of oak woodlands (Quercus robur and Q.
pyrenaica), plantations of maritime pine (Pinus pinaster), scrubland (Ulex sp., Erica
sp., Cystisus sp., Genista sp., etc.), upland pasture, meadows and farmland, and the
main human activities are agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry and tourism. Since the
1960s, the population of the park has been constantly decreasing, with negative values
of approximately 15% between 1981-1991 and 1991-2001 (Bernardo et al., 2000).
During the considered study period, this area was subject to agri-environment measures
financed by the European Union (Bernardo et al., 2000).

The Montesinho Natural Park was created in 1979 in the northeastern Portugal near the
Spanish border and occupies an area of approximately 74 230 ha. Altitudes vary
between 438 and 1481 m and most of this PA is composed of schist with occasional
areas of granitic and calcarium rocks. The landscape is dominated by mixed oak
woodlands (Quercus pyrenaica and Q. rotundifolia), scrubland (Cystisus sp., Erica sp.,
Ulex sp., etc.), agricultural areas, plantations of chestnut trees (Castanea sativa) and
maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) and the main human activities are agriculture, animal
husbandry and tourism. According to the population census, the park area has lost more
than half of its population between 1960 and 1996 and this trend continues until the
present (DGDR-ICN, 2002). During the study period, this area was also subject to agri-
environment measures financed by the European Union (DGDR-ICN, 2002).


138



Figure 5.1. Location of the three studied Protected Areas in northern Portugal

The Malcata Mountain Nature Reserve was created in 1981 with the main purpose of
conserving the threatened Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) and its habitat. This Nature
Reserve of approximately 21 700 ha is located in the central-eastern Portugal near the
Spanish border and has predominantly schist rocks and occasional outcrops of quartz.
The altitude varies between 430 and 1078 metres and the gentle hilltops contrast with
the steep valleys through which many watercourses flow. The vegetation is dominated
by dense scrubland (mainly Cystisus sp., Cistus sp., Erica sp., Halimium sp.,
Chameaspartium tridentatum and Arbutus unedo), scattered oak woodlands (Quercus
robur and Q. pyrenaica) and plantations of maritime pine (Pinus pinaster), eucalyptus
(Eucalyptus globulus) and douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziezii). Human populations
surrounding this Nature Reserve are mainly involved in forestry, agriculture and animal
husbandry and have been generally decreasing in the last decades (Silva, 1998).
Between September 1999 and September 2003, this area was subject to a LIFE project
for the recovery of the Iberian lynx population, financed by the European Union
(Sarmento et al., 2003).

5.2.3. Methods

The overall approach of this study was to assess the population trend of fauna species
classified as priority in the Birds and Habitats Directives in the three studied
Portuguese PA during ten years of management (1996-2005). In order to achieve this
goal, we aimed at applying a simple and rapid method of assessment of the status of
139
fauna species at local level based on expert opinion. Experts were selected according to
their knowledge of the studied areas and their experience with the focal species (see
Table 5.5.). Besides the extensive experience of these experts in the studied areas, there
were also several monitoring studies of birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians as well
as local habitat studies which were used by experts in their assessments (see Table 5.4.
for details). The analysis was focused on mammals (excluding bats), reptiles and
amphibians listed in the Annex II of the Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) and the bird
species in the Annex I of the Birds Directive (79/409/EEC) due to its importance for
conservation at European level. Since the current knowledge about the bat, invertebrate
and fish species in the studied areas is still too scarce to assess their population trends,
these groups were excluded from the analysis.

The method of assessment of the population trend for each species was an adaptation of
the criteria used in the IUCN Red List (IUCN, 2001, 2003, 2005). In this method, each
expert was asked to assess the population trend of a certain species by choosing one of
the options described below.

Variation observed, estimated, inferred or suspected of the population size between
1996 and 2005:

a) Regional extinction: regression of the population size until the condition that there is
no doubt that the last individual potentially capable of reproduction died or disappeared
from the region;

b) High decrease: decrease of the population size >30%;

c) Decrease: decrease of the population size between ]10- 30%];

d) Stable: stability or decrease/increase of the population 10%;

e) Increase: growth of the population size between ] 10-30%];

f) High increase: growth of the population size > 30%;

140
g) Reestablishment: native species which re-established in the region between 1996 and
2005;

h) Data deficient: applied when there is inadequate information to make a sound status
assessment.

In the cases where there were discrepancies between existing monitoring information
and the assessment of the population trend, experts were asked to explain these
discrepancies. Moreover, experts were also asked to provide explanations for the
population trend for each species whenever possible. In the few cases where there was
disagreement in relation to population trend or its explanations between experts,
discussion was promoted until reaching a consensus.

Biodiversity monitoring information

The biodiversity monitoring information for fauna species which exists in the three
studied PA consists mainly of monitoring studies of birds, reptiles and amphibians and
threatened mammal species such as the wolf (Canis lupus) and the Iberian lynx (Lynx
pardinus) (e.g. Pimenta and Santarm, 1996; Reino, 1994; Silva, 1998; Soares et al.,
2005; Godinho et al., 1999; Pimenta et al., 2005; Sarmento et al., 2003; see Table 5.4.
for details). In the present, national atlases of breeding birds and reptiles and
amphibians at scales of 10x10 km
2
are in the process of finalization. Although this is
still unpublished data, this information was also used by the consulted experts in this
assessment. In relation to the information concerning the habitats, there is a Corine
Land Cover (CLC90) relative to the end of the 1980s and an update of this map (CLC
2000) which was done in 2000, but these maps use a large scale of 1:100 000 and
habitat classes which are not appropriate for the monitoring of biological diversity
(EEA, 2007; Pereira and Cooper, 2006). There is also a national map of land use (COS)
based on aerial photos of 1991 and 1995 with a scale of 1:25 000 (SNIG, 2007), but
there is still no updated maps using the same scale and classes which could be used for
comparison. Therefore, the study of habitat changes in the Portuguese PA in the
considered period is difficult due to lack of appropriate information.


141
5.2.4. Results

Peneda-Gers National Park

The population trends of 24 species occurring in the Peneda-Gers were assessed by 5
experts (see Table 5.5. for details). The population trend of 14 species were considered
as Stable (58.34% of total), which was mainly explained by the maintenance of the
habitat and food availability for these species in the PA (see Table 5.1.). In this
assessment, 4 species were considered as having a Decrease (16.67%) due to habitat
changes and unknown causes. In the case of the hen harrier (Circus cyaneus), a bird of
prey that has a marginal breeding population in Portugal (Cabral et al., 2005), the
pointed cause for the regression in the Peneda-Gers was the reduction of traditional
agricultural areas. In what concerns the Montagus harrier (Circus pygargus), the cause
pointed for the regression of this species was the reduction of extensive agro-pastoral
areas. The causes of the decrease of the chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax) in this PA
are unknown, but it is considered to be possibly associated with the reduction of
extensive agro-pastoral areas. In the case of the dartford warbler (Sylvia undata), the
causes for regression in this area are unknown. The only species with a population trend
of High Decrease (4.17%) in the Peneda-Gers was the golden eagle (Aquila
chrysaetos), which is contrary to the general trend of recovery in the rest of the country
(Cabral et al., 2005). This species has been declining in the last decades in this PA due
to the destruction of nests, food poisoning, regression of its staple prey (the wild rabbit)
and habitat changes (Cabral et al., 2005). In the period of 1996-2005, the main cause of
regression was considered to be the poisoning of individuals, but this problem has been
addressed in the last years by the park authorities. Since this predator is nearly extinct in
this area, the possibility of reintroducing this species is being considered (Pimenta, com
pess.). In relation to the population trend of the short-toed eagle (Circaetus gallicus),
this was the only species classified as having an Increase (4.17%), which was
attributed to the natural recovery of the oak forests in this area. In the case of the black
kite (Milvus migrans), the population trend was High increase (4.17%), which was
considered to be related with the stability of the water level in the dams. Finally, the
merlin (Falco columbarius), the European pond terrapin (Emys orbicularis) and the
Mediterranean pond turtle (Mauremys leprosa) were considered as Data deficient
(12.5%), since their rare occurrence does not allow for the estimation of their population
142
trend. It should also be noted that both species of turtles were reintroduced due to
human action and that there are historical records of the occurrence of the European
pond terrapin in this area.

Table 5.1. Population trend and causes for population trend of the species assessed in
the Peneda-Gers National Park

Name of the species

Population trend Causes
Wolf
(Canis lupus)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability, refunding of
shepherds of damages caused by the wolf.
Otter
(Lutra lutra)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Pyrenean Desman
(Galemys pyrenaicus)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Honey Buzzard
(Pernis apivorus)
Stable Unknown
Red Kite
(Milvus migrans)
High increase Stability of the water level in the dams and other water
reservoirs
Short-toed Eagle
(Circaetus gallicus)
Increase Increase of habitat (natural recovery of oak forest)
Hen Harrier
(Circus cyaneus)
Decrease Habitat changes (reduction of traditional agricultural areas)
Montagus Harrier
(Circus pygargus)
Decrease Habitat changes (reduction of extensive agro-pastoral)
Golden Eagle
(Aquila chrysaetos)
High decrease Food poisoning
Merlin
(Falco columbarius)
Data deficient Rare species in the PA
Peregrine
(Falco peregrinus)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability (frequent pigeon
races in the PA)
Kingfisher
(Alcedo atthis)
Stable Unknown
Woodlark
(Lullula arborea)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Tawny Pipit
(Anthus campestris)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Dartford Warbler
(Sylvia undata)
Decrease Unknown
Red-backed Shrike
(Lanius collurio)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Chough
(Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax)
Decrease Unknown, but possibly related with habitat changes (reduction
of extensive agro-pastoral areas)
Ortolan Bunting
(Emberiza hortulana)
Stable Unknown
Eagle Owl
(Bubo bubo)
Stable Unknown
Nightjar
(Caprimulgus europaeus)
Stable Unknown
European Pond Terrapin
(Emys orbicularis)
Data deficient Rare species in the PA
Mediterranean Pond Turtle
(Mauremys leprosa)
Data deficient Rare species in the PA
Iberian Emerald Lizard
(Lacerta schreiberi)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Golden Striped Salamander
(Chioglossa lusitanica)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability


143
Montesinho Natural Park

The population trend of 28 species occurring in the Montesinho Natural Park was
assessed by 4 experts (see Table 5.5. for details), in which 19 species were classified as
Stable (67.86%). According to these experts, the explanation for these favourable
results was the maintenance of the habitat and food availability for these species (See
Table 7). The only species considered to have a population trend of Decrease (3.58%)
was the Mediterranean pond turtle (Mauremys leprosa), which was explained by the
capture of specimens for collection. The white stork (Ciconia ciconia) and the black kite
(Milvus migrans) had an attributed population trend of Increase (7.15%). In the first
case, the cause for the increase of the white stork in this PA was the growth of the
exotic red swamp crawfish (Procambarus clarkii) and refuse tips, which caused
changes in the migration patterns (Rosa, 2005); in the second case, the increase of the
black kite was related with the natural recovery of the native oak forests due to
agricultural abandonment. In a similar vein, the only classification of High Increase
(3.58%) which was attributed to the booted eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus) was related
with the increase of the natural forest in this PA. In what concerns the five species
classified as Data deficient (17.86%), the egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus),
the griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus), the black vulture (Aegypius monachus) and the eagle
owl (Bubo bubo), these birds of prey occur in very low densities in this area, which
explains the difficulty in estimating their population trend. In the particular case of the
nightjar (Caprimulgus europaeus), it was also not possible to establish its population
trend due to the difficulty of detection of this species during both breeding bird atlases.











144
Table 5.2. Population trend and causes for population trend of the species assessed in
the Montesinho Natural Park

Name of species Population trend Causes

Wolf
(Canis lupus)
Stable Increase of natural prey, higher tolerance of local
populations to wolf, work between PA staff and
shepherds, refunding of shepherds of damages caused by
the wolf.
Otter
(Lutra lutra)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Pyrenean Desman
(Galemys pyrenaicus)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
White Stork
(Ciconia ciconia)
Increase Increase of food availability and changes in migration
patterns
Honey Buzzard
(Pernis apivorus)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Black Kite
(Milvus migrans)
Increase Increase of habitat (natural recovery of oak forest)
Red Kite
(Milvus milvus)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Egyptian Vulture
(Neophron percnopterus)
Data deficient Rare species in the PA
Griffon Vulture
(Gyps fulvus)
Data deficient Rare species in the PA
Black Vulture
(Aegypius monachus)
Data deficient Rare species in the PA
Short-toed Eagle
(Circaetus gallicus)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Hen Harrier
(Circus cyaneus)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Montagus Harrier
(Circus pygargus)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Booted Eagle
(Hieraaetus pennatus)
High increase Increase of habitat (natural recovery of oak forest)
Golden Eagle
(Aquila chrysaetos)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Peregrine
(Falco peregrinus)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Kingfisher
(Alcedo atthis)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Short-toed Lark
(Calandrella brachydactyla)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Thekla Lark
(Galerida theklae)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Woodlark
(Lullula arborea)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Tawny Pipit
(Anthus campestris)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Dartford Warbler
(Sylvia undata)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Red-backed Shrike
(Lanius collurio)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Ortolan Bunting
(Emberiza hortulana)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Eagle Owl
(Bubo bubo)
Data deficient Rare species in the PA
Nightjar
(Caprimulgus europaeus)
Data deficient Difficulty in detection of species
Mediterranean Pond Turtle
(Mauremys leprosa)
Decrease Capture of specimens for collection
Iberian Emerald Lizard
(Lacerta schreiberi)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
145

Malcata Mountain Nature Reserve

The population trend of 27 fauna species of Malcata Mountain Nature Reserve was
assessed by 4 experts (See Table 5.5. for details), in which 20 species were considered
to have been Stable (74.1%), again due to the maintenance of habitat and food
availability (See Table 5.3.). In this PA, there was a Decrease (3.7%) in the
population trend of the Montagus harrier (Circus pygargus), which was explained by
the decrease of extensive agro-pastoral areas. In the last years, the creation of small
pastures through habitat management (targeting the iberian lynx), were not sufficient to
permit the recovery of this bird of prey. In what concerns the red kite (Milvus milvus),
this species was considered to have a High Decrease (3.7%), which can be explained
by the decrease of extensive agro-pastoral areas, but also by poisoning. In relation to the
Iberian lynx, the population trend of this Critically Endangered (Cabral et al., 2005)
carnivore was classified as Regional extinction (3.7%). Although intensive measures
of habitat and prey recovery have increased habitat suitability and the density of preys,
the explanation for this trend is the very low number of individuals in this PA that did
not allow the recovery of the species. The cases of classification as Data deficient
(14.8%) of the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), the black kite (Milvus migrans) and
the European pond terrapin (Emys orbicularis) were explained by the rarity of these
species in this area, whereas the lack of information about the nightjar (Caprimulgus
europaeus) was again due to the difficulty of detection of this species during fieldwork.












146
Table 5.3. Population trend and causes for population trend of the species assessed in
the Malcata Mountain Nature Reserve

Name of species Population
Trend
Causes
Iberian lynx
(Lynx pardinus)
Regional extinction Very low number of individuals did not allow
recovery of the species
Otter
(Lutra lutra)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Black Stork
(Ciconia nigra)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Honey Buzzard
(Pernis apivorus)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Black-winged Kite
(Elanus caeruleus)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Black Kite
(Milvus migrans)
Data deficient Rarity of the species in the PA
Red Kite
(Milvus milvus)
High decrease Habitat changes (reduction of extensive agro-
pastoral areas) and food poisoning.
Griffon Vulture
(Gyps fulvus)
Stable Food in the bird feeder; higher density of wild
rabbit; maintenance of habitat.
Black Vulture
(Aegypius monachus)
Stable Food in the bird feeder; higher density of wild
rabbit; maintenance of habitat.
Short-toed Eagle
(Circaetus gallicus)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Hen Harrier
(Circus cyaneus)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Montagus Harrier
(Circus pygargus)
Decrease Decrease of habitat (reduction of extensive agro-
pastoral areas) and food availability
Golden Eagle
(Aquila chrysaetos)
Data deficient Rarity of the species in the PA
Booted Eagle
(Hieraaetus pennatus)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Kingfisher
(Alcedo atthis)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Roller
(Coracias garrulus)
Stable Unknown
Short-toed Lark
(Calandrella brachydactyla)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Thekla Lark
(Galerida theklae)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Woodlark
(Lullula arborea)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Tawny Pipit
(Anthus campestris)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Dartford Warbler
(Sylvia undata)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Ortolan Bunting
(Emberiza hortulana)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Eagle Owl
(Bubo bubo)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and increase of food
availability (wild rabbit)
Nightjar
(Caprimulgus europaeus)
Data deficient Difficulty in detection of species
European Pond Terrapin
(Emys orbicularis)
Data deficient Rare species in the PA
Mediterranean Pond Turtle
(Mauremys leprosa)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability
Iberian Emerald Lizard
(Lacerta schreiberi)
Stable Maintenance of habitat and food availability




147
5.2.5. Discussion

According to this assessment, the threatened fauna species at European level generally
maintained a favourable conservation status in three studied PA, since most of the
assessed species maintained their population size during the considered study period.
However, it is important to acknowledge that there are limitations in the assessments
which were done, since they are not based on systematic monitoring exercises along the
considered period. Moreover, there was a significant percentage of threatened species
which were excluded from the analysis or which were classified as Data deficient due
to lack of information. Therefore, the number of threatened species that declined in the
studied PA was probably underestimated. It is also important to notice that the
population trends of the assessed fauna species reflected factors which were beyond the
management of the PA. For example, the successful stabilization of the wolf
populations in Portugal was not only due to the management of the Peneda-Gers and
Montesinho, but also to an important measure extended to the remaining national
territory which was the refunding of shepherds of the damages to the cattle caused by
this predator (Pimenta et al., 2005).

One of the main causes for the high number of species with favourable conservation
status in these PA seem to have been the adoption of adequate habitat management
measures, which were financially supported by the European Union. This points to the
conclusions presented in recent studies that biodiversity conservation in Portugal is very
dependent of agro-forestry policies (Santos et al., 2006; Moreira et al., 2005). As stated
above, these PA are characterized by a demographic decrease in the last decades, which
is having consequences on the local biodiversity. In a recent study, it was concluded
that there is strong evidence for a positive impact of the European policies on bird
conservation (Donald et al., 2007). Nevertheless, there is still a scarcity of evidence that
European agri-environmental schemes effectively protect biodiversity (Kleijn and
Sutherland, 2003) and the need for further research about the relationship between
agriculture and biodiversity (Moreira et al., 2005). In the studied PA, the land
abandonment had the positive effect of slow recovery of the natural vegetation and
several fauna species. For example, the favourable status of species such as the such as
the booted eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus) and the black kite (Milvus migrans) in the
Montesinho Natural Park or the short-toed eagle (Circaetus gallicus) in Peneda-Gers
148
were considered to be related with the recovery of the natural vegetation in these areas.
Moreover, the land abandonment and consequent reduction of human disturbance and
increase of the natural vegetation also benefited other fauna species which were not
directly assessed in this study such as the red deer (Cervus elaphus) and the roe deer
(Capreolus capreolus) in Montesinho Natural Park (Moreira, com pess.). On the other
hand, the land abandonment is also having negative consequences such as the reduction
of traditional agricultural areas and extensive agro-pastoral areas, shrub encroachment,
increase of the number of fires and the decrease of small-scale patchiness (Moreira et
al., 2005; Pereira et al., 2005; Falcucci et al., 2007; Hochtl et al., 2005; Benton et al.,
2003). Therefore, the local reduction of species such as the red kite (Milvus milvus) and
the Montagus herrier (Circus pygargus) in Malcata Mountain Nature Reserve and the
hen harrier (Circus cyaneus) and the Montagus harrier (Circus pygargus) in Peneda-
Gers was mainly due to the reduction of traditional agricultural areas and extensive
agro-pastoral areas. Nevertheless, it is important to note that the negative effects of the
land abandonment seemed to have been minimized by the existence of agri-
environmental measures in Peneda-Gers and Montesinho and measures of habitat
recovery in Malcata. In the first two cases, these measures enabled the recovery and/or
continuation of environmentally-friendly land use practices through the financial
support of traditional agro-pastoral practices, the preservation of local crop and cattle
varieties and the recovery of natural habitats. In the case of Malcata, habitat
management actions such as the increase of native tree species, plantation and recovery
of fruit trees, prescription burning of shrubland and pastures and creation of mosaics of
pasture and shrubland were important for the increase of the wild rabbit in this PA,
which also benefited other fauna species such as the eagle owl (Bubo bubo), the griffon
vulture (Gyps fulvus) or the black vulture (Aegypius monachus) (Sarmento et al., 2003).
However, it is important to refer once more that this management strategy was not
efficient in preventing the decline of species which depend on extensive agro-pastoral
systems such as the red kite (Milvus milvus). Moreover, the regional extinction of the
Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) which was probably due to the very low number of
individuals in this PA indicates that this program of habitat and prey recovery should
have been done earlier.

The decline of threatened fauna species in these three PA was also attributed to the
registered cases of food poisoning of the red kite (Milvus milvus) in Malcata and the
149
golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) in the Peneda-Gers. Although there has been
significant effort in the control of the food poisoning by park authorities in Peneda-
Gers, it is important that such measures continue to be promoted. Moreover, the
reactivation of the vulture feeder in Malcata was considered one of the main causes for
the stability of necrophagus birds. Therefore, the continuation of this measure seems
important for the maintenance of the necrophagus species in this PA. The decline of the
Mediterranean pond turtle (Mauremys leprosa) in the Montesinho Natural Park was
attributed to the capture of specimens for collection, which shows a need for further
action of the park authorities.

5.2.6. Conclusion

This study concludes that the studied threatened fauna species were conserved in the
three studied Protected Areas. Although there was a significant number of species
which could not be assessed due to lack of information, adequate habitat management
measures financially supported by the European Union seem to have minimized the
negative effects of the agricultural abandonment in the local biodiversity. Nevertheless,
the recorded cases of species regression should be taken into account in future proposals
of habitat management for these PA. Moreover, the activities of surveillance and
environmental education by park authorities should be reinforced, in order to address
the cases of food poisoning and collection of specimens by local populations.

In relation to the methodology in this study, the consultation of the experts enabled the
integration of several sources of ecological information such as extensive fieldwork
experience at local level, atlases with different methodologies, habitat studies and
unpublished data. The use of expert opinion has been used in previous studies about
management effectiveness of PA (Bruner et al., 2001; Dudley et al., 2004; Hockings et
al., 2006; Courrau, 1999), assessments of the threat status of species (IUCN, 2001,
2003, 2005) or biodiversity monitoring exercises (Walder et al., 2006). Although this
method can be potentially useful in the monitoring of biodiversity, it is recommended
that future monitoring exercises in the Portuguese PA use comparable methodologies so
that direct data comparison is possible. In what concerns the choice of assessment of
threatened fauna species protected under the Birds and Habitat Directives, this
approach has the advantage of focusing on species threatened at the European level
150
from different taxonomic groups, in which there was a public compromise for their
conservation (Quayle and Ramsay, 2006; Butchart et al., 2006). However, the use of
threatened species as biodiversity indicators has limitations, despite the recent advances
made in indexes such as the IUCN Red List Index (RLI) (Quayle and Ramsay, 2006;
Butchart et al., 2006). For example, it is known that the forestations with exotic species
in the north of Malcata Mountain Nature Reserve and the high illegal hunting pressure
in this area are partially responsible for the recent decline of the wildcat (Felis
sylvestris) in this PA (Sarmento, com pess). Therefore, this choice of focusing on
threatened taxa is not necessarily a good measure of the general state of the biodiversity
in the studied PA (Gregory et al., 2005).

151
Table 5.4. List of the literature references used in the assessment of each Protected Area



Peneda-Gers Montesinho Malcata
Mammals












LVARES, F. (2003).
Monitorizao do lobo (Canis
lupus) na rea de influncia do
Parque Nacional da Peneda-
Gers: anlise do decnio 1994-
2003. Relatrio Anual.
ICN/PNPG. Lisboa. 35 pp.

LVARES, F. AND P. SIERRA
(2004). Monitorizao do lobo
(Canis lupus) na rea de
influncia do Parque Nacional da
Peneda-Gers. Relatrio Anual de
Projecto. Grupo Lobo/PNPG.
Lisboa. 32 pp.










Padro, S.C.G. and Marro, L. F. (2004),
Caracterizao e Avaliao do Estado de
Conservao dos Cursos de gua do Parque
Natural de Montesinho. Relatrio de Estgio,
PNM, Fevereiro, 2004;

Padro, S.C.G. (2002). Distribuio da Toupeira-
de-gua (Galemys pyrenaicus) nos troos que
sero afectados pelos Aproveitamentos
Hidroelctricos do Rio Rabaal (Rebordelo e
Bouoais). Relatrio de trabalho, PNM.

Marcos, A.F.A. (2004). Effects of River
Impoundment on the presence of the Pyrenean
Desman (Galemys pyrenaicus). MSc
Environmental Biology. University of Wales
Swansea, 2004.


Farinha, N.J.R. (1999). Distribuio da Lontra
Lutra lutra em Portugal Continental - Situao de
1998. Relatrio fotocopiado, ICN, Lisboa;

Farinha, N.J.R. (2000). A Lontra no Nordeste
Transmontano. Coleco Patrimnio Natural
Transmontano, Joo Azevedo Editor, Mirandela,
95 pp.
Sarmento, P., Cruz, J., Tarroso, P.
and Gonalves, P. (2003): Recovery
of habitats and preys of Lynx
pardinus in Serra da Malcata. UE
Life project final report.
ICN/RNSM.
Birds

Pimenta, M. and Santarm, M.L.
(1996) Atlas das aves do parque
nacional da Peneda-Gers.
Instituto da Conservao da
Natureza / Parque nacional da
Peneda-Gers.

Reino, L.M. (1994). Atlas das Aves Nidificantes
do Parque Natural de Montesinho. Relatrio de
Estgio do Curso de Bacherelato de Gesto de
Recursos Florestais. Edio Ciclostilada,
Bragana.

Silva, L. (1998). Atlas das aves da
Reserva Natural da Serra da
Malcata. Instituto da Conservao da
Natureza / Parque nacional da
Peneda-Gers.
Reptiles and
amphibians

Soares, C., F. lvares, A.
Loureiro, N. Sillero, J.W. Arntzen
and J.C. Brito (2005). Atlas of the
amphibians and reptiles of
Peneda-Gers National Park,
Portugal. Herpetozoa, 18(3-4):
155-170.


Teixeira, J. (1997). Contribuio para o
conhecimento da distribuio e ecologia dos
Anfbios e Rpteis no Parque Natural de
Montesinho. Relatrio de Estgio
Profissionalizante. Faculdade de Cincias da
Universidade do Porto, Porto.

Godinho, M.R.B., Teixeira, J.,
Rebelo, R., Segurado, P., Loureiro,
A., lvares, F., Gomes, N., Cardoso,
P., Camilo-Alves, C., Brito, J.C.
(1999). Atlas of the continental
Portuguese herpetofauna: an
assemblage of published and new
data. Rev. Esp. Herp., 13: 61-82.

















152
Table 5.5. List of consulted experts divided by taxonomic groups and Protected Area



Peneda-Gers Montesinho Malcata
Mammals

Dr. Francisco lvares
Dr. Henrique Carvalho


Dr. Lus Moreira
Dr. Jos Lus Rosa
Dr. Marisa Quaresma
Dr. Pedro Sarmento
Dr. Joana Cruz
Birds

Eng. Miguel Pimenta



Dr. Lus Moreira

Eng. Lus Silva
Reptiles and
amphibians

Dr. Jos Brito
Dr. Cludia Soares



Dr. Jos Teixeira Dr. Armando Loureiro


5.3. The use of past biodiversity monitoring information in future monitoring
programmes for the Portuguese Protected Areas

According to several authors, monitoring is an important condition for the successful
management of PA (e.g. Dudley et al, 2004; Hockings et al., 2006; Hockings and
Phillips, 1999; Hockings et al., 2000). This section aims to review general
recommendations for biodiversity monitoring drawn from the literature, in order to
provide some considerations for the specific case of the Portuguese PA.

5.3.1. General recommendations for biodiversity monitoring programmes

Since it is virtually impossible to measure all the characteristics of ecosystems,
conservation biologists usually rely on ecological indicators to assess environmental
change. An ecological indicator can be defined as measurable characteristics of the
structure, composition or function of ecological systems (Neimi and McDonald, 2004).
According to the European Academies Science Advisory Council (EASAC), the
problems in the agreement in a set of indicators to be applied at global level include the
lack of clarity about what biodiversity means and how to measure it, the lack of political
commitment to biodiversity monitoring and the gaps in knowledge and data (EASAC,
2005).

153
Despite these difficulties, the selection of ecological indicators should be based on the
best available knowledge of the ecosystems under consideration. In these exercises, one
of the major challenges is to select a biodiversity monitoring system that can
characterize the entire ecosystems, yet is simple enough to be effectively and efficiently
monitored (Dale and Beyeler, 2001; Oakley et al., 2003). Some authors have used long-
term monitoring data to better understand how ecosystems function which, in turn,
allows for a more scientifically sound choice of indicators (DeAngelis et al., 2003;
Noon, 2003; Manley et al., 2000; Cissel et al., 1999; Lawton et al., 1998). For example,
the 70 years of monitoring of the hydrology and wading birds nesting in the Everglades
was used to establish the importance of the water regime in the management of this
area, thus integrating the drought as a catastrophic yet cyclic factor that influences the
ecosystems (Frederick and Ogden, 2003). Baseline ecological information is also
important to distinguish between natural and human-induced changes in the ecosystems
(Noon, 2003). In the cases where there is no previous ecological information about the
ecosystems to monitor, it is advisable to conduct baseline monitoring, in order to
establish initial conditions and help determine what factors drive the system (DeAngelis
et al., 2003; Mezquida et al., 2005).

In the choice of ecological indicators, it is recommended that they meet the operational
capabilities of the organizations and individuals involved in their monitoring, to be
adequately implemented over the medium and long term (Zorn and Upton, 1997; Dale
and Beyeler, 2001; Caughlan and Oakley, 2001). Therefore, indicators should be
relatively straighforward and not too expensive to measure, and practical aspects such
as monitoring capacity should be taken into account in the choice (Zorn and Upton,
1997; Pereira and Cooper, 2006). Moreover, considering the effort that monitoring
entails, it is preferable to monitor few ecological indicators well than to spread
resources too thin (Gaines et al., 2003). Another important aspect is that biodiversity
monitoring programmes should provide for the early detection of change, so that
management actions may be taken before environmental damage increases (Noon,
2003). However, not all assessment measures should be designed to provide for early
warning, since some indicators may be better at signalling long-term trends (Woodley,
1993; DeAngelis et al., 2003; Caughlan and Oakley, 2001).

154
Finally, most ecologists agree that no single indicator can be expected to measure
everything it is necessary to know about an ecosystem. Therefore, the best option is to
adopt a suite of ecological indicators that should be chosen from three different
organizational levels: landscape, community-ecosystem and population-species (Noss,
1990; Dale and Beyeler, 2001; Davic, 2000; Lindenmayer et al., 2002a). Despite the
fact that indicators at one level may be surrogates to others at another level, this does
not always happen. For example, Lindenmayer et al. (2002a) concluded that there was
no evidence of surrogate landscape measures with generic applicability for the
conservation of large sets of species. In relation to landscape-level indicators, it is
important to refer that one index that works for a species may not be appropriate for
another with different ecological requirements (Dale and Beyeler, 2001; Lindenmayer et
al., 2002b). For example, Atauri and DeLucio (2001) found that habitat heterogeneity
was the most important factor conditioning species richness of birds and butterflies, but
also that richness of reptiles and amphibians was more closely related with the
dominance of certain land-uses. Also, some studies are finding that simpler landscape
indicators may be the best option. For instance, it was found that habitat area is the best
indicator of habitat pattern or fragmentation for areas where suitable habitat represents
more than 40% of the landscape (Gaines et al., 2003) and the dominant factor
determining species occurrence (Fahrig, 2002; Flather and Bevers, 2002). Community-
ecosystem indicators refer to particular habitats, plants and animal communities (Noss,
1995). These measures are usually more expensive to assess than indicators at the
landscape level, as they must often rely on ground-level measurements and can include
indicators such as canopy cover, number of species or nutrient recycling rates. The
population-species level is where most biodiversity monitoring programmes have been
focused (Hilty and Merelenger, 2000; Niemi and McDonald, 2004; Gaines et al., 2003;
Caringnan and Villard, 2002). However, the concept of indicator species has been
debated in the past years and is still controversial (e.g. Lindenmayer and Fischer, 2003;
Andelman and Fagan, 2000; Caro et al., 2004; Davic, 2000). Major critics point that
there are no established methods for the choice of indicator species and that criteria used
are usually ambiguous and contradictory (Landres et al., 1988; Hilty and Merelender,
2000; Caro and ODoherty, 1999; McLaren et al., 1998; Andelman and Fagan, 2000;
Caro et al., 2004).

155
In conclusion, the main criteria for the choice of indicators for a biodiversity monitoring
program reviewed in the literature are: 1) Baseline and/or historical monitoring data
should be considered in the choice of indicators; 2) Indicators should be easy and cost-
effective to measure, collect, analyse and/or calculate over time; 3) Indicators should be
able to distinguish changes caused by human-activity from natural changes; 4)
Indicators should be sensitive enough to provide early warning of change; 5) the sets of
indicators to be selected should include different organizational levels (Landscape,
community-ecosystem, species-population and genetic).

5.3.2. Future biodiversity monitoring programmes

There is still no systematic monitoring of the biodiversity in the Portuguese PA, despite
the fact that there have been several short-term monitoring exercises. As previously
said, the baseline ecological information for fauna species is reduced to few monitoring
studies of birds, reptiles and amphibians and threatened mammal species such as the
wolf (Canis lupus) and the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) (e.g. Pimenta et al., 2005;
Castro and Palma, 1996; Sarmento et al., 2003). Currently, national atlases of breeding
birds and reptiles and amphibians at scales of 10x10 km
2
are in the process of
finalization. There is also a Common Birds Monitoring Program since 2004 that is
coordinated by the environmental NGO Sociedade Portuguesa para o Estudo das
Aves (SPEA), (Hilton, 2006). This programme is integrated in the Pan-European
Common Bird Monitoring Project, monitoring common birds every year in a selection
of 10x10 km
2
squares, in order to provide a valuable tool as an indicator for the rural
development and sustainable development policies (Hilton, 2006).

The baseline information concerning the habitats includes the Corine Land Cover
(CLC90) which was updated in 2000 (CLC2000), but this European map uses the scale
of 1:100 000 and habitat classes which are not appropriate for the regional monitoring
of biological diversity (EEA, 2007; Pereira and Cooper, 2006). There is also a national
map of land use (COS) based on aerial photos of 1991 and 1995 elaborated by the
Sistema Nacional de Informao Geogrfica (SNIG) with a scale of 1:25 000, in which
the land use classes could be adapted for biodiversity monitoring (SNIG, 2007).

156
The choice of ecological indicators for a monitoring programme in these areas will
probably be conditioned by the scarcity of resources that exist for their management.
Nevertheless, it is proposed that biodiversity monitoring in the Portuguese Protected
Areas could be done using ecological indicators at three different levels:

1. Species-population level: Distribution and/or abundance of top predators.

Justification: The choice of this indicator is justified by the fact that these are umbrella
species with threat status, which often suffer from direct human pressure and usually
require large areas of suitable habitat.

Method: In the case of the carnivore top predators such as the wolf (Canis lupus) or the
wildcat (Felis sylvestris), the assessment of these species could be done in the PA where
these species exist through the monitoring of the signs of presence every two years or,
at least, every five years (e.g. Pimenta et al., 2005; Sarmento et al, 2003). In the case of
threatened birds of prey such as the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), the census and
monitoring of the nests, the breeding success and the number of individuals in the PA
where they exist could be also done every two years or, at least, every five years.

2. Community-ecosystem level: Distribution and/or abundance of breeding birds; In
alternative, European Wild Bird Index.

Justification: According to Pereira and Cooper (2006), birds are relatively easy to
census, with many species being relatively conspicuous and/or highly vocal, with many
ongoing monitoring programmes to build on and many volunteers ready to contribute.
In Portugal, the capacity for large-scale monitoring of this group already exists and
there are different bird census projects that could be used for biodiversity monitoring in
the PA (e.g. national breeding bird census and the Common Bird Monitoring Scheme).

Method: In the case of choice of the indicator distribution and/or abundance of breeding
birds, ecological information of the national breeding birds census could be used.
However, the scale of 10x10 km
2
used in this study is considered too large to assess
changes in the Portuguese PA. Nevertheless, the fieldwork method in this national
census used a scale of 2x2 km
2
, which could be compared with results of future
157
monitoring exercises in PA. Therefore, it is proposed that the monitoring of breeding
birds is conducted at 2x2 km
2
every two years or, at least, every five years. The
partnerships with NGOs such as SPEA could improve the monitoring of this indicator.

In alternative, the Wild Bird Indicator could be used, in order to enable easier
comparisons with other European countries (EASAC, 2005). This indicator is derived
from annually operated breeding bird surveys spanning different periods from eighteen
European countries (EASAC, 2005). Since this monitoring programme already exists in
Portugal, the method and/or information relative to the PA could be used to assess this
ecological indicator (Hilton, 2006).

3) Landscape level: Habitat area and indexes of fragmentation/connectivity of the
habitat.

Justification: As previously said, the habitat area is considered the best indicator of
habitat pattern or fragmentation for areas where suitable habitat represents more than
40% of the landscape (Gaines et al., 2003) and the dominant factor determining species
occurrence (e.g. Fahrig, 2002; Flather and Bevers, 2002). In addition, it is also possible
to calculate indexes of fragmentation/connectivity of the habitat.

Method: The scale and the classes of the Corine Land Cover is not appropriate for the
biodiversity monitoring of the Portuguese PA, but the map of the land use of the SNIG
is being updated and could be adapted to serve as a basis for future biodiversity
monitoring of the habitat in these areas (see Table 5.6.). The size of these habitat classes
could be assessed every two years or, at least, every five years. In relation to the
fragmentation/connectivity indexes of the habitat, this is still a controversial subject
which is in constant evolution and probably the best solution would be to consult the
most recent literature references before deciding which indexes to use.





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Table 5.6. Suggested classes of habitat (adapted from Tucker and Evans, 1997) and
corresponding classes of Land Use Map (COS)

1) Urban and mining areas
(Class COS 1-Areas artificiais)

2) Bare soil: Areas with little or no vegetatation
(Class COS 4 - J_+0 reas descobertas sem ou com pouca vegetao; 4 JY1 Praia,
dunas, areais e solos sem cobertura vegetal)

3) Broadleaved evergreen and deciduous forest: Climax forests with Quercus, Ulmus,
Acer, Fraxinus, with abundant shrub layer with Cistus, Genista and Erica.
(Class COS 3-Folhosas, except EE+_ Eucalipto; 3- Povoamento florestal misto
(Folhosas + Resinosas) with more than 50% occupied by native species)

4) Closed Mediterranean shrubland: Evergreen hard-leaved shrubs with 1-4 metres high,
with Arbutus, Cistus, Erica, Phyllirea, Genista, Calycotome, Sarothamnus, Quercus,
Ulex, Rhammus, Pistacea and Myrtus.
(Class COS 4 QQ6/FF6, ZZ6/BB6 Vegetao escleroftica-carrascal; I_+0
Vegetao arbustiva alta e floresta degradada ou de transio)

5) Open, low shrubland and rocky habitats: Dwarf-shrub communities with widely
spaced shrubs, such as Cistus, Rosmarinus, Lavandula and Helichrysum interspersed
with sparse grasses and characteristically a considerable amout of bare, stony ground.
(Class COS 4- II2 Vegetao arbustiva baixa-matos+ 4- JY2 Rocha nua)

6) Agricultural Areas: Agricultural and Agro-Forestry Areas.
(Class COS 2- reas agrcolas)

7) Pastoral Areas : Open, extensively grazed areas.
(Class COS 4- II 1 Pastagens naturais pobres+ 2- GG1 Prados e lameiros)

8) Plantations of non-native tree species : Monocultures of non-native tree species such
as Eucalyptus globulus or Pinus sp. plantations.
(Class COS 3- EE+_ Eucalipto; 3- Resinosas; 3- Povoamento florestal misto
(Folhosas + Resinosas) with more than 50% occupied by non-native species)

9) Riparian gallery: Riparian gallery along the waterlines
(No corresponding Class COS; assessed through aerial photography and fieldwork)

10) Humid Areas
(Class COS 5- Meios aquticos; 6- Superfcies com gua, except HH5- Mar e
Oceano)

159

Chapter 6. Implications of the historical information in the
management of the Portuguese Protected Areas

6.1. Summary

This chapter aims to summarize and integrate the main contributions of this dissertation
for the management of the Portuguese PA. The main conclusions of the chapter are that:
1) concepts such as wilderness, naturalness and ecological integrity should be
distinguished from the current objective of biodiversity conservation, which influences
factors such as the view on the traditional human activities that occur in these areas; 2)
since local populations living in the Portuguese PA are important for biodiversity
conservation, it is recommended that traditional activities continue and that the dialogue
between these populations and PA authorities is improved; 3) the management of these
areas can promote biodiversity conservation following two basic and compatible
strategies: the restoration of ecosystems and the environmentally friendly use of the
land; 4) it is recommended that the Portuguese PA are more promoted in the Portuguese
society through rural and ecotourism, environmental education, outdoor activities,
advertisement or any other means, since the management of these areas is potentially
more efficient if there is a public recognition of their value; 5) research developed in
three Portuguese PA based on expert opinion suggest that threatened fauna species have
been conserved between 1996 and 2005 in the three studied Protected Areas; 6) future
biodiversity monitoring programmes could use current monitoring schemes and
information, whereas the first years of biodiversity monitoring could be used as
reference values for new ecological indicators; 7) the results of this dissertation may
also contribute for the improvement of the management of the Portuguese PA in ways
that are not evident in the present.

6.2. Implications for the management of the Portuguese Protected Areas

6.2.1. Past management objectives

The management objectives of the Portuguese PA have changed along time, which had
as consequence the change of view in relation to the role of the human activities in these
160
areas. Before the modern history of the PA, the royal and monastery enclosures, which
were later converted in National Forests, did not have resident populations and were
managed with the main objective of the sustainable use of natural resources.

The creation of the Peneda-Gers National Park in 1971 as the first Portuguese PA was
very influenced by the Yellowstone model and the concept of wilderness. Since the
main management objectives for this area were the scientific research, tourism and
environmental education, the initial aim was to reduce traditional human activities that
existed in this area.

This protectionist principle was rapidly replaced by the European idea of traditional
landscape, in which traditional human activities such as agriculture and animal
husbandry were promoted. In this case, one of the objectives was to prevent the effects
of the rural exodus, the loss of the traditional rural landscapes and associated cultural
patrimony.

Later, the prevailing idea for the management of PA was nature conservation, in which
human activities were managed in order to be compatible with this objective. After the
introduction of the concept of biodiversity in the mid-1990s, the main objective in
the Portuguese PA became the conservation of biodiversity, with a gradual recognition
of the importance of the action of local populations in the achievement of this objective.

The objective of wilderness could have as historical reference point the pre-agricultural
state (i.e. Beginning of the Holocene; see Chapter 3.3. for details), despite the fact that
there is evidence of the human impact in the Mediterranean area in the last 50 000 years
(Naveh and Carmel, 2003). In relation to the objective of traditional landscape, the
historical reference point could be the XIX century, before the beginning of the massive
rural exodus and the introduction of the industrial forestations with exotic species such
as the eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus). In what concerns the nature and biodiversity
conservation, the historical reference points are more ambiguous, but there is a clear
focus on the maintenance of the natural values that exist in the present and/or that
existed until a recent past. For example, there is currently a great concern in Portugal for
the conservation of the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus), since this species is becoming
extinct (e.g. Cabral et al., 2005).
161

6.2.2. Current management objectives

Previous authors have discussed the differences between the objective of biodiversity
conservation and the objectives of wilderness, naturalness and ecological integrity (e.g.
Wright, 1999; Gillson et al., 2003; Gillson and Willis, 2004; Hochtl et al., 2005).
Although there are areas in which is possible to follow these objectives simultaneously,
there are others in which biodiversity conservation necessarily implies the maintenance
of human action. For example, in Portugal, the region of Castro Verde is a human-made
cereal steppe that originated from the clearance of the natural evergreen oak Quercus
spp. forests (Moreira, 1999). This site has been classified as Natura 2000 mainly due to
the existence of sixteen threatened bird species. Conservation projects implemented
since 1993 aim to maintain this artificial state through the continuation of traditional
farming practices (Moreira, 1999; Delgado and Moreira, 2000).

Other studies in Portugal have shown the importance of the human action for
biodiversity conservation. For example, Moreira et al. (2005) concluded that 47% of the
vertebrate species, 38% of the vegetation species and 21% of the agricultural habitats
listed in European Union Directives depended upon the maintenance of low intensity
farming systems.

Part of the explanations for these results can be extracted from the study of the historical
ecology of Portugal. As shown in this dissertation, human impact had an important
effect on the biodiversity in Portugal, increasing drastically since the beginning of the
Neolithic about 7500 years ago and probably becoming the most important factor
conditioning ecosystems in the last 5000 years.

Therefore, the objective of biodiversity conservation seems to imply the maintenance of
traditional human actions and/or similar management activities. Moreover, the concepts
of wilderness, naturalness and ecological integrity are potentially useful as reference
points for the management of these areas, but they seem to be inappropriate as
management objectives for these areas. In other words, the management of the
Portuguese PA may aim to increase the relative naturalness of these areas, but only
when this decision does not significantly decrease biodiversity.
162

In the last few years, the management objective in the Portuguese PA has been
gradually changing from nature to biodiversity conservation. This is visible, for
example, in the change of name of the state agency responsible for the management of
these areas from Institute of nature conservation to Institute of nature and
biodiversity conservation. Also, the older legislation concerning the management
objectives of the Portuguese PA makes frequent references to natural habitats,
natural equilibrium and integrity, but does not mention the importance of human
action to reach these conservation goals (e.g. Law-Decree 19/93, 23/01/93). In more
recent legislation, there are clear statements for the need of human action to achieve
biodiversity conservation (e.g. Law-Decree 60/2001).

6.2.3. Future management options

In the last decades, the general trend of land abandonment in the Portuguese PA had the
positive effect of the slow recovery of the vegetation and fauna. However, the decrease
of human activities such as the animal husbandry and controlled burning practices that
used to prevent fuel accumulation resulted in the negative effects of recurrent fires,
shrub encroachment and decrease of small-scale patchiness (Moreira et al., 2001, 2005).
Moreover, this land abandonment is contributing for the disappearance of rural
communities, associated knowledge, local crop varieties, autochthonous cattle breeds
and cultural heritage (Pereira et al., 2005). This trend is common to other Mediterranean
countries and has been arising concerns about the future management of these areas
(Debussche et al., 2001; Grove and Rackham, 2001; Falcucci et al., 2007; Hochtl et al.,
2005). The biodiversity in this region is also becoming threatened due to the
intensification of agriculture, which usually creates areas of poor biodiversity and the
fragmentation of the habitat (Tscharntke et al., 2005; Benton et al., 2003).

As previously said, considering that the main management objective of the Portuguese
PA is biodiversity conservation, the management of these areas can follow two basic
and compatible strategies: the restoration of ecosystems and the environmentally
friendly use of the land (Pereira et al., 2005; Falcucci et al., 2007; Hochtl et al., 2005;
Benton et al., 2003).

163
In the first case, the restoration of ecosystems could be fastened through initiatives of
habitat management such as the plantation of native forest. These initiatives would
increase the relative naturalness, wilderness and ecological integrity of the PA, but it is
important to consider that the factors of natural disturbance that promoted habitat
heterogeneity are mostly absent (e.g. Bengtsson et al., 2000). Therefore, despite the fact
that the creation of large areas of continuous native forest may be important for top
predators and large herbivores, this management option could also reduce habitat
heterogeneity and, consequently, local biodiversity (Benayas and Montaa, 2003;
Moreira et al., 2001, 2005). Although such a decision could make sense from a global
point of view of biodiversity conservation, it is advisable to consider the impacts at the
regional and local scales. Moreover, large continuous forests would not be suitable as a
living or visiting space for humans, thus compromising the welfare of local populations
and the tourism in the PA (Hochtl et al., 2005).

Nevertheless, it may be possible to increase natural disturbance factors such as the
natural herbivory. For example, the creation of hunting areas for large herbivores such
as the red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and wild boar (Sus
scrofa) could be promoted in some Portuguese PA, in similarity to what happens in
several Spanish PA. This management option could promote habitat heterogeneity and
also re-establish native herbivores to their former ranges (Bengtsson et al, 2000;
Svenning, 2002; Benayas and Montaa, 2003; Rees, 2001).

Moreover, it may also be possible to re-establish extinct native herbivore species in the
future, which is also justified by the obligation under international law for European
States to reintroduce native species (Rees, 2001). For example, the European Beaver
(Castor fiber) has been reintroduced in the northeast of Spain in 2003 (Rosell, com
pess.) and its natural expansion in the next decades could bring the species back to
Portugal. The maintenance of a species such as the European beaver and the mentioned
hunting areas for large herbivores would be more viable in areas of low human density,
in order to reduce the conflicts between these species and local populations.

In the second case, the environmentally friendly use of the land could be done through
the promotion of traditional land use activities and/or similar management activities.
Agri-environmental regulation (EEC reg. 2078/92) already promotes traditional agro-
164
pastoral practices in Europe through compensatory payments to farmers, but this is
probably not enough to maintain such activities (Moreira, 1999; Calvete et al., 2004).
One possible solution to increase the sustainability of traditional practices may be to tax
the owners of large areas of intensive agriculture, using this income to help finance
traditional human activities. The justification for this measure is that intensive
agriculture usually implies the reduction of biodiversity and the degradation of natural
resources. Traditional agriculture and animal husbandry normally maintain biodiversity,
which is not only important from a conservationist point of view, but also to maintain
the productivity in some areas of intensive agriculture. For example, cultures that
depend upon insects to assist in the reproduction would probably be reduced if areas of
traditional agriculture did not exist. The certification of traditional products and the
harmonization of these traditional activities with rural and ecotourism, hunting and
other recreational activities could also contribute for their maintenance. In alternative
and/or complement to these measures, the PA authorities could also manage these areas
through the mechanical opening of the vegetation and the use of prescribed fires, which
can also help to prevent wildfires and increase the density of hunting species such as the
wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cunniculus) and the red partridge (Alectoris rufa) (Svenning,
2002; Moreira, 1999; Calvete et al., 2004). On the other hand, areas of intensive
agriculture could increase habitat heterogeneity using low cost management options
such as grass field margins or in-field strips, in order to minimize farmland biodiversity
decline (Benton et al., 2003).

6.2.4. Relationship with the population

The objective of biodiversity conservation in the PA largely depends upon the
relationship between PA authorities and local populations. As stated above, traditional
human activities such as agriculture and animal husbandry may be important for
biodiversity conservation in these areas (Dearden and Dempsey, 2004; Mulder and
Coppolillo, 2005), whereas other human activities such as forestry and hunting may also
need to be regulated to achieve the sustainable use of natural resources. Considering that
local populations living in the Portuguese PA are sometimes ignored in decisions
concerning their management, this situation may have to be corrected (Barros, 2007).
Therefore, this dialogue could be promoted, for example, through more frequent
165
individual enquiries and/or public discussions with the local populations about the
management of the PA (Heinen, 1996; Barros, 2007).

In relation to the population in general, the history of the Portuguese PA is illustrative
of the reduced interest, support and participation of the Portuguese society in the
establishment and management of these areas. The initiative of their creation usually
came from the State agencies, which in some cases had to persuade local authorities and
populations that their establishment would bring benefits to the region. Therefore, it
seems important to continue to raise public support to the Portuguese PA at global,
regional and local levels. The mechanisms to increase this public support can include
environmental education, rural and ecotourism, outdoor activities, advertisement or any
other means that value them.

6.2.5. Biodiversity monitoring programmes

The Portuguese PA still lack systematic biodiversity monitoring programmes which
enable a direct assessment of the management effectiveness of these areas. In the study
presented above, expert opinion had to be used in order to compensate for the lack of
biodiversity monitoring information. Hence, the difficulty of comparison between
existing monitoring studies has led to the recommendation that future monitoring use
comparable methodologies.

It was also recommended that the Portuguese PA monitor biodiversity at three levels:
species-population, community-ecosystem and landscape levels. Considering that the
Portuguese PA aim for biodiversity conservation, reference values for the comparison
of ecological indicators can be extrapolated from the recent past. In some cases, the
existing monitoring information and methodologies could be used as baseline
information (e.g. national atlases of breeding birds and reptiles and amphibians,
Common Birds Monitoring Scheme). If this is not possible, these baseline values could
be collected during the first years of monitoring of the chosen new ecological indicators
(Mezquida et al., 2005). The creation and implementation of such biodiversity
monitoring programmes would benefit from partnerships between PA staff, research
institutions and environmental NGOs.

166
Finally, efforts of monitoring and evaluation of PA have tended to focus on assessing
biodiversity, rather than assessing the effectiveness of natural resource management
interventions, i.e. performance monitoring (Hockings et al., 2006). However, a
researcher that only does biodiversity monitoring and concludes that a PA is not
efficient in accomplishing biodiversity conservation may not know which are the causes
for the failure in the management. Therefore, it is also recommended the application of
programmes of performance monitoring of the Portuguese PA, using methodologies
such as the framework proposed by the World Commission on Protected Areas
(Hockings et al, 2006) or the World Wide Fund Rapid assessment and prioritisation
(Ervin, 2003).

6.2.6. Conclusions

In conclusion, the main contributions of this dissertation for the management of the
Portuguese PA are:

1) Concepts such as wilderness, naturalness and ecological integrity can help to guide
management options for these areas, but they seem inappropriate as direct management
objectives. Therefore, it is recommended to distinguish such concepts from the current
management objective of biodiversity conservation. One of the major consequences of
this distinction lies in the fact that biodiversity conservation in Portugal usually benefits
from the traditional human activities and/or similar management activities, whereas the
objectives of wilderness, naturalness and ecological integrity in PA usually imply a very
low human activity.

2) Local populations living in the Portuguese PA are important for biodiversity
conservation, since they are responsible for the maintenance of traditional human
activities and also the main actors in the sustainable use of natural resources. Therefore,
it is recommended that these traditional activities are maintained and that the dialogue
between these populations and PA authorities is improved.

3) The management of these areas may promote biodiversity conservation following
two basic and compatible strategies, as previously argued by other authors (e.g. Pereira
et al., 2005): the restoration of ecosystems and the environmentally friendly use of the
167
land. In the first case, it is recommended that native vegetation and fauna are promoted,
but natural factors of disturbance that are mostly absent may have to be compensated
through human-induced disturbance. In the second case, it is recommended the
promotion of agro-environmental measures and other initiatives that enable the
continuation of traditional management and/or similar activities that favour biodiversity
conservation.

4) Considering that the management of the PA is potentially more efficient if there is a
public recognition of the value of these areas, it is also recommended the promotion of
these areas in the Portuguese society through environmental education, rural
ecotourism, outdoor activities, advertisement or any other means that value them.

5) Despite the fact that there are still no systematic biodiversity monitoring programmes
in the Portuguese PA, research concerning three of these areas based on expert opinion
suggest that threatened fauna species at European level have been conserved between
1996 and 2005.

6) Future biodiversity monitoring programmes could use current monitoring schemes
and baseline information. In the cases in which this would not be possible, the first
years of biodiversity monitoring could be used as reference values to new ecological
indicators. These monitoring programmes could be especially useful if performance
monitoring was done in simultaneous.

7) Finally, it is important to state that the results of this dissertation may also contribute
for the improvement of the management of the Portuguese PA in ways that are not
evident in the present. For example, the results obtained here could be potentially useful
in future periods of reflection about the management objectives for these areas.

168

Chapter 7. Final considerations

7.1. Final considerations

This dissertation reinforces the idea that the historical knowledge is useful for the
management of Protected Areas. In this case study, the contributions of the historical
ecology of Portugal and the history of the Portuguese PA seemed to be especially
relevant for the appropriate management of these areas, but research about past
biodiversity monitoring information also produced contributions for the management of
these areas.

In what concerns the study of historical ecology, recent research is revealing that many
ancient and virgin forests have been extensively modified by humans (Willis et al.,
2004). For example, archaeological studies in the Solomon Islands are showing that the
apparently pristine rainforests in New Georgia have regenerated less than 150 years ago
(Gillson and Willis, 2004). Another example is the suggestion of the historical studies
that Native Americans used low intensity, frequent burns to create a mosaic of forest,
shrub land and grassland in some areas (Gillson and Willis, 2004). Therefore, the study
of the historical ecology is probably useful for the management of Protected Areas in
many regions of the World, and especially important in regions with higher human
influence in the ecosystems.

The history of PA at national and international levels has been studied by previous
authors and was considered useful in decision-making processes (e.g. Jepson and
Whittaker, 2002; Davenport and Rao, 2002 Mulder and Coppolillo, 2005; Kalamandeen
and Gillson, 2007). Indeed, this type of historical information seems to be particularly
useful when a reflection about management is required, such as during the revision of
management plans, changes of political regime, changes in a Protected Area system,
introduction of new ideas for management, etc. This information may be more useful in
Protected Areas that have greater management problems, that have a longer history
and/or which were subject to more changes along their history.

169
The monitoring of biodiversity in PA is an important condition for their successful
management (e.g. Dudley et al., 2004). Although there are examples of well-established
monitoring programmes around the World, most of the PA still lack such systems
(Hockings et al., 2006). The Portuguese case study confirms the views of other authors
that the review of past biodiversity monitoring information may be useful to establish
reference values for ecological indicators and to adapt existing monitoring schemes for
the future monitoring of these areas (e.g. Caughlan and Oakley, 2001; DeAngelis et al.,
2003; Mezquida et al., 2005; Frederick and Ogden, 2003; Niemi and McDonald, 2004).
Finally, despite the fact that it is always preferable to use similar methods which enable
quantification along time, it is suggested that expert opinion may also be used to assess
the local conservation status of species when the existing monitoring information is not
directly comparable.

In relation to the specific conclusions of this dissertation, the study of the historical
ecology of Portugal supports the suggestions of other authors such as Butzer (2005) and
Blondel (2006) for a long-term ecological transformation in the Mediterranean area
due to both natural and human factors (Chapter 3.2.; Appendix 1 and 2). In the
beginning of the Holocene, the climate seems to have been the most important factor of
change in the Portuguese territory, but human impact probably became preponderant in
the last 5000 years. During the beginning of the Holocene, it is hypothesized that the
vegetation in Portugal was composed of closed and opened vegetation, in which natural
disturbance factors such as herbivory, fires, wind throws and landslides and human
disturbance factors such as forest clearance and fires were responsible for the creation
and maintenance of areas of opened vegetation (Chapter 3.3.). Despite the resilience of
ecosystems and human populations, it was argued that there was an ecological
degradation during the Holocene, in which the ecosystems flipped into new alternative
stable states, to incorporate the reduction of the natural disturbance and the increase of
the human-induced disturbance.

Previous studies have argued for the existence of international models of management
of PA, based on concepts associated with the discipline of Conservation Biology (e.g.
Kalamandeen and Gillson, 2007; Mulder and Copolillo, 2005; Jepson and Whittaker,
2002). This dissertation has shown that the different models applied in the history of the
Portuguese PA also have their origin in international conservation experiences and
170
concepts (Chapter 4.2.). The Portuguese case confirms the statement of other authors
that most of the problems that PA managers face have their origin in the creation of
these areas (Brandon, 1998; Rylands and Brandon, 2005; Davenport and Rao, 2002).
For example, the lack of public support and resources for management in the
Portuguese PA dates back to the establishment of these areas. It was also concluded that
widespread environmental awareness could increase the support to these areas and the
dialogue with local populations living in these areas could be improved.

The objective of halting biodiversity loss by 2010 that was assumed by the European
Union can only be assured if there are effective methods of monitoring. This
dissertation has shown that threatened fauna species at European level were generally
conserved in three Protected Areas between 1996 and 2005 (Chapter 5.2.). Although
there was a significant number of fauna species that could not be assessed due to lack of
information, the promotion of some traditional human activities financially supported
by the European Union seem to have minimized the negative effects of the agricultural
abandonment and intensification. It was also shown that the current monitoring
programmes could also be used in future biodiversity monitoring programmes for the
Portuguese PA. The suggested methodology for such programmes is based on
monitoring at three levels (species-population, community-ecosystem and landscape),
which could be created and performed in partnership by PA staff, research institutions
and environmental NGOs (Chapter 5.3.).




171
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203

Annex 1. Mission of the Instituto de Conservao da Natureza e
Biodiversidade (ICNB)

According to the recent legislation (Law-Decree 136/2007, 24/07/2007), the ICNB has
the mission to propose, follow, ensure and execute the policies of conservation of nature
and biodiversity and the management of PA, aiming for the public recognition of the
natural patrimony.

The main functions of the ICNB are to:

a) Execute functions of national authority for the conservation of nature and
biodiversity;
b) Ensure the preservation of the conservation of nature and biodiversity and the
sustainable management of species and natural habitats of wild fauna and flora,
promoting the elaboration and implementation of plans, programs and actions,
specifically in the domains of the inventorying, monitoring, surveillance and
information systems;
c) Propose the creation of classified areas, terrestrial and marine, ensuring the
management of areas of national importance and collaborating in the
management of areas of regional and national ambit, specifically in the
elaboration, evaluation and revision of management plans and management of
the PA and coastal areas;
d) Promote the articulation and integration of the objectives of conservation and
sustainable use of the natural resources in the policy of the territorial planning
and the different sectorial policies, aiming for the economical and social
promotion of the national territory as a structuring factor of the different sectors
of economic activity, specifically through partnerships and with a special focus
in the nature tourism;
e) Promote the application of the National Strategy of Conservation of Nature and
Biodiversity and the creation and management of the national program of nature
conservation;
f) Promote and develop the information, visitation, education and awareness of
populations, the different stakeholders and organizations, in the area of nature
and biodiversity conservation, with the objective of creating a collective
awareness about the importance of natural values;
g) Ensure the cooperation with other entities in the accompanying of the issues, the
transposition and fulfillment of the international and communitary law in what
concerns the conservation of nature and biodiversity.







204

Annex 2. Legislation about the Portuguese network of Protected Areas
(Law-Decree 19/93, 23/01/1993)

National park (IUCN Category II)

1-A national park is defined as an area which contains one or more unaltered or slightly
altered ecosystems by human intervention, integrating representative samples of the
regions of natural or humanized landscapes, flora and fauna species, geomorphological
areas or habitats of species with ecological, scientific and educational interest.

2-The classification of a national park has the objective of promoting the adoption of
measures which enable the protection of the ecological integrity of ecosystems and
avoid the exploitation or intensive use of natural resources.

Nature reserve (IUCN Category Ia and IV)

1-A national reserve is an area destined for the protection of habitats, fauna and flora.

2-The classification of a natural reserve has the objective of promoting the adoption of
measures for the protection of the ecological integrity of ecosystems and avoid the
exploitation or intensive use of natural resources.

Natural park (IUCN Category IV and V)

1-A natural park is an area characterized for having natural, semi-natural and
humanized landscapes of national interest, as an example of harmonious integration of
human activity and nature, thus presenting samples of a biome or natural region.

2-The classification of a natural park has the effect of enabling the adoption of measures
for the maintenance and valoration of natural and semi-natural landscapes and
ecological diversity.

Natural monument (IUCN Category III)

A natural monument is a natural occurrence which contains one or more features which,
According to its singularity, rarity or representativity in ecological, aesthetical,
scientific and cultural terms, demand the conservation and maintenance of its integrity.

Protected landscape (IUCN Category V)

1-A protected landscape is an area of natural, seminatural and humanized landscapes of
regional or local interest, which is resultant of an harmonious interaction of humans and
nature, thus presenting high aesthetical or natural value.

2-The classification of a protected landscape has the objective of promoting the
adoption of measures which, at regional or local levels, promotes the maintenance and
valoration of characteristics of natural and semi-natural landscapes and biological
diversity.

205
Site of biological interest (IUCN Category IV)

According to the interested landowners, PA of private status can be classified and
designated site of biological interest, with the purpose of protecting the wild fauna
and flora and the respective natural habitats of ecological or scientific interest.

Marine reserves and parks

1-In the PA which include marine areas, marine reserves or parks can be established.

2-Marine reserves have the purpose of adopting measures aiming for the protection of
marine communities and sensitive habitats, so it is possible to ensure marine
biodiversity.

3-Marine parks have the purpose of adoption of measures which aim for the protection,
valoration and sustainable use of marine resources, through the harmonious integration
of human activities.

Integral reserves

1-In the PA, areas of integral protection called integral reserves can be established.

2-The integral reserves are spaces with the objective of maintaining natural processes in
an undisturbed state and the preservation of samples ecologically representative in a
dynamic and evolutionary state and in which the human presence is only tolerated for
reasons of scientific research or environmental monitoring.

3-Once these areas are established, they can be subject to the expropriation in the terms
of the law.

















206
Appendix 1. Aguiar, C., Pinto, B., 2007. Paleo-histria e histria antiga das
florestas de Portugal continental- at Idade Mdia. In: Silva, J.S. (Ed.),
Floresta e Sociedade. Uma histria em comum. rvores e Florestas de
Portugal. FLAD, PUBLICO, LPN. pp. 15-49 [in portuguese, as co-author]

Das primeiras plantas terrestres dominncia das plantas com flor

Por mais distinta que seja a sua morfologia ou ecologia, todas as espcies de seres vivos
partilham um padro histrico-evolutivo comum: descendem de uma ou,
excepcionalmente, mais do que uma espcie ancestral, persistem durante um perodo
varivel de tempo e, inevitavelmente, acabam por se extinguir.
Os mecanismos de formao de novas espcies a partir de outras pr-existentes (i.e. os
mecanismos de especiao) so muito diversos. Admite-se que a maior parte das
espcies de plantas terrestres se formou em ambientes selectivos particulares, a partir de
pequenas populaes situadas na margem da rea de distribuio da espcie parental, ou
aps redues drsticas da rea de distribuio original. Uma vez concludo o processo
de especiao, seguiu-se um perodo de tempo varivel de expanso da rea de
distribuio e a colonizao de novos territrios. A ocorrncia de alteraes climticas e
de outras alteraes ambientais sbitas foi o mais importante motor dos fenmenos de
especiao em larga escala (i.e. radiao adaptativa), bem como dos processos de
contraco da rea de distribuio ou de extino.

O que uma espcie? Como se designa?
A azinheira, o carvalho-negral, a sorveira-dos-passarinhos ou o pinheiro-manso so
espcies de rvores fceis de reconhecer num jardim ou num bosque. Embora os seres
humanos possuam uma espantosa capacidade inata para classificar e arrumar os seres
vivos em categorias, o conceito de espcie escapa a uma definio simples e objectiva.
Habitualmente, diz-se que pertencem mesma espcie indivduos semelhantes entre si
capazes de gerarem descendentes frteis por reproduo sexuada. Este conceito de
espcie conceito biolgico de espcie no o mais apropriado para o mundo das
plantas porque as barreiras reprodutivas entre as espcies de plantas so geralmente
fracas. Por exemplo, as Querci
*
(carvalhos) cruzam-se com facilidade e produzem
hbridos frteis em condies naturais, porm consensual que a Quercus robur
(carvalho-roble), a Q. pyrenaica (carvalho-negral) ou a Q. rotundifolia (azinheira) so
espcies autnomas. A espcie , acima de tudo, um conceito til. No caso das plantas
com semente, usualmente aplicado pelos botnicos a entidades biolgicas com
existncia real, que no cabe aqui explicitar.
Cada espcie tem apenas um nome cientfico vlido. Os nomes cientficos das espcies
so compostos por duas palavras em latim ou latinizadas, correspondendo a primeira ao
nome do gnero. Por exemplo, o carvalho-negral pertence ao gnero Quercus e designa-
se por Quercus pyrenaica. As espcies agrupam-se em gneros e os gneros em
famlias. Os nomes cientficos das famlias so constitudos por uma nica palavra
terminada em aceae, e.g. Fagaceae (famlia dos carvalhos). Por vezes, entre as
categorias genrica e familiar, necessrio reconhecer subfamlias. Os nomes
cientficos das subfamlias terminam em oideae, e.g. subfamlia Bombacoideae
(subfamlia do embondeiro) da famlia das Malvaceae (famlia das malvas).


*
Plural de Quercus.
207
Os substratos geolgicos do territrio continental portugus so suficientemente antigos
para neles se ter desenrolado uma verso muito completa da histria evolutiva das
plantas terrestres.
As primeiras plantas terrestres, que se assemelhavam a alguns dos grupos actuais de
musgos, tero invadido os continentes no Ordovcico (510-439 Ma BP
**
) (Figura 0.1).
As mais antigas plantas vasculares terrestres com registo fssil fsseis de Cooksonia
tero surgido h mais de 428 Ma, no Silrico (439-409 Ma BP), em pleno Paleozico.
As primeiras rvores e as primeiras florestas datam do perodo geolgico seguinte, do
Devnico (409-363 Ma BP). Entre 395-286 Ma BP, a vegetao terrestre, inicialmente
constituda por pequenas plantas vasculares e no vasculares, deu lugar a florestas
frondosas, cujas rvores ultrapassavam por vezes os 35 m. At difuso e dominncia
das plantas com semente destitudas de flores (gimnosprmicas) no Trissico (245-208
Ma BP), vrios grupos de fetos (pteridfitos) assumiram grande importncia nos
ecossistemas florestais paleozicos, como por exemplo os fetos-licpsidos (licopdios)
(Figura 0.2), os fetos-sphenpsidos (cavalinhas) e os fetos-filicpsidos (fetos-
verdadeiros).

Figura 0.1 (VII.I) - Eras e Perodos geolgicos. (JT)

Figura 0.2 (VII.I) - A Palhinhaea cernua um dos raros representantes da Classe
Lycopsida (fetos-licpsidos) em Portugal, o mais importante grupo de fetos nas florestas
paleozicas. O nome genrico desta espcie foi dedicado pelos Professores Joo de
Carvalho e Vasconcellos e Joo do Amaral Franco ao ilustre botnico aoriano Rui
Teles Palhinha, nascido na Ilha Terceira em 1871. (CA)

As florestas do final do Paleozico (perodos Carbonfero, 363-290 Ma BP, e Prmico,
290-245 Ma BP) produziram enormes quantidades de biomassa. Os restos orgnicos dos
fetos e das gimnosprmicas primitivas que povoavam estas florestas, acumulados e
metamorfoseados em gigantescas bacias sedimentares pantanosas, deram origem aos
actuais depsitos de carvo (o petrleo procede de acumulaes geologicamente muito
antigas de algas e zooplncton). A construo das sociedades contemporneas iniciou-se
na revoluo industrial (final do sculo XVIII) e o consumo da energia solar fssil
acumulada sob a forma de carvo h mais de 245 Ma.
Os fsseis mais antigos de plantas com semente foram descobertos em formaes
geolgicas devnicas, com cerca de 370 Ma BP. No final do Paleozico (perodos
Carbonfero e Prmico) alcanaram grande importncia dois grupos primitivos de
gimnosprmicas arbreas: os cordates e as pteridosprmicas. As plantas deste ltimo
grupo assemelhavam-se aos fetos-filicpsidos e, por essa razo, so incorrectamente
designadas por fetos-com-semente. Enquanto que os fetos no produzem plen nem
sementes e se reproduzem por esporos, semelhana das gimnosprmicas actuais, os
fetos-com-semente e as cordates produziam plen e sementes.
Durante a maior parte do Mesozico (245-65 Ma BP), os dinossauros herbvoros
pastaram comunidades de fetos e de gimnosprmicas, sobretudo de conferas. As
conferas dominaram as florestas terrestres desde o final do Trissico at ao incio do
Tercirio (65 Ma BP). Constituem o grupo de gimnosprmicas mais diversificado da
flora terrestre actual, ao qual pertencem espcies arbreas e arbustivas de grande
interesse ecolgico e econmico (e.g. pinheiros, ciprestes e zimbros).

**
Ma BP - milhes de anos antes do presente.
208
Os dados mais recentes indicam que as primeiras angiosprmicas tero surgido em
habitats florestais sombrios e ciclicamente perturbados, no Trissico (245-208 Ma BP),
porm s se diversificaram e vieram a dominar os ecossistemas terrestres no Cretcico
(144-65 Ma BP). Nas plantas com flor (angiosprmicas) as sementes deixaram de se
dispor nuas, na axila de ramos muito modificados (e.g. peniscos nas escamas das pinhas
do pinheiro), ou na extremidade de pequenos caules (e.g. semente da gimnosprmica
primitiva Ginkgo biloba - ginkgo), para surgirem encerradas e protegidas numa folha
modificada denominada por carpelo que, aps maturao, d origem ao fruto. Muitas
outras novidades evolutivas caracterizam as plantas com semente: ciclo reprodutivo
muito curto (uma pinha de confera pode demorar 2 anos a amadurecer enquanto que
algumas angiosprmicas produzem flores, frutos e sementes numa semana), oferta de
recompensas a animais polinizadores ou dispersores de sementes (e.g. frutos carnudos
ou nctar), novos tipos de matria orgnica do solo, elevada diversidade de compostos
orgnicos (diversidade bioqumica), grande plasticidade morfolgica e uma enorme
capacidade de ocupao de novos habitats por adaptao.
A inveno da flor, e de todos os caracteres que lhes esto associados, revolucionou a
vida na Terra. Entre outras consequncias, as inovaes adaptativas aportadas pelas
plantas com flor abriram novas oportunidades evolutivas e de diversificao para os
animais. De facto, as plantas com flor controlaram o caminho evolutivo dos
ecossistemas terrestres aps o evento de Chicxulub, a catstrofe global resultante do
embate de um asteride ou de um cometa com a Terra, h cerca de 65 Ma, que
determinou a extino da maioria dos dinossauros (as aves so dinossauros) e que marca
o final do perodo Cretcico, e da Era Mesozica.

Desde as florestas tercirias at ao Holocnico (10 000 anos BP)

No incio da poca Miocnica (23,8-5,3 Ma BP) grande parte da Pennsula Ibrica
estava submetida a um macrobioclima de tipo tropical, com chuvas bem distribudas ao
longo do ano e, excepo das montanhas, com uma estao fria amena e sem geadas.
Cobriam a Pennsula Ibrica amplas florestas tropicais e subtropicais, entre as quais
sobressaiam pela sua abundncia as florestas lauriflias (laurissilva), i.e. florestas
dominadas por espcies de folhas grandes, largas, por norma inteiras (no recortadas),
persistentes (durao superior a um ano), sem pelos, rijas, lisas e brilhantes (Figura 0.7,
Figura 0.8, Figura 0.9).

Figura 0.3 (VII.I) - As florestas lauriflias tercirias assemelhavam-se actual
laurissilva madeirense. (SM)

As florestas miocnicas ibricas (Figura 0.3) eram ricas em rvores pertencentes a
grupos hoje, maioritariamente restringidos aos espaos tropicais e.g. Arecaceae
(famlia das palmeiras), Bombacoideae (subfamlia do embondeiro, famlia Malvaceae),
Lauraceae (famlia do loureiro), Meliaceae (famlia da mlia, Melia azedarach),
Melastomataceae (famlia da quaresmeira, gnero Tibouchina), Sapindaceae (famlia do
guaran), Sapotaceae (famlia do marmulano, Sideroxylon mirmulano), Symplocaceae,
Sterculiaceae (famlia do cacaueiro), Ebenaceae (famlia do diospireiro), etc.
Estavam tambm representados vrios gneros de rvores caractersticos da flora
temperada ou subtropical actual do hemisfrio Norte (e.g. Amrica do Norte, Balcs,
margem Sul do mar Cspio, Himalaias e SW da China), entretanto extintos na Pennsula
Ibrica: Eucommia (Eucommiaceae); Nyssa (Nyssaceae); Parrotia, Hamamelis e
Embolanthera (Hamamelidaceae, famlia do liquidambar); Platycarya, Pterocarya e
209
Carya (Juglandaceae, famlia da nogueira); Sequoia, Squoiadendron e Taxodium
(Cupressaceae, famlia dos ciprestes); Sciadopitys (famlia Sciadopityaceae); Tsuga
(Pinaceae, famlia dos pinheiros); Castanopsis (Fagaceae, famlia dos carvalhos), etc.
Como presentemente acontece nos trpicos, as reas costeiras ibricas eram bordejadas
por mangais, onde pontificava o mangue-preto (gnero Avicennia, Acanthaceae, famlia
do acanto) (Figura 0.4, Figura 0.5).

Figura 0.4 (VII.I) - Avicennia africana (mangue-preto). (AEPL)

Figura 0.5 (VII.I) - Avicennia africana (mangue-preto). (AEPL)

O clima peninsular no Tercirio era, ainda assim, suficientemente diverso para
ocorrerem espcies adaptadas secura, com evidentes afinidades com a flora que hoje
persiste nas montanhas do Mxico e do sul da Califrnia e.g. Quercus (carvalhos) de
folha persistente e Juniperus (zimbros) , no SW de frica, nas margens do Mar
Vermelho e nas reas mais secas e quentes das Ilhas Canrias e Madeira e.g., nestas
ltimas, os gneros Dracaena (dragoeiros) e Olea (azambujeiros). Alguns dos gneros
de rvores e arbustos dominantes na flora Mediterrnica actual estavam j representados
na vegetao que substitua, aps perturbao (e.g. fogo, morte de rvores por doena
ou velhice, deslizamento de terras, etc.), os bosques do final do Tercirio, como sejam
os gneros Arbutus (medronheiros), Cistus (estevas), Chamaerops (palmeiras-das-
vassouras), Nerium (cevadilhas), Olea (azambujeiros), Pistacia, Phillyrea, Rhamnus,
Smilax (salsaparrilhas) e Pinus (pinheiros).
A partir do Miocnico mdio, a flora e a vegetao ibricas foram profundamente
marcadas por uma sucesso de convulses geolgicas e macroclimticas:
1) os movimentos tectnicos Alpinos (Orogenia Alpina), particularmente activos entre o
Pliocnico (5,3-1,8 Ma BP) e o Plistocnico (1,8 Ma-10 000 anos BP), dos quais
resultou grande parte do actual relevo continental portugus;
2) a dessecao do Mar Mediterrneo e a continuidade terrestre entre o Norte de frica
e a Pennsula Ibrica ocorrida no final do Miocnico (crise Messinianense, 7,2-5,3 Ma
BP);
3) as alteraes climticas iniciadas no Miocnico que culminaram na transio do
macrobioclima tropical para o mediterrnico no Pliocnico;
4) os numerosos ciclos glaciar-interglaciar plistocnicos.No final do Miocnico, a
presena de bacias hidrogrficas endorreicas no interior da pennsula o Rio Douro
desaguava num sistema de lagos no interior da Pennsula Ibrica e a dessecao do
Mar Mediterrneo (crise Messinianense, 7.2 5.3 Ma), com a consequente continuidade
terrestre entre o Norte de frica e a Pennsula Ibrica, permitiu a imigrao de plantas
das estepes centro-europeias e asiticas, muitas das quais adaptadas a solos ricos em sal
(e.g. gnero Suaeda). A continuidade terrestre com frica permitiu a penetrao de
plantas africanas como a Erica arborea (urze-branca) (Figura 0.6). Sem um efeito
directo na flora arbrea estas imigraes enriqueceram a vegetao arbustiva e herbcea
que substitui os bosques na actualidade.

Figura 0.6 (VII.I) - Erica arborea (urze-branca), um dos elementos africanos da flora
actual de Portugal continental. (CA)

A instabilidade climtica, o progressivo arrefecimento e continentalizao (aumento da
diferena entre as temperaturas mdias de Vero e de Inverno) do clima e a crescente
sazonalidade da precipitao (i.e. mediterraneidade) e da temperatura iniciados no
210
Miocnico mdio, atribudos por alguns autores s alteraes alpinas da configurao
dos continentes, provocaram uma regresso da rea de distribuio ou a extino das
espcies caractersticas dos bosques tropicais e subtropicais tercirios. As espcies mais
exigentes em temperatura e gua foram as primeiras a extinguir-se, ainda no Miocnico
mdio e.g. espcies de Agavaceae (famlia do sisal), Avicennia (famlia Acanthaceae,
famlia do acanto) e Bombacoideae (subfamlia do embondeiro). Seguiram-se, no
Pliocnico ou na primeira metade do Plistocnico, muitas outras espcies de famlias
tropicais (e.g. Sapotaceae) ou de famlias hoje refugiadas em reas temperadas no
europeias com Invernos benignos (e.g. Taxodiaceae, Nyssaceae ou Rhoipteleaceae).
A flora actual das Ilhas Macaronsicas, em particular a da Ilha da Madeira, o
repositrio mais completo da flora tropical e subtropical europeia e norte-africana do
Miocnico. Alguns dos gneros mais frequentes de rvores dos actuais bosques
sempreverdes dos Aores e da Madeira estavam certamente presentes nos bosques
ibricos do final do Tercirio e.g. os gneros de laurceas Ocotea (til), Apollonias
(barbujano), Laurus (loureiro) e Persea (vinhtico) e os gneros Sideroxylon
(marmulano), Picconia (pau-branco) ou Clethra (folhado) pertencentes,
respectivamente, s famlias Sapotaceae, Oleaceae (famlia da oliveira) e Clethraceae
(Figura 0.7, Figura 0.8, Figura 0.9). Percorrer a laurissilva madeirense fazer uma
viagem a um passado com mais de 20 milhes de anos.

Figura 0.7 (VII.I) - O Laurus azorica uma Lauraceae exclusiva dos Aores (i.e.
endmica) cujos ancestrais certamente habitavam as florestas miocnicas europeias.
(CA)

Figura 0.8 (VII.I) - A Clethra arborea endmica dos arquiplagos da Madeira e das
Canrias. (CA)

Figura 0.9 (VII.I) - A Persea americana outro endemismo madeirense e canarino. (CA)

A generalizao do regime climtico mediterrnico no Pliocnico (ca. 3,2 Ma BP)
despoletou a formao de um grande nmero de novas espcies de plantas (radiao
adaptativa), muitas das quais adaptadas ao fogo, a partir de linhagens pr-existentes.
Portanto, no final do Tercirio que se diversificam os gneros tipicamente
mediterrnicos da flora actual da Bacia Mediterrnica, e.g. Cistus (estevas), Olea
(azambujeiros), Pistacia e Rhamnus. tambm neste perodo que se organizam, pela
primeira vez, os tipos de comunidades vegetais mais importantes da vegetao
mediterrnica actual da Pennsula Ibrica, de que so exemplos os bosques de folha
persistente (pereniflios) de Querci, os matos-altos com espcies de folhas rijas, largas e
lustrosas, os estevais (comunidades de Cistus) e, possivelmente, as comunidades de
plantas aromticas de calcrios, e.g. comunidades de Thymus (tomilhos), Lavandula
(rosmaninhos) e Rosmarinus (alecrim). Foi tambm no Pliocnico que se diversificaram
os arbustos em forma de almofada (pulviniformes) caractersticos das montanhas
mediterrnicas, representados em Portugal pelo Echinospartum ibericum (caldoneira) e
pelo Cytisus oromediterraneus (piorno-serrano).
O arrefecimento do clima no Pliocnico promoveu a imigrao de plantas adaptadas a
climas temperados (elementos arctotercirios) de regies prximas do plo norte. Nos
bosques caduciflios bosques de rvores despidas de folhas no Inverno temperados
actuais, a maior parte das espcies arbreas ibricas descendem dos elementos
arctotercirios, como o caso das fagceas de folha larga e caduca dos gneros Quercus
(carvalhos), Fagus (faias) e Castanea (castanheiros); dos gneros arbreos Acer
211
(bordos), Alnus (amieiros), Betula (bidoeiros), Populus (choupos), Salix (salgueiros),
Corylus (aveleiras), Fraxinus (freixos) e Ulmus (ulmeiros); e de alguns dos gneros de
pinceas europeias actuais (e.g. gneros Abies e Picea).

Figura 0.10 (VII.I) - Feno recm-cortado num prado permanente semi-natural (lameiro)
(Trs-os-Montes). As plantas dos prados semi-naturais especiaram sob a presso de
seleco de grandes herbvoros j extintos. Os herbvoros domsticos, sobretudo os
bovinos, so substitutos indispensveis para um funcionamento adequado destes prados.
(CA)

Prximo da transio entre o Tercirio e o Quaternrio, os bosques tropicais e
subtropicais que tinham dominado a vegetao terrestre da Pennsula Ibrica durante
mais de 50 Ma encontravam-se francamente empobrecidos, concentrando-se,
provavelmente, em reas litorais e sublitorais de baixa latitude e altitude. Todavia, a
paisagem vegetal ibrica era muito mais diversa no Pliocnico do que nas pocas
geolgicas precedentes. Alm da vegetao lenhosa de cariz mediterrnico ou
temperado, comunidades de plantas dominadas por gramneas estavam a expandir-se e a
apoderar-se dos espaos primitivamente habitados pelos bosques tropicais e
subtropicais. Admite-se que ocupavam trechos significativos da Pennsula Ibrica
savanas, ou mosaicos de prado e floresta, extensivamente pastados por grandes
herbvoros. As plantas dos prados actuais descendem directamente das espcies de
plantas que especiaram sob a presso de pastoreio dos grandes herbvoros tercirios e
plistocnicos, todos eles j extintos (Figura 0.10).

Extino dos grandes mamferos no fim do Plistocnico
A fauna mamolgica presente no territrio continental portugus no Plistocnico inclua
espcies como o mamute (Mammuthus primigenius), rinocerontes (Dicerorhinus sp.), o
leo-das-cavernas (Panthera spelaea), o leopardo (Panthera pardus) e a hiena-das-
cavernas (Crocuta crocuta spelaea). H cerca de 25 000 e 20 000 anos atrs, em plena
glaciao de Wrm, as espcies de climas quentes extinguiram-se, passando as
comunidades faunsticas a serem dominadas por herbvoros adaptados a climas frios
como a camura (Rupicapra rupicapra) e a cabra-monts (Capra pyrenaica) (Figura
0.11).
O aquecimento climtico e a expanso da floresta que sucedeu o pleniglaciar
wurmiano final, ca. 16 000 BP, coincidiu com um novo perodo de extino, ou de
regresso acentuada, de grandes mamferos. Apesar de existirem diversas hipteses para
explicar as extines de macrofauna no fim do Plistocnico, a teoria
contemporaneamente mais aceite defende que estas tero sido uma consequncia das
alteraes climticas caractersticas deste perodo, agravadas pela presso cinegtica
exercida pelos caadores humanos.
Admite-se como hiptese provvel que a extino dos grandes mamferos no fim do
Plistocnico teve como efeito que as florestas do perodo que ento de iniciou, o
Holocnico, fossem mais densas e impenetrveis do que as florestas dos interglaciares
precedentes.

Figura 0.11 (VII.I) - Vale do rio Ca: gravura paleoltica de Capra pyrenaica (cabra-
monts). (CA)

O Plistocnico (1,8 Ma-10 000 anos BP) caracterizou-se por uma sucesso de ciclos
glaciar-interglaciar, controlados pela geometria da rbita terrestre em torno do sol, com
212
um perodo de recorrncia de aproximadamente 100 000 anos. Calcula-se que 80% do
perodo Plistocnico foi frio e seco e que as interrupes quentes e hmidas
interglaciares no superaram os 10 000 anos de durao. Nos perodos glaciares, a
maior parte das espcies de rvores estaria refugiada prximo do litoral, integrada em
mosaicos complexos de vegetao arbrea, arbustiva e herbcea. No interior peninsular
imperavam as estepes esparsamente arborizadas, i.e. vegetao herbcea adaptada
secura e ao frio com rvores dispersas entre as quais pontificavam Juniperus (zimbros)
e Pinus (pinheiros) (Figura 0.12). Os frios glaciares (estadiais glaciares) foram
temporariamente interrompidos por curtas pulsaes quentes (interestadiais glaciares)
que permitiram uma recuperao local e temporria das florestas. Pelo contrrio, os
interglaciares foram suficientemente longos e benignos de modo a possibilitar uma
restaurao generalizada dos bosques.

Figura 0.12 (VII.I) - Tundra rctica com rvores dispersas de Pinus sylvestris (prximo
da linha-de-rvores). A paisagem pleniglaciar no interior peninsular certamente
assemelhava-se que hoje predomina nas latitudes mais elevadas da Europa. Sudoeste
da Noruega. (BP)

Os ciclos glaciar-interglaciar tiveram um efeito devastador na flora europeia, com
particular incidncia na flora arbrea. Os grandes sistemas montanhosos europeus (e.g.
Pirinus, Alpes, Crpatos e Sistema Central Ibrico) facilitaram a extino de rvores no
Plistocnico porque, ao disporem-se no sentido W-E, perante o avano dos gelos,
actuaram como uma barreira e impediram o recuo das rvores para Sul. A ausncia de
montanhas ou a orientao N-S dos sistemas montanhosos da Amrica do Norte e do
SW Asitico temperado explicam a diversidade em espcies de rvores dos seus
bosques.
Os elementos dos bosques tropicais e subtropicais tercirios e a flora arctoterciria mais
exigente em temperatura (termfila), que haviam sobrevivido s mudanas climticas
mio-pliocnicas refugiados nos enclaves de clima mais propcio, foram praticamente
extintos com as glaciaes pleistocnicas. Os escassos elementos sobreviventes desta
flora persistiram em locais quentes e de baixa altitude prximos do litoral, em vales
profundos, em escarpas expostas ao sol ou em litologias particulares (e.g. calcrios e
rochas ultrabsicas). Entre as relquias arbreas ou arbustivas dos bosques tropicais e
subtropicais tercirios presentes em Portugal continental (i.e. descendentes prximos de
plantas presentes nesses bosques) contam-se o Ilex aquifolium (azevinho), o Buxus
sempervirens (buxo), o Prunus lusitanica, o Laurus nobilis (loureiro), a Myrica faya
(faia-da-terra), o Taxus baccata (teixo) e os elementos laurides dos bosques e matagais
(matos-altos) mediterrnicos, e.g. Arbutus unedo (medronheiro), Olea europaea var.
sylvestris (azambujeiro), Phyllirea media, Viburnum tinus (folhado), Myrtus communis
(murta), Rhododendron ponticum subsp. baeticum (adelfeira), etc. (Figura 0.13). A
Euphorbia pedroi um fabuloso arbusto endmico da Serra da Arrbida provavelmente
com um ancestral prximo na flora tropical xrica (i.e. de territrios secos) terciria
(Figura 0.14, Figura 0.15, Figura 0.16)
.
Figura 0.13 (VII.I) - Buxus sempervirens (buxo) no vale do rio Sabor. Embora seja
explorado para a produo de cabos de facas e ponteiras de gaitas de foles existem
magnficos exemplares de Buxus sempervirens nos vales dos grandes afluentes da
margem direita do rio Douro. (CA)

213
Figura 0.14 (VII.I) - Algumas relquias tercirias da flora de Portugal (Prunus
lusitanica, Euphorbia pedroi, Arbutus unedo e Viburnum tinus). (CA)

Figura 0.15 (VII.I) - Algumas relquias tercirias da flora de Portugal (Prunus
lusitanica, Euphorbia pedroi, Arbutus unedo e Viburnum tinus). (CA)

Figura 0.16 (VII.I) - Algumas relquias tercirias da flora de Portugal (Prunus
lusitanica, Euphorbia pedroi, Arbutus unedo e Viburnum tinus). (CA)

As extines plistocnicas de flora no Norte da Europa so desde h muito
correlacionadas com os frios glaciares. A bibliografia mais recente desvaloriza o efeito
dos frios na flora do Sul da Europa e insiste na importncia da secura dos perodos
glaciares. Todavia, a secura climtica insuficiente para explicar as extines
plistocnicas num territrio to extenso e com uma geologia e geomorfologia to
diversa como a da Pennsula Ibrica. Estas extines s podem ser satisfatoriamente
explicadas se as transies climticas entre os perodos glaciares e interglaciares
ocorreram rapidamente. Perante este constrangimento, os ciclos de vida longos das
rvores e dos arbustos impossibilitariam a migrao atempada para refgios adequados.
Estudos paleoclimticos recentes comprovam que no Plistocnico ocorreram transies
termoclimticas bruscas, em poucas dcadas, e que a actual estabilidade climtica
holocnica mais a excepo do que a regra na histria climtica quaternria.
O ltimo perodo glaciar a glaciao de Wrm foi particularmente frio e seco.
Existem evidncias geomorfolgicas que as neves perptuas tero descido aos 1000 m
de altitude na Serra do Gers. Um glaciar de grande dimenso estendia-se ao longo do
vale do rio Zzere desde o planalto superior da Serra da Estrela at bem perto do local
onde hoje se encontra a vila de Manteigas. O facto de perdurarem muitas espcies de
plantas sensveis ao frio na Pennsula Ibrica comprova que este territrio, ainda assim,
foi um importante refgio da diversidade vegetal europeia durante os perodos glaciares
(Figura 0.17, Figura 0.18). No , portanto, de estranhar que a Pennsula Ibrica seja um
importante reservatrio de diversidade gentica das rvores europeias e tenha sido um
ponto de partida da recolonizao arbrea das latitudes mais elevadas da Europa no
incio do Holocnico, semelhana do que aconteceu com os Balcs e a Pennsula
Itlica.

Figura 0.17 (VII.I) - Duas espcies da flora portuguesa muito sensveis ao frio:
Aristolochia baetica e Withania frutescens. Algarve. (CA)

Figura 0.18 (VII.I) - Duas espcies da flora portuguesa muito sensveis ao frio:
Aristolochia baetica e Withania frutescens. Serra da Arrbida. (CA)

As florestas no Holocnico
A floresta na primeira metade do Holocnico

O aumento da temperatura desencadeado h cerca de 16 000 anos, logo aps o ltimo
mximo glaciar Pleniglaciar Wurmiano Final, teve como consequncia o progressivo
recuo dos gelos que cobriam uma parte significativa da Pennsula Ibrica. Durante o
Interestadial Tardiglaciar (13 000 a 11 000 anos BP) os bosques expandiram-se por
toda a Pennsula, em particular na proximidade das reas de refgio litorais. Uma
pequena pulsao fria e seca entre 11 000 e 10 000 BP Dryas Recente, imediatamente
antes do Holocnico, reps parcialmente a vegetao estpica no interior peninsular.
214
No incio do Holocnico, ca. 10 000 anos
*
BP, o aquecimento climtico e o aumento da
pluviosidade impulsionaram novamente o alargamento da rea de distribuio dos
ecossistemas florestais em direco s montanhas e ao interior peninsular. No territrio
continental portugus as estepes de zimbros e pinheiros caractersticas do Plistocnico
Final, acabaram por se extinguir e serem substitudas por mosaicos de vegetao de
matriz florestal, com bosques puros ou mistos de rvores dos gnero Quercus
(carvalhos, azinheiras, sobreiros, etc.), Betula (bidoeiros), Pinus (pinheiros bravo,
manso ou silvestre) e, pontualmente, Juniperus (zimbros).

O clima durante o Holocnico (< 10 000 anos BP, < 11 500 cal. BP)
A precipitao e a temperatura, os dois elementos do clima de maior influncia na
vegetao, oscilaram, a vrias escalas temporais, ao longo do Holocnico.
Tendencialmente, no Holocnico, reconhecem-se trs grandes fases climticas: subida
inicial de temperatura (10 000-7 500 BP), ptimo climtico (7 500-2 500 BP) e descida
da temperatura e incremento da aridez e da irregularidade climtica a partir de 2 500
BP.
Cada um destes trs grandes perodos foi interrompido por alteraes mais rpidas e
temporrias do clima, grosso modo escala do milnio ou do sculo. Embora a histria
climtica mediterrnica no esteja bem esclarecida, admite-se que o clima foi frio
durante cerca de 200 anos por volta de 8,200 cal. BP e entre 900-300 a.C. (poca Fria
da Idade do Ferro). A Pequena Idade do Gelo na Pennsula Ibrica, estendeu-se do
sculo XIV aos meados do sculo XIX, com trs picos entre 15701630, 17801800 e
18301870. Por oposio ao sucedido no Norte e Centro da Europa, a Pequena Idade
do Gelo na Pennsula Ibrica caracterizou-se mais por um aumento da precipitao e
por eventos catastrficos (e.g. chuvadas e quedas de neve de grande intensidade, veres
chuvosos, etc.) do que pela descida de temperatura.
Supe-se que entre 9 000 e 8 200 cal. BP o clima foi mais quente do que o presente, o
suficiente para os medronheiros chegaram s costas da Irlanda. Outros episdios
quentes decorreram entre ca. 250 a.C.-450 d.C. (Perodo Quente Romano) e entre ca.
900-1400 d.C. (Perodo Quente Medieval). Desde o fim da Pequena Idade do Gelo (sc.
XIX) o clima ibrico ficou mais ridos
O clima holocnico evidenciou ainda oscilaes mais curtas, e.g. de ano para ano.
Existem relatos histricos, por exemplo, de fomes devastadoras em Portugal durante
Idade Mdia devidos a Outonos e Primaveras excepcionalmente chuvosas que no
permitiram a sementeira, ou a colheita, dos cereais, base fundamental da alimentao do
homem medieval. O ano de 1816, conhecido como o ano sem Vero, foi catastrfico em
todo o Hemisfrio Norte. A exploso do Vulco Tambora, na Ilha de Sambawa
(Indonsia), em 1815, injectou grandes quantidade de cinzas vulcnicas na atmosfera, o
que reduziu a radiao solar incidente no solo. Consequentemente, o ano de 1816 foi
excepcionalmente frio e as produes agrcolas colapsaram em grande parte da Europa.

Nas montanhas do Norte e Centro de Portugal o recuo dos gelos foi seguido, em
primeiro lugar, por uma subida altitudinal de bosques puros ou mistos de Betula
(vidoeiro) e de Pinus sylvestris (pinheiro-silvestre) (Figura 0.19, Figura 0.20). A
ascenso dos Querci e a circunscrio das Betula e dos Pinus sylvestris a habitats
marginais um pouco mais tardia. O Pinus sylvestris (pinheiro-silvestre) acabou por

*
As dataes radiomtricas
14
C, particularmente as anteriores a 3 000 BP, tm que ser calibradas com programas
informticos adequados, alguns dos quais disponveis na Internet. Aplicada a devida correco, o Holocnico iniciou-se
na realidade h cerca de 11 500 BP. Ao longo do texto, as dataes anteriores a 3 000 BP sem o termo cal. so
dataes
14
C no calibradas.

215
ficar acantonado aos afloramentos rochosos de maior altitude e por se extinguir pela
aco conjunta da escassez de habitat disponvel e do uso do fogo pelas comunidades
humanas. Uma vez que os vidoeiros so espcies pioneiras, foram as primeiras rvores a
ocupar os solos mais espessos libertados pelos gelos. Estabilizado o clima e
redistribudas as rvores no territrio portugus, os vidoeiros ficaram restringidos a
quatro habitats de montanha: bosques de solos normais (i.e. solos zonais) de
territrios muito chuvosos, bosques secundrios (que temporariamente substituem os
carvalhais aps perturbao), bosques mistos de Querci e Betula de solos hmidos e
bosques ripcolas (i.e. bosques que ladeiam cursos de gua permanentes).
A conquista da montanha pelas rvores decorreu a grande velocidade logo no incio do
Holocnico porque as rvores tinham invadido os vales mais profundos que dissecam as
montanhas durante o Tardiglaciar. A fisiografia planltica das montanhas portuguesas
tambm facilitou o avano das rvores. No entanto, provvel que as zonas mais altas e
erodidas pelo gelo nas serras do Gers e Estrela nunca tenham sido colonizadas por
bosques em consequncia do alastramento das desflorestaes antrpicas.

Figura 0.19 (VII.I - Pinha e folhas de Pinus sylvestris (Bragana). (CA)

Figura 0.20 (VII.I) - Betula celtiberica (Serra da Estrela). (CA)

O estudo dos gros de plen depositados nas turfeiras mediterrnicas ibricas (estudos
paleopalinolgicos) revelou que, na primeira metade do Holocnico, alm de habitats
marginais (e.g. escarpas), os pinhais de Pinus pinaster (pinheiro-bravo) ou P. pinea
(pinheiro-manso) revestiam muitas das reas litorais ou continentais onde actualmente
imperam os bosques de Querci de folha persistente (sobreiros, azinheiras ou carrascos).
Os plenes retidos nos sedimentos da Lagoa de Albufeira (distrito de Setbal) acusaram
uma substituio muito tardia, entre 6 000 e 4 000 BP, dos bosques de Pinus e Quercus
caduciflios que envolviam a lagoa por formaes de Quercus rotundifolia (azinheira),
Juniperus e elementos de matagal mediterrnico. O mesmo padro, por vezes com
transies bruscas de pinhal para bosque de Querci, foi detectado em depsitos
polnicos no Sul de Espanha. Estes resultados testemunham que os bosques respondem
mais lentamente s alteraes climticas do que a vegetao arbustiva ou herbcea e,
desde que ocupem reas extensas de forma homognea, podem manter-se como
dominantes durante longos perodos de tempo, em desequilbrio com o macroclima.
Na primeira metade do Holocnico provvel que muitas comunidades mediterrnicas
de Pinus em desequilbrio com o macroclima, um pouco por todo o pas, tenham
resistido ao avano dos Querci at que a generalizao da pastorcia de percurso com
fogo e uma hipottica reduo da precipitao ou agravamento da sazonalidade
climtica, tenha sido suficiente para despoletar a sua converso em bosques plano-
esclerofilos de Querci (i.e. de rvores com folhas planas, perenes, rgidas e coriceas,
e.g. azinheira e sobreiro). De facto, a substituio das comunidades vegetais ocorre,
frequentemente, de forma sbita e catastrfica, desde que sejam ultrapassados
determinados limiares climticos ou de perturbao (fogo, pastoreio, etc.).
O apogeu das florestas no NW de Portugal decorreu entre 6 000 e 3 000 BP. O mximo
florestal na Serra da Estrela prolongou-se entre 8 500 BP e 5 500 BP (datas estimadas).
As cronologias do auge das florestas nas reas de clima mediterrnico variaram de
regio para regio. Infelizmente, a informao paleoecolgica disponvel insuficiente
para permitir a sua matizao escala regional. Pela mesma razo, a histria das
florestas mediterrnicas antes da Idade Mdia , actualmente, mais fragmentria e
especulativa do que a das terras baixas temperadas ou das montanhas.
216
Num novo mundo de florestas, as populaes humanas at a especializadas na caa de
grandes mamferos herbvoros de manada (e.g. auroques e cavalos-selvagens), prprios
de grandes espaos abertos, concentraram-se ao longo de cursos de gua, em particular
nos esturios dos rios Tejo, Sado e Mira. Deste modo, o incio do Holocnico marcado
por um aumento da importncia de recursos aquticos como os peixes e os moluscos na
dieta humana. Tal no significa que a caa tivesse sido abandonada, uma vez que no
foram interrompidas as incurses de caa a mamferos como o veado e o javali, em
territrios interiores, afastados dos grandes rios.
Como se referiu anteriormente, a paisagem vegetal do territrio continental portugus
durante a primeira metade do Holocnico era eminentemente florestal. No entanto, as
florestas no eram contnuas: integravam um mosaico dinmico de vegetao em
diferentes estdios da sucesso ecolgica, com manchas de vegetao arbustiva e
herbcea. A maior parte das reas de vegetao no florestal formar-se-iam por aco de
perturbaes naturais como o fogo, o pastoreio e o pisoteio de grandes herbvoros
selvagens, o deslizamento de solos, as enxurradas, os ventos ciclnicos ou a queda de
rvores por decrepitude ou doena (Figura 0.21, Figura 0.22, Figura 0.23). A
estabilidade e a dimenso das clareiras de vegetao herbcea ou arbustiva seria tanto
maior quanto menor a produtividade das florestas e maior a frequncia e a intensidade
das perturbaes. Na montanha e noutras reas de relevo abrupto os bosques seriam
frequentemente interrompidos por comunidades arbustivas e herbceas enquanto que
nas terras baixas mais produtivas, acima dos leitos de cheias, as florestas eram mais
altas, mais densas e mais contnuas. A vegetao arbustiva baixa (e.g. estevais, urzais e
tomilhais), na primeira metade do Holocnico, era escassa e deveria ter como habitat
preferencial escarpas e outros afloramentos rochosos.

Figura 0.21 (VII.I - Caminho e clareira estabilizado pela circulao de ovelhas.
Bragana. (CA)

Apesar de se admitir uma reduo das populaes humanas nas regies florestais do
interior do territrio portugus, existem evidncias de que a aco antrpica contribuiu
desde cedo para o alastramento das reas de vegetao no florestal. Por exemplo, sabe-
se que ocorreram desflorestaes antrpicas, aparentemente em pequena escala, na serra
da Estrela h mais de 8 500 anos (data estimada). Alguns autores, inclusivamente,
propem que o uso do fogo no mediterrnico recua aos 500 000 BP (com espcies de
Homo que no o H. sapiens, vd. Concluses). Estas desflorestaes tinham como
objectivo incrementar a rea de pasto dos herbvoros com interesse cinegtico, facilitar
a observao de animais e/ou de grupos humanos rivais ou ainda de promover a
expanso das espcies arbustivas e herbceas mais apreciadas nas actividades de
recoleco. Este tipo de gesto activa do territrio est descrito em sociedades actuais
de caadores-recolectores de diversas partes do mundo (e.g. aborgenes australianos). O
homem paleoltico e mesoltico no foi um utilizador passivo da natureza, mas sim um
importante factor de mudana da fauna, da flora e da paisagem vegetal.

Figura 0.22 (VII.I) - Os garranos no NW de Portugal. O efeito da herbivoria dos cavalos
assilvestrados na dinmica da vegetao actual semelhante exercida pelos cavalos
selvagens nas paisagens pristinas da primeira metade do Holocnico. (BP)

Figura 0.23 (VII.I) - Vale do Rio Ca: gravura paleoltica de Equus sp. (cavalo-
selvagem). (CA)

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A implementao da agricultura e da pastorcia e a regresso dos bosques

A converso de um modo de vida caador-recolector para agro-pastoril, i.e. o advento
da economia de produo neoltica, constitui um dos momentos mais importantes da
Histria do Homem Moderno. Entre as aquisies tecnolgicas caractersticas do
Neoltico contam-se a agricultura e a pastorcia de percurso. Atravs das plantas
cultivadas e dos animais domsticos, o Homem pde desviar activamente os fluxos de
matria e energia dos ecossistemas naturais, de outro modo inalcanveis, em seu
proveito. Como adiante se explicita, este desvio implicou a substituio dos
ecossistemas naturais por ecossistemas semi-naturais (e.g. prados) e agroecossistemas
(e.g. culturas agrclas). Consequentemente, o Neoltico tambm um dos momentos
chave na histria da floresta em Portugal.
Embora os bosques sejam muito sensveis perturbao antrpica, o corte de rvores
para a produo de madeira, carvo ou lenhas no suficiente para explicar a sua
regresso no Neoltico ou em perodos muito posteriores, quando a madeira era, por
exemplo, intensivamente usada na construo naval ou no fabrico de travessas para o
caminho de ferro. Na maior parte do territrio continental portugus, escala da
paisagem, a dominncia dos bosques de folhosas s pode ser contrariada se o uso
florestal for substitudo por outro. Por exemplo, se os bosques forem convertidos pelo
fogo e pela herbivoria em pastos ou se o seu solo for mobilizado e cultivado com
plantas agrcolas. A extraco intensiva de madeira e lenhas reduz os bosques a
matagais caticos de rvores ananicadas ou de porte arbustivo, maioritariamente
resultantes do rebentamento das toias ou plas radiculares, mas no suficiente para
induzir alteraes catastrficas do coberto vegetal. Portanto, a aco do homem nos
bosques tem duas componentes de difcil ou impossvel segregao a partir da
informao paleoecolgica:
1) A secundarizao, i.e. a degradao dos bosques pristinos;
2) A substituio do coberto florestal por tipos de vegetao no arbreos ou por
agroecossistemas.
Os bosques pristinos e secundrios so entidades ecolgicas distintas e, por isso, a
secundarizao dos bosques pristinos um fenmeno to relevante como a regresso do
coberto florestal. Por exemplo, nos bosques secundrios rareiam as rvores decrpitas
(habitat de inmeras espcies animais especializadas), as rvores tm classes de idade
prximas e so, normalmente, mais ricos em arbustos e em rvores pioneiras (e.g.
Betula celtiberica (bidoeiro), Sorbus aucuparia (sorveira-dos-passarinhos) e Juniperus
oxycedrus - zimbro) ou tolerantes perturbao (e.g. Quercus rotundifolia (azinheira))
do que os bosques pristinos.

Incio da domesticao de animais
A domesticao de animais iniciou-se na sia Ocidental, h cerca de 10 000 anos atrs.
As ovelhas e as cabras foram, provavelmente, os primeiros no carnvoros a serem
domesticadas, seguindo-se as vacas e os porcos e, por ltimo, os cavalos e os burros.
Por exemplo as cabras tero sido domesticadas na Cordilheira de Zagros, no W do Iro,
ca. 10 000 anos BP. A domesticao do co anterior, ter sucedido no paleoltico a
partir do lobo. Em Portugal, os primeiros registos fsseis conhecidos de herbvoros
domsticos datam de 5.600-5.400 cal a.C.
*
.


*
a.C., antes de Cristo.
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No territrio portugus, a transio para o Neoltico iniciou-se com a chegada, por volta
de 5 500 cal. a.C. (7 500 cal. BP, VI milnio a.C.), de embarcaes com pequenos
grupos agro-pastoris da regio mediterrnica oriental. Estes colonizadores algenos, que
viveram lado-a-lado com os ltimos caadores-recolectores ibricos, praticavam entre
outras tecnologias uma agricultura itinerante e pastoreavam ovinos, caprinos e bovinos.
A agricultura itinerante neoltica consistia na queima de pequenas reas de mato ou
floresta seguida de uma ligeira mobilizao do solo com instrumentos rudimentares
(e.g. enxs de pedra polida) e da sementeira a lano, ou ao covacho, de plantas anuais.
Os solos eram cultivados durante um nmero reduzido de anos, at se esgotar a sua
fertilidade, a que se seguia um longo perodo de abandono e a restaurao da vegetao
natural.
No Neoltico tardio (IV milnio a.C. - III milnio a.C.), os planaltos granticos das
serras do Eixo de Culminao Ibrico eram as reas mais intensamente cultivadas no
norte e centro de Portugal. Dois conjuntos de causas podero explicar esta preferncia:
1) As toias das rvores so mais fceis de arrancar e os solos mais fceis de mobilizar
nos planaltos granticos do que nos vales ou nas plancies aluviais;
2) O perodo mais favorvel ao crescimento das plantas (Primavera-Vero) coincidia
com a subida de pastores e rebanhos s montanhas em busca de pasto (transumncia de
vale). Pela aco conjugada da pastorcia e agricultura, a desflorestao das montanhas
portuguesas seguiu um padro inverso ao das montanhas do Norte da Pennsula e do
Centro da Europa: a floresta recuou do planalto para o vale.
A preferncia por solos ligeiros repetiu-se, aparentemente, nos solos arenosos do Sul do
pas. Existem evidncias que no Sul de Portugal a floresta foi domesticada no sentido
litoral-interior e que o impacto da agricultura e da pastorcia neoltica nestes bosques,
possivelmente por razes meramente climticas, foi inferior verificada nos planaltos
serranos. Ainda assim, A.C. Stevenson defende que o uso agrcola e pastoril do
territrio gerou formas primitivas de montado no SW de Espanha, certamente
generalizveis ao Sul de Portugal, desde 6 000 BP (incio do IV milnio a.C.), formas
estas maturadas e disseminadas a partir de 4 500 BP (III milnio a.C.).

Efeitos da desarborizao antrpica e do desenvolvimento da agricultura no clima
holocnico escala global
O interglaciar Holocnico foi o mais longo dos ltimos 400 000 anos. Num artigo
publicado em 2003, William Ruddiman defendeu recentemente, que a durao
excepcional do interglaciar holocnico se deve acumulao de gases de estufa na
atmosfera iniciada com a generalizao das arroteias neolticas (ca. 8 000 BP), com os
sistemas de agricultura de arroz de regadio no SW Asitico (ca. 5 000 BP) e, mais
recentemente, com o uso de combustveis fsseis (< 150 BP). De acordo com este autor,
a Europa j estaria mergulhada numa nova Idade do Gelo no fora a libertao de
dixido de carbono e de metano gerada pela actividades antrpicas.

As florestas restauram mais rapidamente nas reas mais chuvosas e quentes, em solos
derivados de depsitos de encosta, depsitos de cobertura, aluvies ou rochas ricas em
nutrientes. Por outro lado, quanto mais pobres em nutrientes forem os solos (e.g. solos
derivados de xistos muito antigos e granitos duros) e quanto mais frio o clima e mais
longo o perodo de escassez de gua estival (i.e. mais intensa a mediterraneidade), mais
lenta a restaurao dos bosques aps perturbao. Estas constataes permitem prever
que as florestas pristinas em Portugal seriam particularmente sensveis aco do
Homem nas montanhas e nas reas mediterrnicas mais secas, sobretudo em solos
derivados de xistos. A regresso e degradao dos bosques foram fortemente
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condicionadas pela potencialidade bioclimtica para o crescimento florestal e pela
litologia.

Figura 0.24 (VII.I) - A escassez das florestas de carvalhos e a abundncia de matos
(urzais, urzais-tojais ou giestais) e de afloramentos rochosos nas montanhas portuguesas
uma consequncia directa de uma longa histria de uso pastoril por parte do homem
(serra da Estrela, Manteigas, vale glaciar do rio Zzere). Ciclos de recorrncia muito
curtos do fogo podem chegar a eliminar a vegetao arbustiva (lado esquerdo da
imagem); os giestais so mais competitivos dos que os urzais em solos fundos derivados
de granitos (lado direito da fotografia). (CA)

A arroteia dos bosques para a agricultura teve, na realidade, um impacto directo menor
nas florestas at perodos histricos recentes. A pastorcia de percurso com fogo foi a
causa maior do retrocesso do coberto florestal herdado da primeira metade do
Holocnico no territrio continental portugus. Como escrevia Vieira Natividade, a
floresta o refgio dos animais selvagens que dizimavam rebanhos ou destruam
culturas. A floresta tambm um habitat onde o controlo do gado em pastoreio
difcil e a produtividade e a palatiblidade das plantas que servem de alimento aos
animais domsticos baixa. As plantas mais nutritivas e apetecidas pelos animais
precisam de sol, so helifilas, e por essa razo dificilmente convivem com as rvores.
Na gesto neoltica da vegetao para o pastoreio, o fogo consumia as rvores e os
arbustos, abria clareiras propcias vegetao pratense e as cinzas das plantas
calcinadas serviam de fertilizante. A herbivoria dos animais domsticos estabilizava a
vegetao herbcea vivaz e atrasava a restaurao dos arbustos e das rvores. No
passado, como hoje, os herbvoros domsticos eram incapazes de travar o retorno e a
dominncia das plantas lenhosas. Por isso, o uso reiterado fogo, em ciclos de
recorrncia cada vez mais curtos, tornou-se inevitvel.
Inicialmente, o fogo promoveu pastos ricos em plantas herbceas vivazes teis para os
animais e um mosaico muito diverso de vegetao, com bosques e matos dispersos. No
entanto, uma longa histria de fogo implica perdas de solo por eroso, o
empobrecimento do solo em nutrientes e exerce uma presso de seleco fortssima na
flora. Paisagens no passado dominadas por rvores, foram paulatinamente convertidas
em espaos dominados por arbustos resistentes ao fogo (pirfitos) e plantas herbceas
de reduzido interesse na alimentao animal. As paisagens pristinas de Querci, e de
outras folhosas, foram convertidas em matos baixos de estevas, urzes ou tomilhos e as
clareiras preenchidas, maioritariamente, com plantas anuais de ciclo muito curto e baixa
produtividade. Nas montanhas, os vales cedo se converteram em ilhas de fertilidade e
as encostas mais declivosas tomaram um aspecto escalvado. Nas reas mais planas de
baixa altitude a perda de produtividade das pastagens e a seleco positiva de pirfitos
foi mais lenta mas igualmente inexorvel.

As causas da intensificao agrcola e do progresso tecnolgico no uso e explorao
dos recursos naturais
A agrnoma de origem dinamarquesa Ester Boserup props, nos anos 60 do sculo XX,
que o desenvolvimento de formas complexas de agricultura (e.g. uso do arado e do
regadio) representou processos de intensificao agrcola resultantes de necessidades
crescentes em recursos. Por sua vez, a procura de recursos seria controlada pelo
crescimento populacional. Este modelo pressupe que as populaes humanas so
culturalmente conservadoras e que o investimento em investigao e desenvolvimento
mais uma consequncia da necessidade do que de uma pulso para o saber e para o
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progresso. Ainda de acordo com a mesma autora, o progresso tecnolgico e a
intensificao agrcola no implicam, necessariamente, um incremento da produtividade
do trabalho (i.e. do retorno da energia investida em trabalho) e nem sequer uma
melhoria da qualidade de vida dos indivduos.
Um dos corolrios fundamentais da interpretao de E. Boserup reside no
reconhecimento de que os sistemas agrrios tradicionais, no funcionamento dos quais a
floresta tem um papel fundamental, no se desenvolveram com o propsito de serem
sustentveis mas sim da necessidade de satisfazer necessidades de curto/mdio prazo.
Do mesmo modo, as preocupaes de sustentabilidade na explorao florestal so
historicamente recentes.
Uma vaga recente de autores no domnio da arqueologia e da pr-histria alega que a
dinmica do uso de outros recursos naturais e a intensificao das trocas comerciais
podem ser explicadas com base em princpios tericos homlogos.

Quando a migrao e a ocupao de reas mais ou menos despovoadas deixou de ser
soluo para acomodar efectivos populacionais crescentes, o espao explorado pelos
grupos humanos contraiu-se e a competio pelos recursos e a conflituosidade entre
grupos sociais ou comunidades agravaram-se. Um padro semelhante a este tem sido
descrito nos ltimos anos em estudos de caso africanos.
Paralelamente, as sociedades complexificaram-se e hierarquisaram-se, alargaram-se os
sistemas de trocas, aprofundaram-se os vnculos de cooperao intra e inter-regionais e
despontaram fenmenos de especializao produtiva. Na mesma senda, os habitats
temporrios foram substitudos por novos sistemas de povoamento caracterizados por
povoados mais sofisticados, permanentes (sedentrios), com materiais mais durveis
(e.g. pedra), localizados em espaos naturalmente protegidos (e.g. localizao em
cumeadas) e, mais tarde, fortificados. As inovaes tecnolgicas na explorao dos
recursos naturais sucederam-se por investigao e desenvolvimento. Finalmente, a
escassez de boas terras agrcolas e a precarizao do retorno em energia do investimento
em trabalho no seu maneio foraram a apropriao privada do solo. Neste processo
histrico a floresta deixou de ser um habitat das populaes humanas e passou a ser um
espao cada vez mais distante e marginal.
essencial ressalvar neste ponto da argumentao que errado assumir que as
alteraes tecnolgicas e culturais foram lineares, constantes e sincrnicas por todo o
territrio nacional. O modelo apresentado uma simplificao grosseira de uma
realidade complexa, repleta de hiatos informativos, para a qual no existe um modelo
explicativo global consensual.
A consolidao do sistema agro-pastoril neoltico entre os IV e III milnio a.C. implicou
um aumento radical da aco humana na paisagem vegetal. A construo de estruturas
megalticas (e.g. antas e cromeleques, Figura 0.25) e a progressiva tendncia para a
fixao das comunidades humanas durante estes dois milnios est certamente
relacionada com uma maior dependncia da agricultura e da pastorcia e a produo de
excedentes.

Figura 0.25 (VII.I) - Cromeleque dos Almendres. vora. (SM)

Desde o IV milnio a.C. a eficincia e a intensidade da substituio da floresta por tipos
de vegetao no florestal crescente. Sucedem-se importantes inovaes tecnolgicas
que equipam as comunidades humanas com capacidades crescentes de aco sobre o
meio. Por exemplo, foi proposto que no Alentejo, no Neoltico Final/Calcoltico Inicial
(a partir do III milnio a.C.), na Idade do Bronze de acordo com outros autores, ocorreu
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a denominada revoluo dos produtos secundrios, com a qual surgiriam formas
incipientes de arado, o uso de animais de tiro (traco animal) e montada e o uso da l e
do leite e derivados.
Na Idade do Bronze (grande parte do II milnio a.C. e incio do I milnio a.C.) as
tecnologias agrcolas sofisticam-se, alm dos progressos no arado e na traco animal,
surgem pequenos melhoramentos fundirios de drenagem e regadio. Pelo menos no
Norte e Centro de Portugal assiste-se implantao de povoados em zonas mais baixas,
onde os solos teriam maior aptido agrcola com o aparato tecnolgico disponvel.
A tendncia para a ocupao dos solos de baixa, reflectiu-se certamente na rea de
ocupao dos bosques de solos hmidos, onde se incluem os amiais paludosos, os
salgueirais arbreos, os freixiais e os bosques mistos de Querci e Betula. O cultivo
destes solos constituiu uma soluo inovadora para um dos problemas mais crticos dos
sistemas de agricultura: a reposio da fertilidade do solo. No Neoltico a floresta era
sacrificada pelo fogo para libertar o solo para a pastorcia e agricultura e incrementar
a sua fertilidade. Nos solos de baixa intensivamente incorporados no espao agrcola
com a sedentarizao, a fertilidade passou a ser reposta pelas cheias invernais, pelo
arrastamento de nutrientes de cotas mais elevadas por guas superficiais e sub-
superficiais ou pelo maneio dos excrementos animais (e.g. pastoreio de pousios e
distribuio manual de estrumes). A domesticao das terras baixas afectou,
simultaneamente, os bosques dos vales e da montanha. Nas reas de fisiografia
movimentada o fogo no servia apenas para abrir pastos na meia e no cimo de
encosta, permitia atravs das cinzas mobilizar nutrientes para os solos de baixa onde se
concentrava a actividade agrcola. No caso da montanha, para a qual dispomos de
informao paleoambiental mais completa, tentador identificar a utilizao dos novos
mtodos de reposio da fertilidade com uma forte reduo do coberto arbreo no II
milnio a.C., identificvel em alguns dos diagramas polnicos publicados, e que poderia
coincidir com o fim da dominncia do bosque e o desenvolvimento de uma paisagem do
tipo parque (i.e. paisagem vegetal de matriz no florestal, com bosquetes secundrios
dispersos, frequentemente reduzidos a sebes espessas na margem de terrenos agrcolas
ou pastagens).
A concentrao espacial da actividade agrcola teve outra implicao nas florestas. As
florestas foram empurradas para reas cada vez mais marginais e longnquas dos
povoados. A paisagem agrria adquiriu, progressivamente, uma estrutura aureolar em
torno dos ncleos populacionais, com a agricultura concentrada em terras privadas na
proximidade dos povoados e uma extensa rea comunal submetida a pastoreio
extensivo, por dentro da qual se distribuam formaes boscosas cada vez mais
pequenas e degradadas. Em traos gerais, este sistema de uso dos recursos naturais,
provavelmente inventado (ou importado) entre o Calcoltico e a Idade do Bronze, entre
avanos e recuos, manteve-se genericamente inalterado na maior parte do pas at ao
advento do uso de fertilizantes qumicos, no sculo XX (Figura 0.26).

Figura 0.26 (VII.I) - Paisagem agrria, serra de Montemuro. (CA)

Na 1 Idade do Ferro o territrio portugus foi invadido por vagas sucessivas de povos
migrantes de filiao maioritariamente indo-europeia. A sul do Tejo desenvolveram-se
sociedades tecnologicamente avanadas (e.g. Reino dos Tartessos), com escrita, e
interpostos comerciais de povos mediterrnicos (e.g. Fencios), certamente com
consequncias directas no coberto florestal. A diferenciao tnica e cultural de
Portugal no I milnio a.C., mais evidente na 2 Idade do Ferro, assinalvel, porm
muitos destes povos tinham em comum a importncia que a minerao assumia na sua
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economia. Calcula-se que um forno de fundio de ferro necessitava de trs toneladas
de carvo vegetal para produzir uma tonelada de ferro fundido, o que corresponde
desflorestao de um crculo com 1,5 quilmetros de raio. Neste perodo, o consumo de
lenhas na fundio de metais intensificou-se ao mesmo tempo que adopo de
ferramentas de ferro, na realidade apenas generalizada no perodo Romano, dever ter
aumentado a eficincia das aces de desflorestao.
A maior parte dos povos da 2 Idade do Ferro que habitavam o territrio portugus
dependia da criao de animais, complementada pela agricultura semi-permanente, pela
caa e pela recoleco. O gegrafo grego Estrabo refere que a dieta dos habitantes da
Lusitnia consiste, principalmente, em carne de cabra e que os habitantes das
montanhas vivem durante dois teros do ano de bolotas que secam e trituram e depois
moem para fazer po que conservam muito tempo. As fontes clssicas devem ser
interpretadas com cautela. Se certo que o conhecido comentrio de Estrabo pressupe
a persistncia de significativas florestas de Querci em Portugal, a sua referncia
importncia da cabra na dieta humana, um animal adaptado ao pastoreio em condies
agrestes, coerente com a imagem de montanhas profundamente alteradas pelo uso
humano.
A Cultura Castreja (2 Idade do Ferro) teve a sua mxima expresso no NW e na metade
ocidental de Trs-os-Montes. O nmero extraordinrio de castros identificados no N de
Portugal mais de meio milhar atesta a enorme presso que as populaes humanas
ento exerciam sobre os recursos naturais e a concentrao espacial da aco antrpica
sobre o territrio. A escassez de recursos resultante do desequilbrio entre a densidade
populacional e a produo de alimentos na Cultura Castreja manifestou-se numa
criteriosa distribuio espacial dos habitats (Figura 0.27), na estrutura defensiva dos
povoados e nas conhecidas actividades de pilhagem destes povos.

Figura 0.27 (VII.I) - Citnia de Briteiros. Cultura Castreja, 2 Idade do Ferro. S.
Salvador de Briteiros, Guimares. (AR)

A florestas: perodos romano, germano e muulmano

A conquista do territrio portugus pelos romanos prolongou-se por dois sculos, entre
o incio do II sculo a.C. e o final do I sculo a.C. A implantao do sistema colonial
romano alcanou rpidos progressos no Sul, mas teve mais dificuldade em impor-se a
norte, entre outras razes, por causa do lastro cultural das culturas pr-romanas e da
irregularidade do terreno que favorecia a resistncia local. Concretizada a pacificao da
regio, os autores clssicos referem que muitos dos povos subjugados foram obrigados a
descer dos habitats fortificados herdados da Idade do Ferro para novos povoados
fundados em reas mais acessveis de vale. De acordo com um estudo realizado no
Norte de Portugal, de 246 povoados proto-histricos, apenas 75 apresentavam sinais de
romanizao, enquanto que 151 novos povoados tinham sido criados durante a poca
romana.
A romanizao do territrio portugus trouxe desenvolvimentos tcnicos assinalveis e
a integrao das economias locais num grande espao econmico monetarizado. O
desenvolvimento de cidades, mercados, novas indstrias (e.g. minerao do ouro e
produo de conservas de peixe), de uma densa rede de estradas e o estabelecimento de
trocas comerciais a longa distncia (sobretudo a partir dos portos litorais e fluviais do
sul do pas) permitiu o estabelecimento de complementaridades produtivas escala
regional, e escala do Imprio, e uma intensificao do uso humano do territrio. O
crescimento populacional ocorrido durante o perodo romano no pode, porm, ser
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atribudo, em exclusivo, a causas civilizacionais. Entre 250 a.C. e 450 d.C. (Perodo
Quente Romano), o clima foi particularmente benigno e, ao que parece, previsvel,
factores importantes para entender a prosperidade material que caracteriza uma boa
parte da romanidade.
Entre as inovaes agrcolas importadas pelos romanos destacam-se o arado de
garganta, novas tcnicas de regadio, a vulgarizao das ferramentas de ferro e dos
dentes de ferro nos arados, a introduo de novas variedades ou espcies de plantas
cultivadas (e.g. centeio), o uso de rotaes mais curtas e complexas e a utilizao mais
eficiente dos animais e dos estrumes nas transferncias de fertilidade das florestas
(silva), matos e pastagens (saltus) para os espaos agrcolas (ager). Para alm do
aumento da produtividade agrcola e do trabalho humano e animal, as inovaes
tecnolgicas romanas permitiram um novo alargamento da agricultura a solos muito
pesados e difceis de mobilizar (e.g. barros alentejanos e plancies aluviais). Uma vez
que os romanos dominavam tcnicas avanadas de drenagem e de regadio, levaram a
cabo obras de regadio e o saneamento de pntanos, com barragens e complexos sistemas
de canais e valas de enxugo. A drenagem de pntanos, muito activa no perodo romano
e na baixa Idade Mdia, permitiu, em simultneo, aceder a solos frteis e erradicar focos
de paludismo.

Figura 0.28 (VII.I) - Villa romana de S. Cucufate. Vila de Frades, Vidigueira. (RA)

As villae romanas (Figura 0.28) eram unidades de produo agrcola de grande
eficincia e complexidade. Estas villae podiam atingir uma dimenso ligeiramente
inferior do latifndio da nossa poca e serviam-se de mo-de-obra escrava para
produzir cereais, vinho, azeite e gado. A sua concentrao no Sul do Pas e nos vales
aluviais ou neotectnicos do Norte e Centro semelhana, por exemplo, dos vestgios
de centuriao, faz supor que o seu impacto na hierarquizao agrria da metade norte
do pas tenha sido pouco significativa. Ainda a norte, plausvel que o terreno
acidentado favorecesse o pequeno aglomerado de famlias camponesas, embora a sejam
conhecidas grandes propriedades romanas, por exemplo, no vale do rio Lima e na
proximidade das actuais cidades de Braga e Chaves. O efeito da romanizao nas reas
de clima temperado ou montanhosas fez-se sobretudo de forma indirecta atravs da
integrao mercantil.
De acordo com as descries dos autores clssicos, as mesetas e os planaltos e cumes
das montanhas ibricas encontravam-se intensamente desflorestados no final do I sculo
a.C - I sculo d.C. Plnio-o-Velho, na Naturalis Historia (XXXIII, 21), a propsito da
minerao do ouro na Pennsula Ibrica, afirma: As montanhas da Hispnia, em tudo o
resto ridas e estreis e nas quais nada cresce, so obrigadas a serem frteis pelo homem
ao proporcionar-lhe este precioso bem (ouro). A conhecida assero de que um
esquilo podia atravessar a Pennsula Ibrica desde os Pirinus at Gibraltar sem tocar
com as patas no cho, atribuda a Estrabo, apcrifa e no tem, por isso, valor
interpretativo.
O crescimento econmico ocorrido durante o domnio romano implicou um novo pico
de regresso da floresta na Pennsula Ibrica, identificvel nos depsitos polnicos
coetneos. Atendendo ao modelo de ocupao territorial romano admissvel que as
florestas mediterrnicas tenham sido as mais sacrificadas, semelhana do que mais
tarde aconteceria no perodo muulmano.
Aps a desagregao do Imprio Romano, produto das invases germnicas do incio
do sculo V (possivelmente despoletadas por alteraes climticas) e da incapacidade
da cidade em se opor a uma ruralidade crescente, sucedeu-se um perodo de intensa
224
desorganizao administrativa no territrio portugus. As redes comerciais, a
especializao produtiva e a complementaridade econmica entre as diferentes regies
do Imprio, desenvolvidas durante quatro sculos, colapsaram. Consequentemente, por
todo o Imprio as sociedades ruralizaram-se e os ncleos urbanos, que exerciam uma
presso mais concentrada sobre os recursos naturais dos bosques, decaram.
A economia germana baseava-se numa agricultura semi-sedentria associada criao
de gado, sendo a pastorcia mais importante entre estes povos do que entre os romanos.
Num clima de frequente instabilidade social, as populaes autctones regressaram a
uma economia baseada na produo animal, uma vez que este modo de vida facilitava a
sua deslocao para locais seguros em caso de necessidade e a opo mais racional
perante uma reduo da esperana mdia de vida. Sabe-se ainda que durante os trs
sculos de ocupao germnica, as populaes foram fustigadas por numerosas pestes e
fomes. Embora no existam quaisquer tipo de censos demogrficos desta poca,
consensual entre os historiadores que se verificou uma reduo e/ou uma redistribuio
dos efectivos populacionais no territrio portugus. A este conjunto de factos no
certamente alheio o arrefecimento climtico verificado entre 450 e 950 d.C. Assim, ao
perodo de domnio germnico ter correspondido uma recuperao local das florestas,
sincrnica com a retoma dos bosques pioneiros de Betula (bidoeiro) evidenciada nos
depsitos polnicos da Serra da Estrela e com a regenerao de Pinus (pinheiros) em
formaes tipo montado nalgumas sries polnicas andaluzas.
Os exrcitos muulmanos conquistaram a Pennsula Ibrica entre 711 e 716. A norte, a
presena muulmana foi sempre dbil e desapareceu quase por completo nos meados do
sculo VIII. Entre as populaes localizadas do rio Douro aos Cantbricos verificou-se
um abandono dos vales e uma reocupao parcial dos antigos castros da Idade do Ferro.
Embora a historiografia contempornea se oponha ideia de um abandono humano das
fronteiras entre as reas crists e muulmanas, verificou-se ainda assim um interregno
claro na regresso dos bosques das montanhas do norte e centro que s foi retomada
com a reconquista. As altitudes intermdias mais favorveis ao crescimento e
expanso das florestas, num territrio em cuja paisagem vegetal, os bosques eram ainda
relevantes, supem uma retoma parcial do coberto florestal.
No Centro e Sul do territrio portugus, onde o domnio islmico foi mais efectivo, est
descrita pelos historiadores uma expanso das actividades agro-pastoris, com a adopo
de novas tcnicas de regadio e a introduo de novas culturas como o trigo-rijo, a
laranjeira-amarga e o arroz. Verificou-se, tambm, um recrudescimento da extraco de
madeira nos pinhais e sobreirais do Alentejo e do Algarve. A explorao dos bosques
ter sido estimulada pela construo de frotas navais destinadas pirataria contra os
cristos sedeados mais a norte e ao comrcio por via martima.

Breve referncia histria das florestas na Baixa Idade Mdia

Logo aps a reconquista liderada pela monarquia asturiana, sob condies climticas
muito favorvel (Perodo Quente Medieval), sucedeu-se uma recolonizao dos
territrios recm-ocupados, a fundao de novos povoados, um desenvolvimento da
agricultura frente pastorcia e um acentuado crescimento populacional.
Consequentemente, a rea de ocupao dos bosques regrediu novamente perante a
necessidade crescente de solos agrcolas. A desarborizao medieval foi um processo
progressivo, como escreve Garcia de Cortazar cada ncleo populacional comea a ser
menos uma clareira no bosque do que um limite a este. O espao reorganiza-se,
novamente, em aurolas centradas na aldeia: primeiro as hortas, depois os terrenos de
sequeiro e finalmente os matos e a floresta. Os recursos da floresta, progressivamente,
225
tornam-se complementares dos bens de consumo gerados pela agricultura e pela
pastorcia. Carlos Alberto Ferreira de Almeida resume este processo para o Entre Douro
e Minho do seguinte modo: floresta-algo-inimiga (sculo IX-X) sucedeu-se a
floresta-parcelada-possuda (sculo VII.I-XII) que desembocou na floresta-defendida-
fomentada.
A evoluo da paisagem agrria em Portugal por efeito da reconquista e da
concentrao litoral dos centros de poder assincrnica e espacialmente heterognea.
Por exemplo, embora a floresta fosse ainda um elemento omnipresente, as inquiries
de D. Afonso III (sculo XIII) revelam um Entre Lima e Minho densamente povoado,
com uma significativa rea agrcola conquistada floresta. Em Trs-os-Montes o
crescimento demogrfico foi substancialmente mais tardio do que no NW. Por esta
razo Trs-os-Montes tem mais forais do que qualquer outra regio de Portugal.

As ordens religiosas tiveram um papel fundamental no ordenamento do espao rural na
Idade Mdia.

Figura 0.29 (VII.I) - Mosteiros de Pites (Pites, Montalegre). (CA)

Figura 0.30 (VII.I) - Mosteiros de Castro de Avels (Castro de Avels, Bragana). (AR)

A amenizao dos cenrios de instabilidade territorial, aquando da conquista do Algarve
em 1249, e a progressiva centralizao poltica do reino, sensvel a partir da segunda
metade do sculo XIII, reflectiu-se numa progressiva perda de poderes dos magnates
locais. Jos Mattoso refere que estes desenvolvimentos polticos facilitaram a
transumncia a longa distncia. A fundao da transumncia de vale, tambm designada
por vida pastoril de montanha por M.J.L. Trindade, recua aos primrdios da economia
de produo neoltica.
Simultaneamente, os sistemas agrrios do sul de Portugal, fruto da reconquista e de
prticas sociais herdadas de perodos histricos anteriores, foram orientados para o
sustento de ordens militares e, em menor grau, da nobreza, atravs da satisfao da
procura das cidades. Estas caractersticas scio-econmicas, aliadas s restries
biofsicas dos espaos mediterrnicos, por sua vez, encorajaram o desenvolvimento do
pastoralismo e a integrao pastoril da montanha com os espaos mediterrnicos
prximos, atravs transumncia de longa distncia.
Este modelo de transumncia permitiu mitigar a falta de alimentos animais no estio e,
desse modo, aumentar os efectivos animais e melhorar a fertilizao orgnica das
culturas agrcolas nas plancies mediterrnicas. No entanto, os dados paleopalinolgicos
obtidos no Sistema Montanhoso Central da Pennsula Ibrica, que se estende no sentido
E-W por mais de 700 km desde a Serra da Estrela at ao Sistema Ibrico em Espanha,
revelam que a implementao da transumncia de longa distncia teve um enorme
impacto no coberto vegetal. A construo da paisagem vegetal actual neste sistema de
montanhas, iniciada no Neoltico, e caracterizada por uma desarborizao quase
completa e pela dominncia absoluta de vegetao arbustiva baixa, foi certamente
concluda pelos gados transumantes. A estabilizao do coberto vegetal das montanhas
temperadas, mais a norte, dever ter sido sincrnico.
Embora no exista informao diacrnica espacialmente explcita que permita uma
reconstruo satisfatria da histria do montado, as escassas evidncias publicadas
indiciam que se trata de um sistema com razes no Neoltico (IV milnio a.C.),
maturado a partir de 4 500 BP (III milnio a.C.) e generalizado como componente
fundamental dos sistemas agrrios do SW Peninsular a partir da Idade do Ferro (I
226
milnio a.C.). Alguns estudos efectuados em depsitos de plen no SW de Espanha
revelam sinais claros da expanso de estruturas abertas tipo montado, entre ca. 1000 BP
e ca. 800 BP, i.e. uma nova acelerao da converso de bosque em montado na Baixa
Idade Mdia.
A importncia do porco de montanheira na gnese do montado no deve ser
desvalorizada frente aos rebanhos de herbvoros domsticos, sedentrios ou
transumantes. A documentao das ordens religiosas prdiga em informao a este
respeito. As varas de porco-preto, alm das plantas herbceas e dos rebentos de
arbustos, consoante a poca do ano e as regies, eram alimentadas, por vezes de forma
complementar (a produo de sementes no simultnea nas vrias espcies de
Quercus), com bolotas de carvalho-cerquinho (Quercus faginea subsp. broteroi), de
sobreiro, e/ou de azinheira. Os bosques so incompatveis com a montaria de porco-
preto porque a conduo dos montados atravs do desadensamento e da poda
fundamental para garantir produes abundantes de bolota.
A implantao do montado no pode ser arredada do processo de desflorestao porque
o montado no floresta. O montado tem a sua origem na simplificao de bosques
plano-esclerofilos de Quercus suber (sobreiro) e/ou Q. rotundifolia (azinheira) (muito
pontualmente de Q. pyrenaica (carvalho-negral) e de Q. faginea subsp. broteroi
(carvalho-cerquinho)). Por efeito do pastoreio e do corte e da queima de rvores e
arbustos, foi reduzido o grau de cobertura e a densidade das rvores, simplificado ou
erradicado o estrato arbustivo e promovida a dominncia de plantas herbceas exigentes
em luz. O montado tem uma estrutura anloga das savanas tropicais e deve, por isso,
ser interpretado como um prado com plantas arbustivas e arbreas dispersas.
Os montados no garantem a reposio das rvores mortas por doena ou velhice,
inclusivamente sob cargas de pastoreio idnticas s prevalecentes em perodos
anteriores mecanizao agrcola. Quando submetidos a um sistema de pastoreio
tradicional ininterrupto, inevitavelmente acabam por se converter numa pseudoestepe
desprovida de rvores ou muito esparsamente arborizada. Desde o Sculo X que so
recorrentes, na Pennsula ibrica, recomendaes em torno da necessidade de
rearborizar os montados. Tendo em considerao a idade mdia das rvores no montado
actual de admitir que ciclos longos de degradao-rejuvenescimento (e.g. por exemplo
atravs abandono e converso em coutadas de caa) se tenham repetido mais que uma
vez ao longo da histria.

O montado tem uma estrutura simplificada, normalmente reduzida a um estrato arbreo
esparso e a um prado de herbceas exigentes em luz.

Figura 0.31 (VII.I) - Montado (Vaiamonte, Monforte). (CA)

No bosque co-habitam rvores, arbustos, lianas e plantas herbceas.

Figura 0.32 (VII.I) - Bosque de Quercus coccifera subsp. rivasmartinezii (Mata do
Solitrio, Serra da Arrbida). (CA)

Em resultado da dinmica de crescimento populacional iniciada dois sculos antes,
Portugal atingiu no sculo XIII um mximo populacional e, consequentemente, um pico
de presso sobre os recursos florestais. Neste perodo histrico, a migrao para os
centros urbanos acentuou-se e a cidade assumiu-se, atravs da crescente integrao
mercantil do territrio, como um factor essencial na ordenao produtiva do espao.
Simultaneamente, aumentaram na documentao da poca as referncias a disputas de
227
terras, conflitos com a nobreza, etc. Um pouco mais tarde surgem referncias ao
assoreamento das barras e s dificuldades criadas actividade piscatria pelo
progressivo afastamento do mar. A falta de terra para cultivo era evidente em grande
parte do pas e a agricultura estendeu-se por espaos at ento no cobiados. O
alargamento da agricultura a solos marginais e o encurtamento do ciclo de recorrncia
dos fogos nas montanhas agravaram os fenmenos erosivos e carregaram os grandes
rios de sedimentos. As fozes e os esturios encheram-se de sedimentos (e.g. ria de
Aveiro) e aumentou a espessura dos cordes dunares litorais.

A conjuntura de crescimento populacional e de presso sobre os recursos naturais no
final da Idade Mdia foi comum a toda a cristandade e haveria de culminar na enorme
crise de recursos e na catstrofe demogrfica que caracterizou o sculo XIV.

Concluso

As espcies nascem, expandem-se e morrem. Desde que as plantas abandonaram a gua
e conquistaram a terra, novas espcies e novas solues adaptativas se sucederam. O
porte arbreo foi inventado num perodo muito recuado da histria evolutiva das
plantas terrestres, possivelmente em resposta competio pela luz. A soluo
evolutiva rvore, por sua vez, implicou a emergncia de novas espcies de rvores
provenientes dos mais diversos grupos taxonmicos. Desde o Devnico at ao final do
Mesozico dominaram as florestas presentes no actual territrio portugus vrios
grupos de fetos, de gimnosprmicas e de plantas com flor (angiosprmicas)
No final do Tercirio cobriam a Pennsula Ibrica florestas tropicais e subtropicais
constitudas por plantas evolutivamente prximas das que hoje se encontram dispersas
pelas ilhas macaronsicas, margens do Mar Vermelho, montanhas do Mxico ou
florestas tropicais do Norte da Amrica do Sul. A degradao do clima iniciada no
Miocnico, a emergncia do clima mediterrnico no Pliocnico e as glaciaes
Pleistocnicas eliminaram praticamente toda a flora de cariz tropical e subtropical que
entretanto foi substituda por elementos provenientes das latitudes mais elevadas do
continente europeu e por plantas adaptadas ao novo clima mediterrnico, na sua
maioria, com ancestrais autctones.
No Plistocnico a rea de ocupao das florestas que revestiam a Pennsula contraiu-se
ou expandiu-se com a alternncia entre perodos glaciares e interglaciares. O
Holocnico na realidade um perodo interglaciar com a peculiaridade de ter o Homem,
sobretudo a partir da inveno do modo de produo neoltico, a controlar uma parte
significativa dos fluxos de matria energia dos ecossistemas terrestres.
O Homem moderno (Homo sapiens) nasceu em frica h mais de 150 000 anos.
uma espcie moderna que s recentemente imigrou de frica (ca. 100 000 BP) e
colonizou a Europa (ca. 40 000 BP). Embora tenha havido uma colonizao da Europa
por grupos de Homo ergaster h cerca de 1 milho de anos atrs, linhagem esta extinta
ca. de 30 000 BP com o Homo neanderthalensis, supe-se que as espcies de plantas e
animais europeus evoluram sob uma presso de seleco pouco intensa liderada por
homindios inteligentes. Consequentemente, as biocenoses europeias so, regra geral,
muito sensveis perturbao antrpica. A extino da macrofauna plistocnica o
exemplo mais conhecido dessa sensibilidade.
Durante milnios, j no Holocnico, os grupos de humanos tiveram um impacto menor
nas florestas. O uso do fogo na gesto da sucesso ecolgica ter inicialmente
secundarizado os bosques. O crescimento das populaes e as aquisies tecnolgicas,
sobretudo aps a revoluo neoltica, foram o motor da desflorestao no territrio
228
portugus. No entanto, o efeito das actividades humanas no coberto florestal da bacia
mediterrnica no consensual. Alguns autores consideram que o clima exerceu um
controlo mais efectivo no recuo das florestas do que as tcnicas associadas ao modo de
produo neoltico. Outros, sem uma clara fundamentao emprica, argumentam que
na primeira metade do Holocnico, pelo menos nas reas de clima mediterrnico, as
formaes arbreas seriam pouco densas e funcionalmente semelhantes s savanas
africanas. Deste modo, faria mais sentido falar em desadensamento do que em
desflorestao.
As variaes climticas naturais holocnicas modificaram os padres de distribuio
espacial dos bosques sobretudo na vizinhana das fronteiras entre diferentes tipos de
bosque (e.g. fronteira entre bosques caduciflios e pereniflios). No entanto, tendo em
considerao as relaes vegetao-clima actuais na Pennsula Ibrica e a informao
paleoecolgica disponvel, o efeito das alteraes climticas na extenso e grau de
cobertura do estrato arbreo das florestas pristinas foi, em grande medida, controlada
pelo Homem. Esto documentados numerosos exemplos no europeus em que o
agravamento repentino das condies climticas acentuadas (e.g. reduo da
precipitao ou das temperaturas) alterou o desenho dos sistemas de uso dos recursos
naturais, com consequncias directas nas reas florestais.
A pastorcia com fogo foi o grande instrumento de domesticao das florestas. Mais
de 7500 anos de fogo reiterado e de herbivoria, num territrio de clima mediterrnico,
com uma estao seca superior a dois meses, de relevo movimentado (11% do territrio
continental portugus situa-se acima dos 700 m de altitude) e de solos delgados e pouco
frteis, derivados de rochas cidas pobres em nutrientes, tiveram um efeito devastador
nos bosques.
Aparentemente, possvel relacionar picos de regresso ou perodos de estabilidade da
rea de ocupaes dos bosques como perodos civilizacionais concretos. A Idade do
Bronze, a Idade do Ferro, ocupao romana, os perodos germnico e muulmano e,
finalmente, a Idade Mdia tm registos prprios na histria da floresta em Portugal. O
seu estudo todavia demasiado incipiente para permitir o desenvolvimento de modelos
diacrnicos regionais. Existe, porm, uma evidente correlao entre densidade
populacional e desflorestao, na qual as alteraes climticas podero ter um papel
significativo.
As florestas de espcies autctones, i.e. os bosques, so ecossistemas raros na paisagem
vegetal actual de Portugal Continental por duas causas fundamentais: ou ocupavam o
espao necessrio para outros ecossistemas mais teis; ou a sua biomassa era necessria
para a reposio da fertilidade do solo e, em menor grau, para outros usos como a
construo e o aquecimento. medida que as florestas se tornaram escassas
converteram-se de espaos indesejados em sistemas fundamentais de suporte do
funcionamento dos ecossistemas humanos.
Pese embora todo o progresso tecnolgico e cultural impulsionado pela escassez de
recursos, as populaes humanas ao longo da segunda metade do Holocnico, enredadas
numa armadilha malthusiana, sobreusaram a floresta sem preocupaes de
sustentabilidade. O final da Idade Mdia surge, assim, como um momento culminante
desta longa histria de rarefao antrpica dos espaos florestais. Esta interpretao
poder revelar-se demasiado linear e simplificadora. Em alternativa podero ter existido
perodos de contraco expanso da floresta controlados por ciclos recorrentes de
esgotamento-reconstituio de recursos. Infelizmente, a informao disponvel
demasiado escassa para corroborar ou rejeitar qualquer um dos modelos. De qualquer
modo, os momentos chave da eliminao dos bosques em Portugal h que procur-los
num passado muito mais longnquo do que normalmente se supe.
229

Paradigmas dominantes na interpretao das paisagens mediterrnicas
Os mais influentes historiadores hodiernos da paisagem mediterrnica insistem que os
sistemas agrrios tradicionais i.e. a componente animal, agrcola e florestal dos
sistemas tradicionais de explorao dos recursos naturais so o produto de um logo
processo de tentativa e erro que resultou em sistemas estveis e resistentes que
provavelmente no se modificaram durante sculos, como recentemente defendeu
Jacques Blondel. Para alm da insuficiente sustentao emprica e de representar uma
recuperao infundada dos modelos tericos de equilbrio da ecologia das
comunidades, a ideologia dominante na interpretao da paisagem actual mediterrnica
no toma em considerao que a escalas de tempo suficientemente longas, as que
realmente interessam em histria ambiental, existem indcios slidos de um deslize
intermitente da produtividade dos sistemas de explorao dos recursos naturais escala
da paisagem, em consequncia do uso humano. Por outro lado, a sustentabilidade de
alguns sistemas tradicionais de explorao dos recursos naturais varia com a escala
espacial de anlise. O conceito de sustentabilidade tem que ser sempre acompanhado
por uma explicitao das escalas temporais e espaciais em causa.

O abandono agrcola a partir dos anos 60 do sculo XX permitiu a restaurao da
floresta nas reas agrcola marginais de Portugal. Aps 5 000 anos de intensa
desflorestao a floresta indgena retorna ao espao que lhe foi usurpado pelo Homem.
Porm, as marcas dos usos passados persistem, entre outras razes, porque a dinmica
da vegetao aps abandono fortemente condicionada pelas condies iniciais. Por
essa razo, em Portugal Continental, as rvores dominantes dos bosques em regenerao
no so, por vezes, as mesmas dos bosques primitivos. Por exemplo, nos bosques em
regenerao so, com frequncia, mais abundantes espcies adaptadas secura e
perturbao (e.g. azinheira) do que nas florestas mais maduras, mais pelo efeito do
homem no solo do que pelas alteraes climticas.
As desarborizaes holocnicas tiveram quatro importantes consequncias escala
nacional:
1) O incremento da abundncia das rvores plano-esclerofilas (i.e. de rvores com
folhas planas, perenes, rgidas e coriceas, e.g. azinheira e sobreiro) em detrimento das
espcies caduciflias (e.g. Quercus robur e Q. pyrenaica) e marcescentes (rvores
parcialmente caducas no Inverno, e.g. Q. faginea subsp. faginea, Q. faginea subsp.
broteroi e Q. canariensis);
2) A dominncia de matos constitudos por pirfitos (e.g. estevas e urzes) nos espaos
no agrcolas; 3) uma reduo da fertilidade qumica (e.g. riqueza em nutrientes) e fsica
dos solos zonais (e.g. espessura); 4) uma dissecao generalizada do territrio mediada
pelas alteraes ocorridas nos ciclos hidrolgicos e nas propriedades dos solos.
230

Bibliografia recomendada

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ALARCO, J. (1987) O Domnio Romano em Portugal. Europa-Amrica. Mem-Martins.

ALMEIDA, C.A. (1978) Arquitectura Romnica de Entre Douro e Minho. Porto.
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234
Appendix 2: Aguiar, C., Pinto, B., 2007. A paisagem vegetal e o uso do
territrio ao longo do tempo. In Equipa Atlas (Eds.): Atlas das Aves
Nidificantes em Portugal (1999-2005). Instituto da Conservao da
Natureza e da Biodiversividade, Sociedade Portuguesa para o Estudo das
Aves, Parque Natural da Madeira e Secretaria Regional do Ambiente e do
Mar. Assrio & Alvim. pp. 48-50 [in portuguese, as co-author]

1. A paisagem vegetal e o uso do territrio ao longo do tempo

A estabilidade macroclimtica uma iluso transmitida pela nossa curta esperana
de vida. escala geolgica, desde tempos geolgicos remotos (cf. Briggs 1995),
nos terrenos que hoje constituem o territrio portugus, o clima oscilou entre os
frios glaciares e os calores tropicais, passando pelos macroclimas de tipo temperado
e mediterrnico (Suc 1984). No incio da poca Miocnica (23,8-5,3 Ma BP
1
)
grande parte da Pennsula Ibrica estava submetida a um macrobioclima de tipo
tropical, com chuvas bem distribudas ao longo do ano e, excepo das
montanhas, com uma estao fria amena e sem geadas. Cobriam a Pennsula Ibrica
amplas florestas tropicais e subtropicais, entre as quais sobressaiam pela sua
abundncia as florestas lauriflias (laurissilva), i.e. florestas dominadas por
espcies de folhas grandes, largas, por norma inteiras (no recortadas), persistentes,
sem pelos, rijas, lisas e brilhantes. A partir do Miocnico mdio a flora e a
vegetao ibricas foram profundamente marcadas por uma sucesso de convulses
geolgicas e macroclimticas, em particular pelas alteraes climticas que
culminaram na transio do macrobioclima tropical para o mediterrnico no
Pliocnico e pelos numerosos ciclos glaciar-interglaciar plistocnicos.

A instabilidade climtica, o progressivo arrefecimento e continentalizao do clima
e a crescente sazonalidade da precipitao (i.e. mediterraneidade) e da temperatura
iniciados no Miocnico mdio provocaram uma regresso da rea de distribuio ou
a extino das espcies caractersticas dos bosques tropicais e subtropicais
tercirios. As espcies mais exigentes em temperatura e gua foram as primeiras a
extinguir-se, ainda no Miocnico mdio e.g. Avicennia (fam. Acanthaceae) e
Bombacoideae (fam. Malvaceae). Seguiram-se, no Pliocnico ou na primeira
metade do Plistocnico, muitas outras espcies de famlias tropicais (e.g.
Sapotaceae) ou de famlias hoje refugiadas em reas temperadas no europeias com
Invernos benignos (e.g. Taxodiaceae, Nyssaceae ou Rhoipteleaceae) (Thompson
2005). A flora actual das Ilhas Macaronsicas, em particular a da Ilha da Madeira,

o repositrio mais completo da flora tropical e subtropical europeia e norte-africana
do Miocnico. Alguns dos gneros mais frequentes de rvores dos actuais bosques
sempreverdes dos Aores e da Madeira estavam certamente presentes nos bosques
ibricos do final do Tercirio e.g. os gneros de laurceas Ocotea [til], Apollonias
[barbujano], Laurus [loureiro] e Persea [vinhtico] e os gneros Sideroxylon
[marmulano] (fam. Sapotaceae), Picconia [pau-branco] (fam. Oleaceae) ou Clethra
[folhado] (fam. Clethraceae) .

1
BP - antes do presente
235

A generalizao do regime climtico mediterrnico no Pliocnico (ca. 3,2 Ma BP)
despoletou a formao de um grande nmero de novas espcies de plantas (radiao
adaptativa), muitas das quais adaptadas ao fogo, a partir de linhagens pr-
existentes. Portanto, no final do Tercirio que se diversificam os gneros
tipicamente mediterrnicos da flora actual da Bacia Mediterrnica, e.g. Cistus
[estevas], Olea [azambujeiros], Pistacia e Rhamnus. tambm neste perodo que se
organizam, pela primeira vez, os tipos de comunidades vegetais mais importantes
da vegetao mediterrnica actual da Pennsula Ibrica, de que so exemplos os
bosques de folha persistente (pereniflios) de Querci (ordem Quercetalia ilicis,
classe Quercetea ilicis), os matos-altos com espcies de folhas rijas, largas e
lustrosas (matagais da ordem Pistacio-Rhamnetalia alaterni, classe Quercetea
ilicis), os estevais (comunidades de Cistus sp.pl. da classe Cisto-Lavanduletea) e,
possivelmente, as comunidades de plantas aromticas de calcrios (classe
Rosmarinetea officinalis), e.g. comunidades de Thymus [tomilhos], Lavandula
[rosmaninhos] e Rosmarinus [alecrim]. O arrefecimento do clima no Pliocnico
promoveu a imigrao de plantas adaptadas a climas temperados (elementos
arctotercirios) de regies prximas do plo norte. Nos bosques caduciflios
temperados actuais (classe Querco-Fagetea) a maior parte das espcies arbreas
descendem dos elementos arctotercirios, como o caso das fagceas de folha larga
e caduca dos gneros Quercus [carvalhos], Fagus [faias] e Castanea [castanheiros];
dos gneros arbreos Acer [bordos], Alnus [amieiros], Betula [bidoeiros], Populus
[choupos], Salix [salgueiros], Corylus [aveleiras], Fraxinus [freixos] e Ulmus
[ulmeiros] (Sitte et al., 2004).

Prximo da transio entre o Tercirio e o Quaternrio, os bosques tropicais e
subtropicais que tinham dominado a vegetao terrestre da Pennsula Ibrica
durante mais de 50 Ma encontravam-se francamente empobrecidos, concentrando-
se, provavelmente, em reas litorais e sublitorais de baixa latitude e altitude.
Todavia, a paisagem vegetal ibrica era muito mais diversa no Pliocnico do que
nas pocas geolgicas precedentes. Alm da vegetao lenhosa de cariz
mediterrnico ou temperado, comunidades de plantas dominadas por gramneas
estavam a expandir-se e a apoderar-se dos espaos primitivamente habitados pelos
bosques tropicais e subtropicais. Admite-se que ocupavam trechos significativos da
Pennsula Ibrica savanas, ou mosaicos de prado e floresta, extensivamente
pastados por grandes herbvoros (Thompson, 2005). As plantas dos prados actuais
descendem directamente das espcies de plantas que especiaram sob a presso de
pastoreio dos grandes herbvoros tercirios e plistocnicos, todos eles j extintos. A
flora e a vegetao dos arquiplagos dos Aores e da Madeira evoluiu livre da
presso seleco liderada pela herbivoria. Este facto explica a sensibilidade da flora
autctone insular herbivoria e o poder invasivo da flora pratense sob o efeito da
pastorcia. De facto, em grande parte da rea de ocupao actual de pastagens nos
Aores na Madeira no existe uma nica espcie indgena.

Durante o Pleistocnico (1,8 Ma 10.000 anos BP) a longos perodos glaciares
secos sucederam-se curtos perodos interglaciares hmidos e amenos. A ltima
glaciao, a glaciao de Wrm, terminou acerca de 10.000 anos (11500 cal. BP).
Num curto espao de tempo o clima aqueceu e, pelo menos na metade Norte do
236
Pas, uma vegetao dominante de tipo estepe com rvores dispersas foi tomada por
densos bosques de rvores do gnero Quercus (e.g. carvalho-roble, sobreiro,
azinheira, etc.) (Allen et al. 1996). A expanso da floresta foi facilitada pelo recuo
para Norte de muitos animais de manada e pela extino antrpica de vrias
espcies de grandes mamferos, ocorrida ainda durante o Pleistocnico (Martin
1984). Porm, existem evidncias muito fortes na Europa central (cf. Vera, 2000), e
no h argumentos em contrrio na Pennsula Ibrica, de que os mamferos
herbvoros, em conjugao com o fogo e a perturbao gravitacional (deslizamentos
de terras) nas reas de relevo mais movimentado, mantiveram um mosaico fludo
(itinerante) de bosque e distintas comunidades herbceas e arbustivas, at entrada
em cena do factor Homem.

Existem evidncias de que a aco antrpica contribuiu desde cedo para o
alastramento das reas de vegetao no florestal. As desflorestaes pr-neolticas
tinham como objectivo incrementar a rea de pasto dos herbvoros com interesse
cinegtico, facilitar a observao de animais e/ou de grupos humanos rivais ou
ainda de promover a expanso das espcies arbustivas e herbceas mais apreciadas
nas actividades de recoleco. O homem paleoltico e mesoltico no foi um
utilizador passivo da natureza, mas sim um importante factor de mudana da fauna,
da flora e da paisagem vegetal. A domesticao dos animais domsticos, ocorrida
entre o final do Wrm e os meados do Holocnico (Blondel & Aronson 1999), e a
inveno da pastorcia aceleraram a domesticao da paisagem vegetal. Esta
histria em grande medida confunde-se, como se ver, com a histria dos bosques e
da pastorcia. A pastorcia incompatvel com grandes espaos florestais porque as
plantas herbceas da floresta tm baixa ou nenhuma palatibilidade e so pouco
produtivas. A floresta tambm acoita carnvoros que desbaratam os rebanhos e com
dificuldade se conduzem os animais num emaranhado de troncos, arbustos e lianas.
Por outro lado, com algo to simples como o fogo rapidamente se convertem em
pasto solos florestais profundos e ricos em matria orgnica, abundantemente
fertilizados com cinzas, e, em parceria com a herbivoria, se atrasa a sucesso
ecolgica. A importncia da agricultura na composio da paisagem vegetal muito
mais tardia porque durante milnios, ao contrrio da pastorcia, exigiu uma gesto
menos intensa da paisagem vegetal. Segundo Garcia de Cortazar et al. (1985)
arroteias seguidas de um curto perodo de cultura e de um prolongado abandono,
foram as caractersticas mais importantes da agricultura de subsistncia de tipo
itinerante que persistiu em grande parte da Pennsula Ibrica, desde a neolitizao
pelo menos at ao sculo IV d.C.

A perturbao antrpica moderada dos ecossistemas pristinos teve um efeito
favorvel na riqueza e na diversidade biolgica s escalas local e regional (Blondel
& Aronson, 1995). No entanto, a substituio macia dos regimes de perturbao
natural por outros alicerados no encurtamento dos ciclos de recorrncia do fogo e
na intensificao da herbivoria domstica conduziu a alteraes radicais da
paisagem vegetal, com reflexos profundos na biodiversidade, em coerncia com a
denominada Hiptese da Perturbao Intermdia (cf. Connel 1978). De facto,
com a generalizao da pastorcia com fogo, paulatinamente, os bosques recuaram e
uma flora adaptada ao fogo, dominada por plantas arbustivas (e.g. Erica spp., urzes
e Cistus spp., estevas), colonizou grande parte do espao pastoril. O encurtamento
dos ciclos do fogo facilitou a exportao de nutrientes pela gua e pelo vento e, nas
237
reas mais favorveis eroso acelerada, o solo foi perdendo espessura.
Lentamente tambm as comunidades de ervas perenes de melhor qualidade
alimentar deram lugar a prados anuais de baixa e concentrada produtividade. Com o
tempo a paisagem vegetal tornou-se montona. O primitivo mosaico de matriz
florestal onde (quase) todas as espcies cabiam, convergiu em mosaicos de
vegetao menos diversos escala regional, tanto em comunidades vegetais como
em espcies de plantas. De modo algum esta longa e insidiosa histria de
empobrecimento da diversidade biolgica foi compensado com a chegada (e
especiao?) de plantas especializadas nos nichos ecolgicos antropognicos, de
que so exemplo parte das plantas infestantes e ruderais.

A alterao antrpica do coberto vegetal processou-se temporal e espacialmente de
forma diferenciada, com perodos de intensa desflorestao, alternados com outros
de estabilizao do coberto florestal ou mesmo de progresso da vegetao,
correlacionados com flutuaes demogrficas e aquisies tecnolgicas das
sociedades humanas. A informao mais completa, e til, para caracterizar a
evoluo pr e proto-histrica no uso do actual territrio nacional fornecida pelas
sondagens palinolgicas efectuadas, em turfeiras de montanha, no quadrante NW de
Portugal. Embora existam evidncia bem anteriores 8500 B.P., na vizinhana da
Serra da Estrela (Knaap & Leeuwen 1995) os estudos paleopalinolgicos
demonstram que a desflorestao mediada pelo Homem se generalizou em todo o
ocidente peninsular h mais de 5.000 anos (Ramil-Rego & Aira 1993). O IV mil.
a.C. marcou, assim, uma viragem definitiva na estrutura e composio da paisagem
vegetal ocidental peninsular, sincrnica com o apogeu da cultura megaltica no
Neoltico Mdio/Final numa boa parte do actual territrio portugus. A perturbao
antrpica passou a ser a maior condicionante ao funcionamento dos ecossistemas
naturais. Nos perfis polnicos disponveis s desarborizaes antrpicas sucede-se o
aparecimento ou um incremento significativo das concentraes de plen de
cereais. No entanto, a actividade agrcola bem anterior, de acordo com Zilho
(1997 e 1993) a transio para o Neoltico iniciou-se com a chegada, por volta de 5
500 cal. a.C. (7 500 cal. BP, VI milnio a.C.), de embarcaes com pequenos
grupos agro-pastoris da regio mediterrnica oriental.

A desflorestao em larga escala, o agravamento da eroso acelerada e a expanso
definitiva dos urzais de montanha, generalizaram-se na Serra da Estrela acerca de
3200 anos (Knaap & Leeuwen 1995, 1997) e ligeiramente depois nas montanhas do
macio Galaico-Portugus (Ramil-Rego et al. 1996). Esta tendncia prolongou-se,
com pequenas interrupes, por todo o I mil. a.C. e foi correlacionada com um
agravamento climtico e com o Bronze final/Idade do Ferro. Neste perodo verifica-
se um forte crescimento populacional e, pelo menos no NW de Portugal, dadas as
caractersticas civilizacionais dos povos coevos, foi acompanhado por uma
progressiva escassez de recursos (cf. Silva & Gomes 1994). Ao contrrio do que
frequente em alguma bibliografia da especialidade, na viragem para o sc. I, o
gegrafo grego Estrabo no descreve uma Pennsula Ibrica arborizada, alude sim
pobreza dos seus solos e aspereza das suas montanhas (Cardoso 1994). No final
do I sculo a.C - I sculo d.C. Plnio-o-Velho, na Naturalis Historia (XXXIII, 21),
a propsito da minerao do ouro na Pennsula Ibrica, afirma: As montanhas da
Hispnia, em tudo o resto ridas e estreis e nas quais nada cresce, so obrigadas a
serem frteis pelo homem ao proporcionar-lhe este precioso bem (ouro). O
1
238
crescimento econmico ocorrido durante o domnio romano implicou um novo pico
de regresso da floresta na Pennsula Ibrica, identificvel nos depsitos polnicos
coetneos. Atendendo ao modelo de ocupao territorial romano admissvel que
as florestas mediterrnicas tenham sido as mais sacrificadas, semelhana do que
mais tarde aconteceria no perodo muulmano.

romanizao e queda do imprio (sc. V d.C.) correspondem picos de regresso
e regenerao da vegetao arbrea no NW peninsular (Ramil-Rego et al. 1996).
Embora no existam sensos consensual entre os especialistas da Alta Idade Mdia
que desde o final do Imprio Romano, e pelo menos at ao sc. XI, se verificou
uma estabilizao ou mesmo uma reduo dos efectivos populacionais humanos. O
fim da instabilidade poltico-administrativa, persistente desde as invases
germnicas at reconquista, evidenciado nos perfis polnicos da Serra da Estrela
por uma nova acelerao da converso dos bosques em vegetao serial. A
reconquista, a concentrao fundiria nas ordens religiosas e a consolidao do
poder rgio permitiu a transumncia a longa distncia (Mattoso 2000) e,
provavelmente, est na gnese do desadensamento do bosque pereniflio do sul do
pas e da criao do sistema de montado (Cabo Alonso 1998). tambm neste
momento histrico que se estrutura a rede urbana e viria europeia, com um
evidente estmulo da produo agrcola e das trocas comerciais. No espao rural
fundam-se novos povoados, os bons solos ainda entregues s florestas so
arroteados, as baixas drenadas e as margens dos rios estabilizadas, possivelmente
com impactos relevantes nos ecossistemas paludosos e turfosos.

A Baixa Idade Mdia caracteriza-se por um crescimento populacional acentuado
que culminou, no sc. XIV, numa crise profunda de escassez de recursos, tanto em
Portugal (Oliveira Marques 1987) como no resto da Europa (Duby 1977). Os
efectivos populacionais humanos alcanados antes da grande crise s alguns sculos
mais tarde seriam atingidos e ultrapassados. Existem algumas evidncias indirectas
de alteraes significativas no coberto vegetal no final da Idade Mdia. Por
exemplo, Devy-Vareta (1985 e 1986) defende que no sc. XIV se verifica uma
ruptura entre a procura de lenha e a regenerao das matas, no NW de Portugal. No
entender de Daveau (1988) o facto de muitas das sondagens paleopalinolgicas de
Coud-Gaussen & Denfle (1980, 1981), nas serras do Gers e da Peneda,
revelarem deposies polnicas muito recentes 750 a 950 B.P. poder estar
correlacionado com alteraes drsticas do coberto vegetal ocorridas na Baixa
Idade Mdia. A necessidade de conservar os recursos j escassos oferecidos pela
floresta evidente nos numerosos documentos dos sculos XIV e XV que probem
a extraco de lenhas, cascas e cortia (cf. Baeta Neves 1980-1988). A partir do
sculo XV a conservao da floresta passar a fazer parte das preocupaes
legislativas do poder rgio. No dizer de Delort (1982 cit. Coelho & Riley 1988) a
Alta Idade Mdia caracterizada por um sistema silvopastoril no qual a maioria das
necessidades materiais tinha origem nos bosques. A Baixa Idade Mdia um
perodo de transio de um sistema silvopastoril para um sistema agropastoril, e por
isso um momento chave na evoluo da paisagem vegetal: os recursos da floresta
progressivamente passam a ser complementares dos bens de consumo gerados pela
agricultura e pela pastorcia.

239
O primeiro relato fidedigno da paisagem vegetal de Portugal, da autoria de Link
(1805), descreve um pas profundamente desarborizado e abundante de matos. Este
cenrio confirmado por alguns memorialistas contemporneos daquele botnico
prussiano (vd. e.g. Oliveira & Costa 1996). Sobretudo na segunda metade do sc.
XIX, aps a guerra peninsular e as guerras civis que a sucederam, com uma nova
dinmica demogrfica e a perda do Brasil, a escassez de recursos no espao rural
assume nova importncia. Surgem os primeiros programas de arborizao em larga
escala dos espaos marginais, em particular dos campos de paleodunas e das dunas
tercirias (cf. Radich 1996). A agricultura, em especial a vinha e os cereais, estes
ltimos objecto de uma poltica proteccionista de preos mantida at s ltimas
dcadas do sc. XX, ocupam novos espaos. A necessidade de converter
agricultura solos cada vez mais marginais prolongar-se- at aos fluxos migratrios
dos meados do sc. XX.

Polticas como a campanha do trigo de Linhares de Lima, decorrida entre os anos
de 1928 e 1938, o Plano de Povoamento Florestal (1938-1968) e, mais
recentemente, o Projecto Florestal Portugus/Banco Mundial (1981-1986) e o
Programa de Aco Florestal (1986-1995) foram responsveis por algumas das
mudanas recentes mais radicais da paisagem vegetal portuguesa, como sejam a
utilizao agrcola de solos de grande declive, a substituio de enormes reas de
pastagem extensiva por cereais ou matas, a generalizao das arborizaes primeiro
com pinheiro e depois com eucalipto, etc. Simultaneamente, os aglomerados
urbanos e a rede de estradas reclamaram enormes reas de vegetao natural ou de
uso agrcola/florestal. Ainda assim as vegetaes dunar, de turfeiras, rupcola de
leitos de cheias e a vegetao aqutica e anfbia, de guas doces e salobras, foram,
talvez, os tipos de vegetao mais afectados pela aco do Homem no sc. XX. O
crescimento econmico e uma nova cultura de lazer expuseram a perturbaes de
consequncias devastadoras, ecossistemas que sempre haviam permanecido
resguardados da aco do Homem no cordo dunar litoral portugus. Por outro
lado, a vegetao aqutica e anfbia foi profundamente afectada pela destruio
fsica de habitats, por alteraes hidrolgicas e por modificaes da qualidade da
gua, umas e outras resultantes de empreendimentos hidroelctricos, da expanso e
criao de permetros de regadio, de trabalhos de regularizao fluvial, do uso de
fertilizantes, dos efluentes industriais e urbanos e, muito recentemente, da
drenagem de efluentes em pequenos povoados rurais efectuada com o apoio da CE.

A tendncia milenar de uma interferncia cada vez mais intensa do Homem na
dinmica da vegetao natural inverteu-se nas ltimas dcadas, na maior parte do
territrio portugus. A mecanizao agrcola, a descida dos preos dos produtos
agrcolas, a industrializao, a atraco pela cidade e a emigrao provocaram uma
reduo da importncia econmica do sector agrcola, um desvanecimento dos
valores rurais na sociedade contempornea e, no fim desta complexa cadeia
causal, o abandono das terras marginais. Algumas espcies de animais e plantas
regionalmente extintas, ou consideradas raras, reapareceram com abundncia ou
lentamente reconstroem as suas populaes. Outras espcies, ainda recentemente
abundantes, regridem por escassez de habitat. O bosque que pela sua raridade, nos
anos 50, Braun-Blanquet e outros botnicos (Braun-Blanquet et al. 1956), tiveram
dificuldades em estudar, embora ameaada pelo fogo, desponta e progride um
pouco por todo o territrio. Em toda a longa histria da paisagem vegetal
240
portuguesa nunca a sucesso ecolgica e os rearranjos internos dos mosaicos de
vegetao foram to rpidos e em to larga escala. O abandono das reas marginais
pela agricultura e pela silvicultura do eucalipto e do pinheiro-bravo, e a
concentrao da pastorcia levantam agora novos desafios e novas oportunidades
para a conservao da Natureza.

As desarborizaes holocnicas e a generalizao da agricultura e da pastorcia
tiveram quatro impactes maiores na paisagem vegetal actual de Portugal
Continental: 1) o incremento da abundncia das rvores plano-esclerofilas (i.e. de
rvores com folhas planas, perenes, rgidas e coriceas, e.g. azinheira e sobreiro)
em detrimento das espcies caduciflias (e.g. Quercus robur e Q. pyrenaica) e
marcescentes (rvores parcialmente caducas no Inverno, e.g. Q. faginea subsp.
faginea, Q. faginea subsp. broteroi e Q. canariensis); 2) a dominncia de matos
constitudos por pirfitos (e.g. estevas e urzes) nos espaos no agrcolas; 3) uma
reduo da fertilidade qumica (e.g. riqueza em nutrientes) e fsica dos solos zonais
(e.g. espessura); 4) uma dissecao generalizada do territrio mediada pelas
alteraes ocorridas nos ciclos hidrolgicos e nas propriedades dos solos. As
alteraes mesolgicas e da paisagem vegetal consequentes ao uso humano do
territrio tiveram, obviamente, consequncias marcantes na avifauna nacional cujos
contornos esto ainda por explorar. Queda porm claro que espcies exigentes em
grandes espaos no perturbados (reas de wilderness) e as espcies florestais tero
sido as mais lesadas pela presena activa do homem.

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244

Appendix 3. Pinto, B., 2005. PA issues accessible to decision-makers. Book
review of PA and Biodiversity: an overview of key issues edited by
Molongoy, KJ and Chape, S. Impact assessment and project appraisal 23,
155.

PA and Biodiversity: An overview of key issues
By Kalemani Jo Mulongoy and Stuart Chape (eds)
CBD Secretariat, Montreal, Canada and UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK.

Series UNEP-WCMC Biodiversity n. 21, Malaysia, 52 pages, US$55, Paperback,
ISBN 9-28072-404-5.
(document can be downloaded from
http://www.unep-wcmc.org/resources/publications/UNEP_WCMC_bio_series/21.htm)

PA are responsible for ecosystems services such as nutrient recycling, production of
natural resources and one of the best opportunities for in situ conservation of biological
diversity. Their value is reflected in the almost 12 per cent of total land surface they
occupy today, but also in the international commitments that aim for their conservation.

This book provides a synthetic and global view of important issues concerning PA and
the biodiversity they contain. It can be seen as a compilation of diverse themes, which
benefits from the expertise of 35 contributing authors, approaching ecological,
economical and social issues in an accessible way. The fact that it was originally written
as input to the Seventh Meeting of the Conference of Parties of the Convention on
Biological Diversity explains its decision-making perspective.

PA and Biodiversity: An overview of key issues is composed by seven sections, which
can be divided into three parts: 1. the first five sections present general information
about PA; 2. the sixth and longest section focuses on more specific issues concerning
their conservation; 3. the last section is a short conclusion about policies for these areas.
Issues concerning biodiversity are usually not approached directly, but rather as a
consequence of actions in PA.

Initially, the history, definition and categories of PA are presented, followed by a
section on regional and international agreements. Economic and social themes occupy a
section dedicated to their importance for the local and global economies and the fourth
section presents global policy initiatives on these areas. This part ends with the
presentation of global statistics about PA worldwide.

The second part presents a wide range of subjects, starting with threats inside and
outside PA, with special attention given to global climate change. The network design
and transboundary PA are also approached, followed by systems of evaluation for
management effectiveness. Finally, this part refers to the work with the private sector,
the financing of PA and the involvement with communities.

The last part is a short appeal to further strengthen global support for conservation of
PA, with a special reference to the Convention on Biological Diversity.

245
This book is directed to decision-makers and, to a lesser extent, to other interested
audiences which are not specialists in these subjects and aims to contribute for the
establishment of a global agenda in order to address conservation issues in PA.
Although generally accurate, this does not intend to be a technical publication about PA,
since its macro-scale view provides little detail about the real complexity of these
themes. Nevertheless, the specialist can find general information on relevant issues,
which include an overview of several conservation projects from different
environmental international organizations. The referencing of all presented information
would be of great benefit for readers that wish to expand on a peculiar subject.

Unfortunatelly, the variety of themes are generally exposed in an equalitary and
independent way, reflecting the compilation character of this publication. Therefore,
there is some difficulty in establishing degrees of importance to the different subjects
and some lack of organization, connection and integration between them, which
occasionally generates repetitions. This is also extended to the pictures in the book.
Despite the fact that the visual aspect of the book is good, the pictures generally do not
illustrate what is said in the text.

The book is written in an accessible, interesting and homogeneous way, but could be
more fluid if less attention were given to details concerning political agreements. On the
other hand, too little attention is given to key issues concerning sustainable development
in PA. For example, ecotourism and other forms of sustainable exploitation of resources
are not directly approached, despite their recognized importance on the future
conservation of these areas. Nevertheless, this book includes alternative approaches of
seeking support for PA. In this respect, the reader learns about significant advances in
the dialogue between the private sector and the PA community, the access and benefit-
sharing perspectives of products found in these areas and recent initiatives for youth and
young professional involvement in PA.

Overall, this book is recommended for decision-makers working with PA, approaching
a wide range of issues without sinking into technical detail. Considering that there are
few publications dedicated to this peculiar niche, this book is an important add-on of the
literature concerning PA.

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