LECTURE 1.

THE WORD AND ITS MEANING

OUTLINE
1. The word and its main harateristis.
!. T"#es o$ meanin%.
&. Semanti han%es and their a'ses.
1. The word and its main characteristics.
Le(io)o%" is a *ranh o$ )in%'istis that dea)s with the +oa*')ar" o$ the )an%'a%e and
harateristis o$ words as the main )e(ia) 'nits. Le(ia) 'nits om#rise words and set
e(#ressions, or %ro'#s o$ words o$ $i(ed harater.
There are o+er !-- de$initions o$ a word *'t none is %enera))" ae#ted. The word
re$)ets wor)d ma##in% whih is ')t'ra))" and nationa))" s#ei$i. Word 'se is a)so #re.
determined *" #erson/s soia) and ed'ationa) stat's, %ender, a%e, et.
The word #er$orms the $o))owin% $'ntions0
11 denotationa) 2denotes thin%s, 3'a)ities, ations,et14
!1 %enera)i5in% $'ntion 2e.%. tree, ho'se, anima)14
&1 emoti+e $'ntion 2e(#resses o'r $ee)in%s and emotions14
61 str't'ra) $'ntion 2#er$orms a ertain s"ntati $'ntion, is a #art o$ a
sentene1.
The word is the sma))est meanin%$') 'nit #ossessin% the $o))owin% $eat'res0
11 iso)ata*i)it", i.e. a*i)it" o$ a word to $'ntion in omm'niation a)one,
to ma7e a sentene, e.%. 8He)#9/ This distin%'ishes a word $rom another
meanin%$') 'nit : a mor#heme, whih annot *e 'sed in iso)ation. It an
$'ntion on)" as a #art o$ a word.
!1 indi+isi*i)it", i.e. a word annot *e $'rther di+ided witho't *rea7in% its
meanin%. C$. as)ee# : a 2so'nd1 s)ee#, a)i+e : a 23'iet1 )i$e.
&1 #ositiona) mo*i)it", i.e. a word an han%e its #osition in a sentene. E.%.
S'dden)" the" ame '# to a ho'se. The" ame '# to a ho'se s'dden)".
U# to a ho'se the" s'dden)" ame.
The word is a two.$aet 'nit om*inin% meanin% and $orm. The re)ationshi# *etween the
two is denoted *" the term moti+ation. I$ the onnetion *etween the meanin% o$ a word and
its $orm is )ear and the $orm he)#s 's to 'nderstand the meanin%, the word is onsidered
moti+ated. I$ the onnetion is on+entiona), the word is said to *e non.moti+ated at the
#resent sta%e o$ )an%'a%e de+e)o#ment.
There are three t"#es o$ moti+ation0
11 ;honeti , the so'nd $orm o$ the word he)#s 's to 'nderstand its meanin%, e.%. *an%,
*'m#, hiss, '7oo, et.
!1 mor#ho)o%ia), the mor#hemi om#osition o$ a word he)#s to 'nderstand its
meanin%, e.%. e(< no'n = $ormer >4 re< +er* = do a%ain4 +er*<er = a%ent, doer o$
the ation.
&1 $i%'rati+e meanin% o$ a word *eomes )ear thro'%h its diret meanin%, e.%. the )e% o$
the ta*)e, the $oot o$ the mo'ntain, the e"e o$ the need)e.
II. Types of meaning.
The meanin% is not homo%eneo's. It is a s"stem o$ s"stems0
11. It om*ines )e(ia) and %rammatia) meanin%s, e.%. atress is a #ersona) no'n.
!1. Le(ia) meanin% in)'des denotati+e and onnotati+e ones.
&1. Denotati+e meanin% is one#t'a) 2what a word denotes1, it is di+ided into semanti
om#onents a))ed semes , e.%. ?ather is a ma)e #arent. Denotati+e om#onents ma"
*e ')t'ra))" #redetermined 2$. winter in Si*eria and in A'stra)ia, it is a season
*etween a't'mn and s#rin% *'t a)) other harateristis are di$$erent0 d'ration,
tem#erat're, et.1.
61. Connotati+e meanin%s e(#ress the s#ea7er/s attit'de to the s'*@et o$ s#eeh and ma"
*e as $o))ows0
a1 st")isti0 ha#, $e))ow, assoiate4 hi)d, in$ant, 7id4
*1 emoti+e0 oo), awesome, terri$i4
1 e(#ressi+e0 to tr'd%e, to marh, to %o**)e4
d1 e+a)'ati+e0 )e+er, si))", %ood, *ad2rationa) e+a)'ation1, so'ndre)
2emotiona) e+a)'ation14
e1 assoiati+e 2a $ir.tree : $orest, New Aear14
$1 nationa) and ')t'ra) 27i)t : Sots14
%1 #ra%mati0 Can "o' o#en the doorB
C1. A word ma" *e #o)"semanti, i.e. it ma" ha+e se+era) interre)ated denotati+e
meanin%s0
a1 One o$ the meanin%s is a))ed #rimar", this is the meanin% in whih
the word made its $irst a##earane in the )an%'a%e, a)) the other
meanin%s whih de+e)o#ed )ater are a))ed seondar", e.%. hair as a
#iee o$ $'rnit're 2#rimar"1, hair as the head o$ some meetin%,
on$erene or hair as a de#artment 2seondar" meanin%s1.
*1 One o$ the meanin%s is entra), others are #eri#hera). As a r')e,
#rimar" and entra) meanin%s oinide *'t it is not neessari)" so. In
the o'rse o$ )an%'a%e de+e)o#ment a seondar" meanin% ma"
*eome the entra) one o'stin% the #rimar" meanin% to the #eri#her",
e.%. re+o)'tion0 #rimar" meanin% is that o$ rotar" mo+ement,
re+o)+in%, seondar" : soia) han%e 2now entra)1.
1 Meanin% an *e diret and indiret 2$i%'rati+e, trans$erred1, e.%. white
o))ar, *)'e o))ar, smo7e sreen, et.
III. Semantic changes and their causes.
1.S#eia)i5ation, or narrowin% o$ meanin%
e.%. %ara%e : a sa$e #)ae
meat : an" $ood
!.Genera)i5ation, or widenin% o$ meanin%
e.%. read" 2in O.E. : read" $or a ride, now : read" $or an" ati+it"1
arri+e : to )and at a shore
&.E)e+ation o$ meanin% 2%ettin% *etter, %oin% hi%her1
e.%. 3'een 2in O.E. : woman1
7ni%ht 2in O.E. : "o'n% ser+ant1.
6.De%radation o$ meanin% 2%ettin% worse, )ower1
e.%. a s#inster : a woman that s#ins woo)
idiot : a #ri+ate #erson
C. Trans$erene o$ meanin%. The name o$ one thin% is 'sed to name some other thin%s.
Trans$erene is $'rther s'*di+ided into meta#hor, meton"m" and e'#hemism.
a1 Trans$erene o$ meanin% *ased on )i7eness is a))ed a meta#hor. Meta#hors an *e *ased
on )i7eness o$ $orm 2 a head o$ a**a%e1, o$ #osition 2the $oot o$ the mo'ntain1, $'ntion
2Head o$ the De#artment1, si5e, 3'antit" 2oean o$ tro'*)es, storm o$ a##)a'se1,et.
Sometimes a om*ination o$ se+era) $eat'res ma7es '# the $o'ndation $or a meta#hor 2a
)e% o$ a ta*)e : $'ntion, #osition, sha#e1. Meta#hors ma" in+o)+e transition $rom #ro#er
names to ommon ones, e.%. a Don D'an, A#o))o, Eanda)s, Hoo)i%ans.
*1 Trans$erene o$ meanin% *ased on assoiations o$ onti%'it" 2*ein% to%ether1 is a))ed
meton"m". We an 'se the name o$ a ontainer $or the thin% it ontains 2Wi)) "o' ha+e
another '#B1, instr'ment $or the a%ent 2His #en 7nows no om#romise1, the #)ae $or the
#eo#)e who )i+e or wor7 there 2 Fhar7i+ %reets the %'ests. The Frem)in a%rees to the
treat"1, the name o$ a #erson $or the thin%s sGhe made 2He reads H"ron1, the name o$ a #art
$or the who)e 2Who/s the mo'staheB1
1 Trans$erene o$ meanin% ditated *" soia) on+entions, norms, r')es o$ *eha+ior. A word
or a word om*ination is 'sed instead o$ the other word that is o$$ensi+e, r'de, or ta*oo.
e.%. to die0 to #erish, to #ass awa", to @oin the si)ent ma@orit", to meet one/s ma7er, to *e
with the an%e)s, to ross the Great Di+ide, et.
toi)et0 WC, *athroom, the neessar" $ai)ities, #owder room, )adiesG %ents, #'*)i
on+enienes, )oa7room, throne room, #ore)ain o))etion, Windsor Cast)e, et.
Ca'ses o$ semanti han%es ma" in)'de )in%'isti and e(tra.)in%'isti ones.
The )atter are onneted with soia), #o)itia), eonomi, ')t'ra) and sienti$i de+e)o#ment.
e.%. om#'ter, s#ae, $eed*a7, *i7ini, +i))ain, *oor, et.
The $ormer em*rae di$$erentiation o$ s"non"ms 2e.%. time and tide1, *orrowin%s 2ho'nd and
do%1, #reser+in% the o)d meanin% in idioms 2)o+e to7en, to7en o$ res#et1, et.

LECTURE !.
;HRASEOLOGA
1. Set e(#ressions, their $eat'res and ori%in.
!. C)assi$iation o$ #hraseo)o%ia) 'nits.
1. Set expressions, their features and origin.
Set e(#ressions are sta*)e read".made 'nits with $i(ed inte%rate str't're. The" are
ontrasted to $ree #hrases and semi.$i(ed om*inations. A $ree #hrase #ermits s'*stit'tion o$
an" o$ its e)ements witho't an" semanti han%e in the other e)ement, e.%. to %o ear)"0 to
wor7, %et '#, mo+e, et. ear)"0 to %o )ate, 3'i7)", down, et.
In semi.$i(ed om*inations there are some *o'ndaries $or the s'*stit'tion, e.%. %o to
shoo) 2mar7et, o))e%e, o'rt, et.1 is 'sed on)" with no'ns o$ #)aes where de$inite ations
are #er$ormed.
?eat'res that ma7e set e(#ressions sta*)e0
11 e'#honi4
!1 ima%inati+e4
&1 onnotati+e.
E'#honi0 rh"thm, rh"me, a))iteration,e.%. sa$e and so'nd, st'$$ and nonsense, *" hoo7 or
*" roo7.
Semanti st")isti $eat'res0 simi)e, ontrast, meta#hor, s"non"m", anton"m", e.%. as )i7e
as two #eas, as o)d as hi))s, more or )ess, $rom *e%innin% to end, a )ame d'7, arms rae, to
swa))ow a #i)), #ro'd and ha't".
A *it o$ e(#ressions are onneted with di$$erent s#heres o$ #eo#)e/s )i$e, nat're, et.
11 nat're, e.%. o't o$ the *)'e, as we)ome as snow in Ma", to rain ats and do%s, et.
!1 a%ri')t're, e.%. #)o'%h the sand, rea# a rih har+est, sow wi)d oats, et.
&1 s#orts, e.%. $air #)a", to 7i7 a %oa), et.
61 m"tho)o%", e.%. the a##)e o$ disord, Ahi))es/ hee), et.
C1 the Hi*)e, e.%. So)omon/s @'d%ement, $or*idden $r'it, et.
I1 $o)7)ore, e.%. #ee#in% Tom, Ca)amit" Dane, et.
J1 )iterat're, e.%. to $i%ht the windmi))s, a %reen.e"ed monster, et.
2. Classification of phraseological units.
There are di$$erent a##roahes to st'd"in% and )assi$"in% #hraseo)o%ia) 'nits.
1. The )assi$iation o$ E.E.Eino%rado+ is s"nhroni and semanti. It is *ased
'#on the t"#e o$ moti+ation. He distin%'ishes0
a1 #hraseo)o%ia) $'sions, e.%. tit $or tat. The" re#resent the hi%hest sta%e o$
*)endin%, are not moti+ated nowada"s, are s#ei$i $or e+er" )an%'a%e
and annot *e )itera))" trans)ated4
*1 #hraseo)o%ia) 'nities , e.%. to 7now where a shoe #inhes, to rise to the
*ait, et. The" are )ear)" moti+ated, some o$ them are easi)" trans)ated
and e+en internationa)4
1 #hraseo)o%ia) om*inations, e.%. to meet the demands, to ma7e $riends.
The" are not on)" )ear)" moti+ated *'t a)so ontain one om#onent
'sed in its diret meanin% 2demands, $riends1.
!.Larin/s )assi$iation is a)so semanti *'t diahroni. He *e)ie+es that eah 'nit %oes
thro'%h three sta%es in its de+e)o#ment. ?irst it is a $ree word om*ination, then a moti+ated
meta#hori #hrase and then an idiom with )ost moti+ation, e.%. to %i+e a sa7, to %i+e a o)d
sho')der, to dane attendane on sm*., et.
Semanti )assi$iations o$ Eino%rado+ and Larin are o#en to ritiism sine the de%ree o$
moti+ation ma" *e di$$erent $or di$$erent s#ea7ers de#endin% on their 7now)ed%e o$ histor",
'stoms and traditions, )e+e) o$ ed'ation, et. So the" are s'*@eti+e, not re)ia*)e eno'%h.
&. N.Amoso+a/s a##roah is onte(to)o%ia). She de$ines #hraseo)o%ia) 'nits as 'nits o$
$i(ed onte(t harateri5ed *" a s#ei$i word.order and #e')iar semanti re)ationshi#
*etween the om#onents. ;hraseo)o%ia) 'nits are di+ided into #hrasemes and idioms.
;hrasemes are a)wa"s *inar". One o$ their om#onents has a #hraseo)o%ia))" *o'nd
meanin%, the other ser+es as the determinin% onte(t, e.%. sma)) han%e, sma)) ho'rs,
sma)) ta)7. In idioms the new meanin% is reated *" the who)e, eah e)ement ha+in% its
own meanin% wea7ened or )ost. Idioms ma" *e moti+ated and demoti+ated.
6. Foonin/s )assi$iation is $'ntiona)0 de#ends on the $'ntions #hraseo)o%ia) 'nits $')$i)
in omm'niation. There ma" *e0 a1 nominatin% 2e.%. a man o$ straw, a *')) in a hina
sho#14 *1 nominati+e omm'niati+e 2+er*a)1, e.%. to %o ro'nd the *'sh, to #')) one/s )e%,
et.4 1 omm'niati+e 2sentenes *" $orm1, e.%. C'riosit" 7i))ed the at4 d1 inter@etiona),
e.%. Good hea+ens, a #rett" 7ett)e o$ $ish, et. ?'rther )assi$iation de#ends on whether
the 'nits are han%ea*)e or 'nhan%ea*)e, what their str't're is, et.
LECTURES &.C.
WORD.HUILDING. STRUCTURE O? WORDS.
Y. Shortening.
Shortenin% is a wa" o$ oinin% new words *" )i##in% a #art o$ their #rotot"#es. The
remainin% #art does not 's'a))" han%e #honetia))" so it is sometimes neessar" to han%e the
s#e))in%0 mi7e 2$rom miro#hone1, tran7 2$rom tran3'i)i5er1, d'* 2$rom do'*)e1.
The han%e o$ meanin% ma" a)so ta7e #)ae0
a1 shortened words are 's'a))" o))o3'ia) whi)e their #rotot"#es ma" *e ne'tra) 2e.%. *i7e, mi7e,
do14
*1 shortened words are as a r')e monosemanti whi)e their #rotot"#es ma" *e #o)"semanti 2e. %.
to do'*)e has se+era) meanin%s011 to inrease two$o)d4 !1 to m')ti#)" *" two4 &1 to add the same
note in the )ower or hi%her ota+e4 61 to ma7e another so'ndtra7 o$ a $i)m in a di$$erent
)an%'a%e. The shortened word to d'* retains on)" the $o'rth meanin%1.
The orre)ation o$ a shortened word and its #rotot"#e ma" *e as $o))ows0
a1 the 'rtai)ed $orm is a )e(ia) +ariant or a s"non"m di$$erin% $rom the #rotot"#e st")istia))" or
emotiona))" 2e.%. e(am0 e(amination, do0 dotor14
*1 the onnetion an *e esta*)ished on)" et"mo)o%ia))", e.%. $an0 $anati, $an"0 $antas".
Un)i7e on+ersion shortenin% #rod'es new words *e)on%in% to the same #art o$ s#eeh
as their #rotot"#es. The *')7 o$ shortened words is onstit'ted *" no'ns. Eer*s are hard)" e+er
shortened 2e.%. to re+ $rom re+o)+e1. Shortened ad@eti+es are $ew and most)" re+ea) a om*ined
e$$et o$ shortenin% and a$$i(ation, e.%. om$" $rom om$orta*)e, mi55" $rom misera*)e.
Shortened words are o$ten homon"mo's with other shortened words, e.%. +an 2the short
$or ara+an and $or +an%'ard1, %"m 2%"mnastis and %"mnasi'm1, +et 2+eterinar" and +eteran1.
C)assi$iation o$ shortened words is *ased on the #osition o$ the )i##ed #art. We
distin%'ish0
11 $ina) )i##in% 2the end is 't o$$, the *e%innin% o$ the #rotot"#e is retained1, e.%. ad
2ad+ertisement1, ed 2editor1, o7e2oa.o)a14
!1 initia) )i##in% 2the $ina) #art o$ the #rotot"#e is retained1, e.%. stor" 2histor"1, #hone
2te)e#hone1, drome 2airdrome14
&1 $ina) and initia) )i##in% om*ined, e.%. $rid%e 2re$ri%erator1, te 2deteti+e1, $)'
2in$)'en5a14
61 media) )i##in$ 2the entra) #art o$ a word $a))s o't1, e.%. s#es 2s#eta)es1, ma/am
2madam1, maths 2mathematis1, $an" 2$antas"1.
Shortened words are o##osed to shortened #hrases, whih res')t $rom a om*ined e$$et
o$ )i##in%, e))i#sis and s'*stanti+ation, e.%. wee7)" 2wee7)" #a#er1, $ina)s 2$ina) e(ams1, #'*
2#'*)i ho'se1.
A s#eia) ase o$ shortened words are $'sions, or *)ends, or te)eso#i words. The" res')t
$rom shortenin% and om#o'ndin% o$ )i##ed stems. The #atterns ma" *e0
a1 initia) e)ement o$ the $irst stem < the seond stem, e.%. #aratroo#s 2#arah'te troo#s1,
a'tomania 2a'tomo*i)e mania14
*1 the $irst stem < the $ina) e)ement o$ the seond stem, e.%. s)imnastis 2s)im < %"mnastis1,
#o#ert 2#o#')ar onert1, +ideot 2+ideo < idiot14
1 the initia) e)ement o$ the $irst stem < the $ina) e)ement o$ the seond stem, e.%. smo%
2smo7e < $o%1, weddi+ersar" 2weddin% anni+ersar"1, *it 2*inar" di%it1.
YI. Are!iations.
A**re+iations are words $ormed *" initia) )etters o$ some other words. De#endin% on the
wa" the" are read a**re+iations are di+ided into0
a1 those #reser+in% a)#ha*etia) readin%, e.%. HHC, SOS, TE4
*1 aron"ms read as tho'%h the" were ordinar" En%)ish words, e.%. UNO, NATO, NOW.
A s#ei$i %ro'# is re#resented *" Latin a**re+iations whih ma" *e read0
a1 a)#ha*etia))", e.%. a.m., #.m.
*1 as orres#ondin% Latin words, e.%.. e(am#)i %ratia, #.m. : #ost meridi'm, a.m.. ante
meridi'm.
1 as orres#ondin% En%)ish words, e.%.. $or e(am#)e, a.m. : in the mornin%, #.m.. in the
a$ternoon.

YII. "inor types of word#uilding.
1.So'nd interhan%e.
It is a wa" o$ $ormin% new words *" han%in% some so'nd2s1 in the root, e.%. $ood0 $eed, )i$e0
)i+e, s#ea70 s#eeh. It an *e om*ined with a$$i(ation, e.%. stron%0 stren%th or with a$$i(ation
and shi$t o$ stress, e.%. demorat0 demora".
!.Distinti+e stress.
It is a wa" o$ oinin% new words *" han%in% the #)ae o$ stress, e.%. im#ort 2n, +1, ond't 2n,
+1, researh 2n, + in AmE1.
&.So'nd imitation.
It is a wa" o$ $ormin% new words *" imitatin% so'nds assoiated with the o*@ets or ations the
words denote, e.%. to s#)ash, to %i%%)e, to *'55, whis#er, '7oo, et.
6.Ha7 $ormation.
It is a wa" o$ oinin% new words *" 'ttin% a s'##osed or rea) s'$$i( $rom e(istin% words, e.%. to
*'t)e 2$rom *'t)er1, to *e% 2$rom *e%%ar1, to ho'se7ee# 2$rom ho'se.7ee#er1, et.

LECTURE I.
LEKICAL SASTEMS. HOMONAMS. SANONAMS. ANTONAMS.

OUTLINE.
1. De$inition o$ homon"ms. C)assi$iation o$ homon"ms.
!. So'res o$ homon"m".
&. De$inition o$ s"non"ms. C)assi$iation o$ s"non"ms.
6. So'res o$ s"non"m".
C. Anton"ms and their )assi$iation.
I. $efinition of homonyms. Classification of homonyms.
Homon"ms are words identia) in so'nd and s#e))in% or at )east in one o$ these as#ets,
*'t di$$erent in their meanin% and distri*'tion. The term is deri+ed $rom Gree7 2homos : the
same, onoma : name, i.e. the same name om*ined with the di$$erene o$ meanin%.
E.%. *an70 11 a shore, a ri+er *an74 !1 a $inania) instit'tion4
Ha))0 11 an" s#heria) *od"4 !1 a )ar%e danin% #art".
Homon"ms e(ist in man" )an%'a%es *'t in En%)ish this )an%'a%e #henomenon is
es#eia))" $re3'ent, most)" in monos"))a*i words 2near)" L- M o$ homon"ms1.
Homon"ms are di+ided into homon"ms #ro#er 2identia) in *oth so'nd and s#e))in%1, e.%.
*a)), *an74 homo#hones 2identia) in so'nd *'t di$$erent in s#e))in%1, e.%. #iee.#eae,
7ni%ht.ni%ht, sent.sent.ent4 homo%ra#hs 2the same in s#e))in% *'t di$$erent in so'nd1, e.%.
to *ow : *ow, )ead : to )ead.
Another )assi$iation is *ased on the #art o$ s#eeh homon"ms *e)on% to. I$ *oth
homon"ms *e)on% to the same #art o$ s#eeh, the" are )e(ia), e.%. to read : read, 7ni%ht :
ni%ht, to )ie : to )ie. Homon"ms *e)on%in% to di$$erent #arts o$ s#eeh are a))ed )e(io.
%rammatia), e.%. )e$t : )e$t, e"e :I, 7nows : nose.
The third )assi$iation is *ased on the simi)arit" o$ the #aradi%ms 2%rammatia)
$orms eah homon"m #ossesses1. E.%. math.mathes0 math : mathes, s'h homon"ms are
a))ed $')). Homon"ms that oinide in one or two mem*ers 2not in a)) mem*ers1 o$ their
#aradi%ms are a))ed #artia). E.%. to )ie. )"in%.)ied : )ied 0 to )ie.)"in%. )a".)ain 4 )e$t 0 to )ea+e.
)ea+in%.)e$t.)e$t.
II. Sources of homonymy.
There are se+era) so'res o$ homon"m".
11 ;honeti han%es. In the o'rse o$ the )an%'a%e de+e)o#ment two or more words that
were #rono'ned di$$erent)" ma" de+e)o# identia) so'nd $orm, e.%. 7ni%ht.ni%ht, sea.
see, write.ri%ht.
!1 Horrowin%. A *orrowed word ma" d'#)iate in $orm a nati+e word or another *orrowin%,
e.%. write 2nati+e1 : rite2Latin rit's1, $air 2ad@, nati+e1 : $air 2no'n, ?renh1,*an7 2shore,
nati+e1.*an7 2instit'tion, Ita)ian1.
&1 Word*'i)din%0
a1 on+ersion, e.%. #a)e.to #a)e, water :to water, om*.to om*4
*1 shortenin%, e.%. $an : $an 2$rom $anati1, +an : $rom +an%'ard and $rom ara+an4
1 so'nd imitation, e.%. *an% : to *an%4 mew :mew. mew.
61 S#)ittin% #o)"sem", e.%. *oard. It is di$$i')t to esta*)ish e(at riteria *" whih
disinte%ration o$ #o)"sem" o')d *e deteted. The 7now)ed%e o$ et"mo)o%" and other
)an%'a%es wi)) he)# to s'##)" the missin% )in7s. The im#reision o$ the riteria is
reorded in the data o$ di$$erent ditionaries whih o$ten ontradit eah other. E.%. *oard is
re#resented as two homon"ms in M'))er/s ditionar", as three homon"ms in Ara7in/s
ditionar" and as one #o)"semanti word in Horn*"/s ditionar".
III. $efinition of synonyms. Classification of synonyms.
S"non"m" is one o$ the most ontro+ersia) #oints in )in%'istis. Ro'%h)" we ma" sa" that
when two or more di$$erent words are assoiated with the same or near)" the same denotati+e
meanin%, the words are s"non"ms.
Sometimes riterion o$ interhan%ea*i)it" has *een a##)ied to de$inition o$ s"non"ms.
Aordin%)", s"non"ms ha+e *een de$ined as words, whih are interhan%ea*)e in at )east some
onte(ts witho't an" onsidera*)e han%es in denotati+e meanin%. This riterion, howe+er, has
*een m'h ritii5ed. I$ a)) s"non"ms were interhan%ea*)e, the" wo')d *eome 'se)ess *a))ast
in the )an%'a%e. E+en those s"non"ms that seem to *e interhan%ea*)e and are a))ed tota) *"
Aademiian Eino%rado+, sti)) di$$er in their distri*'tion, 'se, et. e.%. osmona't is 'sed in
re$erene to E'ro#ean s#aemen and astrona't : to Amerian ones. Or o$$er is $o))owed *" a
no'n whi)e s'%%est : *" a %er'nd. So the #re+ai)in% ma@orit" o$ s"non"ms are #artia).
S"non"ms are 'nited into s"non"mo's rows. In eah row there is one word, whih
#resents a 7ind o$ entre o$ the %ro'# o$ s"non"ms. Its semanti str't're is 's'a))" sim#)e. This
is the dominant s"non"m harateri5ed *"0
11 hi%h $re3'en" o$ 'sa%e4
!1 *road om*ina*i)it"4
&1 *road %enera) meanin%4
61 )a7 o$ onnotations.
E.%. in the row0 to )oo7.to stare.to %)are.to %a5e.to #eer.to #ee#.to %)ane.to %)im#se.et. the
dominant s"non"m is the word to )oo7.
S"non"ms an *e )assi$ied as st")isti and ideo%ra#hi. St")isti s"non"ms di$$er in their
st")isti onnotations, e.%. $ather.#arent.dadd"4 stomah.*e))". Ideo%ra#hi s"non"ms ma" di$$er
in the $o))owin% onnotations0
11 de%ree or intensit", e.%. to )i7e.to admire :to )i+e : to adore. to worshi#4 to s'r#rise : to
astonish. to ama5e. to asto'nd4
!1 d'ration, e.%. to %)ane. to stare 4 to sa" : to ta)7 4
&1 manner, e.%. to sta%%er : to trot : to #ae : to marh, et.4
61 a'se, e.%. to shi+er :to sh'dder 4 to *)'sh : to redden 4
C1 emoti+e onnotation, e.%. a)one : )one)"4
I1 e+a)'ati+e onnotation, e.%. we)).7nown : $amo's. e)e*rated. notorio's, et.
We an a)so sin%)e o't onte(t'a) s"non"ms that are simi)ar in meanin% on)" 'nder some
s#ei$i distri*'tiona) onditions, e.% Go and buy some *read : Go and get some *read.
I annot stand it an" )on%er : I annot bear it an" )on%er. These words are not s"non"ms
o'tside the s#ei$ied onte(ts.
IY. Sources of synonymy.
11 Horrowin%s $rom other )an%'a%es or $rom dia)ets and re%iona) +ariants
e.%. to as7 2nati+e1 : to 3'estion 2?renh1 : to interro%ate 2Latin1
%ir) : )ass 2Sottish1, )a7e.)oh 2Sottish1, wire)ess : radio 2AmE14
!1 Word*'i)din%0
a1 on+ersion, e.%. a )a'%h2 $rom to )a'%h1 : )a'%hter, to entame : to tame4
*1 shortenin%, e.%. +eteran :+et, re$ri%erator : $rid%e, to te)e#hone : to #hone4
&1 E'#hemisms, e.%. dr'n7 : merr" : e)e+ated, )a+ator" : restroom, et.4
61 ;hraseo)o%", e.%. na7ed : in one/s *irthda" s'it4 to die : to @oin the si)ent ma@orit", to
7i7 the *'7et, et.
Y. Antonyms and their classification.
Anton"ms ma" *e de$ined as two or more words o$ the same )an%'a%e *e)on%in% to the
same #art o$ s#eeh and to the same semanti $ie)d, identia) in st")e and near)" identia) in
distri*'tion, assoiated and o$ten 'sed to%ether so that their denotati+e meanin%s render
ontraditor" or ontrar" notions.
Contraditor" notions are m't'a))" o##osed and den" eah other, e.%. a)i+e : not dead,
i))iterate : not )iterate. Contrar" notions are a)so m't'a))" o##osed *'t the" are %rada*)e, e.%. o)d
and "o'n% are the most distant #o)es on the sa)e0 "o'n% : midd)e.a%ed. e)der)".o)d or hot.
warm.oo).o)d.
C)assi$iation o$ anton"ms is *ased on the wa" the" are *'i)t. Root words $orm a*so)'te
anton"ms 2ha+in% di$$erent roots1, e.%. ri%ht.wron%, deri+ationa) anton"ms are reated *"
ne%ati+e a$$i(es added to the same root, e.%. ha##".'nha##", he)#$').he)#)ess.
In deri+ationa) anton"ms mor#ho)o%ia) moti+ation is )ear, there is no neessit" in
onte(ts ontainin% *oth mem*ers to #ro+e the e(istene o$ deri+ationa) anton"ms. The word
unsuccessful #res'##oses the e(istene o$ the word successful. H't the #atterns, tho'%h t"#ia)
are not 'ni+ersa). Mor#ho)o%ia))" simi)ar $ormations ma" show di$$erent semanti re)ationshi#s.
E.%. disa##oint is not the anton"m to a##oint, to 'nman 2to de#ri+e o$ h'man 3'a)ities1 is not the
anton"m o$ man 2to $'rnish with #ersonne)1.
Another t"#e o$ anton"ms is onte(t'a) anton"ms, i.e. words, whih are ontrasted in
at'a) s#eeh and are not o##osed o'tside ertain onte(ts, e.%. Some #eo#)e ha+e m'h to )i+e
on *'t )itt)e to )i+e $or. On and $or are anton"ms in this onte(t.
A)most e+er" word an ha+e one or more s"non"ms. Com#arati+e)" $ew ha+e anton"ms.
This t"#e o$ o##osition is harateristi o$0
11 3'a)itati+e ad@eti+es, e.%. o)d : new, #rett".'%)"4
!1 words deri+ed $rom 3'a)itati+e ad@eti+es, e.%. %)ad)".sad)", %)adness.sadness4
&1 words denotin% $ee)in%s or states, e.%. tri'm#h.disaster, ho#e.des#air, )o+e.hatred4
61 words denotin% diretion, e.%. to and $rom, hither and thither4
C1 words denotin% #osition in s#ae and time, e.%. $ar.near, o+er.'nder, )ate.ear)", da".
ni%ht.
;o)"semanti words ma" ha+e di$$erent anton"ms when 'sed in di$$erent meanin%s, e.%.
short :)on% 2a )on% stor", a short stor"1, short. ta)) 2a short man, a ta)) man1, short. i+i) 2to *e
short with some*od", to *e i+i) with some*od"1.
;o)"semanti words ma" ha+e anton"ms in some o$ their meanin%s and no anton"ms in
the others, e.%. ritiism 2*)ame1 : #raise, ritiism 2)iterar" ritia) essa"1 : 2no anton"m1.
One more t"#e o$ semanti o##osition is on+ersi+es. The" denote one and the same
re$erent or sit'ation as +iewed $rom di$$erent sides, with a re+ersed order o$ #artii#ants and
their ro)es, e.%. *'".se)), %i+e.reei+e, #arent.hi)d. Con+ersi+e re)ations are #ossi*)e within one
word, e.%. to se))0 He se))s *oo7s. This *oo7 se))s we)). The same #air o$ words ma" $'ntion as
anton"ms or as on+ersi+es, e.%. $athers and sons.


LECTURE J
LEKICAL SASTEMS 2ontin'ed1.

OUTLINE.
1. St")istia))" mar7ed and st")istia))" ne'tra) +oa*')ar".
!. S)an% and its harateristis.
&. Neo)o%isms.
6. Arhaisms.
I. Stylistically mar%ed and stylistically neutral !ocaulary.
A)) words are di+ided into st")istia))" ne'tra) 2*asi +oa*')ar" ha+in% no st")isti
onnotations1 and st")istia))" mar7ed.
St")istia))" ne'tra) words an *e 'sed in an" st")es and sit'ations, e+er"da", e+er"where
and *" e+er"*od", re%ard)ess o$ #ro$ession, ed'ation, a%e %ro'# or %eo%ra#hia) )oation.
Their meanin%s are *road, %enera) and diret. A )ot o$ these words ha+e s"non"ms, whih are
st")istia))" mar7ed, e.%. hi)d.in$ant.7id, ontin'e : %o on : #roeed, *e%in : start.
ommene.
St")istia))" mar7ed words are )imited in their 'se and in)'de $orma) and in$orma)
+oa*')ar".
?orma) +oa*')ar" om#rises0
11 o$$iia) +oa*')ar" 'sed in do'ments, *'siness transations, di#)oma", et. E.%.
hi%h ontratin% #arties, hereina$ternamed, et.
!1 )earned words ommon to a)) $ie)ds o$ 7now)ed%e, e.%. s"nthesis, ana)"sis,
h"#othesis, antithesis, et.
&1 words assoiated with #ro$essiona) omm'niation, s#eia) termino)o%" di$$erent
$or eah *ranh o$ siene or art, e.%. )in%'isti terms0 in$)etion, e'#hemism,
#aradi%m, #honeme, et.
In$orma) words are traditiona))" di+ided into0
11 dia)et words 'sed within a ertain territor", e.%. Co7ne" dia)et4
!1 o))o3'ia) words
&1 s)an%.
Co))o3'ia) words ser+e $or a om#arati+e)" wide s#here o$ omm'niation. The" are
$'rther s'*di+ided into0
a1 )iterar" o))o3'ia) words 'sed in e+er"da" on+ersationa) s#eeh *" *oth
')ti+ated and 'ned'ated #eo#)e o$ a)) a%e %ro'#s. It is wide)" re$)eted in
$ition, es#eia))" in modern writers/ wor7s. E.%. to ha+e a *ite, to ha+e a
sna7, a *it o$, a )ot o$, to start, to $inish, to %i+e '#, to ma7e '#, t'rn '#, $)',
#ram, $rid%e, 5i#, et.
*1 $ami)iar o))o3'ia) words. There is no strit *order *etween )iterar" o))o3'ia)
and $ami)iar o))o3'ia) words. Aet the ir)e o$ s#ea7ers 'sin% $ami)iar
o))o3'ia) words is more )imited : the "o'n% and the semi.ed'ated. E.%. do,
hi, ta.ta, to #i7 '# some*od", sh't '#, et.
S)an% is ontro+ersia) as to its de$inition, harateristis and )assi$iations. It is 's'a))"
di+ided into %enera) s)an% and s#eia) s)an% 2e.%. teena%er s)an%, 'ni+ersit" s)an%, $oot*a))
s)an%, et.1


!. Slang and its characteristics
S)an% onsists either o$ new words or o$ 'rrent words em#)o"ed in some s#eia) sense.
Most o$ s)an% words are 'rrent words whose meanin%s ha+e *een meta#horia))" shi$ted
and it is o$ten aom#anied with a o'rse, @o')ar, "nia) o)o'rin%, e.%. sa'ers 2e"es1, tra#
2mo'th1.
S)an% s"non"ms $or 8head/0 atti, *rain.#an, n't, hat.#e%, '##er store".
Mone"0 *eans, *rass, do'%h, et.
;eo#)e 'se s)an% $or a n'm*er o$ reasons0
a1 to so'nd #it'res3'e, stri7in%, di$$erent $rom others4
*1 to so'nd modern, '#.to.date4
1 to demonstrate inde#endene4
d1 to so'nd the same as a)) the rest in a %ro'#, to show that "o' 8*e)on%/ 2es#eia))"
im#ortant $or teena%ers1.
A$ter a s)an% word has *een 'sed in s#eeh $or a ertain #eriod o$ time, #eo#)e %et
a'stomed to it and the most +ita) words are then ae#ted into )iterar" +oa*')ar". This
ha##ened to s'h words as sno*, *et, *ore, ha#, don7e", $'n, mo*, #inh, teena%er, hith.
hi7er, et. H't the *')7 o$ s)an% is $ormed *" short.)i+ed words.
S)an% sho')d *e di$$erentiated $rom ar%ot 2rimina) @ar%on1. S)an% words are )ear)"
moti+ated, e.%. window.sho##in%, rad)e.snather. Ar%ot words do not show their
moti+ation, their #'r#ose is to hide the rea) meanin%, to *e om#rehensi*)e *" a )imited
n'm*er o$ #eo#)e.
&. 'eologisms.
A neo)o%ism is a new)" reated word or a #hrase or a new meanin% de+e)o#ed $or an
e(istin% word, or a word *orrowed $rom another )an%'a%e.
New notions onstant)" ome into *ein% and re3'ire new words to name them or new
meanin%s o$ o)d words, e.%. om#'ter, isoto#e, ta#e.reorder, s'#ermar7et, *)a7 ho)e,
$eed*a7. It does not matter how im#ortant a new thin% is, om#are0 n')ear war and ro)).
ne7.
There ma" *e di$$erent wa"s o$ oinin% new words0
a1 om#o'ndin%, e.%. *rain.drain4
*1 shortenin%, e.%. *ionis4
1 a$$i(ation, e.%. wor7aho)i, *oo7aho)i, mone".mad, mo+ie.mad, s#eed.mad4
d1 on+ersion 2o$ten<om#osition1, e.%. $a)).o't, teah.in,et.
As a %enera) r')e, neo)o%isms are at $irst )ear)" moti+ated. Sometimes new)" *orrowed
or new)" reated words +er" soon *e%in to $'ntion as indi+isi*)e si%ns.
In the o'rse o$ time the new word is either ae#ted into the %enera) +oa*')ar" and is
no )on%er onsidered new or ma" not *e ae#ted and disa##ears $rom the )an%'a%e. So some
neo)o%isms are short.)i+ed, others *eome d'ra*)e.
(. Archaisms.
Neo)o%isms are ontrasted to words that dro##ed $rom the )an%'a%e 2o*so)ete words1 or
s'r+i+e on)" in s#eia) onte(ts 2arhaisms and historisms1.
Arhaisms are words that were one ommon *'t are now re#)aed *" s"non"ms. O)d
words *eome rare)" 'sed and are most)" assoiated with #oeti dition and histori no+e)s.
e.%. *etwi(t : *etween, damse) : 8a no*)e %ir)/, har7 :)isten, morn. mornin%, woe :
sorrow.
Tho' and th", a"e, na" are ertain)" arhai and )on% sine re@eted *" ommon 'sa%e.
Dia)ets are 's'a))" more onser+ati+e and #reser+e some arhai words and str't'res.
Sometimes an arhai word ma" 'nder%o a s'dden re+i+a), e.%. 7in is now wide)" 'sed in
Amerian En%)ish.
Historisms are words denotin% o*@ets and #henomena whih are thin%s o$ the #ast and
no )on%er e(ist.
e.%. t"#es o$ *oats 0 ara+e), %a))eon 4 arria%es 0 *er)in, a)ash, %i%, #haeton, di)i%ene,
)andea' 4 )othes 0 do'*)ets, ta*ard, *)oomers.
A %reat man" historisms o'r in historia) no+e)s.


LECTURE N
THE ORIGIN O? ENGLISH WORDS. HORROWINGS.
1. The et"mo)o%ia) str't're o$ En%)ish Eoa*')ar".
!. Horrowed words and their assimi)ation.
&. Internationa) words, trans)ation )oans, et"mo)o%ia) do'*)ets.
1. The et"mo)o%ia) str't're o$ En%)ish Eoa*')ar".
Aordin% to their ori%in a)) the 'nits o$ the En%)ish +oa*')ar" an *e di+ided into two
*i% %ro'#s0 nati+e and *orrowed. The nati+e )e(ia) 'nits were not *orrowed $rom other
)an%'a%es *'t re#resent the ori%ina) sto7 o$ the )an%'a%e. The nati+e words in)'de the
$o))owin% )asses0
A. The Indo.E'ro#ean e)ement0 words o$ roots ommon to a)) or most )an%'a%es o$
the Indo.E'ro#ean $ami)". These words denote e)ementar" notions witho't whih
no omm'niation wo')d *e #ossi*)e. ;ro$essor E.D.Ara7in sin%)ed o't the
$o))owin% %ro'#s within this )ass0
11 $ami)" re)ations0 $ather, mother, *rother, son, da'%hter4
!1 #arts o$ h'man *od"0 $oot, nose, heart4
&1 anima)s0 swine, %oose, ow4
61 #)ants0 tree, *irh4
C1 times o$ da"0 da", ni%ht4
I1 hea+en)" *odies0 s'n, star, moon4
J1 ad@eti+es0 red, new, %)ad
N1 n'mera)s0 $rom 1 to 1--4
L1 #ersona) #rono'ns 2e(e#t the"14
1-1 +er*s0 *e, eat, sit, stand.
H. The Germani e)ement0 words ommon to a)) or most Germani )an%'a%es. The"
in)'de the $o))owin% semanti %ro'#s0
11 #arts o$ the h'man *od"0 head, hand, arm, $in%er4
!1 anima)s0 $o(, *ear4
&1 #)ants0 oa7, %rass4
61 nat'ra) #henomena0 rain, $rost4
C1 seasons o$ the "ear0 winter, s#rin%, s'mmer4
I1 )andsa#e $eat'res0 sea, )and4
J1 ho'ses and $'rnit're0 ho'se, room, *enh4
N1 shi#s0 shi#, *oat4
L1 ad@eti+es0 o)o'rs 2%reen, %re", *)'e, white1, sma)), hi%h, o)d, %ood4
1-1 +er*s0 see, hear, s#ea7, te)), sa", ma7e, %i+e, drin7.
C. The En%)ish ;ro#er e)ement0 words whih a##eared in the En%)ish +oa*')ar" in
the C
th
ent'r" or )ater, that is a$ter the Germani tri*es mi%ratwed to the Hritish
Is)es. These are s#ei$ia))" En%)ish words0 )ord, )ad", *o", %ir), *ird, woman,
dais", a)wa"s, et.
Nati+e words onstit'te no more than &CM o$ the En%)ish +oa*')ar" *'t the" are
e(treme)" im#ortant $or e+er"da" omm'niation and are 'sed +er" o$ten. O't o$ Coo
most $re3'ent)" 'sed words there are a*o't 6oo nati+e )e(ia) 'nits.
The *orrowed words o')d *e di+ided into %ro'#s de#endin% on the so're o$
*orrowin%, i.e. the )an%'a%e the" were ta7en $rom *" the En%)ish. The so're o$
*orrowin% ma" not oinide with the ori%in o$ *orrowin%, i.e. the )an%'a%e to whih a
word ma" *e traed. A )assia) e(am#)e is the word #a#er, whih was ta7en $rom
?renh 2?r. #a#ier1. H't its ori%in is Latin or Gree7 2Lat. #a#"r's , Gr. #a#"ros1.
The $o))owin% )assi$iation is *ased on the so're o$ *orrowin% and is )ose)"
onneted with the histor" o$ the En%)ish #eo#)e.
11 Ce)ti *orrowin%s 2not +er" n'mero's10 *in, *ard, rad)e, dr'id, A+on 2O)ear
waterP1, Fent, London 2L)"n 8ri+er/< d"n 8$orti$ied hi))/, i.e. $ortress on the hi))
near the ri+er14
!1 Latin *orrowin%s $'rther s'*di+ided into three %ro'#s aordin% to the time o$
*orrowin%0 a1 $irst ontats and o)oni5ation o$ Hritain 21 ent'r" H.C..C ent'r"
A.D.10 heese, *'tter, wine, wa)), #ort, et.4 *1 introd'tion o$ Christianit" 2J
ent'r"10 #riest, *isho#, and)e, shoo), et.4 1 Renaissane0 ma@or, minor,
inte))i%ent, #ermanent, stat's, $at, et.2most)" sienti$i and artisti terms14
&1 Gree7 *orrowin%s 2Renaissane #eriod most)"10 atom, e#oh, ")e, ethis,
e#isode, e#i)o%'e, rh"thm, meta#hor, demora", et.4
61 Sandina+ian 2J.11 ent'ries10 sister, h's*and, window, die, want, 7i)), '%)", the",
ti)), tho'%h, s7i, s7ate, s7", s7in, et.4
C1 ?renh0 a1 Norman *orrowin%s 211.1& ent'ries10tit)es 2#rine, d'7e, o'nt,
*aron1, arm" 2o$$ier, %enera), di+ision1, @'stie 2@'d%e, @'r"1, words onneted
with '##er )asses2#a)ae, mansion, #ainter, tai)or, et14 *1 ;arisian *orrowin%s
2Renaissane10 *o'r%eois, re%ime, ro'tine, #o)ie, mahine, *a))et, sene,
tehni3'e4 1modern *orrowin%s2di#)omati terms and soia) )i$e10 omm'ni3'Q,
attahQ, dossier, ham#a%ne, men', orsa%e, *)o'se, o3'ette, et.
I1 Ita)ian 2M'si, art, mi)itar", ommeria)10#iano, o#era, *a)on", orridor, st'dio,
sonnet, meda)s, a)arm, o)one), mi))ion, artrid%e4
J1 S#anish2o)onies, $orei%n trade10 som*rero, tomato, #otato, toreador, to*ao,
Ne%ro, *anana, et.4
N1 German 2war and hemistr"10 *)it5, Gesta#o, o*a)t, 5in7, ni7e), et.4
L1 D'th 2na+i%ation and art10 $rei%ht, s7i##er, de7, do7, s7eth, )andsa#e, ease),
et.4
1-1 Indian0 'rr"4
111 R'ssian0 troi7a, +od7a, *a)a)ai7a, samo+ar, sara$an, So+iet, Frem)in, 5ar2tsar1,
s#'trni7, inte))i%entsia, et.
!. Horrowed words and their assimi)ation.
A)) the *orrowed words %ot mi(ed with the nati+e sto7 in the #roess o$ histori
de+e)o#ment, so sometimes it is di$$i')t to te)) *orrowed words $rom nati+e, e.%. ta*)e, wa)),
sister, #ainter. H't a )ot o$ words ha+e #reser+ed some #e')iarities in #ron'niation,
s#e))in%, mor#ho)o%", whih he)# to determine the ori%in o$ these words.
Aordin% to the de%ree o$ assimi)ation *orrowed words are di+ided into0
11 om#)ete)" assimi)ated4
!1 #artia))" assimi)ated4
&1 'nassimi)ated, or *ar*arisms.
Com#)ete)" assimi)ated *orrowin%s are 's'a))" o)d0 street, h's*and, ta*)e. The" $o))ow a))
mor#ho)o%ia), #honeti and s#e))in% standards o$ En%)ish. The" are $re3'ent)" 'sed and
st")istia))" ne'tra) and 's'a))" ati+e in word $ormation.
;artia))" assimi)ated *orrowin%s are $'rther s'*di+ided into %ro'#s de#endin% on the as#et
whih the words are not assimi)ated in0
a1 not assimi)ated semantia))"0 denote o*@ets and notions #e')iar to the
o'ntr" $rom whih the" ame0 )othes2som*rero1, tit)es and #ro$essions
2shah, *ei, toreador1, $ood and drin7s 2#i)aw, *orsh, %a)'sh7"1, mone"
2ro'*)e1, et.
*1 not assimi)ated %rammatia))", e.%. ori%ina) #)'ra) $orms o$ Gree7 and
Latin *orrowin%s0 risis : rises, riterion : riteria, stim')'s : stim')i,
dat'm : data, et.
1 not assimi)ated #honetia))"0 with the stress on the )ast s"))a*)e 2#o)ie,
ro'tine1, so'nds and om*inations that are not standard in En%)ish
2*o'r%eois, #resti%e, memoir1, the who)e #honeti #attern is di$$erent, e.%.
o#era, so#rano, on$etti, et.
d1 not assimi)ated %ra#hia))"0 with diatri mar7s 2a$Q, )ihQ1, s#eia)
di%ra#hs 2*o'3'et, *riohe1, some si)ent )etters 2*a))et, or#s1.
Some words ma" ha+e inom#)ete assimi)ation in more than one as#et.
Har*arisms are not assimi)ated in an" wa" $orei%n words whih are 'sed *" En%)ishmen
in omm'niation tho'%h the" ha+e nati+e e3'i+a)ents, e.%. iao, Anno Domini, et.
&. Internationa) words, trans)ation )oans, et"mo)o%ia) do'*)ets.
Horrowin% is se)dom )imited to one )an%'a%e. Words o$ identia) ori%in that o'r in
se+era) )an%'a%es as a res')t o$ sim')taneo's or s'essi+e *orrowin%s $rom the same
so're are a))ed internationa). The" #)a" an im#ortant ro)e in sienti$i termino)o%",
ind'str", art. E.%., Ita)ian *orrowin%s in m'si, Latin *orrowin%s in siene, et. There
e(ist $a)se trans)ator/s $riends, e.%. ma%a5ine, ham#ion, %enera), a#ita), et.
Trans)ation )oans are $ormed $rom the materia) a)read" e(istin% in the En%)ish )an%'a%e
*'t aordin% to the #attern ta7en $rom another )an%'a%e *" )itera) trans)ation, e.%. wa))
news#a#er 2$rom R'ssian1, hain.smo7er 2$rom German1, swan son% 2German1, et.
Et"mo)o%ia) do'*)ets are two or more words o$ the same )an%'a%e whih were deri+ed
$rom the same *asi word *'t *" di$$erent ro'tes. The" now di$$er in $orm, meanin% and
'sa%e. Do'*)ets a##ear when0
11 words ame thro'%h di$$erent dia)ets in O.E.0 raid and road, dra% and draw4
!1 words were *orrowed twie in di$$erent #eriods0 ast)e : hatea'4 ath. hase4
&1 words whih de+e)o#ed $rom di$$erent %rammatia) $orms o$ the same *orrowed
word0 s'#er.s'#erior.s'#reme 2de%rees o$ om#arison o$ the same Latin ad@eti+e1.
LECTURE L
REGIONAL EARIETIES AND DIALECTS
1. The nationa) )iterar" )an%'a%e. Loa) dia)ets and +ariants. Dia)ets on the territor" o$ the
Hritish Is)es.
!. Eariants o$ the En%)ish )an%'a%e .
&. Amerian En%)ish.
1. The one#t of norm is one o$ the main in )in%'istis sine the norm em*raes a)) )an%'a%e
)e+e)s0 #honetis, %rammar, and +oa*')ar". It is determined soia))", historia))" and
)in%'istia))". It is sta*)e and om#')sor" $or a)) the s#ea7ers o$ a ertain )an%'a%e as we)) as
internationa))" reo%ni5ed as standard.
The norm is a*strat. It is rea)i5ed thro'%h nationa), %enera))" reei+ed +ariants0 Hr E,
Can E, Am E, A' E, et.
The nationa) )iterar" )an%'a%e in Hritain was $ormed on the *asis o$ the So'th.Eastern
dia)et 2London dia)et1 whih de+e)o#ed $rom a territoria) dia)et into soio.re%iona). Modern
En%)ish or#hoe#i norm : Reei+ed ;ron'niation de+e)o#ed $rom that dia)et. HR; em*raes
on)" a sma)) #ortion o$ #o#')ation o$ Hritain : a*o't &.CM. It en@o"s a hi%h soia) stat's, *ein%
harateristi o$ #'*)i shoo) %rad'ates. A)) the rest o$ the #o#')ation 'ses one o$ the re%iona)
standards.
Re%iona) +arieties #ossessin% a )iterar" $orm are a))ed !ariants ) the Scottish Tongue,
Irish *nglish+.Earieties o$ the )an%'a%e #e')iar to some distrits and ha+in% no norma)i5ed
)iterar" $orm are a))ed dialects. There are , main groups of dialects in -ritain.. 'orthern,
"idland, *astern, /estern, and Southern. The" di$$er in #ron'niation, %rammar and
+oa*')ar".
e.%. 'ortherners #rono'ne 8ome, )o+e, *'s/ as 8oom, )oo+, *oos/4 the" #rono'ne 8 dane,
hane, ?rane/ )i7e Amerians *'t the word an/t is #rono'ned with a )on% a. Sometimes
Northerners )ea+e o't the arti)e 8the/ and #ossessi+e #rono'ns /m", his, "o'r/, et.
One o$ the *est 7nown and most #it'res3'e is the dia)et o$ Co7ne" whose home is
East End o$ London. Co7ne"s #rono'ne 8wait, )ate, tra"/ )i7e 8white, )i%ht, tr"/, et. 8h/s/at the
*e%innin% o$ the words are o$ten dro##ed4 8o'se, 8ere, 8a+e. Intradenta) so'nds are re#)aed with
)a*io.denta)0 $ar+er 2$ather1, $in% 2thin%1.
A harateristi $eat're o$ Co7ne" is the so.a))ed rh"min% s)an%. A #hrase is 'sed instead o$ a
word with whih it is rh"med0 $ro% and toad : road, a##)es and #ears : stairs, #ot o$ hone" :
mone", stri7e me dead : *read, )oa$ o$ *read : head, tro'*)e and stri$e : wi$e.
D'e to #eo#)e/s mi%ration and to teahin% Standard En%)ish at shoo)s a)) o+er the
o'ntr" dia)et di$$erenes ha+e *een s)ow)" d"in%. Nowada"s in Hritain there are two o##osite
tendenies0 11 #re@'dies a%ainst s'*standard $orms are sti)) stron%, Hritish are most #arti')ar as
to #ron'niation norms4 !1 a %rowin% n'm*er o$ #eo#)e, es#eia))" the "o'n%, re@et HR; as
assoiated with the Esta*)ishment and are #ro'd o$ their roots. Mass ')t're, $o)7 son%s s'n% *"
#o#')ar sin%ers ha+e a)so ontri*'ted to )owerin% o$ standards, more re%iona) de+iations ha+e
*eome ae#ted.
!. The stat's o$ Am e, A' E, Can E, et. has *een a dis#'ta*)e 3'estion $or a ertain #eriods o$
time. The #re+ai)in% #oint o$ +iew now is that the" annot *e a))ed dia)ets ha+in% their
own )iterar" norms. The" annot *e a))ed se#arate )an%'a%es either sine the *')7 o$
#honemes, words and %rammar $orms 'sed in them are the same. So the term 0national
!ariants1 is #re$era*)" 'sed.
There are ertain $ators, whih #redetermined ommon $eat'res and di$$erenes in the
nationa) +ariants o$ the En%)ish Lan%'a%e. Common features are onneted with the
$o))owin%0
a1 one and the same )an%'a%e so're 2En%)ish o$ Hritain o$ the 1J.1N
th
ent.14
*1 ommon dia)eta) *asis 2immi%rants *ro'%ht )oa) dia)ets with them14
1 orientation to Hritish )iterar" norm d'e to its hi%h soia) stat's4
d1 ana)o%o's sta%es #assed *" a)) nationa) +ariants in their de+e)o#ment
2trans#)antation, ada#tation to $'ntionin% in new onditions, $ormation o$ nationa)
+ariants and $'ntionin% as se#arate +ariants1.
?ators whih a'sed differences are as $o))ows0
a1 )oa) %eo%ra#hi, ethni, soia) onditions4
*1 %reat distanes *etween the o)onies and the metro#o)"4
1 re%')arit" o$ ontats4
d1 other )an%'a%es in$)'ene.
&. American *nglish.
Eoa*')ar" di$$erenes *etween Hritish En%)ish and Amerian En%)ish $a)) 'nder $o'r ma@or
ate%ories.
1. Same word, different denotati!e meaning.
-r * Am *
home)" down to earth, domesti '%)" 2o$ #eo#)e1
ner+" ner+o's *o)d, $')) o$ ner+e
#ants 'nder#ants tro'sers
#a+ement $oot#ath, sidewa)7 road s'r$ae
to ti7 o$$ to so)d to ma7e an%r"
!. Same word, additional meaning in one !ariety
Common meaning Additional in Am *
*athroom room with *athGshower and room with toi)et on)"
sin7
d'm* m'te st'#id
%ood $ine, nie +a)id 2as o$ ti7ets, o$$ers1
shoo) ed'ationa) instit'tion a)) instit'tions o$ an" )e+e)
2#rimar", seondar"1
to shi# to trans#ort *" shi# to trans#ort *" train,
#)ane, or tr'n7
Common meaning Additional in -r *
)eader one who ommands, %'ides an editoria)
smart inte))i%ent we)).%roomed
s'r%er" a media) o#eration, an o$$ie o$ an" dotor
or an o#eratin% room
&. Same word, difference in style, connotation, fre2uency of use
-r * usage Am * usage
a't'mn ommon, a)) st")es #oeti or $orma)
)e+er ommon, #ositi+e )ess ommon, ne%ati+e
$ortni%ht ommon, a)) st")es 'nommon, arhai
3'ite ne%ati+e or ne'tra) #ositi+e
6. Same concept or item, different word
Am * -r *
$a'et ta#
m'$$)er 2on a ar1 si)ener
so#homore seond."ear st'dent
wash)oth $ae $)anne)
5ero no'%ht
)ine 3'e'e
an tin
%as #etro)
o'h so$a