Pete Natseway

Mukti Ryan- A&P 241

The Cellular Level of Organization- Chapter 3 Review
Cells are the basic units of all living things in this world. They can be divided
into to types: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are defined by their lack of a
nucleus and their simplicity. Most of them tend to be unicellular bacteria and Archaea.
But our focus will be on the second type, the eukaryotic cell. This type of cell is defined
by its presence of a nucleus, and its complex subcellular structures, or organelles.
When talking about these eukaryotic cells, we can see a common structure present
throughout. They are all composed of three main structures: the plasma membrane (or
plasmalemma), the cytoplasm, and the nucleus. The plasma membrane is the cells outer
boundary that keeps its internal environment separate from the outside. A key
characteristic of this membrane is its selective permeability, meaning it allows the
passage of some material but not others.
The general rule of thumb is that small, neutrally charged, lipid-soluble
substances can pass freely, while large, water-soluble molecules (proteins) cannot. These
freely passing substances move across the membrane by a process called passive
transport. They can move without any input of energy, or ATP. They move down their
concentration gradient, from higher concentration to lower. Some examples include the
diffusion of solutes (high to low concentration), the osmosis of water (low concentration
of solute to high), and facilitated diffusion (either channel-mediated or carrier-mediated).
Active transport processes, on the other hand, do require the breakdown of ATP to move
solutes across the membrane against their concentration gradient (low to high). An active
Pete Natseway
Mukti Ryan- A&P 241
transport process found in all cells is the sodium-potassium pump. This type of
movement is possible due to integral proteins found throughout the plasma membrane.
Transmembrane proteins span the entire phospholipid bi layer, while peripheral
proteins attach either to the inner or outer surfaces of the membrane. These proteins can
be categorized into ion channels, transporters (selectively moving substances through the
membrane), receptors (for cell recognition), and enzymes (catalyzing chemical reactions).
Some of the transporter proteins are classified as antiporters, meaning they carry two
substances across the membrane in opposite directions, while symporters carry two
substances in the same direction. Sometimes, substances can move in and out of the cell
by cytosis. These substances can enter the cell by forming a vesicle, which is a spherical
sac formed by budding off from the membrane, a process known as endocytosis. The
three types of endocytosis are receptor-mediated, phagocytosis, and bulk-phase cytosis
(pinocytosis). The opposite movement, known as exocytosis, is when the vesicles fuse
with the plasma membrane, releasing their contents into the extracellular fluid. A
combination of these two processes is transcytosis. Moving further into the cell, we have
the cytoplasm.
The cytoplasm is a gelatin-like substance, containing structural fibers and
organelles. The cytosol is the intracellular fluid that surrounds the organelles, and it is
the site of many chemical reactions. These reactions usually release energy, and also
provide the building blocks for cell maintenance, structure, function, and growth. The
structural fibers, together known as the cytoskeleton, are the microtubules (made of
tubulin), microfilaments (made of actin), and intermediate filaments (made of both
proteins). The organelles inside the cell are highly specialized structures.
Pete Natseway
Mukti Ryan- A&P 241
The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes that are shaped like
flattened tubes or sacs. The ER is divided into two sections. The rough ER is connected
to the nuclear envelope and is a series of flattened sacs. The surface of the rough ER is
studded with ribosomes (sites of protein synthesis). The rough ER produces various
proteins. The second part, the smooth ER, is a network of tubules, and synthesizes fatty
acids and steroids. It also serves to detoxify certain drugs.
The Golgi complex consists of around three to twenty flattened, membranous sacs
(cisternae). This organelle modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for transport to
different destinations. Various vesicles send these proteins, including lysosomes
(containing powerful digestive enzymes) and smaller peroxisomes (containing
detoxifying enzymes). Peroxisomes are abundant in the liver, where they detoxify
substances such as alcohol.
The powerhouses of the cells, known as mitochondria, generate ATP used for all
of the active processes in the body. They have inner and outer membranes similar in
structure to the plasma membrane. The inner membrane contains a series of folds called
cristae. The mitochondria also have a large central fluid-filled cavity called the matrix.
This organelle contains its own DNA (inherited from your mother), and self-replicates
during times of increased cellular demand or before cell division.
Lastly, our cells contain the nucleus, which is a spherical or oval shaped structure.
It is usually the most prominent feature of the cell, and is characterized by its nuclear
envelope (double membrane), nuclear pores (controlling movements of substances
between nucleus and cytoplasm, and nucleolus (spherical body that produces ribosomes).
Pete Natseway
Mukti Ryan- A&P 241
The nucleus also contains chromosomes, which are protein molecules combined with
long molecules of DNA.