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A case study of the biogas plants in Kisii

and Homa bay prisons in Kenya


Investigating the reason for sub-optimal performance












Table of Contents
Foreword ....................................................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 4
Biogas ............................................................................................................................................................ 5
What is biogas? ......................................................................................................................................... 5
Biogas process ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Process design ........................................................................................................................................... 8
Factors in the biogas process .................................................................................................................. 11
Benefits of a biogas plant ........................................................................................................................ 14
Troubleshooting checklist ........................................................................................................................... 16
Case Study of the Homa bay and Kisii prison biogas project ...................................................................... 19
Project history ......................................................................................................................................... 19
Background Kisii prison ........................................................................................................................... 20
Background Homa bay prison ................................................................................................................. 22
Technical dimension of the project ........................................................................................................ 24
UN-Habitat mission ................................................................................................................................. 25
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................ 40
Annex A Technical drawings .................................................................................................................... 43



Foreword
Water and Environment technology is a study filled with theoretical work; thus the opportunity to mix
theoretical and practical endeavors is much welcomed. This project was also a real eye-opener; the
importance of experience has really sunken into me. Theoretical knowledge is useless without knowing
the practical implications.
Throughout this project a number of people have helped me. I would like to direct my thanks to: UN-
Habitat and Prisoners Care Programme (PCP) for initiating a project that has a lot of potential, my
internship supervisor Daniel Adom for giving me the opportunity to work on this project, the mission
team that I was a part of, and last but not least Razak Seidu for making this whole internship happen and
for his guidance and supervision in this project.

Introduction
The knowledge of biogas occurring naturally has been dated back to the 17
th
century. (Harris, 2008;
Jrgensen, 2009) Scientific interest was sparked in the 18
th
century by Voltas research on decaying
vegetation. (Marchaim, 1992) He discovered that the amount of gas produced is proportional to the
amount of decaying mass. (Harris, 2008; Marchaim, 1992)
Substantial progress were made in the following two centuries. The chemical composition of methane
was identified by Dalton, Henry and Davy in the early 19
th
century. Bechamp, showed in 1868 that the
organism responsible for methane production was not one organism and Herter reported in 1876 that
there is a stoichiometrical relationship between acetate and methane and carbondioxide. (Marchaim,
1992)
Early on the main incentive for anaerobic digestion was domestic wastewater treatment. One of the first
reports (in modern history) of biogas utilization was in the late 1890s. Biogas from a sewage sludge
digester was used to light the streets of Exeter, England. (Harris, 2008; Marchaim, 1992) In 1897 the
Matunga Leper Asylum in Bombay biogas from the sewage treatment facility was used for for lighting.
(Marchaim, 1992) While the first anaerobic sewage treatmant plant in Germany was installed in 1906,
the first German sewage plant connected to the public gas supply was in 1920 . (GTZ, 1999a)
Interest of anaerobic digestion in the agricultural sector surfaced in the 1950s. The first large agricultural
biogas plant in Germany was built in 1950. (GTZ, 1999a) Around the same time rich white farmers in
South Africa looked into the potential of anaerobic digestion. Of special note was L. John Fry who
designed, built and operated two linear displacement type digesters which produced 230 m
3
of gas per
day. (van Brakel, 1980). As the early sewage treatment plants in England and India, the main incentive
for L. John Fry was not biogas. His initial incentive was to achieve sustainable manure management.
(Williamson, 1973)
The oil crisis in 1973 lead to biogas being recognized as an alternative energy source and the interest in
biogas boomed. (Bond & Templeton, 2011) Thanks to aggressive governmental programs, India and
China experienced a massive increase in household biogas plants in that period. (Bond & Templeton,
2011; GTZ, 1999a) During the 1970s and the first half of 1980s 7 million digesters was installed through
governmental facilitation by the Chinese government. (Bond & Templeton, 2011)
As a result of increasing environmental awarenes and relience on fossile energy (REN21, 2013), a
renewed interest in biogas has occured due to its benefits of being a renewable energy source and for
mitigating green house gas emission. Increasing population growth and living standards, makes
introducing environmental sound and renewable energy sources majorly important also in developing
countries. (Martinot, et al., 2002)
Biogas technology has been promoted in Africa by various organizations and foreign aid agencies. Some
digesters have been installed in sub-Saharan, mostly du to non-governmental organizations. A major
problem is that most plants are only operated for a short amount of time. (Mshandete & Parawira,
2009)
In Kenya the adoption rate is arguably very low (Mwirigi, et al., 2009). The Ministry of Energy (2004)
identified the following factors restricting implementation: negative image caused by failed biogas
plants, high initial investment cost and limited private sector involvments as factors constraining the
adoption of biogas technology.
Biogas
What is biogas?
Primarily consisting of methane (CH
4
) and carbon dioxide (CO
2
), biogas is a combustible gas formed
during anaerobic digestion of organic material. (Jrgensen, 2009) The substrate influences the chemical
composition of the biogas, but commonly the biogas constitutes of 55-70% methane, 30-45% carbon
dioxide and 1-2% of hydrogen sulphide(H
2
S), hydrogen(H
2
) and ammonia(NH
3
). Traces of carbon
monoxide (CO), nitrogen (N
2
) and oxygen (O
2
) can be present too. (Jrgensen, 2009)
Biogas process
The biogas formation is a complex process consisting of a multitude of interplaying microorganisms.
Thus an understanding of the microbiology and biochemistry behind the process helps immensely in the
design and operation of a biogas plant. (Marchaim, 1992)
The biogas process can be divided into 4 phases as by Schnurer & Jarvis (2010).
I. Hydrolysis
In the hydrolysis phase extracellular enzymes are secreted by various bacteria for the sake of de-
polymerizing complex organic matter constituting of carbohydrates, proteins and fats into soluble
monomers making them available for further decomposition. (Deublein & Steinhauser, 2011)
II. Fermentation
Some of the products (sugars, amino acids, alcohols, fats etc.) from the hydrolysis phase are further
decomposed by fermentative organisms. Fatty acids on the other hand are not broken down in this
phase, but rather in the next phase (anaerobic oxidation). (Schnrer & Jarvis, 2010)
Composition of the end-products depends on the substrate, environmental factors and the
microorganisms that are present, but mainly the end-products of fermentation are: different kinds of
organic acids, alcohols, ammonia, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. (Schnrer & Jarvis, 2010)
III. Anaerobic oxidation
Hydrogen gas concentration is a critical factor in anaerobic digestion. The reason is that hydrogen gas is
one of the end-products of anaerobic oxidation and for thermodynamic reasons the hydrogen gas
concentration has to be kept at a low level for it to be possible to form hydrogen gas. (Schnrer & Jarvis,
2010)
This is where cooperation (syntrophy) with the methane forming bacteria comes into play. Methane
formation continuously consumes hydrogen gas keeping the hydrogen gas concentration low making it
possible for the anaerobic oxidation to continue. (Schnrer & Jarvis, 2010)
Different kinds of fatty acids, some amino acids, aromatics and alcohols are the substrates in the
anaerobic oxidation phase. (Dassonville & Renault, 2002) An inhibition of the anaerobic oxidation phase
leads to an accumulation of these substrates.
IV. Methane formation
Methane formation is often the rate-limiting stage of the biogas process due to the slow growth rate of
the methane producers. (Chen, et al., 2008; Liu & Whitman, 2008) The methanogens (methane forming
microorganisms) are often the microorganisms most sensitive to disturbances (pH, temperature,
ammonia). (Chen, et al., 2008; Liu & Whitman, 2008)
There are mainly two groups of methanogens, the acetotrophs (uses acetate as substrate) and the
hydrogenotrophs (uses hydrogen and carbon dioxide as substrate) (Schnrer & Jarvis, 2010). About 70%
(under stable conditions) of the methane is produced by the acetotrophic methanogens. (Jrgensen,
2009; Zinder, 1993)

Table 1: Simplified description of the input and output in the four phases of biogas production. (Adapted from: Deublein &
Steinhauser) (2011)
Process Input Output
I. Hydrolysis Carbohydrates
Proteins
Fats



Short-chain sugars
Amino acids, peptides
Glycerin, fatty acids
II. Acidogenesis Short-chain sugars
Amino acids
Peptides
Glycerin & fatty acids





Pyruvate
NH
4
Acetogenic substrates
1

Ethanol, methanol & volatile fatty
acids
III. Acetogenesis Acetogenic substrates Acetate, H
2
,CO
2
, Formate
IV. Methanogenesis Acetate
H
2
+ CO
2



Methane, carbon dioxide
Methane, carbon dioxide






1
Lactate, butyrate, propionate, succinate, ethanol

























Complex organic material
(Proteins, polysaccharides, fats etc.)
Mono and oligomers
(Amino acids, sugar, peptides, etc.)
Intermediary products
(alcohols, fatty acids, lactic acids, etc.)
Acetic acid H
2
+ CO
2

CH
4
+ CO
2

Hydrolysis
Fermentation
Anaerobic
oxidation
Methane formation
Figure 1: The pathways of the four phases in anaerobic digestion. (Adapted from: Schnrer & Jarvis (2010))
Process design
Plant design
When planning a biogas plant there are many factors that have to be taken into consideration. Biogas
plants in the developing world tend to be of a simple design to keep the installation, operation and
maintenance cost low. Additionally highly sophisticated biogas plants are restricted by the availability of
materials and skilled labors. (GTZ, 1999b)
In the developing world there are two types of designs that are prevailing, the fixed dome design and
the floating-drum design. (GTZ, 1999b)
Fixed dome design

Figure 3: Fixed dome Nicarao design: 1. Mixing tank 2. Digester 3. Compensation chamber 4. Gasholder 5. Gas outlet pipe 6.
Gastight entry hatch 7. Depression to accumulate thick sludge 8. Sludge outlet 9. Reference level. 10. Scum layer
(Adapted from: GTZ (1999b) )
The benefits of a fixed-dome biogas plant are:
The costs are relatively low.
No steel or moving parts long life expectancy (20 years or more)
Underground construction mitigates temperature variations and protects it from physical
damage.
(GTZ, 1999b)
Floating drum design

Figure 4: Water-jacket plant. 1. Mixing pit 11. Fill pipe 2. Digester 3. Gasholder 31. Guide frame 4. Slurry store 5. Gas pipe
(Adapted from: GTZ (1999b))
The benefits of a floating drum plant are:
Easy to operate.
Constant gas pressure.
Easily recognizable gas-volume
Gas-tight (provided de-rusting and painting of gasholder)
(GTZ, 1999b)




Digester volume
The volume of the digester (V
d
) is dependent on the daily substrate (S
d
) input and the retention time
(RT).

() ()


(GTZ, 1999b)
Retention time is the time it takes for the entire material in the digester to be replaced. (Schnrer &
Jarvis, 2010) Choosing a reasonable retention time is important because the methanogens require
sufficient time to reproduce in order to replace the cells lost going out with the effluent. (Marchaim,
1992) As the growth of bacteria is strongly correlated with the temperature (Schnrer & Jarvis, 2010) it
is a major factor in deciding the retention time. (GTZ, 1999b)
In the developing world the plants are mostly operated with no heating of the digesters. The retention
time and in the end the digester volume should be based on the most critical temperature period of the
year. (GTZ, 1999b; Marchaim, 1992) The anticipated digester temperature can be assumed to be 1-2
o
C
above the soil temperature. (GTZ, 1999b)
Methanogens are slow growing microorganisms, if they do not get enough time to replace the cells lost
in the effluent, the bacterial population will be washed out and the process will stop/perform badly.
(Marchaim, 1992)
Daily gas production - G
There are several different methods to calculate the daily gas production. To increase the certainty it is
advised to conduct several different calculations, as available data are often imprecise. (GTZ, 1999b)
( ) ( )



( ) ( )



( ) ()



The gas yield is a function of temperature and retention time.
( ) ( ) ( )( )
(GTZ, 1999b)
More parameters can be calculated to increase the certainty, for more details refer to GTZ (1999b).
Factors in the biogas process
Temperature
Highly sophisticated biogas plants control the temperature so that they are close to the optimum
temperature at all times. (Deublein & Steinhauser, 2011; Schnrer & Jarvis, 2010) Biogas plants in the
developing world are mostly of simple design with no measures to control the temperature thus the
feasibility of the biogas plant is highly dependent on the climatic conditions. Annual mean temperature
should be around 20
o
C or above or the average daily temperature should be at least 18
o
C. Biomass
temperature below 15
o
C deems to be uneconomical. (GTZ, 1999a)
Not only the mean temperature is of importance, the biogas formation process is very sensitive to
variations of the temperature. In the mesophilic range a variation of 1
o
C/h is considered as not being
inhibitory. The fact that biogas plants in the developing world are mostly built underground mitigates
the day/night temperature fluctuation. (GTZ, 1999a)
C/N-ratio
Nitrogen is a macronutrient essential for the growth of microorganisms. On the other hand a high
concentration of nitrogen leads to higher ammonia concentration which is toxic to microorganisms.
(Schnrer & Jarvis, 2010) The composition (C/N-ratio) of the substrate is of importance to avoid nutrient
deficiency (too little nitrogen) and ammonia toxicity (too much nitrogen). (Marchaim, 1992)
Schnrer & Jarvis (2010) identifies that the optimum C/N-ratio varies between 15-25 in the litterature.
Marchaim (1992) states that when considering indegistble carbon sources the C/N value can range from
10 to over 90 and still result in efficient digestion. Thus to find the optimal C/N-ratio is no trivial matter
as it varies with the process and the substrate.
Loading
Loading (organic loading or organic loading rate) refers to the amount of new material added to the
process over time. In the start-up of the biogas plant it is common to have a low load to give the
methanogens enough time to reproduce to be numerous enough to avoid the accumulation of
intermediary products such as fatty acids. (Schnrer & Jarvis, 2010)
The load should not vary too much over time. An overload leads to an accumulation of intermediary
products and may lead to inhibition or a full stop of the process. A too small load might lead to a
decrease of the population of microorganisms and thus is unable to handle subsequent normal load.
(Schnrer & Jarvis, 2010)
Retention time
Retention time is the time it takes for all the material to be replaced. In a continuous and semi-
continuous process the mean retention time is calculated. The constituents of the substrate might have
very different effective retention time. Thus a suitable retention time should not only be chosen based
on the critical temperature, but also on the hydraulics of the biogas plant and the type of substrate
used. (GTZ, 1999a)
pH-value and alkalinity
At values neutral or slightly basic the biogas process performs the best. (GTZ, 1999a; Schnrer & Jarvis,
2010) The pH is not a good parameter to indicate the performance of a biogas plant due to the buffer
capacity of the solution/material. To get an insight of the performance of the process it is better to
measure the alkalinity. Alkalinity refers to the amount of bases available to neutralize the addition of a
strong base and thus is a measure of the buffer capacity. (Schnrer & Jarvis, 2010)
Low alkalinity may indicate that the relation between the acid formation and the methane formation is
uneven towards the acid formation and that the methanogens are being inhibited in some way. A high
alkalinity on the other hand may cause release ammonia which inhibits the methane formation.
(Schnrer & Jarvis, 2010)
Mixing and agitation
Mixing or agitating of the substrate is often necessary for a stable process to occur. (GTZ, 1999a) In
general it is good to agitate the biomass to facilitate contact with the microorganisms and the substrate.
In particular in the hydrolysis phase it is important that the hydrolytic microorganisms are in contact
with as much substrate as possible. (Schnrer & Jarvis, 2010)
Other benefits of agitation include:
Let biogas escape from the biomass
Mitigation of foaming, scum-layer formation and sedimentation
Provision of an uniform biomass in regards of bacterial population density and temperature
Prevent dead spaces to occur
(GTZ, 1999a; Schnrer & Jarvis, 2010)
GTZ (1999a) informs that biogas systems can be operated without mechanical agitation. Those systems
operate usually with substrates of either a high solid contents (such that no stratification occurs) or on
substrates consisting mainly of soluble substances.
Substrate
The substrate which in use is of major importance of how the biogas should be designed and operated.
For simple biogas plants only homogenous and liquid substrates can be considered. (GTZ, 1999a) In the
developing world cattle dung is the dominating substrate, it has a balanced C/N-ratio (25) and is
moderately degradeable. (Marchaim, 1992) Though poultry and swine manure generate more biogas
than cattle dunge (Mller, et al., 2004), cattle dung has the benefit of being coming from a ruminant,
having methane-producing microorganisms readily available. (GTZ, 1999b)
It is preferd that the substrate has fluid properties because it makes the feed material more available for
the methanogens. Adding urine or water to achieve a solid contents between 5-10% is suitable for the
operation of continous biogas plants. (Sasse, 1988)



Inhibitors
Many different substances may inhibit a biogas process. In the literature the reported inhibiting
concentrations varies a lot. (Schnrer & Jarvis, 2010) This is due to.
The presence of several inhibitory substances leads to an overall lower degree of inhibition than
what the individual concentrations of the substances should indicate. (Antagonism)
The presence of several inhibitory substances leads to an overall high degree of inhibition that
what the individual concentrations of the substances should indicate. (Synergism)
The inhibitory mechanism is removed due to complex formation.
The microorganisms adapt to the environment. This might be because the cells learn to break
down the inhibitory substance or changes in the cell structure to defend against the inhibitory
substance. (Adaptation/acclimatization)
Table 2: Different substances known to inhibit biogas production. (Source: Schnrer & Jarvis (2010))
NH
3

Cations (Na
+
,
K
+
,
Ca
2+
, Mg
2+
)
Alternative electron acceptor (SO
4
2-
, NO
3
-
)
Phenol, toluene, benzene (compounds containing a benzene ring)
Cyanides
Heavy metals
Detergents
Solvents
Disinfectants
Hydrogen sulphide
Long chain fatty acids
Formaldehyde
Chlorinating hydrocarbons
Organic nitrogen compounds
Antibiotics
Light derivatives



Benefits of a biogas plant
Resource production
Biogas
A biogas plant produces biogas. In the developed world biogas has been used for multiple purposes such
as: being pumped into the natural gas grid or pumped into a micro gas grid, fuel for motor vehicles,
power generation with heat extraction. (FNR, 2010)
The simplest use of biogas is for the sake of lighting and cooking. That is the dominant use in the
developing world as other uses requires sophisticated technology and substantial investment.
High quality fertilizer
The digested biomass (digestate) is considered to be a high quality fertilizer. This is due to the high
contents of ammonium nitrogen (NH
4
-N) which is directly available for the plants to take up. A drawback
is the higher risk of ammonia volatilization, due to the higher ammonium nitrogen content. (Jrgensen,
2009; Schnrer & Jarvis, 2010)
Environmental benefits
Climate change
Methane is the second most prevalent greenhouse gas, after carbon dioxide (CO
2
), and over a hundred
year timeline one methane molecule is 25 times more potent than one carbon dioxide molecule. An
important source of methane emission is the uncontrolled anaerobic digestion of animal manure.
(Monteny, et al., 2006) The emission of methane can be controlled, maximized and captured with a
biogas plant thus mitigating the emission of methane. (GTZ, 1999c)
According to Smith, et al. (2008) it is uncertain wether biogas plants has a positive or negative effect
regarding mitigation of nitrous oxide (a greenhouse gas 320 times more potent than carbon dioxide
(GTZ, 1999c) ). On the other hand Bouwman (2001) states that making the nitrogen more available for
the crops often supresses the emission of nitrous oxide (N
2
O). It can be argued that due to the high
concentration of ammonia nitrogen in the digestate that there is some mitigation of nitrous oxide.
In addition if the use of biogas replaces the use of fossile fuel there will be a reduction in emission,
though if it replaces other bioenergy sources, such as straw, there should be considered that there is no
reduction. (Jrgensen, 2009) This depends though on if the bioenergy source is replenished or not. In
the case of firewood, if the trees are cut down without subsequent planting, the carbon dioxide
emmited from the combustion of firewood is not replaced by the photosynthesis from new trees.



Pollution control
Uncontrolled release of nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen and carbon) leads to eutrophication of water
bodies. A result of eutrophication is extinction of fish populations, toxic cyanobacteria blooms and
reduced oxygen levels. (Nyenje, et al., 2010) In sub-Saharan Africa eutrophication is an increasing
problem due to the fact that most of the sewage is released untreated into the water bodies. (Nyenje, et
al., 2010) A biogas plant reduces the BOD and facilities the control and use of the sludge.
Reduced deforestation
Deforestation has been linked up to numerous issues such as, climate change, soil erosion and reduction
of biodiversity. Biogas technology has been identified as a measure to reduce deforestation by replacing
the use of firewood/charcoal, but there is a lack of reliable data showing its effect. (Nijaguna, 2006)
According to UNFCCC (2007) 11% of the global deforestation is due to gathering of fuel-wood (both for
subsistence and trade) and non-timber forest products. Osei (1993) estimates that firewoods is
responsible for 54% of deforestation in developing countries. In the north-eastern Himalayan region of
India gathering of firewood has lead to more than 50% of the region being converted into wastelands.
(Bhatt & Sachan, 2004)
Taking into consideration the local practices is important in assessing the impact of replacing firewood
with biogas. GTZ (1999c) argues that the often direct comparison of saved firewood/charcoal into
hectares of forest saved is too simplistic as it does not take into account the local practices.
Health benefits
Sanitation and hygiene
Low-rate digesters will inactivate pathogens leading to typhoid, cholera, dysentery, schistosomiasis and
hookworm in three weeks. (Sasse, 1988) On the other hand, some pathogens are not completely
inactivated under fully mixed mesophilic conditions. (Mang & Li, 2010) Also hygienic conditions are
often improved as the exposure to the excreta is reduced by the facilities of the biogas plant.
According to WHOs Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater (2006) anaerobic
digestion in mesophilic is not adequate treatment for the use of human excreta as fertilizer. Mang & Li
(2010) on the other hand suggests to limit the use of the slurry to fruit trees and as a soil conditioner,
inhibiting the use of the slurry for spray irrigating vegetables.
Table 3: Effect of anaerobic digestion in ambient temperature on selected pathogens and parasitic ova (Adapted from: Mang
& Li (2010))
Microorganism Days Fatality (%)
Salmonella 44 100
Shigella 30 100
E-Coli titre 40-60 10
-4
-10
-5

Schistosoma ova 7-22 100
Hookworm ova 30 90
Ascaris ova 100 53

Smog
The incomplete combustion of solid fuels leads to the release of hundreds of pollutants, mainly carbon
monoxide and small particles. Women and their small children breathe these pollutants every day for
hours which equals to smoking two packs of cigarettes every day. (WHO, 2006) Indoor air pollution is
the leading environmental risk factor causing death, yearly indoor pollution leads to the death of 2
million people. (WHO, 2009) Replacing traditional fuel with biogas stoves is beneficial because biogas
stoves burn with a clean blue flame. Modification of commercial stoves is necessary due to the
physiochemical characteristics of the biogas.
Troubleshooting checklist
Prior to the UN-Habitat mission to try to assess the biogas plants, a troubleshooting checklist was
developed in order to help identifying the causes of sub-optimal performance.
Troubleshooting checklist
Questions Rationale/reasoning Yes No Comments
What is the perceived
problem?
Identifying the problem
What is the population of the
prison?
Calculation of biogas
potential

Did the gas production stop? Indicates the severity of the
situation

Did the gas production just
decrease?
Indicates the severity of the
situation

Was the decrease/stop
sudden?
A sudden decrease/stop
implies that there is a
technical issue

Was the decrease/stop
gradual?
A gradual decrease/stop
indicates process
instabillity

Does the biogas production
vary?
May indicate seasonal
variations or other factors

When? Identifying
actions/conditions that
may have lead to the
decrease in production

How? Seasonality in the
production?

How is the mixing conducted? How the substrate is mixed
influences the whole
process

Is the fibrous material
removed?
Fibrous material leads to
scum-layer formation

Is sand and other settling
matter removed?
If sand or other settling
matter accumulate the
outlet pipe might be
blocked

Is there any gas smell in the
kitchen?
A gas smell in the kitchen
means that the pipes are
leaking

What kind of substrate is used? The composition of the
substrate will affect the
process, a low C/N-ratio
leads to ammonia
inhibition

How frequent is the substrate
applied?
Calculating the load
How much substrate is
applied?
A too high load leads to
inhibition and for
calculating biogas potential

How much water is added to
the substrate?
Dry content
Observations
Digester
Are there any visible cracks? Identification of leakage
Is there any gas smell? Identification of leakage
Inlet, outlet and outlet
chamber

Are there any bubbles
coming out from the inlet and
outlet pipes?
Gas production is occuring
Is there heavy gas release
from the inlet but the gas
pressure is too low?
Indicates scum-layer
Is the slurry level in the
outletchamber high and is the
overflowed slurry fresh?
Gas production is occuring
Valves and joints
Apply soap water, is there
any formation of bubbles?
Identification of leakage
Kitchen
Is there any gas smell in the
kitchen?
Indicates leakage
Are the jets clean?
Were the flames flicking
before they went out?
Indicates presence of water
in the pipes

Slurry
Is there a sour smell from
the slurry?
Indicates uneven
relationship between
fermentation and
methanogenesis

Measurements (done if
feasible)

pH
Is the pH above 7? pH above 7 indicates
ammonia inhibition

Is the pH below 6? 1) Low pH may indicate
uneven fermentation -
methanogensis
relationship. 2) Low pH is
inhibiting the process in
itself, the substrate may
have low pH to begin with.

Temperature in the digester
What is the temperature? The temperature heavily
influences the biogas
process

How does the temperature
vary? (If feasible)
Variations in the
temperature negativley
effects the biogas process

Ammonia
What is the ammonia level? Ammonia inhibits the
biogas process

Groundwater level
How high is it? The groundwater level may
influence the biogas
process or damage the
plant (buoyancy)





Case Study of the Homa bay and Kisii prison biogas project
Project history
As part of the Lake Victoria Water and Sanitation Initiative an agreement was made between UN-Habitat
and Prisoners Care Programme to construct biogas facilities in Homa bay prison and Kisii prison.
Project rationale
Following are the benefits laid out in the feasibility report: (UN-Habitat-B, 2011)
Energy production
Biogas can replace the usage of firewood and kerosene as fuel. Reducing the usage of firewood has the
added benefit of relieving some of the stress to the local environment caused by deforestation. It can be
considered that the biogas has the added value of the amount of forest that is saved due to replacing
the usage of firewood.
High quality fertilizer
One of the end products of a biogas plant is a biomass that can be used as a fertilizer. Due to the high
content of nitrogen it is found to be a quite formidable fertilizer.
Sanitation
Anaerobic digestion kills/inactivates various pathogenic microorganisms. The most important being:
Cholera, Typhoid fever, Paratyphoid fever, Salmonella, Dysentery, Gastroenteritis, Leptospirosis,
Meningitis, Hepatitis, and various parasitic diseases. Considering that waterborne disease transmitted
through human waste is a leading cause of death in prisons biogas the benefit becomes apparent.
Local environment
Human sewage has a detrimental effect if it is released untreated into a water body. This is due to
human sewage containing organic matter, nutrients and anthropozoonotic diseases. Algae bloom, red
tide and dead zones are caused by untreated sewage. It is projected that the biogas plant will produce
an average of 20000 liters of biogas per day (20m
3
). That amounts to 120kgs of firewood. In a year
43800kgs of firewood will be saved. That equates to 20 acres of forest saved and 165 tons of carbon
dioxide mitigated.
Benefits with a higher availability of energy
The nutritional pattern can change due to energy being easier available. The number of warm meals
may increase and the digestibility of the meal may increase by cooking the food longer. Waterborne
diseases may reduce due to more frequent boiling of water.
Reduced workload
Replacing firewood leads to a reduced workload. There is no need to collect and store firewood, cooking
with gas is easier and takes less time.

Global environment
The biogas plant will contribute in mitigating the greenhouse effect by:
Controlling the production of methane. (methane gas is a more than 20 times more potent
greenhouse gas)
Providing more efficient fuel.
Background Kisii prison
Geographical background

Figure 5: Geographical position of Kisii prison. (Adapted from: maps.google.com)
Kisii is situated in the south eastern Kenya approx. 50 km from the shore. The prison is in the eastern
part of the town close to the city center as indicated in figure 5.
Climate
The region close to Lake Victoria is classified by the Kppen-Geiger climate classification system as being
a tropical rainforest climate. (Peel, et al., 2007) The tropical rainforest climate is characterized by not
having a dry season and not having a distinctive summer or winter. It is wet and hot throughout the
year. Every month has an average precipitation of at least 60 mm.
Table 4: Climatic data on Kisii (source: http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=603081&cityname=Kisii-
Kisii-Kenya&units=metric)
Annual Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Avg.
temp.
18.8 19.2 19.5 19.5 19.1 18.8 18.2 17.8 18.2 18.5 19.1 18.7 18.8
Avg. high
temp.
o
C
26.3 27.1 27.5 27.4 26 25.5 25.3 25.1 25.4 26.4 27.2 26.3 26.8
Avg. low
temp.
o
C
12.2 11.9 12.3 12.7 13 13 12.1 11.5 11.9 11.8 12 11.9 12.1
Avg. rain
(mm)
1840.4 89.7 104.6 172 252.
1
201.4 153.
4
114.
6
148.
6
140.
7
143.
6
194.
3
125.
4
Avg. days
of rain
211.8 13.7 15.2 19.1 24.8 22.3 15.7 13.9 16.4 16.5 18.2 19.8 16.2

Prison population
Established in the colonial days with an estimated age of over 70 years Kisii prison has a prison
population varying from 980 and 1650, in which 900-1500 are men and 80-150 are women. The staff
consists of 220 members with approximately 680 family members. 75% of the 2550 population (mainly
the staff) lives in single roomed temporary and semi-permanent structures. (UN-Habitat-B, 2011)

Figure 6: Sketch up of Kisii prison biogas plant

Background Homa bay prison
Geographical background

Figure 7: Geographical position of Homa bay prison (Adapated from: maps.google.com)
The town Homa bay is situated in the shore of Lake Victoria.


Climate
The region close to Lake Victoria is classified by the Kppen-Geiger climate classification system as being
a tropical rainforest climate. (Peel, et al., 2007) The tropical rainforest climate is characterized by not
having a dry season and not having a distinctive summer or winter. It is wet and hot throughout the
year. Every month has an average precipitation of at least 60 mm.
Table 5: Climatic data on Homa bay (source:
http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=603060&cityname=Homa-Bay-Homa-Bay-Kenya)
Annual Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Avg.
temp.
21.8 22.1 22.5 22.5 22 21.6 21 20.7 21.2 21.7 22.3 21.7 21.7
Avg. high
temp.
o
C
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Avg. low
temp.
o
C
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Avg. rain
(mm)
1330.6 60.2 75.3 132.4 204.6 188.5 87.9 60.5 92.7 99.3 105.8 131.4 92
Avg. days
of rain
198 12.9 14.6 18.6 23.9 21.1 13.4 11.3 13.9 14.7 17.2 20.5 15.9


Figure 8: Sketchup of Homa bay prison biogas plant




Technical dimension of the project
Biogas plant design

Figure 9: Technical drawing of the design
Fixed dome digester was chosen as the preferred technology. The dimensions of the digester were the
same for both prisons. Technical specifications can be seen in figure 7.










UN-Habitat mission
UN-Habitat sent a team to the two biogas plants for the sake of trying to unveil the reasons for the sub-
optimal performance and to identify suitable actions to remedy the situation. In addition UN-Habitat
aims to draw lessons for future development and implementation of the concept of small bore
sewerage with biogas production. The mission was organized to hold discussions with stakeholders,
make field visits to the prisons, observe and take measurements. The mission team consisted of:
James Murage, Sr. Infrastructure Advisor (Water & Sanitation);
Patrick Bakke, Intern (Water & Sanitation);
Chris Limiac, Intern (Urban Energy);
Joseph Gikonyo, Programme Officer, LVWATSAN II (Joined the mission at Kericho);
Patrick Mwangi, Biogas Technician (joined the mission in Kisii).
During the mission meetings were held with the Officers in Charge of the two prisons, Building and
Plumbing Officers, Farm Managers and Others who saw the progress of the works. The mission also
made contact with the partner NGO, namely, Prisoners Care Programme (PCP), and technician earlier
involved in the construction of the works (he was hospitalized at the time). The field visits included
inspection of the biogas plants, sewer lines, kitchens and ablution areas of the prison wards and cells.

Figure 10: Homa bay prison


Figure 11: Homa bay prison

Background
At the time of the mission the prison had an inmate population of 410 located in 7 blocks for men and 3
blocks for women. The prison has flush toilets installed which could be directly connected to the biogas
plant. In July-September the prison experiences water shortage which also coincides with the urban
water supply system. The prison authorities reported a remarkable improvement of the water supply in
the prison following the investments that UN-Habitat provided during the first phase of LVWATSAN,
especially the construction of 2 x 50m3 water storage tanks. Of the guards and administrators currently
stationed at the prison, only one was around during the construction phase of the digester.
Biogas plant status
The biogas plant in Homa bay prison has not been in its intended operation since the completion in 2012
(approx. 15 months). To seed the biogas plant, the prison borrowed a truck from Migori Prison for two
weeks and gathered cow dung from Homa bay slaughter house, Oyugis, Awendo and Rongo. In the
seeding phase, enough biogas to boil water was produced. When the sewage was attempted to be
directed into the digester a backflow occurred from the second chamber. This forced the prison to
redirect the sewage to the main sewer. Reconnection has not been attempted since.
As the sewage could not been fed directly into the biogas digester and to feed the plant with manure
was deemed not sustainable the biogas plant fell into disuse only two weeks after the seeding. The
current Officer in Charge found the biogas plant in its current state when he reported from Kodiaga
Prison in Kisumu, a year ago. He had hoped to see a successful biogas plant in operation as he had seen
in Kodiaga.
Observed and reported problems
A major technical problem is the inability of the sewage to flow automatically into the digester. This is
likely due to an insufficient gradient; other possibilities are faulty construction or blockage. Another
major deficiency is the fact that no officer was involved in the construction of the biogas plant or trained
in operation and maintenance of the biogas digester. Thus a knowledge gap occurred. One prisoner was
trained, but he has since been released.
The expansion chamber had several cracks, possibly due to faulty construction. In addition a test was
conducted to check if there were any leaks in the digester or in the piping. The exhaust pipe of a truck
was connected to the gas pipes in the kitchen; exhaust was subsequently pumped into the piping. With
no leakages present the water in the expansion chamber is expected to rise. The water did not rise,
indicating a leakage in the piping or in the digester.
The reliability of the test is questionable. The solutions for connecting the truck to the hose, the hose to
the pipes and to clog the outlets of the pipes were not very sophisticated. Questions were raised to
whether the truck could provide enough pressure. Seeing that the water level in the expansion chamber
did not raise at all, it would be reasonable to consider the test unreliable.







Figure 12: Homa bay expansion chamber - not in operation and with visible crack





Collector
gutters from
the Mens
Prison Ward.
There is
sufficient
space to
correct the
levels to the
biogas
digester

Gas line
chamber and
inlet mixing
chamber,
dried sludge
can be
observed.

Using the
exhaust pipe
pressure from
the prison
van to test
gas leakage

Valves in the
Gas Control
Chamber

Neck of the
digester and
the grate in
the expansion
chamber

Biogas
digester neck
(fore-
ground), Inlet
manhole
(back-
ground) and
Gas control
chamber

Two
Manholes
between the
prison wards
and the
digester








Troubleshooting checklist
Questions Rationale/reasoning Yes No Comments
What is the perceived
problem?
Identifying the problem Not functioning
What is the population of
the prison?
Calculation of biogas potential 410
Did the gas production
stop?
Indicates the severity of the situation x
Did the gas production
just decrease?
Indicates the severity of the situation x
Was the decrease/stop
sudden?
A sudden decrease/stop implies that
there is a technical issue
x
Was the decrease/stop
gradual?
A gradual decrease/stop indicates
process instabillity
x
Does the biogas
production vary?
May indicate seasonal variations or
other factors
N/A
When? Identifying actions/conditions that may
have led to the decrease in production
N/A
How? Seasonality in the production? N/A
How is the mixing
conducted?
How the substrate is mixed influences
the whole process
Cattle dung was
acquired
Is the fibrous material
removed?
Fibrous material leads to scum-layer
formation
x
Is sand and other
settling matter removed?
If sand or other settling matter
accumulate the outlet pipe might be
blocked
x The inlet chambers are
designed in such a way
that sand and other
settling matter should
not enter the digester
Is there any gas smell in
the kitchen?
A gas smell in the kitchen means that
the pipes are leaking
x No gas production
What kind of substrate is
used?
The composition of the substrate will
affect the process, a low C/N-ratio
leads to ammonia inhibition
Cattle dung
How frequent is the
substrate applied?
Calculating the load Just the initial filling and
then every 2-3 days
How much substrate is
applied?
A too high load leads to inhibition and
for calculating biogas potential
N/A
How much water is
added to the substrate?
Dry content 1:1 ratio cattle dung and
water
Observations
Digester
Are there any visible
cracks?
Identification of leakage x Minor cracks, but not
necessarily leaking
Is there any gas smell? Identification of leakage x No gas production
Inlet, outlet and outlet
chamber

Are there any bubbles
coming out from the
inlet and outlet pipes?
Gas production is occuring x
Is there heavy gas
release from the inlet but
the gas pressure is too
low?
Indicates scum-layer x
Is the slurry level in
the outletchamber high
and is the overflowed
slurry fresh?
Gas production is occuring x
Valves and joints
Apply soap water, is
there any formation of
bubbles?
Identification of leakage x
Kitchen
Is there any gas smell
in the kitchen?
Indicates leakage x
Are the jets clean? N/A
Were the flames
flicking before they went
out?
Indicates presence of water in the pipes N/A
Slurry
Is there a sour smell
from the slurry?
Indicates uneven relationship between
fermentation and methanogenesis
N/A
Measurements (done if
feasible)

pH
Is the pH above 7? pH above 7 indicates ammonia
inhibition
N/A
Is the pH below 6? 1) Low pH may indicate uneven
fermentation - methanogensis
relationship. 2) Low pH is inhibiting the
process in itself, the substrate may
have low pH to begin with.
N/A
Temperature in the
digester

What is the
temperature?
The temperature heavily influences the
biogas process
N/A
How does the
temperature vary? (If
feasible)
Variations in the temperature
negativley effects the biogas process
N/A
Ammonia
What is the ammonia
level?
Ammonia inhibits the biogas process N/A
Groundwater level
How high is it? The groundwater level may influence
the biogas process or damage the plant
(buoyancy)
N/A













Kisii prison biogas plant

Figure 13: Pile of firewood outside the kitchen of Kisii prison
Background
Kisii Prison had at the time of the mission 1497 inmates and most of the staff members connected to the
sewer, and at some point linked to the digester. The prison is partly supplied from the utility water
supply and their own locally developed source, which they prefer as it is cheaper to use. The water
supply is stabilized through a 100m
3
storage tank which was installed during LVWATSAN Phase I. It is
instructive to note that the prison authority in Kisii is very eager to make the biogas plant work.
Joseph Gikonyo, stationed in Kisii at the time, attended progress meetings and provided helpful reports.
Notably the supervisor was not able to attend any of the meetings where Joseph Gikonyo was present.
Biogas plant status
The Kisii Prison Biogas plant has been in operation since its completion in 2012. The plant has
consistently been fed with cow dung from a small stock of cows. They briefly tried to connect the sewer
line to the digester, but as the biogas yield subsided they decided to disconnect the digester from the
sewer and continue to feed the biogas plant with cow dung. Production of biogas is without doubt
occurring.
Biogas is utilized during cooking but only at a limited amount. The mens kitchen is using one burner to
cook beans for about two hours every, the capacity at the womens kitchen is even lower where it is
only possible to utilize the biogas for light heating. Biogas is leaking through the lid, due to it being
sealed with concrete and not clay, as is standard practice.
Problems observed and reported
Direct feeding of human waste is not occurring, thus the amount of feed entering the biogas plant is
considerably lower than the design criteria resulting in a lower biogas yield than what was foreseen. In
addition biogas is also lost through significant leakage at the lid of the biogas digester and at various
piping at the kitchens.
As with the Homa bay project training of the prison staff was lacking. Two prisoners were trained, but
have since left, leaving the operation to untrained prison officers.

Digested
sludge can be
observed in
the expansion
chamber, do
note that the
level is low
which means
that the
pressure is
low as well

Biogas is
clearly
escaping
from the neck
of the biogas
digester


On the left:
Biogas burner
in the mens
kitchen

On the right:
Biogas burner
in the
womens
kitchen.

There is less
pressure
available at
the womens
prison

On the left:
traditional
jiko, fueled
with fire
wood

On the right:
Gas burner
with the
subsequent
casserole

Areas
identified of
leaking gas

Troubleshooting checklist
Questions Rationale/reasoning Yes No Comments
What is the perceived problem? Identifying the problem Not enough biogas is produced
What is the population of the
prison?
Calculation of biogas
potential
1342 + women (157) and staff
Did the gas production stop? Indicates the severity of the
situation
x
Did the gas production just
decrease?
Indicates the severity of the
situation
x Unclear, but it seems that the biogas
production has always been perceived to
be low.
Was the decrease/stop sudden? A sudden decrease/stop
implies that there is a
technical issue
N/A
Was the decrease/stop gradual? A gradual decrease/stop
indicates process
instabillity
N/A
Does the biogas production vary? May indicate seasonal
variations or other factors
N/A
When? Identifying
actions/conditions that
may have led to the
decrease in production
N/A
How? Seasonality in the
production?
N/A
How is the mixing conducted? How the substrate is mixed
influences the whole
process
Cattle dung was acquired
Is the fibrous material removed? Fibrous material leads to
scum-layer formation
x Or so they told us
Is sand and other settling matter
removed?
If sand or other settling
matter accumulate the
outlet pipe might be
blocked
x The inlet chamber was not designed in
such a way that settling matter would
not enter the digester
Is there any gas smell in the kitchen? A gas smell in the kitchen
means that the pipes are
leaking
x
What kind of substrate is used? The composition of the
substrate will affect the
process, a low C/N-ratio
leads to ammonia
inhibition
Cattle dung
How frequent is the substrate
applied?
Calculating the load 3 times a week
How much substrate is applied? A too high load leads to
inhibition and for
calculating biogas potential
Dung from 3 cows
How much water is added to the
substrate?
Dry content 1:1 ratio cattle dung and water
Observations
Digester
Are there any visible cracks? Identification of leakage x Yes, from the lid there is clearly a
leakage of gas
Is there any gas smell? Identification of leakage x Yes
Inlet, outlet and outlet chamber
Are there any bubbles coming out
from the inlet and outlet pipes?
Gas production is occuring x
Is there heavy gas release from
the inlet but the gas pressure is too
low?
Indicates scum-layer x
Is the slurry level in the
outletchamber high and is the
overflowed slurry fresh?
Gas production is occuring x The slurry level is low, not enough for
the slurry to overflow
Valves and joints
Apply soap water, is there any
formation of bubbles?
Identification of leakage x Water was applied to the valve in the
Kitchen
Is there any gas smell in the
kitchen?
Indicates leakage x
Are the jets clean? x
Were the flames flicking before
they went out?
Indicates presence of water
in the pipes
N/A
Slurry
Is there a sour smell from the
slurry?
Indicates uneven
relationship between
fermentation and
methanogenesis
x
Measurements (done if feasible)
pH
Is the pH above 7? pH above 7 indicates
ammonia inhibition
N/A
Is the pH below 6? 1) Low pH may indicate
uneven fermentation -
methanogensis
relationship. 2) Low pH is
inhibiting the process in
itself, the substrate may
have low pH to begin with.
N/A
Temperature in the digester
What is the temperature? The temperature heavily
influences the biogas
process
N/A
How does the temperature vary?
(If feasible)
Variations in the
temperature negatively
effects the biogas process
N/A
Ammonia
What is the ammonia level? Ammonia inhibits the
biogas process
N/A
Groundwater level
How high is it? The groundwater level may
influence the biogas
process or damage the
plant (buoyancy)
Not measured, but the groundwater
level is supposed to be quite high.











Recommended actions
(i) For the sake of producing a work plan which includes all the necessary work that needs to be
conducted; a thorough assessment of the biogas plant in Kisii and Homa bay should be
conducted. The assessment should aim to:
a. Fully identify the work needed to separate the black water from the grey water.
b. Thoroughly assess the status of the biogas plant in Homa bay. This includes:
i. Identify to a full extent the needed remedial work.
ii. Uncover if there is any leaks in the digester and/or the piping.
iii. Assess if water supply is sufficient for the digester to be fed without
discontinuation. In case the water supply is not good enough; appropriate
measures should be identified.
c. At the same time the leaks at Kisii prison should be amended as this is an easy fix with
great benefits.
(ii) Prison officers need to be properly trained in the operation and maintenance of the biogas
plants. Manuals, maintenance schedule scheme and other useful resources for operation
and maintenance should be provided. Follow-up should be conducted by PCP and/or UN-
Habitat.
(iii) Calculation should be conducted regarding the expected biogas yield and hydraulic retention
time.
Needed remedial work identified so far
(i) Corrective action is needed in the Homa Bay Prison to set the levels right between the prison
wards and the inlet chamber to the biogas digester.
(ii) It is necessary to separate the water used for washing and bathing from the black (or soil) water
so as to eliminate the risk of killing the bacteria that are needed for the digestion process. See
annex 1 for suggested work.
(iii) Introduction of an inlet air enhancement baffle in front of the burner.
(iv) There is a need to introduce an inspection valve for the biogas in the area of the stop cork.
(v) The cracks at the expansion chamber in Homa bay prison needs to be repaired.
(vi) Leaks in the lid and pipework in Kisii has to be amended.





Lessons learned recommendation for future projects
Separation of sanitary waste water has to be considered for future biogas projects.
More involvement from UN-Habitat is advisable to ensure that the project is being
implemented as intended, to provide documentation of the progress and to identify obstacles
so that they can be handled accordingly.
Objective supervision of the works is essential both for the partner agency (e.g. PCP) and the
contractor.
The open inlet concept is more appropriate for cow dung inflow for which there is no real health
risk. A closed system is essential or faecal waste of human origin due to the very high risk
associated with oral faecal disease transmission, especially for housed located near the biogas
digesters.
In future projects, the mixing chamber and the sewer should not be directly connected. It is a
transmission pathway; it is counter-intuitive to introduce a transmission pathway with a
sanitation system.
Prison officers should be involved in the construction of the biogas plant. In addition to training
prisoners, prison officers should also be trained in maintenance, operation and in general biogas
technology.
It is important that the full scope of the planned works and the implications to the recipient
organization is outlined at the start.













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Annex A Technical drawings

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