SOIL COMPACTION

Introduction
Soil compaction is the process of mechanically increasing the density of a soil
by packing the particles
closer together with a reduction in the volume of air; there is no significant c
hange in the volume of water in
the soil.
Compaction, as used here, implies dynamic compaction or densification by the app
lication of moving loads
to the soil mass. This is in contrast to the consolidation process for fine-grai
ned soil in which the soil is
gradually made more dense as a result of the application of a static load. The t
wo processes are compared
in Table 1.
Table 1: Comparison between compaction and consolidation processes
Compaction Consolidation
Similarities: The process leads to a closer packing of soil grains. Shear streng
th increases. Compressibility
and permeability decreases.
1. Is almost instantaneous 1. Is time dependent
2. Densification is due to reduction of air voids 2. Is due to expulsion of pore
water from voids
3. Soil is always unsaturated 3. Soil is saturated
4. For a specified compactive effort
densification takes place only up to a
certain limiting water content called
optimum moisture content (OMC)
4. No such limiting value of water content
Application
Construction of:
o Fills and embankments, loose soil is placed in layers ranging between 75 and 4
50 mm in
thickness, each being compacted to a specified standard by means of rollers, vib
rators or
rammers,
o
Roads,
o
Airfields,
o
Foundations.
Objectives/ benefits of compaction
o
Increases the shear strength of soil. This effect is highly desirable in that it
may allow the use of a
thinner pavement structure over a compacted subgrade or the use of steeper side
slopes for an
embankment than would otherwise be possible. For the same density, the highest s
trengths are
frequently obtained by using greater compactive efforts with water contents some
what below OMC
o
Densification by compaction prevents later consolidation and settlement of an em
bankment. This
does not necessarily mean that the embankment will be free of settlement; its we
ight may cause
consolidation of compressible soil layers that form the embankment foundation.
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Year II lecture notes Robert
Tumwesige, 2014
o
When soil particles are forced together by compaction, both the number of voids
contained in the
soil mass and the size of the individual void spaces are reduced. This change in
voids has an
obvious effect on the movement of water through the soil. One effect is to reduc
e the permeability,
thus reducing the seepage of water. Similarly, if the compaction is accomplished
with proper
moisture control, the movement of capillary water is minimized. This reduces the
tendency for the
soil to take up water and suffer later reductions in shearing resistance.
o
Soils in which volume change is a factor (e.g. expansive clays generally) may be
compacted so
that these effects are minimized.
Moisture Density Relationships
The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of dry density (.d), i.e
. the mass of solids only per
unit volume of soil. The dry density of the soil is given by equation 1, . is th
e bulk density and . is water
content.
(1)
The dry density of a given soil after compaction depends on the water content an
d the energy supplied by
the compaction equipment (referred to as the compactive effort). Nearly all soil
s exhibit a similar
relationship between moisture content and dry density when subjected to a given
compactive. For each
soil, a maximum dry density develops at an OMC for the compactive effort used. T
he OMC at which
maximum density is obtained is the moisture content at which the soil becomes su
fficiently workable under
a given compactive effort to cause the soil particles to become so closely packe
d that most of the air is
expelled. For most soils (except cohesionless sands), when the moisture content
is less than optimum, the
soil is more difficult to compact. Beyond optimum, most soils are not as dense u
nder a given effort because
the water interferes with the close packing of the soil particles. Beyond optimu
m and for the stated
conditions, the air content of most soils remains essentially the same, even tho
ugh the moisture content is
increased.
The relationship in Figure 1 is valid for laboratory and field compaction. The m
aximum dry density is
frequently visualized as corresponding to 100 percent compaction for the given s
oil under the given
compactive effort.
Laboratory assessment of soil compaction
The soil is compacted in a cylindrical mould using a standard compactive effort
(i.e. a hammer is dropped
several times on a soil sample in a mould). The mass of the hammer, height of dr
op, number of drops,
number of layers of soil, and the volume of the mould are always specified. Tabl
e 2 gives the different
standard procedures for the compaction test.
Laboratory compaction tests are intended to model the field process, and to indi
cate the most suitable
moisture content for compaction (the optimum moisture content) at which the maximu
m dry density will be
achieved for a particular soil. Because of the limited size of the moulds in use
, laboratory compaction tests
require the exclusion of coarse soil particles.
After compaction using one of the standards shown in Table 2, the bulk density a
nd water content of the
soil are determined and the dry density calculated. For a given soil the process
is repeated at least five
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Year II lecture notes Robert
Tumwesige, 2014
times, the water content of the sample being increased each time. The dry densit
y is plotted against water
content and a curve of the form shown in Figure 1 is obtained.
Table 2: Compaction test comparisons
Standard Test type Blows
per
layer
No. of
Layers
Hammer
weight
(kg)
Hammer
drop
(mm)
Sample
size (kg)
Mould
volume
(cm3)
Mould
diameter
(mm)
BS1377:Part
4:1990
BS Light
(Proctor)
27 3 2.5 300 3 1000 105
BS1377:Part
4:1990
*BSHeavy 27 5 4.5 450 3/6 1000 105
AASHTO
T180
Modified
Proctor
25 5 4.5 450 3 1000 105
AASHTO
T180
56 5 4.5 450 6 2123 152
*For coarser material (i.e. particles 20-37.5mm) when a CBR mould (2300cm3) is u
sed, 62 blows shall be applied to each
layer.
(A) Typical moisture-density relationship (B) Real field data: KE; km 12+ 040
Figure 1: Typical Compaction curves
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Year II lecture notes Robert
Tumwesige, 2014
Shape of a compaction curve
The compaction curve in Figure 1 shows that for a particular method of compactio
n (i.e. a particular
compactive effort) there is a particular value of water content, known as the op
timum water content (OMC),
at which a maximum value of dry density (MDD) is obtained.
Reason for increase and decrease of the curve
Addition of water to the soil facilities easy movement of particles and their cl
oser packing and hence an
increase in density. However, beyond a certain limit the water becomes excessive
and tends to occupy
space which otherwise would have been occupied by solid parties. Hence, a decrea
se in dry density due to
additional void space.
Degree of compaction
If all the air in a soil could be expelled by compaction the soil would be in a
state of full saturation and the
dry density would be the maximum possible value for the given water content. How
ever, this degree of
compaction is unattainable in practice. The maximum possible value of dry densit
y is referred to as the
zero air voids dry density or the saturation dry density and can be calculated fro
m the expression given in
equation (2).
..........................................(2)
In general, the dry density after compaction at water content w to an air conten
t A can be calculated from
the following expression given in equation (3).
..(3)
Where;
.d is the dry density (kg/m3),
A is the air content (in %),
. is the water content (in %),
.. is the density of water (kg/m3),
Gs is the specific gravity of soil.
Figure 2 shows the relationship between zero air voids, dry density and water co
ntent (for Gs=2.65). The
curves relating dry density at air contents of 5 and 10% with water content are
also shown in Figure 2.
These curves enable the air content at any point on the experimental dry densityw
ater content curve to be
determined by inspection.
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Year II lecture notes Robert
Tumwesige, 2014
Figure 2: Air voids, dry density and water content relationships
Characteristics of soil on dry and wet side of OMC
The physical and behavioural characteristics of a compacted soil depend on wheth
er it is on the dry or wet
side of OMC. Table 3 gives an account of these differences.
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Year II lecture notes Robert
Tumwesige, 2014
Table 3: Characteristics of soil on dry and wet side of OMC
Soil characteristics Dry side of OMC Wet side of OMC
Soil structure flocculated dispersed
Coefficient of permeability upon saturation more less
Shear strength high low
Stress-strain behaviour brittle ductile
Compressibility more less
Compaction characteristics of various soils
The nature of a soil itself has a great effect on its response to a given compac
tive effort. Soils that are
extremely light in weight, such as diatomaceous earths and some volcanic soils,
may have maximum
densities under a given compactive effort as low as 900 kg/m3. Under the same co
mpactive effort, the
maximum density of a clay may be in the range of 1400 to 1600 kg/m3, while that
of a well-graded coarse
granular soil may be as high as 2100 kg/m3. Figure 3 shows the dry density water
content curves for a
range of soils.
Figure 3: Dry density-water content curves for a range of soil types
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Year II lecture notes Robert
Tumwesige, 2014
Variation of compactive effort
For each compactive effort used in compacting a given soil, there is a correspon
ding OMC and maximum
density. If the compactive effort is increased, the maximum density is increased
and the OMC is decreased.
This fact is illustrated in Figure 4, it shows that a higher compactive effort r
esults in a higher value of
maximum dry density and a lower value of optimum water content; however, the val
ues of air content at
maximum dry density are approximately equal.
(A) Rammer size (B) No. of blows
Figure 4: Dry density-water content curves for different compactive efforts
Field Compaction
The results of laboratory compaction tests are not directly applicable to field
compaction because the
compactive efforts in the laboratory tests are different, and are applied in a d
ifferent way, from those
produced by field equipment. Further, the laboratory tests are carried out only
on material smaller than
either 20 or 37.5mm. However, the maximum dry densities obtained in the laborato
ry using the 2.5-and
4.5-kg rammers cover the range of dry density normally produced by field compact
ion equipment. A
minimum number of passes must be made with the chosen compaction equipment to pr
oduce the required
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Year II lecture notes Robert
Tumwesige, 2014
value of dry density. This number, which depends on the type and mass of the equ
ipment and on the
thickness of the soil layer, is usually within the range 312. Above a certain num
ber of passes no significant
increase in dry density is obtained. In general, the thicker the soil layer the
heavier the equipment required
to produce an adequate degree of compaction.
There are two approaches to the achievement of a satisfactory standard of compac
tion in the field, known
as method and end-product compaction. In method compaction the type and mass of
equipment, the layer
depth and the number of passes are specified. In end-product compaction the requ
ired dry density is
specified: the dry density of the compacted fill must be equal to or greater tha
n a stated percentage of the
maximum dry density obtained in one of the standard laboratory compaction tests.
Method compaction is
used in most earthworks. End product compaction is normally restricted to pulver
ized fuel ash in general fill
and to certain selected fills.
Handling of Wet Soils
When the moisture content of the soil to be compacted greatly exceeds that neces
sary for the desired
density, some water must be removed. In some cases, the use of excessively wet s
oils is possible without
detrimental effects. These soils (coarse aggregates) are called free-draining so
ils, and their maximum dry
density is unaffected by moisture content over a broad range of moisture. Most o
ften, these soils must be
dried; this can be a slow and costly process. The soil is usually dried by manip
ulating and exposing it to
aeration and to the rays of the sun. Manipulation is most often done with cultiv
ators, plows, graders, and
rotary mixers. Rotary mixers, with the tail-hood section raised, permit good aer
ation and are very effective
in drying excessively wet soils. An excellent method that may be useful when bot
h wet and dry soils are
available is simply to mix them together.
Field compaction equipment
The following equipment are used to compact soils in the field; smooth-wheeled r
ollers, pneumatic-tyred
rollers, sheepsfoot rollers, grid rollers, vibratory rollers, vibrating plates a
nd power rammers. Some
equipment is shown in Figure 5.
Quality Control of Compaction works
Poor construction procedures can invalidate good pavement or embankment design.
Therefore, quality
control of construction procedures is as important to the final product as is pr
oper design. The purpose of
quality control is to ensure that the soil is being placed at the proper density
and moisture content to
provide adequate bearing strength (CBR) in the fill. This is accomplished by tak
ing samples or testing at
each stage of construction. The test results are compared to limiting values or
specifications, and the
compaction should be accepted or reworked based on the results of the density an
d moisture content tests.
One of the ways of checking the quality of a compacted surface is carrying out f
ield density tests. There are
a number of methods of measuring the bulk density in the field and are all detai
led in BS 1377: Part 4:
1990.
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Year II lecture notes Robert
Tumwesige, 2014
Two-axle, tandem steel-wheeled rollers Self-propelled, smooth-drum vibratory rol
ler
Static pneumatic tyre roller Static three steel wheel roller
Figure 5: Some of the rollers used for compacting soils in the field.
Assignment (Date of submission: Wednesday 12, March 2014)
Question 1
You are a field engineer for a construction services testing firm. Your current
job assignment is to evaluate
fill placement for a new roadway being constructed between Kampala and Jinja. Th
e project specifications
for the roadway require fill compaction to 98% of the AASHTO T180 compaction tes
t results. Your lab
manager sends you the results of Standard and Modified Proctor compaction testin
g on the fill being
placed. These results are presented in Table 4. Your field compaction test resul
ts for the second soil lift
taken at the intervals required by the project specifications are listed in Tabl
e 5.
Table 4: Laboratory test results
Moisture content (%)
Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Test 5
6.87 8.43 10.89 12.55 14.13
Dry density (kg/m3) 1834 1916 1926 1870 1796
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Year II lecture notes Robert
Tumwesige, 2014
Table 5: Field density results
Test section Direction Field density (kg/m3) Moisture content (%)
0+400 Right 1817 8.4
0+470 Centre 1852 8.2
0+550 Left 2186 6.8
I. From the provided information, determine the following:
o The compaction characteristics for the AASHTO T180 test,
o If the fill meets the compaction requirements at the two field density test lo
cations.
II.
Given that the specific gravity is 2.70 calculate the degree of saturation for t
he soil at the
optimum moisture content.
III.
If the soil were to be compacted at a moisture content of 11% calculate the air
content.
IV.
Apart from field density list other tests that may be carried out on samples of
compacted
soil, to check that an end product specification has been met.
Question 2
REFERENCES
British Standard 1377 (1990) Methods of Test for Soils for Civil Engineering Pur
poses, British
Standards Institution, London.
Clayton, C. R. I., Matthews, M. C., & Simons, N. E. (1995). Site Investigation (
2 ed.). London:
Blackwell Science, Oxford.
Craig, R. F. (2004). Soil Mechanics (7 ed.). London: Chapman and Hall.
Kaniraj, S.R.(2008). Design Aids in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. M
cGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi.
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Year II lecture notes Robert
Tumwesige, 2014