THE EARTH SAVING EXCLUSIVES LATEST TRENDS IN GROUND

IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES:
ABSTRACT:
The ground can be improved by adapting certain ground improvement techniques.
Vibro-compaction increases the density of the soil by using powerful depth
vibrators. Vacuum consolidation is used for improving soft soils by using a vacuum
pump. Preloading method is used to remove pore water over time. Heating is used
to form a crystalline or glass product by electric current. Ground freezing converts
pore water to ice to increase their combined strength and mae them impervious.
Vibro replacement stone columns improve the bearing capacity of soil whereas
Vibro displacement method displaces the soil. !lectro osmosis maes water flow
through fine grained soils. !lectro inetic stabilization is the application of electro
osmosis. "einforced soil steel is used for retaining structures# sloping walls# dams
etc$. seismic loading is suited for construction in seismically active regions.
%echanically stabilized earth structures create a reinforced soil mass. The geo
methods lie Geosynthesis# Geogrid etc$. are discussed. &oil nailing increases the
shear strength of the in-situ soil and restrains its displacement. %icro pile gives the
structural support and used for repair'replacement of e(isting foundations.
Grouting is in)ection of pumpable materials to increase its rigidity. The )et grouting
is quite advanced in speed as well as techniques when compared with the general
grouting.
1. GROUND IMPROVEMENT:
"apid urban and industrial growth demands more land for further
development. *n order to meet this
demand land reclamation and
utilization of unsuitable and
environmentally affected lands have
been taen up. These# hitherto
useless lands for construction have been converted to be useful ones by adopting
one or more ground improvement techniques. The field of ground improvement
techniques has been recognized as an important and rapidly e(panding one.
2. GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES:
2.1. VIBRO-COMPACTION:
Vibro-compaction# sometimes referred
to as Vibrofloation# is the rearrangement of
soil particles into a denser configuration by
the use of powerful depth vibration.
Vibrocompaction is a ground improvement process for densifying loose sands to
create stable foundation soils. The principle behind vibrocompaction is simple. The
combined action of vibration and water saturation by )etting rearranges loose sand
grains into a more compact state. Vibrocompaction is performed with specially-
designed vibrating probes. +oth horizontal and vertical modes of vibration have
been used in the past. The vibrators used by Terra&ystems consist of torpedo-
shaped probes ,- to ,. inches in diameter which vibrates at frequencies
typically in the range of /0 to 10 Hz. The probe is first inserted into the ground by
both )etting and vibration. 2fter the probe reaches the required depth of
compaction# granular material# usually sand# is added from the ground surface to
fill the void space created by the vibrator. 2 compacted radial zone of granular
material is created
2.1.1. APPLICATIONS:
"eduction of foundation settlements.
"eduction of ris of liquefaction due to seismic activity.
Permit construction on granular fills.
2.2. VACCUM CONSOLIDATION3
Vacuum 4onsolidation is an effective means for improvement of saturated
soft soils. The soil site is covered with an
airtight membrane and vacuum is created
underneath it by using dual venture and
vacuum pump. The technology can provide an equivalent pre-loading of about
5.1m high conventional surcharge fill. Vacuum-assisted consolidation preloads the
soil by reducing the pore pressure while maintaining a constant total stress.
2.2.1. APPLICATIONS:
"eplace standard pre-loading techniques eliminating the ris of failure.
4ombine with a water pre-loading in scare fill area. The method is used to
build large developments on thic compressible soil.
4ombine with embanment pre-load using the increased stability
2.3. PRELOADING:
Preloading has been used for many years without change in the method or
application to improve soil properties. Preloading or pre-compression is the
process of placing additional vertical stress on a compressible soil to remove
pore water over time. The pore water dissipation reduces the total volume
causing settlement. Surc!r"#$" is an economical method for ground
improvement. However# the consolidation of the soils is time dependent#
delaying construction pro)ects maing it a non-feasible alternative.
T% &'#(& )r%!)%* !r% 6rganic silt# Varved silts and clays# soft clay# 7redged
material The design
considerations which should be made are bearing capacity# &lope stability#
7egree of consolidation.
2.3.1. 2PP8*42T*69&:
"educe post-construction
&ettlement
"educe secondary compression.
7ensification
*mprove bearing capacity
2.+. HEATING:
Heating or vitrifaction breas the soil
particle down to form a crystalline or glass
product. *t uses electrical current to heat the
soil and modify the physical characteristics
of the soil. Heating soils permanently alters the properties of the soil.
7epending on the soil# temperatures can range between /00 and ,000 degree
4elsius. The impact on ad)acent structures and utilities should be considered
when heating is used. .
2.+.1. APPLICATIONS:
*mmobilization of radioactive or contaminated soil
7ensification and stabilization
2.,. GROUND -REE.ING:
Ground freezing is the use of refrigeration to
convert in-situ pore water to ice. The ice then acts
as a cement or glue# bonding together ad)acent
particles of soil or blocs of roc to increase their
combined strength and mae them impervious. T%
"r'u$* /r%%0#$" c'$&#*%r!)#'$& !r% Thermal analysis1 "efrigeration system
geometry1 Thermal properties of soil and roc1 freezing rates# !nergy requirements#
4oolant' refrigerant distribution system analysis.
2.,.1. G"6:97 -REE.ING APPLICATIONS:
Temporary underpinning
Temporary support for an e(cavation
Prevention of groundwater flow into e(cavated area
Temporary slope stabilization
Temporary containment of to(ic'hazardous waste contamination
2.2. VIBRO-REPLACEMENT STONE
COLUMNS:
Vibro-"eplacement e(tends the range of
soils that can be improved by vibratory
techniques to include cohesive soils. "einforcement of the soil with compacted
granular columns or ;stone columns< is accomplished by the top-feed method. The
important Vibro-replacement stone columns are Ground conditions# "elative
density# 7egree of saturation# Permeation.
2.2.1. PRINCIPLES O- VIBRO-REPLACEMENT:
The stone columns and intervening soil form and integrated foundation
support system having low compressibility and improved load bearing capacity. *n
cohesive soils# e(cess pore water pressure is readily dissipated by the stone
columns and for this reason# reduced settlements occur at a faster rate than is
normally the case with cohesive soils.
T%r% !r% *#//%r%$) )34%& '/ #$&)!((!)#'$ 5%)'*& which can be broadly classified
in the following manner3
= >et top feed method
= 7ry bottom feed method
= 6ffshore bottom feed method
Su55!r3: V#6r' R%4(!c%5%$)
Principle
"einforcement
7rainage
2pplicable soil?s@
%i(ed deposits of clay# silt and sand
&oft and ultra soft silts ?slimes@
&oft and ultra soft clays
Garbage fills
!ffect?s@
*ncreased shear strength
*ncreased stiffness
"educed liquefaction potential
4ommon applications
2irport ta(iways and runways
4hemical plants
&torage tans A silos
Pipelines
+ridge abutments and approaches
6ffshore bridge abutments
"oad and railway embanments
%a(imum depth -0-50 m
8and ' offshore application +oth
2.2.2. VIBRO-REPLACEMENT
APPLICATIONS:
"eduction of foundation settlement
*mprove bearing capacity'reduce footing size requirements
"eduction of the ris of liquefaction due to seismic activity
&lope stabilization
Permit construction on fills
Permit shallow footing construction
GROUND T7PE RELATIVE E--ECTIVENESS
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%*9!&P6*8& !B4!88!9T?7!P!97*9G 69
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7:%P!7 D*88 G667
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MECHANICALL7 STABILI.ED EARTH STRUCTURES:
2 segmental# precast facing mechanically stabilized
earth wall employs metallic ?strip or bar mat@ or
geosynthetic ?geogrid or geote(tile@ reinforcement
that is connected to a precast concrete or
prefabricated metal facing panel to create a
reinforced soil mass.
3.3.1. PRINCIPLES:
The reinforcement is placed in horizontal layers between successive layers
of granular soil bacfill. !ach layer of bacfill consists of one or more
compacted lifts.
2 free draining# non plastic bacfill soil is required to ensure adequate
performance of the wall system.
Dor walls reinforced with metallic strips# load is transferred from the bacfill
soil to the strip reinforcement by shear along the interface.
Dor walls with ribbed strips# bar mats# or grid reinforcement# load is
similarly transferred but an additional component of strength is obtained
through the passive resistance on the transverse members of the
reinforcement.
Dacing panels are typically square# rectangular# he(agonal or cruciform in
shape and are up to 5.1m E- in area.
%&!>- %echanically &tabilized !arth >alls# when the face batter is
generally steeper than F0 degrees.
"&&- "einforced &oil &lopes# when the face batter is shallower.
3.3.2. APPLICATIONS:
"&& structures are cost effective alternatives for new construction where the
cost of embanment fill# right-of-way# and other consideration may mae a
steeper slope desirable.
2nother use of reinforcement in engineered slopes is to improve compaction
at the edges of a slope to decrease the tendency for surface sloughing.
3.3.3. DESIGN:
4urrent practice consists of determining the geometric reinforcement to
prevent internal and e(ternal failure using limit equilibrium of analysis.
3.+. SOIL NAILING:
The fundamental concept of soil nailing
consists of reinforcing the ground by passive
inclusions# closely spaced# to create in-situ soil
and restrain its displacements. The basic design
consists of transferring the resisting tensile forces generated in the inclusions into
the ground through the friction mobilized at the interfaces.
3.+.1. APPLICATIONS:
&tabilization of railroad and highway cut slopes
!(cavation retaining structures in urban areas for high-rise building and
underground facilities
Tunnel portals in steep and unstable stratified slopes
4onstruction and retrofitting of bridge abutments with comple( boundaries
involving wall support under piled foundations
3.,. MICRO PILES:
%icro-piles are small diameter piles ?up to /00 mm@# with the capability of
sustaining high loads ?compressive loads of over 1000 G9@.The drilling equipment
and methods allows micro H piles to be drilled through virtually every ground
conditions# natural and artificial# with minimal vibration# disturbances and noise# at
any angle below horizontal. The equipment can be further adapted to operate in
locations with low headroom and severely restricted access.
3.,.1. APPLICATIONS:
Dor &tructural &upport and stability
Doundation for new structures
"epair ' "eplacement of e(isting foundations
2rresting ' Prevention of movement
!mbanment# slope and landslide stabilization
&oil strengthening and protection
3.,.2. EXAMPLE:
*n *ndia# in some circumstances steel pipes# coated wooden piles are used as
cost-effective 6ptions in improving the bearing capacity of foundation or restrict
7isplacements to tolerable levels and similar uses in stabilization of slopes#
strengthening of foundations are common. &ridharan and %urthy ?,II/@ described
a 4ase study in which a ten-storeyed building# originally in a precarious condition
due To differential settlement# was restored to safety using micropiles. Galvanized
steel Pipes of ,00 mm diameter and ,0 m long with bottom end closed with shoe#
driven at 2n angle of .0o with the horizontal were used and the friction between
the pile and The soil was used as the design basis in evolving the remedial
measures. 2 similar 2ttempt was made in the present case study in which the
bearing capacity of the !(isting foundation system of a building was restored to
safety using micropiles.
+. GENERAL GROUTING:
Grouting is the in)ection of pumpable materials into a soil or roc formation
to change the physical characteristics of the formation. Gr'u)#$" &%(%c)#'$
c'$&#*%r!)#'$& !r% &ite specific requirement# &oil type# &oil groutability# Porosity.
Gr'u)#$" c!$ 6% 4r%8%$)%* 63 4ollapse of granular soils# &ettlement under
ad)acent foundations# :tilities damage# 7ay lighting. Gr'u)#$" c!$ 4r'8#*%
*ncreased soil strength and rigidity# reduced ground movement# Predictable degree
of improvement
+.1. DESIGN STEPS:
*dentify underground construction problem.
!stablish ob)ectives of grouting program.
Perform special geotechnical study.
7evelop initial grouting program.
7evelop performance prediction.
4ompare with other solutions.
"efine design and prepare specifications.
+.2. GROUTING TECHNIQUES:
The various in)ection grouting techniques used by grouting contractors for ground
improvement ' ground modification can be summarized as follows3
Permeation
4ompaction Grouting3
4laquage
Jet Grouting
+.2.1. 9ET GROUTING:
Jet grouting is a general term used by grouting contractors to describe various
construction techniques used for ground modification or ground improvement.
Grouting contractors use ultra high-pressure fluids or binders that are in)ected into
the soils at high velocities. These binders brea up the soil structure completely
and mi( the soil particles in-situ to create a homogeneous mass# which in turn
solidifies. This ground modification ' ground improvement of the soil plays an
important role in the fields of foundation stability# particularly in the treatment of
load bearing soils under new and e(isting buildingsK in the in-depth
impermeabilization of water bearing soilsK in tunnel constructionK and to mitigate
the movement of impacted soils and groundwater.
EXAMPLE:
T%%&)! D!5 - I$*#!
4ut off ' )et grouting and grouting
:pstream and downstream cofferdams. - cut-off walls by grouting and )et grouting
.
CONCLUSION:
Though the term Ground *mprovement has been familiar to 4ivil !ngineers# the
design approach is still empirical# mostly based on past e(perience. 2pplication of
Ground *mprovement is not only cheaper but reduce the construction time
significantly. Hence a conscious effort to prepare and follow up the techniques will
lead to successful completion of the pro)ect# we are now technically sound at hand.
*n this paper# aspects such as methods of ground improvement techniques# its
applications and design considerations etc. have been discussed. The ground
improvement technique also plays a vital role in the development of 'ur 5')%r
(!$* 63 2:2:.
RE-ERENCES:
#. ;;;."''"(%.c'5
##. ;2 short term course on ground improvement for infrastructure pro)ects< by
Prof. &.". Gandhi.
###. ;%odern construction materials and techniques< from 9ational institute of
technical teachers training and research.